THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 17681771.
SECOND ten 17771784.
THIRD eighteen 17881797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 1810.
FIFTH twenty 18151817.
SIXTH twenty 18231824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 1860.
NINTH twenty-five 18751889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
ELEVENTH published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME X
EVANGELICAL CHURCH to FRANCIS JOSEPH
.
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 3 2nd Street
1910
E3
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopxdia Britannica Company
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME X. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE* HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. B. R. ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.t.S. [
Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on Classi- i Flower.
fication of Flowering Plants ; &c. I
A. D. AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. f n.iHinir un
See the biographical article : DOBSON, H. AUSTIN. \ *' IDB ' "
A. F. B. ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.Sc. f .*
Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College. [
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc. f -,, _. .
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' ' rrar ' Blsn P
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893--^ F", Edward;
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of Fox, Richard.
England under Protector Somerset', Henry VIII.', Life of Thomas Cranmer', &c.
A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). ("
H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate; -I Finger Prints.
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. [
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J^' Basi1 ' Jacobus and
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. JOnann,
iFamilists; Farel, G.; Flaeius.
A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. f Fars;
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. ~\ Firuzabad.
A. L. ANDREW LANG. f Fairy;
See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. 1 Family.
A. L. B. ALFRED LYS BALDRY. r
Art Critic of the Globe, 1893-1908. Author of Modern Mural Decoration and I p.,,
biographies of Albert Moore, Sir H. von Herkomer, R.A., Sir J. E. Millais, P.R.A., 1 * orlun y-
Marcus Stone, R.A., and G. H. Boughton, R.A. [
A. H. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. f Falcon; Fieldfare; Finch.
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. \ Flycatcher; Fowl.
A. S. ARTHUR SMITHELLS, F.R.S. r
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Leeds. Author of Scientific Papers on -{ Flame.
Flame and Spectrum Analysis.
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. f
See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. \ Flamsteed.
A. W. ARTHUR WATSON. f , .
Secretary in the Academic Department, University of London. | Examinations (M part)
A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. r
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws J Fixtures;
of England. \Flat.
A. W. W. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, D.Lrrr., LL.D. f Foote, Samuel;
See the biographical article : WARD, A. W. \ Ford, John.
C. El. SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College,
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa -j Finno-Ugrian.
Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German
East Africa, 1900-1904.
C. F. B. CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D.
Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of J _,.
Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International ) Finance.
Trade; &c. [
C. F. C. C. F. CROSS, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S., F.I.C. /
Analytical and Consulting Chemist. \
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
v
1979
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
C. F. R. CHARLES FRANCIS RICHARDSON, A.M., PH.D. f
Professor of English at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.A. "I Fiske, John.
Author of A Story of English Rhyme; A History of American Literature; &c. I
C. H. T.* CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M. f
See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. \
C. J. CHARLES JOHNSON, M.A. ("
Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office. Joint Editor of the Domesday Survey for the ~] Exchequer (in part).
Victoria County History: Norfolk. I
C. J, B. M. CHARLES JOHN BRUCE MARRIOTT, M.A. f Footbal i. R ^ (i b ,\
Clare College, Cambridge. Secretary of the Rugby Football Union. I g ^ ( pa ">-
C. J. N. F. CHARLES JAMES NICOL FLEMING. f Fon t ha ii. >/, /; *,<>
H.M. Inspector of Schools, Scotch Education Department. \ F< tbaU - " (m partl
C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.Soc., F.S.A. ( Fah van .
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor ],, ^ ., '
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. I Fastoll.
C. P. I. SlR COURTENAY PEREGRINE ILBERT, K.C.B., K. C.S.I., C.I.E.
Clerk of the House of Commons. Chairman of Statute Law Committee. Parlia-
mentary Counsel to the Treasury, 1 899-190 1 . Legal Member of Council of Governor- .
General of India, 1882-1886; President, 1886. Fellow of the British Academy.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Government
of India ; Legislative Method and Forms.
Evidence.
C. W. A. CHARLES WILLIAM ALCOCK (d. 1907). f -,- . ,. /. A
Formerly Secretary of the Football Association, London. \ ^>0tb&\\: Association (in part).
D. H. DAVID HANNAY. f _. . _ n-|. . ,.,
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal \ First Ol June ' Battle r tne
Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. [ Fox, Charles James.
D. Mn. REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. f
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London I Excommunication.
Missionary Society. I
D. N. P. DIARMID NOEL PATON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.). f
Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Super-
intendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. 4 Fever.
Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University, 1884. Author of Essentials of Human
Physiology; &c.
D. S. M.* DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.Lrrr. f"
Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author of Arabic J _ .,
Papyri of the Bodleian Library; Mohammed and the Rise of Islam; Cairo, Jerusalem i fatimites.
and Damascus. I
E. B. EDWARD BRECK, M.A., PH.D. f _ .
Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the New York Herald and the New York Times, i * .
Author of Fencing; Wilderness Pets; Sporting in Nova Scotia; &c. I Football: American (in part).
E. Ca. EGERTON CASTLE, M.A., F.S.A. f_ .
Trinity College. Cambridge. Author of Schools and Masters of Fence; &c. \
Ed. C.* THE HON. EDWARD EVAN CHARTERIS. f . .
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. \ Falr ( m P art >-
E. C. B. RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.Lnr. f" Fontevrault;
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius," 4 Francis of Assisi, St;
in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. L Francis of Paola, St.
E. C. Q. EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A. f
Fellow and Lecturer in Modern Languages and Monro Lecturer in Celtic, -j Finn mac Cool.
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. [
E. D. R. LIEUT.-COLONEL EiiiLius C. DELME RADCLIFFE. f palconrv
Author of Falconry: Notes on the Falconidae used in India in Falconry. \ ' **
E. E. A. ERNEST E. AUSTEN. f
Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. \ Flea.
E. E. H. REV. EDWARD EVERETT HALE. J E. v( , rpft
See the biographical article: HALE, E. E. ett >
f Ewalcl, Johannes; Fabliau;
Fabre, Ferdinand; Feuillet;
E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. I Fin i and . ji, frll ture-
See the biographical article :GossE, EDMUND. nterrt. Literature
FitzGerald, Edward; Flaubert;
I Flemish Literature; Forssell.
E. H. P. EDWARD HENRY PALMER, M.A. f _ .
See the biographical article: PALMER, E. H. \ Firdousi (in part).
E. K. EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., M.SC.TECH. (Manchester), F.I.C. f
Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical
Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, -s Finishing.
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor
of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.
E. M. Ha. ERNEST MAES HARVEY. f Exchange.
Partner in Messrs. Allen Harvey & Ross, Bullion Brokers, London.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Vll
E.O.*
E. 0. S.
E. Pr.
E. Re.
E. Tn.
E. W. H.
F. C.C.
F. G. P.
F.J.H.
F. J. W.
F. R. C.
F.S.
G.A.B.
G. A. Be.
G. B. A.
G. C.L.
G.E.
G. F. Z.
G, G. P.*
G. P.
G. W. T.
EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's_Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Late Examiner 1 Fistula.
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour,
in Surgery at the University of Cambridge, London and Durham.
Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
Author of A
(
EDWIN OTHO SACHS, F.R.S. (Edin.), A.M.lNST.M.E. r
Chairman of the British Fire Prevention Committee. Vice-President, National J -,. A ,, ,. ,.
Fire Brigades Union. Vice-President, International Fire Service Council. Author 1 re Extinction.
of Fires and Public Entertainments ; &c.
EDGAR PRESTAGE. f
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature at the University of Manchester. Com- J Falcao;
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon 1 Ferreira.
Royal Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society. I
ELISEE RECLUS.
See the biographical article: RECLUS, J. J. E.
Fire.
REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON, (d. 1907). J Feckenham;
Author of Ttie English Black Monks of St Benedict ; History of the Jesuits in England. { Fisher, John.
ERNEST WILLIAM HOBSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. , F.R.A.S.
Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics, Christ's College, Cambridge,
in Mathematics in the University.
Stokes Lecturer J Fourier's Series.
FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen).
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. -
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c.
FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women.
Formerly Huntenan Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I
FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S. A. r
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of J
Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 * osse -
Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c. [_ '
FREDERICK JOSEPH WALL, F.C.S.
Secretary to the Football Association.
FRANK R. CANA.
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.
FRANCIS STORR, M.A.
Editor of the Journal of Education, London.
Extreme Unction.
Eye: Anatomy.
j Football: Association (in part).
France: Colonies.
Officier d'Academie, Paris.
-[ Fable.
GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.Sc., PH.D., F.R.S.
In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British J Flat-fish.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.
GEORGE ANDREAS BERRY, M.B., F.R.C.S., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Hon. Surgeon Oculist to His Majesty in Scotland. Formerly Senior Ophthalmic
Surgeon, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and Lecturer on Ophthalmology in the Uni- J
versity of Edinburgh. Vice-President, Ophthalmological Society. Author of ] Eye: Diseases.
Diseases of the Eye; The Elements of Ophthalmoscopic Diagnosis; Subjective
Symptoms in Eye Diseases ; &c. [
GEORGE BURTON ADAMS, A.M., B.D., PH.D., LITT.D. r
Professor of History, Yale University. Editor of American Historical Review. \ ..
Author of Civilization during the Middle Ages; Political History of England, 1066- " Feudalism.
1216 ; &c. [
GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G.
Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly Editor and
Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal
Commission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, 1887. J Exhibition.
Secretary, Royal Commission, Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895. Secretary to Com-
missioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia
and Melbourne, 1873, 1876, 1878, 1880-1881.
REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HiST.S.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909.
Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa-
tion of Literature.
GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.lNST.C.E.
Author of Mechanical Handling of Material.
GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple.
GIFFORD PINCHOT, A.M., D.Sc., LL.D.
Professor of Forestry, Yale University. Formerly Chief Forester, U.S.A. President u- nrp<: tc and 1?nrptrv
of the National Conservation Association. Member of the Society of American J * sl
Foresters, Royal English Arboricultural Society, &c. Author of The White Pine; United Slates.
A Primer of Forestry ; &c.
REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f Fairuzabadl;
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old J Fakhr ud-Din Razi;
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Farabr Farazdaq.
Flanders.
/ Flour and Flour Manufacture.
Fishery, Law of.
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
C. F. R. CHARLES FRANCIS RICHARDSON, A.M., PH.D. ("
Professor of English at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.A. ~\ Fiske, John.
Author of A Story of English Rhyme; A History of American Literature; &c. I
C. H. T.* CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M. -fEzekiel.
See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. \
C. 3. CHARLES JOHNSON, M.A. f
Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office. Joint Editor of the Domesday Survey for the *! Exchequer (in part).
Victoria County History: Norfolk. I
C. J, B. M. CHARLES JOHN BRUCE MARRIOTT, M.A. / F 00 th a n- Ruebv (in tart)
Clare College, Cambridge. Secretary of the Rugby Football Union. I Ug0y (tn part)f
C. J. N. F. CHARLES JAMES NICOL FLEMING. f ir 00 tball- Ruobv (in hurt)
H.M. Inspector of Schools, Scotch Education Department. I F( Kugt>y (tn part) '
C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.Soc., F.S.A. f p a i, van .
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor "i _ : ? ., '
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. I **SIOH.
C. P. I. SIR COURTENAY PEREGRINE ILBERT, K.C.B., K.C.S.I., C.I.E.
Clerk of the House of Commons. Chairman of Statute Law Committee. Parlia-
mentary Counsel to the Treasury, 1899-1901. Legal Member of Council of Governor-
General of India, 1882-1886; President, 1886. Fellow of the British Academy.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Government
of India ; Legislative Method and Forms.
Evidence.
C. W. A. CHARLES WILLIAM ALCOCK (d. 1907). f rw*hn. a f r * rt
Formerly Secretary of the Football Association, London. \ Association (in part).
L Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal \ First of June> Battle of the '
Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c. \ Fox, Charles James.
D. Mn. REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. f
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London -j Excommunication.
Missionary Society. L
D. N. P. DIARMID NOEL PATON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.). f
Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Super-
intendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, -j Fever.
Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University, 1884. Author of Essentials of Human
Physiology; &c.
D. S. M.* DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.LiTT. I"
Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author of Arabic J _ ..
Papyri of the Bodleian Library; Mohammed and the Rise of Islam; Cairo, Jerusalem i Fatimites.
and Damascus. L
E. B. EDWARD BRECK, M.A., PH.D. f -, ., .
Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the New York Herald and the New York Times. 1 * ln f ' .
Author of Fencing; Wilderness Pets; Sporting in Nova Scotia; &c. I Football: American (in part).
E. Ca. EGERTON CASTLE, M.A., F.S.A.
Trinity College : Cambridge. Author of Schools and Masters of Fence; &c.
Ed. C.* THE HON. EDWARD EVAN CHARTERIS. J .-/ ,\
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. \ rair ( tn P arl) -
E. C. B. RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. f Fontevrault;
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius," 4 Francis of Assisi, St;
in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. L Francis Of Paola, St.
E. C. Q. EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A. f
Fellow and Lecturer in Modern Languages and Monro Lecturer in Celtic, -s Finn mac Cool.
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. [
E. D. R. LlEUT.-COLONEL EMILIUS C. DELME RADCLIFFE. f F a l conrv>
Author of Falconry: Notes on the Falconidae used in India in Falconry. \
E. E. A. ERNEST E. AUSTEN. J"
Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. \ Flea.
E. E. H. REV. EDWARD EVERETT HALE. J Fvftrptt
See the biographical article: HALE, E. E. ett '
f Ewald, Johannes; Fabliau;
Fabre, Ferdinand; Feuillet;
E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. J r- in i an rt. T: tern , urP .
See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. rltzGeL EdwaTd; Flaubert;
I Flemish Literature; Forssell.
E. H. P. EDWARD HENRY PALMER, M.A. f .. -
See the biographical article : PALMER, E. H. \ Firdousi (in part).
E. K. EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., M.SC.TECH. (Manchester), F.I.C.
Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical
Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, -j Finishing.
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor
of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.
E. M. Ha. ERNEST MAES HARVEY. I" Exchange.
Partner in Messrs. Allen Harvey & Ross, Bullion Brokers, London. t
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Vll
E.O.*
E. 0. S.
E. Pr.
E. Re.
E. Tn.
E. W. H.
F.C.C.
P. G. P.
r u* H
p. j. w.
F. R. C.
F.S.
G.A.B.
G. A. Be.
G. B. A.
G.C.L.
EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting; Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
- ' Late Examiner -| Fistula.
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour,
in Surgery at the University of Cambridge, London and Durham.
Manual of A natomy for Senior Students.
Author of A
(
EDWIN OTHO SACHS, F.R.S. (Edin.), A.M.lNST.M.E. r
Chairman of the British Fire Prevention Committee. Vice-President, National j . . p . !?*:.,*!.,
Fire Brigades Union. Vice-President, International Fire Service Council. Author] ' uon>
of Fires and Public Entertainments ; &c. L
EDGAR PRESTAGE. f
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature at the University of Manchester. Com- J Falcao;
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon | Ferreira.
Royal Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society. L
Fire.
ELISEE RECLUS.
See the biographical article: RECLUS, J. J. E.
REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON, (d. 1907). / Feckenham;
Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict ; History of the Jesuits in England. {_ Fisher, John.
ERNEST WILLIAM HOBSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. , F.R.A.S.
Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics, Christ's College, Cambridge,
in Mathematics in the University.
Stokes Lecturer J Fourier's Series.
Extreme Unction.
Eye: Anatomy.
j Football: Association (in part).
France: Colonies.
G. E.
G. P. Z.
G. G. P.*
G. P.
G. W. T.
FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen).
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. -
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c.
FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women.
Formerly Huntenan Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. L
FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S. A. r
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of J jf nee _
Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 * osse '
Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c. [ "
FREDERICK JOSEPH WALL, F.C.S.
Secretary to the Football Association.
FRANK R. CANA.
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.
FRANCIS STORR, M.A. f
Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officier d'Academie, Paris. ~|_ * a D' e -
GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.Sc., PH.D., F.R.S. f
In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -j Flat-flsh.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.
GEORGE ANDREAS BERRY, M.B., F.R.C.S., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Hon. Surgeon Oculist to His Majesty in Scotland. Formerly Senior Ophthalmic
Surgeon, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and Lecturer on Ophthalmology in the Uni- J
versity of Edinburgh. Vice-President, Ophthalmological Society. Author of j Eye : Diseases.
Diseases of the Eye; The Elements of Ophthalmoscopic Diagnosis; Subjective
Symptoms in Eye Diseases ; &c. L
GEORGE BURTON ADAMS, A.M., B.D., PH.D., Lnr.D. f
Professor of History, Yale University. Editor of American Historical Review.
Author of Civilization during the Middle Ages; Political History of England, 1066- '
1216; &c.
GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G.
Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly Editor and
Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal
Commission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, 1887. .
Secretary, Royal Commission, Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895. Secretary to Com-
missioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia
and Melbourne, 1873, 1876, 1878, 1880-1881.
REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.Hisx.S. r
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. J _,, j
Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa- | * lanQ **
tion of Literature.
Exhibition.
GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.lNST.C.E.
Author of Mechanical Handling of Material.
J Flour and Flour Manufacture.
GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple.
J Fishery, Law of.
GIFFORD PINCHOT, A.M., D.Sc., LL.D. r
Professor of Forestry, Yale University. Formerly Chief Forester, U.S.A.
of the National Conservation Association. Member of the Society of American
Foresters, Royal English Arboricultural Society, &c. Author of The White Pine; I
A Primer of Forestry; &c. [_
REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f Fairuzabadl;
Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old -| Fakhr ud-Din Razi;
President I Fores ts an d Forestry:
United States.
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W.
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
FarabI; Farazdaq.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
H. B. S. REV. HENRY BARCLAY SWETE, M.A., D.D., LITT.D. r
Regius Professor of Divinity, Cambridge University. Fellow of Gonville and Caius J
College, Cambridge. Fellow of King's College, London. Fellow of British Academy. 1 Fathers of the Church.
Hon. Canon of Ely Cathedral. Author of The Holy Spirit in the New Testament; &c. (.
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth Edition { Forster.
of the Encyclopaedic, Britannica ; Co-Editor of the loth edition. L
H. De. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. f Fiacre Saint-
Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandiana { -p.^
and Acta Sanctorum. \ Flo a n Saint.
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. (
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. 4 Flamingo.
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History.
H. L. S. H. LAWRENCE SWINBURNE (d. 1909). | Flag.
H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. f Fechner;
Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; Personal Idealism. \ Feuerbach, Lud wig A.
f Fitz Neal;
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. Fitz Peter, Geoffrey;
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, -j Fitz Stephen, William;
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. p<jj z Xhedmar' Flambard'
1 Florence of Worcester.
H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED. f
Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome, -j Fabrizi.
1897-1902. I
I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, J Exilareh;
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera- | Eybeschutz.
lure; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages.
J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. I p k v
See the biographical article: CROWE, SIR JOSEPH A. \ J1 ' w *' v
J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of -j France: Geology.
The Geology of Building Stones. I
J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. J Ficino;
See the biographical article: SYMONDS, JOHN A. I Filelfo.
J. B.* JOSEPH BURTON. f Firebrick t: n ,, ar ,\
Partner in Pilkington's Tile and Pottery Co., Clifton Junction, Manchester. \
J. B. P. JAMES BELL PETTIGREW, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. (Edin.) (1834-1908). f
Chandos Professor of Medicine and Anatomy, University of St Andrews, 1875-1 Flight and Flying (m part).
1908. Author of Animal Locomotion; &c. I
J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. f
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's] u-.,-.!.*:
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of 1 * ouna a ns '
Junior Engineers. L
J. C. M. JAMES CLERK MAXWELL, LL.D. J Faraday.
See the biographical article: MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK. X
J. E. C. B. JOHN EDWARD COURTENAY BODLEY, M.A. f
Balliol College, Oxford. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Author-^ France: History, 1870-1910.
of France ; The Coronation of Edward VII. ; &c. |_
J. E. P. W. JOHN EDWARD POWER WALLIS, M.A.
Puisne Judge, Madras. Vice-Chancellor of Madras University. Inns of Court { Extradition.
Reader in Constitutional Law, 1892-1897. Formerly Editor of Stale Trials. I
J. F. St. JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A. f
Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Aramaic, -i Exodus, Book 01.
Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.
J. G. H. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. f Forging;
Author of Plating and Boiler Making ; Practical Metal Turning ; &c. \_ Founding.
J. G. R. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. r
Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer on the) ,
English Language, Strassburg University. Author of History of German Literature ; | Fouque, Baron.
&c. I
J. H. P.* JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN, M.A. (d. 1908). r
Formerly Professor of Fine Arts in Catholic University of Dublin. Fellow of
Merton College, Oxford. Cantor Lecturer, Society of Arts, 1885. Author of J Fan.
Ancient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork; Ancient and Modern Gold and 1
Silversmith's Work; The Trajan Column; &c.
J. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D.
Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. J _ h x
Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic Studies; The Development of the European ] *
Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; chapters in the Cambridge Modern History. |_
J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). f Ferrers- Family
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and-\ _-, _ ''
Pedigree; &c. [ *ltzgeraia. ramuy.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IX
j.i.
J. K. L.
Francis I. of France.
Farragut;
Fitzroy.
J. L. B.
J. Ma.
J. M. S.
J. Pa.
J. P. E.
J. R. C.
J. R. F.*
J. R. J. J.
J. S. Bl.
J. S. F.
J. S. K.
J. T. Be.
K. S.
L. D.*
L. F. S.
L. J.
JULES ISAAC. S
Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons. I
SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., Lrrr.D.
Professor of Modern History, King's College, London. Secretary of the Navy
Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in China, 1856-1859. Mathe-
matical and Naval Instructor, Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, 1866-1873;.
Greenwich, 1873-1885. President, Royal Meteorological Society, 1882-1884.
Honorary Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow, King's College,
London. Author of Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing Winds and
Currents; Studies in Naval History; Sea Fights and Adventures; &c.
JULIAN LEVETT BAKER, F.I.C.
Analytical and Consulting Chemist. Examiner in Brewing to the City and Guilds
of London Institute, Department of Technology. Hon. Secretary of the Institute j
of Brewing. Author of The Brewing Industry; &c.
JOHN MACDONALD. /Fair (in part).
JAMES MONTGOMERY STUART. / Fo c 1
Author of The History of Free Trade in Tuscany ; Reminiscences and Essays. 1 OSC010.
JAMES PATON, F.L.S.
Superintendent of Museums and Art Galleries of Corporation of Glasgow. Assistant
in Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh, 1861-1876. President of Museums -
Association of United Kingdom, 1896. Editor and part-author of Scottish National
Memorials, 1890.
JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN.
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour.
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droit
fran$ais; &c. L
JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A. f
Assistant to the Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Trinity College, < Fluorescence.
Dublin. Editor of 2nd edition of Preston's Theory of Heat. I
JOSEPH R. FISHER.
Editor of the Northern Whig, Belfast.
the Press ; &c.
Feather (in part).
France: Law and Institutions.
Author of Finland and the Tsars; Law of 4 Finland.
Fireworks: History.
Britannica. Joint Editor of the) Fasting;
Critical History of the Christian 1 Feasts and Festivals.
JULIAN ROBERT JOHN JOCELYN.
Colonel, R.A. Formerly Commandant, Ordnance College; Member of Ordnance
Committee ; Commandant, Schools of Gunnery.
REV. JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D.
Assistant Editor, o.th edition, Encyclopaedia
Encyclopaedia Biblica. Translated Ritschl's
Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation.
JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. c
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Felsite;
burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby j pij n t
Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). r
Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star. Finland (
Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon. Member, Geographical^ *}. '
Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of Statesman's Year Book. Editor of * miners.
the Geographical Journal. I
JOHN T. BEALBY. r
Joint Author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical J. Fens;
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. [ Ferghana (in part).
L. V.*
KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra.
LOUIS DUCHESNE.
See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.
LESLIE FREDERIC SCOTT, M.A., K.C.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
LlEUT.-COLONEL LOUIS CHARLES JACKSON, R.E., C.M.G.
Assistant Director of Fortifications and Works, War Office. Formerly Instructor
in Fortification, R.M.A., Woolwich. Instructor in Fortification and Military
Engineering, School of Military Engineering, Chatham
LUIGI VILLARI.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent
in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907;
Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; Fire and
Sword in the Caucasus ; &c.
/Fiddle; Fife; Flageolet;
\Flute (in part).
Formosus.
Factor.
' Fortification and Siegecraft.
I
Faliero; Fanti, Manfredo;
Farini, Luigi Carlo;
Farnese: Family;
Ferdinand I. and IV. of Naples;
Ferdinand II. of the Two
Sicilies;
Fiesco; Filangieri, C.;
Florence; Foscari;
Fossombroni;
Francis II. of the Two
Sicilies;
Francis IV. and V. of Modena.
Folklore.
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
BL Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. r
Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of " Protozoa," in Cam- -{
bridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals.
N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. f Faith Healing-
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the] '
Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference ; Kinship and 1
Marriage in Australia ; &c. [_
0. H.* OTTO HEHNER, F.I.C., F.C.S. r
Public Analyst. Formerly President of Society of Public Analysts. Vice-President J Food Preservation
of Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. Author of works on Butter |
Analysis; Alcohol Tables; &c. I
0. M. DAVID ORME MASSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Professor of Chemistry, Melbourne University. Author of papers on chemistry in -I Fireworks: Modern.
the transactions of various learned societies. [
P. A. PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. r
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, J _.
Paris. Author of Les Idees morales chez les heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII' 1 F lageliants.
siecle. [
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. / Ferghana (in part) ;
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A. I Finland (in part).
P.C.Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. f Falkland; Fanshaw;
Magdalen College, Oxford. 1 Fawkes, Guy; Fell, John;
\ Fortescue, Sir John.
P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com-
parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1881-1891. J Evolution
Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. Author of Outlines of
Biology; &c. [
P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. r
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist J Florenzo di Lorenzo;
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. I Fragonard.
P. J. H. PHILIP JOSEPH HARTOG, M.A., L. is Sc. (Paris). r
Academic Registrar of the University of London. Author of The Writing of English, I. . t , ,. A
and articles in the Special Reports on educational subjects of the Board of Edu- 1 Examinations (in part).
cation.
P. W. PAUL WIRIATH. f
Director of the Ecole Superieure Pratique de Commerce et d'Industrie, Paris. \ France: History to 1870.
R. Ad. ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. C Fichte;
See the biographical article: ADAMSON, R. "1 Fourier, F. C. M.
R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. f
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex- -I Font.
ploration Fund.
R. H. C. REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.). r
Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British FIM- Ti,W /,^/y Tf~, lr n,
Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity College, Dublin. Author and 1 ' , , am founlt
Editor of Book of Enoch; Book of Jubilees; Apocalypse of Baruch; Assumption of DOORS of.
Moses ; Ascension of Isaiah ; Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs ; &c. I
R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. f Fenians;
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's -\ Fitzgerald, Lord Edward;
Gazette, London. ^ Flood, Henry.
R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. r
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Flying-Squirrel;
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer] Fox.
of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c.
R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the 17 , rnnnt= wn
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, ' '
1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe : the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460
to 1706; &c.
R. Po. RENE POUPARDIN, D. is L. r
Secretary of the Ecole des Charles. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque 1
Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens; Recueil )
des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c.
R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, J Flute: Architecture.
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. . Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.). f
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. I _ .. .
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College. Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville 1 * allscl '
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. I
R. Tr. ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A. f
Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Fellow, Dean and Lecturer in Classics -J France: Statistics.
at Worcester College, Oxford.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XI
S. A. C.
S.tJ.
stc.
S. E. B.
S. E. S.-R.
T. A. I.
T. As.
T. Ba.
T. H. H.*
T. K. C.
T.Se.
T. Wo.
V. M.
W. A. B. C.
W. A. P.
W. B.*
W. Ca.
W. Ga.
W.He.
W. M. R.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. j"
Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow, Gonyille and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and J Exodus, The;
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscrip-} p... an| j w B i, orn j a u Rnnke nf
tions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testa- Ezra and lenemian > Bo KS Ol
ment History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D.
See the biographical article : COLVIN, S.
VISCOUNT ST CYRES.
See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF
HON. SIMEON EBEN BALDWIN, M.A., LL.D.
Professor of Constitutional and Private International Law in Yale University.
Director of the Bureau of Comparative Law of the American Bar Association.
Formerly Chief Justice of Connecticut. Author of Modern Political Institutions;
American Railroad Law; &c.
STEPHEN EDWARD SPRING-RICE, M.A., C.B. (1856-1902).
Formerly Principal Clerk, H.M. Treasury, and Auditor of the Civil List. Fellow of -
Trinity College, Cambridge.
THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.
/ Fine Arts; Finiguerra;
I Flaxman.
\ Fenelon.
Extradition: U.S.A.
Exchequer (in part).
I Explosives: Law.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.), F.S.A.
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Corresponding Member of the Imperial"
German Archaeological Institute. Author of the Classical Topography of the Roman
Campagna; &c.
Faesulae; Falerii; Falerio;
Fanum Fortunae;
Ferentino; Fermo;
Flaminia Via;
Florence: Early History:
. Fondi; Fonni; Forum Appiu
SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of J Exterritoriality
the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of ]
International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. I
-f.
j Eve (in part).
SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S.
Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892- .
1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., London, 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the { Everest, Mount
Persia-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of
India ; &c. L
REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.D.
See the biographical article : CHEYNE, T. K.
THOMAS SECCOMBE, MA. ["
Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University of London.
Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Formerly Assistant Editor of Dictionary of J Fawceit, Henry.
National Biography, 1891-1901. Joint-author of The Bookman History of English
Literature. Author of The Age of Johnson ; &c.
THOMAS WOODHOUSE. r
Head of Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. ~\ '
VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON. r
Principal of the Conservatoire Royal deMusique at Brussels. Chevalier of the Legion J Flute (in part).
of Honour.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G S., Ph.D. (Bern), r
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's!
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in]
Nature and in History ; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. L
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f Excellency Faust-
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, { w i, -o m
Flax.
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c.
WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S.
Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain.
English Stoneware and Earthenware ; &c.
v
Author of -j Firebrick (in part).
WALTER CAMP, A.M.
Member of Yale University Council.
and Figures; &c.
Author of American Football; Football Facts -I Football: American (in part).
WALTER GARSTANG, M.A., D.Sc.
Professor of Zoology at the University of Leeds. Scientific Adviser to H.M.
Delegates on the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 1901-1907.-; Fisheries,
Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Author of The Races and Migrations
of the Mackerel ; The Impoverishment of the Sea ; &c.
WALTER HEPWORTH.
Formerly Commissioner of the Council of Education, Science and Art Department, -
South Kensington.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article : ROSSETTI, DANTE G.
Fool.
Ferrari, Gaudenzio;
Fielding, Copley;
Franceschi, Piero; Francia.
Xll
W. P. P.
W. N. S.
W. P. R.
W. R. S.
W. R. E. H.
W. Sch.
W. W. F.*
W. W. R.*
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
WILLIAM PLANE PYCRAFT, F.Z.S.
Assistant in the Zoological Department, British Museum. Formerly Assistant .
Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Oxford. Vice-President of the
Selborne Society. Author of A History of Birds ; &c.
WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of
London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee.
Member of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, "
Cambridge. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1877-1899; Senior Tutor, 1890-1899.
Joint Author of Text Book of Practical Physics; &c.
HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. ,
Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner
for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour and Justice, NewJ n n i Sir William
Author of The Long White Cloud, a History of New Zealand;
Feather (in part).
Fog.
Zealand, 1891-1896.
&c.
Eve (in part).
Explosives.
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SMITH, W. R.
WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part Author of Valentin- "
Hodgkinson's Practical Chemistry; &c.
SIR WILHELM SCHLICH, K.C.I.E., M.A., PH.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. r
Professor of Forestry at the University of Oxford. Hon. Fellow of St John's College. I _ , _
Author of A Manual of Forestry; Forestry in the United Kingdom; The Outlook of) Forests and Forestry.
the World's Timber Supply; &c. [
WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. f
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans;'
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c.
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
Author of Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen.
Fortuna.
New York. - Ferrara-Florence, Council of.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Evil Eye.
Excise.
Execution.
Executors and Adminis-
trators.
Exeter.
Exile.
Eylau.
Famine.
Fault.
Federal Government
Federalist Party.
Fehmic Courts.
Felony.
Fez.
Fezzan.
Fictions.
Fife.
Fig.
Filigree
Fir.
Fives.
Fleurus.
Florida.
Foix.
Fold.
Fontenelle.
Fontenoy.
Foot and Mouth Disease.
Forest Laws.
Foriarshire.
Forgery.
Formosa.
Foundling Hospitals.
Fountain.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNIC A
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME X
EVAN&ELICAL CHURCH CONFERENCE, a convention of
delegates from the different Protestant churches of Germany.
The conference originated in 1848, when the general desire for
political unity made itself felt in the ecclesiastical sphere as well.
A preliminary meeting was held at Sandhof near Frankfort in
June of that year, and on the 2ist of September some five
hundred delegates representing the Lutheran, the Reformed, the
United and the Moravian churches assembled at Wittenberg.
The gathering was known as Kirchentag (church diet), and,
while leaving each denomination free in respect of constitution,
ritual, doctrine and attitude towards the state, agreed to act
unitedly in bearing witness against the non-evangelical churches
and in defending the rights and liberties of the churches in the
federation. The organization thus closely resembles that of the
Free Church Federation in England. The movement exercised
considerable influence during the middle of the igth century.
Though no Kirchentag, as such, has been convened since 1871,
its place has been taken by the Kongress fiir innere Mission,
which holds annual meetings in different towns. There is also
a biennial conference of the evangelical churches held at Eisenach
to discuss matters of general interest. Its decisions have no
legislative force.
EVANGELICAL UNION, a religious denomination which
originated in the suspension of the Rev. James Morison (1816-
1893), minister of a United Secession congregation in Kilmarnock,
Scotland, for certain views regarding faith, the work of the Holy
Spirit in salvation, and the extent of the atonement, which were
regarded by the supreme court of his church as anti-Calvinistic
and heretical. Morison was suspended by the presbytery in
1841 and thereupon definitely withdrew from the Secession
Church. His father, who was minister at Bathgate, and two
other ministers, being deposed not long afterwards for similar
opinions, the four met at Kilmarnock on the i6th of May 1843
(two days before the " Disruption " of the Free Church), and,
on the basis of certain doctrinal principles, formed themselves
into an association under the name of the Evangelical Union,
" for the purpose of countenancing, counselling and otherwise
aiding one another, and also for the purpose of training up
spiritual and devoted young men to carry forward the work and
' pleasure of the Lord.' " The doctrinal views of the new de-
nomination gradually assumed a more decidedly anti-Calvinistic
x. i
form, and they began also to find many sympathizers among
the Congregationalists of Scotland. Nine students were expelled
from the Congregational Academy for holding " Morisonian "
doctrines, and in 1845 eight churches were disjoined from the
Congregational Union of Scotland and formed a connexion with
the Evangelical Union. The Union exercised no jurisdiction
over the individual churches connected with it, and in this respect
adhered to the Independent or Congregational form of church
government; but those congregations which originally were Pres-
byterian vested their government in a body of elders. In 1889
the denomination numbered 93 churches; and in 1896, after
prolonged negotiation, the Evangelical Union was incorporated
with the Congregational Union of Scotland.
See The Evangelical Union Annual; History of the Evangelical
Union, by F. Ferguson (Glasgow, 1876); The Worthies of the E.U.
(1883) ; W. Adamson, Life of Dr James Morison (1898).
EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838), Welsh Nonconformist
divine, was born near the village of Llandyssul, Cardiganshire,
on the 25th of December 1766. His father, a shoemaker, died
early, and the boy grew up as an illiterate farm labourer. At
the age of seventeen, becoming servant to a Presbyterian
minister, David Davies, he was affected by a religious revival and
learned to read and write in English and Welsh. The itinerant
Calvinistic Methodist preachers and the members of the Baptist
church at Llandyssul further influenced him, and he soon joined
the latter denomination. In 1789 he went into North Wales
as a preacher and settled for two years in the desolate peninsula
of Lleyn, Carnarvonshire, whence he removed to Llangefni in
Anglesey. Here, on a stipend of 17 a year, supplemented by a
little tract-selling, he built up a strong Baptist community,
modelling his organization to some extent on that of the Calvin-
istic Methodists. Many new chapels were built, the money being
collected on preaching tours which Evans undertook in South
Wales.
In 1826 Evans accepted an invitation to Caerphilly, where
he remained for two years, removing in 1828 to Cardiff.
In 1832, in response to urgent calls from the north, he settled
in Carnarvon and again undertook the old work of building and
collecting. He was taken ill on a tour in South Wales, and died
at Swansea on the igth of July 1838. In spite of his early dis-
advantages and personal disfigurement (he had lost an eye in a
EVANS, E. H. EVANS, O.
youthful brawl), Christmas Evans was a remarkably powerful
preacher. To a natural aptitude for this calling- he united a
nimble mind and an inquiring spirit; his character was simple,
his piety humble and his faith fervently evangelical. For a time
he came under Sandemanian influence, and when the Wesleyans
entered Wales he took the Calvinist side in the bitter controversies
that were frequent from 1800 to 1810. His chief characteristic
was a vivid and affluent imagination, which absorbed and
controlled all his other powers, and earned for him the name of
" the Bunyan of Wales."
His works were edited by Owen Davies in 3 vols. (Carnarvon,
1895-1897). See the Lives by D. R. Stephens (1847) and Paxton
Hood (1883).
EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896), Welsh Nonconformist
divine, was born on the 5th of July 1836, at Pant yr Onen near
Newcastle Emlyn, Cardiganshire. As a boy he saw something
of the " Rebecca Riots," and went to school at the neighbouring
village of Llechryd. In 1853 he went into business, first at
Pontypridd and then at Merthyr, but next year made his way to
Liverpool. He decided to enter the ministry, and studied arts
and theology respectively at the Normal College, Swansea, and
the Memorial College, Brecon, his convictions being deepened
by the religious revival of 1858-1859. In 1862 he succeeded
Thomas Jones as minister of the Congregational church at
Morriston near Swansea. In 1865 he became pastor of Salem
church, Carnarvon, a charge which he occupied for nearly thirty
years despite many invitations to English pastorates. In 1894
he became principal of the Congregational college at Bangor.
He died on the 3Oth of December 1896. He was chairman of
the Welsh Congregational Union in 1886 and of the Congregational
Union of England and Wales in 1892; and by his earnest
ministry, his eloquence and his literary work, especially in the
denominational paper Y Dysgedydd, he achieved a position of
great influence in his country.
See Life by H. Elvet Lewis.
EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787-1870), British soldier,
was born at Moig, Limerick, in 1787. He was educated at
Woolwich Academy, and entered the army in 1806 as a volunteer,
obtaining an ensigncy in the 22nd regiment in 1807. His early
service was spent in India, but he exchanged into the 3rd Light
Dragoons in order to take part in the Peninsular War, and was
present in the retreat from Burgos in 1812. In 1813 he was at
Vittoria, and was afterwards employed in making a military
survey of the passes of the Pyrenees. He took part in the cam-
paign of 1814, and was present at Pampeluna, the Nive and
Toulouse; and later in the year he served with great distinction
on the staff in General Ross's Bladensburg campaign, and took
part in the capture of Washington and of Baltimore and the
operations before New Orleans. He returned to England in the
spring of 1815, in time to take part in the Waterloo campaign as
assistant quartermaster-general on Sir T. Picton's staff. As a
member of the staff of the duke of Wellington he accompanied
the English army to Paris, and remained there during the
occupation of the city by the allies. He was still a substantive
captain in the 5th West India regiment, though a lieutenant-
colonel by brevet, when he went on half-pay in 1818. In 1830
he was elected M.P. for Rye in the Liberal interest; but in the
election of 1832 he was an unsuccessful candidate both for that
borough and for Westminster. For the latter constituency he
was, however, returned in 1833, and, except in the parliament
of 1841-1846, he continued to represent it till 1865, when he
retired from political life. His parliamentary duties did not,
however, interfere with his career as a soldier. In 1835 he went
out to Spain in command of the Spanish Legion, recruited in
England, and 9600 strong, which served for two years in the
Carlist War on the side of the queen of Spain. In spite of great
difficulties the legion won great distinction on the battlefields
of northern Spain, and Evans was able to say that no prisoners
had been taken from it m action, that it had never lost a gun
or an equipage, and that it had taken 27 guns and noo prisoners
from the enemy. He received several Spanish orders, and on his
return in 1839 was made a colonel and K.C.B. In 1846 he became
major-general; and in 1854, on the breaking-out of the Crimean
War, he was made lieutenant-general and appointed to command
the 2nd division of the Army of the East. At the battle of the
Alma, where he received a severe wound, his quick comprehension
of the features of the combat largely contributed to the victory.
On the 26th of October he defeated a large Russian force which
attacked his position on Mount Inkerman. Illness and fatigue
compelled him a few days after this to leave the command of his
division in the hands of General Pennefather; but he rose
from his sick-bed on the day of the battle of Inkerman, the 5th of
November, and, declining to take the command of his division
from Pennefather, aided him in the long-protracted struggle by
his advice. On his return invalided to England in the following
February, Evans received the thanks of the House of Commons.
He was made a G.C.B., and the university of Oxford conferred on
him the degree of D.C.L. In 1861 he was promoted to the full
rank of general. He died in London on the 9th of January 1870.
EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908), English archaeologist and
geologist, son of the Rev. Dr A. B. Evans, head master of
Market Bosworth grammar school, was born at Britwell Court,
Bucks, on the i7th of November 1823. He was for many years
head of the extensive paper manufactory of Messrs John Dickin-
son at Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, but was especially dis-
tinguished as an antiquary and numismatist. He was the author
of three books, standard in their respective departments: The
Coins of the Ancient Britons (1864); The Ancient Stone Imple-
ments, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain (1872, 2nd ed.
1897); and The Ancient Bronze Implements, Weapons and
Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland (1881). He also wrote a
number of separate papers on archaeological and geological sub-
jects notably the papers on " Flint Implements in the Drift "
communicated in 1860 and 1862 to Archaeologia, the organ of the
Society of Antiquaries. Of that society he was president from
1885 to 1892, and he was president of the Numismatic Society
from 1874 to the time of his death. He also presided over the
Geological Society, 1874-1876; the Anthropological Institute,
1877-1879; the Society of Chemical Industry, 1892-1893;
the British Association, 1897-1898; and for twenty years (1878-
1898) he was treasurer of the Royal Society. As president of the
Society of Antiquaries he was an ex officio trustee of the British
Museum, and subsequently he became a permanent trustee.
His academic honours included honorary degrees from several
universities, and he was a corresponding member of the Institut
de France. He was created a K.C.B. in 1892. He died at
Berkhamsted on the 3ist of May 1908.
His eldest son, ARTHUR JOHN EVANS, born in 1851, was
educated at Brasenose College, Oxford, and Gottingen. He be-
came fellow of Brasenose and in 1884 keeper of the Ashmolean
Museum at Oxford. He travelled in Finland and Lapland in
1873-1874, and in 1875 made a special study of archaeology
and ethnology in the Balkan States. In 1893 he began his
investigations in Crete, which have resulted in discoveries of
the utmost importance concerning the early history of Greece
and the eastern Mediterranean (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION and
CRETE). He is a member of all the chief archaeological societies
in Europe, holds honorary degrees at Oxford, Edinburgh and
Dublin, and is a fellow of the Royal Society. His chief publi-
cations are: Cretan Piclographs and Prae- Phoenician Script
(1896); Further Discoveries of Cretan and Aegean Script (1898);
The Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cidt (1901); Scripta Minoa
(1909 foil.); and reports on the excavations. He also edited
with additions Freeman's History of Sicily, vol. iv.
EVANS, OLIVER (1755-1819), American mechanician, was
born at Newport, Delaware, in 1755. He was apprenticed to a
wheelwright, and at the age of twenty-two he invented a machine
for making the card-teeth used in carding wool and cotton.
In 1780 he became partner with his brothers, who were practical
millers, and soon introduced various labour-saving appliances
which both cheapened and improved the processes of flour-
milling. Turning his attention to the steam engine, he employed
steam at a relatively high pressure, and the plans of his invention
which he sent over to England in 1787 and in 1794-1795 are said
EVANSON EVANSVILLE
to have been seen by R. Trevithick, whom in that case he
anticipated in the adoption of the high-pressure principle. He
made use of his engine for driving mil) machinery; and in 1803
he constructed a steam dredging machine, which also propelled
itself on land. In 1819 a disastrous fire broke out in his factory
at Pittsburg, and he did not long survive it, dying at New York
on the 2ist of April 1819.
EVANSON, EDWARD (1731-1805), English divine, was born
on the 2ist of April 1731 at Warrington, Lancashire. After
graduating at Cambridge (Emmanuel College) and taking holy
orders, he officiated for several years as curate at Mitcham. In
1768 he became vicar of South Mimms near Barnet; and in
November 1769 he was presented to the rectory of Tewkesbury,
with which he held also the vicarage of Longdon in Worcester-
shire. In the course of his studies he discovered what he thought
important variance between the teaching of the Church of Eng-
land and that of the Bible, and he did not conceal his convictions.
In reading the service he altered or omitted phrases which seemed
to him untrue, and in reading the Scriptures pointed out errors
in the translation. A crisis was brought on by his sermon on the
resurrection, preached at Easter 1771; and in November 1773
a prosecution was instituted against him in the consistory court
of Gloucester. He was charged with " depraving the public
worship of God contained in the liturgy of the Church of England,
asserting the same to be superstitious and unchristian, preaching,
writing and conversing against the creeds and the divinity of
our Saviour, and assuming to himself the power of making
arbitrary alterations in his performance of the public worship."
A protest was at once signed and published by a large number
of his parishioners against the prosecution. The case was dis-
missed on technical grounds, but appeals were made to the court
of arches and the court of delegates. Meanwhile Evanson had
made his views generally known by several publications. In
1772 appeared anonymously his Doctrines of a Trinity and the
Incarnation of God, examined upon the Principles of Reason and
Common Sense. This was followed in 1777 by A Letter to Dr
Hurd, Bishop of Worcester, wherein the Importance of the Prophecies
of the New Testament and the Nature of the Grand Apostasy pre-
dicted in them are particularly and impartially considered. He also
wrote some papers on the Sabbath, which brought him into
controversy with Joseph Priestley, who published the whole
discussion (1792). In the same year appeared Evanson's work
entitled The Dissonance of the four generally received Evangelists,
to which replies were published by Priestley and David Simpson
(1793). Evanson rejected most of the books of the New Testa-
ment as forgeries, and of the four gospels he accepted only that
of St Luke. In his later years he ministered to a Unitarian
congregation at Lympston, Devonshire. In 1802 he published
Reflections upon the State of Religion in Christendom, in which he
attempted to explain and illustrate the mysterious foreshadow-
ings of the Apocalypse. This he considered the most important
of his writings. Shortly before his death at Colford, near
Crediton, Devonshire, on the 2$th of September 1805, he com-
pleted his Second Thoughts on the Trinity, in reply to a work of the
bishop of Gloucester.
His sermons (prefaced by a Life by G. Rogers) were published in
two volumes in 1807, and were the occasion of T. Falconer's Bampton
Lectures in 181 1. A narrative of the circumstances which led to the
prosecution of Evanson was published by N. Havard, the town-clerk
of Tewkesbury, in 1778.
EVANSTON, a city of Cook county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the
shore of Lake Michigan, 12 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1900)
19,259, of whom 4441 were foreign-born; (1910 U. S. census)
24,978. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western, and the
Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by two electric
lines. The city is an important residential suburb of Chicago.
In 1908 the Evanston public library had 41,430 volumes. In the
city are the College of Liberal Arts (1855), the Academy (1860),
and the schools of music (1895) and engineering (1908) of North-
western University, co-educational, chartered in 1851, opened in
1855, the largest school cf the Methodist Episcopal Church in
America. In 1909-1910 it had productive funds amounting to
about $7,500,000, and, including all the allied schools, a faculty of
418 instructors and 4487 students; its schools of medicine (1869),
law (1859), pharmacy (1886), commerce (1908) and dentistry
(1887) are in Chicago. In 1909 its library had 114,869 volumes
and 79,000 pamphlets (exclusive of the libraries of the professional
schools in Chicago); and the Garrett Biblical Institute had a
library of 25,671 volumes and 4500 pamphlets. The university
maintains the Grand Prairie Seminary at Onarga, Iroquois
county, and the Elgin Academy at Elgin, Kane county. Enjoy-
ing the privileges of the university, though actually independent
of it, are the Garrett Biblical Institute (Evanston Theological
Seminary), founded in 1855, situated on the university campus,
and probably the best-endowed Methodist Episcopal theological
seminary in the United States, and affiliated with the Institute,
the Norwegian Danish Theological school; and the Swedish
Theological Seminary, founded at Galesburg in 1870, removed to
Evanston in 1882, and occupying buildings on the university
campus until 1907, when it removed to Orrington Avenue and
Noyes Street. The Cumnock School of Oratory, at Evanston,
also co-operates with the university. By the charter of the
university the sale of intoxicating liquors is forbidden within
4 m. of the university campus. The manufacturing importance
of the city is slight, but is rapidly increasing. The principal
manufactures are wrought iron and steel pipe, bakers' machinery
and bricks. In 1905 the value of the factory products was
$2,550,529, being an increase of 207-3% since 1900. In
Evanston are the publishing offices of the National Woman's
Christian Temperance Union. Evanston was incorporated as a
town in 1863 and as a village in 1872, and was chartered
as a city in 1892. The villages of North Evanston and
South Evanston were annexed to Evanston in 1874 and 1892
respectively.
EVANSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Vanderburg
county, Indiana, U.S.A., and a port of entry, on the N. bank of
the Ohio river, 200 m. below Louisville, Kentucky measuring
by the windings of the river, which double the direct distance.
Pop. (1890) 50,756; (1900) 59,007; (1010 census) 69,647.
Of the total population in 1900, 5518 were negroes, 5626 were
foreign-born (including 4380 from Germany and 384 from Eng-
land), and 17,419 were of foreign parentage (both parents
foreign-born), and of these 13,910 were of German parentage.
Evansville is served by the Evansville & Terre Haute, the
Evansville & Indianapolis, the Illinois Central, the Louisville &
Nashville, the Louisville, Henderson & St Louis, and the Southern
railways, by several interurban electric lines, and by river steam-
boats. The city is situated on a plateau above the river, and
has a number of fine business and public buildings, including
the court house and city hall, the Southern Indiana hospital for
the insane, the United States marine hospital, and the Willard
library and art gallery, containing in 1908 about 30,000 volumes.
The city's numerous railway connexions and its situation in
a coal-producing region (there are five mines within the city
limits) and on the Ohio river, which is navigable nearly all the
year, combine to make it the principal commercial and manu-
facturing centre of Southern Indiana. It is in a tobacco-growing
region, is one of the largest hardwood lumber markets in the
country, and has an important shipping trade in pork, agricul-
tural products, dried fruits, lime and limestone, flour and tobacco.
Among its manufactures in 1905 were flour and grist mill products
(value, $2,638,914), furniture ($1,655,246), lumber and timber
products ($1,229,533), railway cars ($1,118,376), packed meats
($998,428), woollen and cotton goods, cigars and cigarettes,
malt liquors, carriages and wagons, leather and canned goods.
The value of the factory products increased from $12,167,524
in 1900 to $19,201,716 in 1905, or 57-8%, and in the latter year
Evansville ranked third among the manufacturing cities in the
state. The waterworks are owned and operated by the city.
First settled about 1812, Evansville was laid out in 1817, and
was named in honour of Robert Morgan Evans (1783-1844), one
of its founders, who was an officer under General W. H. Harrison
in the war of 1812. It soon became a thriving commercial town
with an extensive river trade, was incorporated in 1819, and
received a city charter in 1847. The completion of the Wabash
EVARISTUS EVE
& Erie Canal, in 1853, from Evansville to Toledo, Ohio, a distance
of 400 m., greatly accelerated the city's growth.
EVARISTUS, fourth pope (c. 98-105), was the immediate
successor of Clement.
EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL (1818-1901), American
lawyer, was born in Boston on the 6th of February 1818. He
graduated at Yale in 1837, was admitted to the bar in New York
in 1841, and soon took high rank in his profession. In 1860 he
was chairman of the New York delegation to the Republican
national convention. In 1861 he was an unsuccessful candidate
for the United States senatorship from New York. He was chief
counsel for President Johnson during the impeachment trial,
and from July 1868 until March 1869 he was attorney-general of
the United States. In 1872 he was counsel for the United States
in the " Alabama " arbitration. During President Hayes's ad-
ministration (1877-1881) he was secretary of state; and from
1885 to 1891 he was one of the senators from New York. As
an orator Senator Evarts stood in the foremost rank, and some
of his best speeches were published. He died in New York on
the 28th of February 1901.
EVE, the English transcription, through Lat. Eva and Gr. E&a,
of the Hebrew name *W Hawah, given by Adam to his wife
because she was " mother of all living," or perhaps more strictly,
" of every group of those connected by female kinship " (see
W. R. Smith, Kinship, and ed., p. 208), as if Eve were the per-
sonification of mother-kinship, just as Adam (" man ") is the
personification of mankind.
[The abstract meaning " life " (LXX. Zuri), once favoured by
Robertson Smith, is at any rate unsuitable in a popular story.
Wellhausen and Noldeke would compare the Ar. hayyatun,
" serpent," and the former remarks that, if this is right, the
Israelites received their first ancestress from the Hivvites
(Hivites), who were originally the serpent-tribe (Composition des
Hexateuchs, p. 343; cf. Reste arabischen Heidentums, 2nd ed.,
p. 154). Cheyne, too, assumes a common origin for Hawah and
the IJiwites.]
[The account of the origin of Eve (Gen. iii. 21-23) nins thus:
" And Yahweh-Elohim caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man,
and he slept. And he took one of his ribs, and closed
oEve" U P tne fl es h ' n i ts stead, and the rib which Yahweh-
Elohim had taken from the man he built up into a
woman, and he brought her to the man." Enchanted at the
sight, the man now burst out into elevated, rhythmic speech:
" This one," he said, " at length is bone of my bone and flesh
of my flesh," &c.; to which the narrator adds the comment,
" Therefore doth a man forsake his father and his mother, and
cleave to his wife, and they become one flesh (body)." Whether
this comment implies the existence of the custom of beena,
marriage (W.R. Smith, Kinship, 2nd ed., p. 208), seems doubtful.
It is at least equally possible that the expression " his wife "
simply reflects the fact that among ordinary Israelites circum-
stances had quite naturally brought about the prevalence of
monogamy. 1 What the narrator gives is not a doctrine of
marriage, much less a precept, but an explanation of a simple
and natural phenomenon. How is it, he asks, that a man is so
irresistibly drawn towards a woman? And he answers: Because
the first woman was built up out of a rib of the first man. At the
same time it is plain that the already existing tendency towards
monogamy must have been powerfully assisted by this presenta-
tion of Eye's story as well as by the prophetic descriptions of
Yahweh's relation to Israel under the figure of a monogamous
union.]
[The narrator is no rhetorician, and spares us a description of
the ideal woman. But we know that, for Adam, his strangely
New produced wife was a " help (or helper) matching or
Testament corresponding to him "; or, as the Authorized Version
*^ lc " puts it, " a help meet for him " (ii. 186). This does
not, of course, exclude subordination on the part of the
woman; what is excluded is that exaggeration of natural
subordination which the narrator may have found both in his
1 That polygamy had not become morally objectionable is shown
by the stories of Lamech, Abraham and Jacob.
own and in the neighbouring countries, and which he may have
regarded as (together with the pains of parturition) the punish-
ment of the woman's transgression (Gen. iii. 16). His own ideal
of woman seems to have made its way in Palestine by slow degrees.
An apocryphal book (Tobit viii. 6, 7) seems to contain the only
reference to the section till we come to the time of Christ, to
whom the comment in Gen. ii. 24 supplies the text for an authori-
tative prohibition of divorce, which presupposes and sanctifies
monogamy (Matt. x. 7, 8; Matt. xix. 5). For other New
Testament applications of the story of Eve see i Cor. xi. 8, 9
(especially); 2 Cor. xi. 3; i Tim. ii. 13, 14; and in general cf.
ADAM, and Ency. Biblica, " Adam and Eve."]
[The seeming omissions in the Biblical narrative have been
filled up by imaginative Jewish writers.] The earliest source
which remains to us is the Book of Jubilees, or Lepto- i ma giaa-
genesis, a Palestinian work (referred by R. H. Charles tive or
to the century immediately preceding the Christian era ; legendary
see APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE). In this book, which was
largely used by Christian writers, we find a chronology
of the lives of Adam and Eve and the names of their daughters
Avan and Azura. 2 The Targum of Jonathan informs us that Eve
was created from the thirteenth rib of Adam's right side, thus
taking the view that Adam had a rib more than his descendants.
Some of the Jewish legends show clear marks of foreign influence.
Thus the notion that the first man was a double being, afterwards
separated into the two persons of Adam and Eve (Berachot, 61;
Erubin, 18), may be traced back to Philo (De mundi opif. 53;
cf. Quaest. in Gen. lib. i. 25), who borrows the idea, and almost
the words, of the myth related by Aristophanes in the Platonic
Symposium (189 D, 190 A), which, in extravagant form, explains
the passion of love by the legend that male and female originally
formed one body.
[A recent critic 3 (F. Schwally) even holds that this notion
was originally expressed in the account of the creation of man in
Gen. i. 27. This involves a textual emendation, and one must
at least admit that the present text is not without difficulty,
and that Berossus refers to the existence of primeval monstrous
androgynous beings according to Babylonian mythology.]
There is an analogous Iranian legend of the true man, which
parted into man and woman in the Bundahish 4 (the Parsi
Genesis), and an Indian legend, which, according to Spiegel,
has presumably an Iranian source. 6
[It has been remarked elsewhere (ADAM, 16) that though
the later Jews gathered material for thought very widely, such
guidance as they required in theological reflection was course of
mainly derived from Greek culture. What, for in- Jewish and
stance, was to be made of such a story as that in Gen. Christian
ii.-iv.? To " minds trained under the influence of the j^ re ~
Jewish Haggada, in which the whole Biblical history
is freely intermixed with legendary and parabolic matter," the
question as to the literal truth of that story could hardly be
formulated. It is otherwise when the Greek leaven begins to
work.]
Josephus, in the prologue to his Archaeology, reserves the
problem of the true meaning of the Mosaic narrative, but does
not regard everything as strictly literal. Philo, the great repre-
sentative of Alexandrian allegory, expressly argues that in the
nature of things the trees of life and knowledge cannot be taken
otherwise than symbolically. His interpretation of the creation
of Eve is, as has been already observed, plainly suggested by a
Platonic myth. The longing for reunion which love implants
in the divided halves of the original dual man is the source of
sensual pleasure (symbolized by the serpent), which in turn is
the beginning of all transgression. Eve represents the sensuous
or perceptive part of man's nature, Adam the reason. The
serpent, therefore, does not venture to attack Adam directly.
1 See West's authoritative translation in Pahlavi Texts (Sacred
Books of the East).
3 " Die bibl. Schopf ungsberichte " (Archivfur Religwnsunsscnschaft,
ix. 171 ff.).
4 Spiegel, Erdnische Alterthumskunde, i. 511.
6 Muir, Sanscrit Texts, vol. i. p. 25; cf. Spiegel, vol. i. p. 458.
EVECTION EVELYN
It is sense which yields to pleasure, and in turn enslaves the reason
and destroys its immortal virtue. This exposition, in which
the elements of the Bible narrative become mere symbols of
the abstract notions of Greek philosophy, and are adapted to
Greek conceptions of the origin of evil in the material and sensuous
part of man, was adopted into Christian theology by Clement
and Origen, notwithstanding its obvious inconsistency with the
Pauline anthropology, and the difficulty which its supporters
felt in reconciling it with the Christian doctrine of the excellence
of the married state (Clemens Alex. Stromala, p. 174). These
difficulties had more weight with the Western church, which,
less devoted to speculative abstractions and more deeply in-
fluenced by the Pauline anthropology, refused, especially since
Augustine, to reduce Paradise and the fall to the region of pure
intelligibilia; though a spiritual sense was admitted along with
the literal (Aug. Civ. Dei, xiii. 2i). J
The history of Adam and Eve became the basis of anthropo-
logical discussions which acquired more than speculative import-
ance from their connexion with the doctrine of original sin and
the meaning of the sacrament of baptism. One or two points
in Augustinian teaching may be here mentioned as having to do
particularly with Eve. The question whether the soul of Eve
was derived from Adam or directly infused by the Creator is
raised as an element in the great problem of traducianism and
creationism (De Gen. ad lit. lib. x.). And it is from Augustine
that Milton derives the idea that Adam sinned, not from desire
for the forbidden fruit, but because love forbade him to dissociate
his fate from Eve's (ibid. lib. xi. sub fin.'). Medieval discussion
moved mainly in the lines laid down by Augustine. A sufficient
sample of the way in which the subject was treated by the school-
men may be found in the Summa of Thomas, pars i. qu. xcii.
De productione mulieris.
The Reformers, always hostile to allegory, and in this matter
especially influenced by the Augustinian anthropology, adhered
strictly to the literal interpretation of the history of the Proto-
plasts, which has continued to be generally identified with
Protestant orthodoxy. The disintegration of the confessional
doctrine of sin in last century was naturally associated with new
theories of the meaning of the biblical narrative; but neither
renewed forms of the allegorical interpretation, in which every-
thing is reduced to abstract ideas about reason and sensuality,
nor the attempts of Eichhorn and others to extract a kernel of
simple history by allowing largely for the influence of poetical
form in so early a narrative, have found lasting acceptance.
On the other hand, the strict historical interpretation is beset
with difficulties which modern interpreters have felt with in-
creasing force, and which there is a growing disposition to solve
by adopting in one or other form what is called the mythical
theory of the narrative. But interpretations pass under this
now popular title which have no real claim to be so designated.
What is common to the " mythical " interpretations is to find the
real value of the narrative, not in the form of the story, but in the
thoughts which it embodies. But the story cannot be called
a myth in the strict sense of the word, unless we are prepared
to place it on one line with the myths of heathenism, produced
by the unconscious play of plastic fancy, giving shape to the
impressions of natural phenomena on primitive observers. Such
a theory does no justice to a narrative which embodies profound
truths peculiar to the religion of revelation. Other forms of the
so-called mythical interpretation are little more than abstract
allegory in a new guise, ignoring the fact that the biblical story
does not teach general truths which repeat themselves in every
individual, but gives a view of the purpose of man's creation,
and of the origin of sin, in connexion with the divine plan of
redemption. Among his other services in refutation of the
unhistorical rationalism of last century, Kant has the merit of
having forcibly recalled attention to the fact that the narrative of
Genesis, even if we do not take it literally, must be regarded as
1 Thus in medieval theology Eve is a type of the church, and her
formation from the rib has a mystic reason, inasmuch as blood and
water (the sacraments of the church) flowed from the side of Christ
on the cross (Thomas, Summa, par. i. qu. xcii.).
presenting a view of the beginnings of the history of the human
race (Muthmasslicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte, 1786).
Those who recognize this fact ought not to call themselves or be
called by others adherents of the mythical theory, although they
also recognize that in the nature of things the divine truths
brought out in the history of the creation and fall could not have
been expressed either in the form of literal history or in the shape
of abstract metaphysical doctrine; or even although they may
hold as is done by many who accept the narrative as a part of
supernatural revelation that the specific biblical truths which
the narrative conveys are presented through the vehicle of a
story which, at least in some of its parts, may possibly be shaped
by the influence of legends common to the Hebrews with their
heathen neighbours. (W. R. S.; [T. K. C.))
EVECTION (Latin for " carrying away "), in astronomy, the
largest inequality produced by the action of the sun in the
monthly revolution of the moon around the earth. The deviation
expressed by it has a maximum amount of about i 15' in either
direction. It may be considered as arising from a semi-annual
variation in the eccentricity of the moon's orbit and the position
of its perigee. It was discovered by Ptolemy.
EVELETH, a city of St Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A., about
71 m. N.N.W. of Duluth. Pop. (1900) 2752; (1905, state census)
5332, of whom 2975 were foreign-born (1145 Finns, 676 Aus-
trians and 325 Swedes); (1910) 7036. Eveleth is served by the
Duluth, Missabe & Northern and the Duluth & Iron Range rail-
ways. It lies in the midst of the great red and brown hematite
iron-ore deposits of the Mesabi Range the richest in the Lake
Superior district and the mining and shipping of this ore are
its principal industries. The municipality owns and operates
the water-works, the water being obtained from Lake Saint
Mary, one of a chain of small lakes lying S. of the city. Eve-
leth was first chartered as a city in 1902.
EVELYN, JOHN (1620-1706), English diarist, was born at
Wotton House, near Dorking, Surrey, on the 3ist of October
1620. He was the younger son of Richard Evelyn, who owned
large estates in the county, and was in 1633 high sheriff of Surrey
and Sussex. When John Evelyn was five years old he went to
live with his mother's parents at Cliffe, near Lewes. He refused
to leave his " too indulgent " grandmother for Eton, and when
on her husband's death she married again, the boy went with her
to Southover, where he attended the free school of the place.
He was admitted to the Middle Temple in February 1637, and in
May be became a fellow commoner of Balliol College, Oxford.
He left the university without taking a degree, and in 1640 was
residing in the Middle Temple. In that year his father died, and
in July 1641 he crossed to Holland. He was enrolled as a
volunteer in Apsley's company, then encamped before Genep
on the Waal, but his commission was apparently complimentary,
his military experience being limited to six days of camp life,
during which, however, he took his turn at " trailing a pike."
He returned in the autumn to find England on the verge of
civil war. Evelyn's part in the conflict is best told in his own
words :
" I2th November was the battle of Brentford, surprisingly fought.
... I came in with my horse and arms just at the retreat; but
was not permitted to stay longer than the 1 5th by reason of the army
marching to Gloucester; which would have left both me and my
brothers exposed to ruin, without any advantage to his Majesty
. . . and on the loth [December] returned to Wotton, nobody
knowing of my having been in his Majesty's army."
At Wotton he employed himself in improving his brother's'
property, making a fishpond, an island and other alterations in
the gardens. But he found it difficult to avoid taking a side;
he was importuned to sign the Covenant, and " finding it im-
possible to evade doing very unhandsome things," he obtained
leave in October 1643 from the king to travel abroad. From
this date bis Diary becomes full and interesting. He travelled in
France and visited the cities of Italy, returning in the autumn
of 1646 to Paris, where he became intimate with Sir Richard
Browne, the English resident at the court of France. In June
of the following year he married Browne's daughter and heiress,
Mary, then a child of not more than twelve years of age. Leaving
EVELYN
his wife in the care of her parents, he returned to England to
settle his affairs. He visited Charles I. at Hampton Court in
1647, and during the next two years maintained a cipher corre-
spondence with his father-in-law in the royal interest. In 1649
he obtained a pass to return to Paris, but in 1650 paid a short
visit to England. The defeat of Charles II. at Worcester in 1651
convinced him that the royalist cause was hopeless, and he decided
to return to England. He went in 1652 to Sayes Court at Dept-
ford, a house which Sir Richard Browne had held on a lease
from the crown. This had been seized by the parliament, but
Evelyn was able to compound with the occupiers for 3500, and
after the Restoration his possession was secured. Here his wife
joined him, their eldest son, Richard, being born in August 1652.
Under the Commonwealth Evelyn amused himself with his
favourite occupation of gardening, and made many friends among
the scientific inquirers of the time. He was one of the promoters
of the scheme for the Royal Society, and in the king's charter in
1662 was nominated a member of its directing council. Mean-
while he had refused employment from the government of the
Commonwealth, and had maintained a cipher correspondence
with Charles. In 1659 he published an Apology for the Royal
Party, and in December of that year he vainly tried to persuade
Colonel Herbert Morley, then lieutenant of the Tower, to forestall
General Monk by declaring for the king. From the Restoration
onwards Evelyn enjoyed unbroken court favour till his death in
1706; but he never held any important political office, although
he filled many useful and often laborious minor posts. He was
commissioner for improving the streets and buildings of London,
for examining into the affairs of charitable foundations, com-
missioner of the Mint, and of foreign plantations. In 1664 he
accepted the responsibility for the care of the sick and wounded
and the prisoners in the Dutch war. He stuck to his post
throughout the plague year, contenting himself with sending his
family away to Wotton. He found it impossible to secure
sufficient money for the proper_ discharge of his functions, and in
1688 he was still petitioning for payment of his accounts in this
business. Evelyn was secretary of the Royal Society in 1672,
and as an enthusiastic promoter of its interests was twice (in
1682 and 1691) offered the presidency. Through his influence
Henry Howard, duke of Norfolk, was induced to present the
Arundel marbles to the university of Oxford (1667) and the
valuable Arundel library to Gresham College (1678). In the
reign of James II., during the earl of Clarendon's absence in
Ireland, he acted as one of the commissioners of the privy seal.
He was seriously alarmed by the king's attacks on the English
Church, and refused on two occasions to license the illegal sale
of Roman Catholic literature. He concurred in the revolution of
1688, in 1695 was entrusted with the office of treasurer of Green-
wich hospital for old sailors, and laid the first stone of the new
building on the 3oth of June 1696. In 1694 he left Sayes Court
to live at Wotton with his brother, whose heir he had become,
and whom he actually succeeded in 1 699. He spent the rest of his
life there, dying on the 27th of February 1706. Evelyn's house
at Sayes Court had been let to Captain, afterwards Admiral John
Benbow, who was not a " polite " tenant. He sublet it to Peter
the Great, who was then visiting the dockyard at Deptford.
The tsar did great damage to Evelyn's beautiful gardens, and,
it is said, made it one of his amusements to ride in a wheelbarrow
along a thick holly hedge planted especially by the owner. The
house was subsequently used as a workhouse, and is now alms-
houses, the grounds having been converted into public gardens
by Mr Evelyn in 1886.
It will be seen that Evelyn's politics were not of the heroic
order. But he was honourable and consistent in his adherence
to the monarchical principle throughout his life. With the court
of Charles II. he could have had no sympathy, his dignified
domestic life and his serious attention to religion standing in the
strongest contrast with the profligacy of the royal surroundings.
His Diary is therefore a valuable chronicle of contemporary
events from the standpoint of a moderate politician and a devout
adherent of the Church of England. He had none of Pepys's
love of gossip, and was devoid of his all-embracing curiosity,
as of his diverting frankness of self-revelation. Both were admir-
able civil servants, and they had a mutual admiration for each
other's sterling qualities. Evelyn's Diary covers more than half
a century (1640-1706) crowded with remarkable events, while
Pepys only deals with a few years of Charles II. 's reign.
Evelyn was a generous art patron, and Grinling Gibbons was
introduced by him to the notice of Charles II. His domestic
affections were very strong. He had six sons, of whom John
(1655-1699), the author of some translations, alone reached
manhood. He has left a pathetic account of the extraordinary
accomplishments of his son Richard, who died before he was six
years old, and of a daughter Mary, who lived to be twenty, and
probably wrote most of her father's Mundus muliebris (1690).
Of his two other daughters, Susannah, who married William
Draper of Addiscombe, Surrey, survived him.
Evelyn's Diary remained in MS. until 1818. It is in a quarto
volume containing 700 pages, covering the years between 1641 and
1697, and is continued in a smaller book which brings the narrative
down to within three weeks of its author's death. A selection from
this was edited by William Bray, with the permission of the Evelyn
family, in 1818, under the title of Memoirs illustrative of the Life and
Writings of John Evelyn, comprising his Diary from 1641 to 1705/6,
and a Selection of his Familiar Letters. Other editions followed,
the most notable being those of Mr H. B. Wheatley (1879) and
Mr Austin Dobson (3 vols., 1906). Evelyn's active mind produced
many other works, and although these have been overshadowed by
the famous Diary they are of considerable interest. They include :
Of Liberty and Servitude . . . (1649), a translation from the French
of Frangois de la Mothe le Vayer, Evelyn's own copy of which contains
a note that he was " like to be call'd in question by the Rebells for
this booke "; The State of France, as it stood in the IX th year of
. . . Louis XIII. (1652) ; An Essay on the First Book of T. Lucretius
Cams de Rerum Natura. Interpreted and made English verse by
J. Evelyn (1656) ; The Golden Book of St John Chrysoslom, concerning
the Education of Children. Translated out of the Greek by J. E.
(printed 1658, dated 1659); The French Gardener: instructing how
to cultivate all sorts of Fruit-trees . . . (1658), translated from the
French of N. de Bonnefons; A Character of England . . . (1659),
describing the customs of the country as they would appear to a
foreign observer, reprinted in Somers' Tracts (ed. Scott, 1812), and
in the Harleian Miscellany (ed. Park, 1813); The Late News from
Brussels unmasked . . . (1660), in answer to a libellous pamphlet
on Charles I. by Marchmont Needham; Fumifugium, or the incon-
venience of the Aer and Smoak of London dissipated (1661), in which
he suggested that sweet-smelling trees should be planted in London
to purify the air; Instructions concerning erecting of a Library . . .
(1661), from the French of Gabriel Naud6; Tyrannus or the Mode,
in a Discourse of Sumptuary Laws (1661) ; Sculptura: or the History
and Art of Chalcography and Engraving in Copper . . . (1662);
Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees . . . to which is annexed
Pomona . . . Also Kalendarium Hortense . . . (1664) ; A Parallel
of the Ancient Architecture with the Modern . . . (1664), from
the French of Roland Freart ; The History of the three late famous
Imposters, viz. Padre Ottomano, Mahomed Bei, and Sabatei Sevi
. . . (1669); Navigation and Commerce ... in which his Majesties
title to the Dominion of the Sea is asserted against the Novel and
later Pretenders (1674), which is a preface to a projected history
of the Dutch wars undertaken at the request of Charles II., but
countermanded on the conclusion of peace; A Philosophical Dis-
course of Earth . . . (1676), a treatise on horticulture, better known
by its later title of Terra; The Compleat Gardener . . . (1693), from
the French of J. de la Quintinie; Numismata . . . (1697). Some
of these were reprinted in The Miscellaneous Writings of John Evelyn,
edited (1825) by William Upcott. Evelyn's friendship with Mary
Blagge, afterwards Mrs Godolphin, is recorded in the diary, when he
says he designed " to consecrate her worthy life to posterity." This
he effectually did in a little masterpiece of religious biography which
remained in MS. in the possession of the Harcourt family until it
was edited by Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Oxford, as the Life of
Mrs Godolphin (1847), reprinted in the " King's Classics " (1904).
The picture of Mistress Blagge's saintly life at court is heightened
in interest when read in connexion with the scandalous memoirs
of the comte de Gramont, or contemporary political satires on the
court. Numerous other papers and letters of Evelyn on scientific
subjects and matters of public interest are preserved, a collection of
private and official letters and papers (1642-1712) by, or addressed
to, Sir Richard Browne and his son-in-law being in the British Museum
(Add. MSS. 15857 and 15858).
Next to the Diary Evelyn's most valuable work is Sylva. By the
glass factories and iron furnaces the country was being rapidly
depleted of wood, while no attempt was being made to replace the
damage by planting. Evelyn put in a plea for afforestation, and
besides producing a valuable work on arboriculture, he was able to
assert in his preface to the king that he had really induced landowners
to plant many millions of trees.
EVERDINGEN EVERETT, A. H.
EVERDINGEN, ALLART VAN (i62i-?i675), Dutch painter
and engraver, the son of a government clerk at Alkmaar, was
born, it is said, in 1621, and educated, if we believe an old tradi-
tion, under Roeland Savery at Utrecht. He wandered in 1645
to Haarlem, where he studied under Peter de Molyn, and finally
settled about 1657 at Amsterdam, where he remained till his
death. It would be difficult to find a greater contrast than that
which is presented by the works of Savery and Everdingen.
Savery inherited the gaudy style of the Breughels, which he
carried into the i;th century; whilst Everdingen realized the
large and effective system of coloured and powerfully shaded
landscape which marks the precursors of Rembrandt. It is not
easy on this account to believe that Savery was Everdingen's
master, while it is quite within the range of probability that he
acquired the elements of landscape painting from de Molyn.
Pieter de Molyn, by birth a Londoner, lived from 1624 till 1661
in Haarlem. He went periodically on visits to Norway, and his
works, though scarce, exhibit a broad and sweeping mode of
execution, differing but slightly from that transferred at the
opening of the i7th century from Jan van Goyen to Solomon
Ruysdael. His etchings have nearly the breadth and effect of
those of Everdingen. It is still an open question when de Molyn
wielded influence on his clever disciple. Alkmaar, a busy trading
place near the Texel, had little of the picturesque for an artist
except polders and downs or waves and sky. Accordingly we
find Allart at first a painter of coast scenery. But on one of his
expeditions he is said to have been cast ashore in Norway, and
during the repairs of his ship he visited the inland valleys, and
thus gave a new course to his art. In early pieces he cleverly
represents the sea in motion under varied, but mostly clouded,
aspects of sky. Their general intonation is strong and brown,
and effects are rendered in a powerful key, but the execution is
much more uniform than that of Jacob Ruysdael. A dark scud
lowering on a rolling sea near the walls of Flushing characterizes
Everdingen's " Mouth of the Schelde " in the Hermitage at St
Petersburg. Storm is the marked feature of sea-pieces in the
Staedel or Robartes collections ; and a strand with wreckers
at the foot of a cliff in the Munich Pinakothek may be a reminis-
cence of personal adventure in Norway. But the Norwegian coast
was studied in calms as well as in gales; and a fine canvas at
Munich shows fishermen on a still and sunny day taking herrings
to a smoking hut at the foot of a Norwegian crag. The earliest
of Everdingen's sea-pieces bears the date of 1640. After 1645
we meet with nothing but representations of inland scenery,
and particularly of Norwegian valleys, remarkable alike for
wildness and a decisive depth of tone. The master's favourite
theme is a fall in a glen, with mournful fringes of pines inter-
spersed with birch, and log-huts at the base of rocks and craggy
slopes. The water tumbles over the foreground, so as to entitle
the painter to the name of " inventor of cascades." It gives
Everdingen his character as a precursor of Jacob Ruysdael in a
certain form of landscape composition; but though very skilful
in arrangement and clever in effects, Everdingen remains much
more simple in execution; he is much less subtle in feeling
or varied in touch than his great and incomparable countryman.
Five of Everdingen's cascades are in the museum of Copenhagen
alone: of these, one is dated 1647, another 1649. In the Hermit-
age at St Petersburg is a fine example of 1647; another in the
Pinakothek at Munich was finished in 1656. English public
galleries ignore Everdingen; but one of his best-known master-
pieces is the Norwegian glen belonging to Lord Listowel. Of
his etchings and drawings there are much larger and more
numerous specimens in England than elsewhere. Being a col-
lector as well as an engraver and painter, he brought together
a large number of works of all kinds and masters; and the
sale of these by his heirs at Amsterdam on the nth of March
1676 gives an approximate clue to the date of the painter's
death.
His two brothers, Jan and Caesar, were both painters. CAESAR
VAN EVERDINGEN (1606-1679), mainly known as a portrait
painter, enjoyed some vogue during his life, and many of his
pictures are to be seen in the museums and private houses of
Holland. They show a certain cleverness, but are far from
entitling him to rank as a master.
EVEREST, SIR GEORGE (1790-1866), British surveyor and
geographer, was the son of Tristram Everest of Gwerndale,
Brecknockshire, and was born there on the 4th of July 1790.
From school at Marlow he proceeded to the military academy
at Woolwich, where he attracted the special notice of the mathe-
matical master, and passed so well in his examinations that he
was declared fit for a commission before attaining the necessary
age. Having gone to India in 1806 as a cadet in the Bengal
Artillery, he was selected by Sir Stamford Raffles to take part in
the reconnaissance of Java (1814-1816); and after being em-
ployed in various engineering works throughout India, he was
appointed in 1818 assistant to Colonel Lambton, the founder of
the great trigonometrical survey of that country. In 1823, on
Colonel Lambton's death, he succeeded to the post of super-
intendent of the survey; in 1830 he was appointed by the court
of directors of the East India Company surveyor-general of India ;
and from that date till his retirement from the service in 1843
he continued to discharge the laborious duties of both offices.
During the rest of his life he resided in England, where he became
fellow of the Royal Society and an active member of several
other scientific associations. In 1861 he was made a C.B. and
received the honour of knighthood, and in 1862 he was chosen
vice-president of the Royal Geographical Society. He died at
Greenwich on the ist of December 1866. The geodetical labours
of Sir George Everest rank among the finest achievements of
their kind; and more especially his measurement of the meri-
dional arc of India, 115 in length, is accounted as unrivalled
in the annals of the science. In great part the Indian survey is
what he made it.
His works are purely professional : A paper in vol. i. of the
Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, pointing out a mistake
in La Caille's measurement of an arc of the meridian which he
had discovered during sick-leave at the Cape of Good Hope; An
account of the measurement of the arc of the meridian between the
parallels of 18 3' and 24 7', being a continuation of the Grand
Meridional Arc of India, as detailed by Lieut.-Col. Lambton in the
volumes of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta (London, 1830); An
account of the measurement of two sections of the Meridional A re of
India bounded by the parallels of 18 3' 15", 24 7' 11", and 20 30'
48" (London, 1847).
EVEREST, MOUNT, the highest mountain in the world. It
is a peak of the Himalayas situated in Nepal almost precisely
on the intersection of the meridian 87 E. long, with the parallel
28 N. lat. Its elevation as at present determined by trigono-
metrical observation is 29,002 ft., but it is possible that further
investigation into the value of refraction at such altitudes will
result in placing the summit even higher. It has been confused
with a peak to the west of it called Gaurisankar (by Schlagint-
weit), which is more than 5000 ft. lower; but the observations
of Captain Wood from peaks near Khatmandu, in Nepal, and
those of the same officer, and of Major Ryder, from the route
between Lhasa and the sources of the Brahmaputra in 1904,
have definitely fixed the relative position of the two mountain
masses, and conclusively proved that there is no higher peak
than Everest in the Himalayan system. The peak possesses
no distinctive native name and has been called Everest after
Sir George Everest (q.v.), who completed the trigonometrical
survey of the Himalayas in 1841 and first fixed its position and
altitude. (T. H. H.*)
EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL (1790-1847), American
author and diplomatist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on
the I9th of March 1790. He was the son of Rev. Oliver Everett
(1753-1802), a Congregational minister in Boston, and the
brother of Edward Everett. He graduated at Harvard in 1806,
taking the highest honours of his year, though the youngest
member of his class. He spent one year as a teacher in Phillips
Academy, Exeter, New Hampshire, and then began the study of
law in the office of John Quincy Adams. In 1809 Adams was
appointed minister to Russia, and Everett accompanied him as
his private secretary, remaining attached to the American
legation in Russia until 1811. He was secretary of the American
legation at The Hague in 1815-1816, and charge d'affaires there
8
EVERETT, C. C. EVERETT, EDWARD
from 1818 to 1824. From 1825 to 1829, during the presidency
of John Quincy Adams, he was the United States minister to
Spain. At that time Spain recognized none of the governments
established by her revolted colonies, and Everett became the
medium of all communications between the Spanish government
and the several nations of Spanish origin which had been estab-
lished, by successful revolutions, on the other side of the ocean.
Everett was a member of the Massachusetts legislature in 1830-
1835, was president of Jefferson College in Louisiana in 1842-
1844, and was appointed commissioner of the United States to
China in 1845, but did not go to that country until the follow-
ing year, and died on the 2gth of May 1847 at Canton, China.
Everett, however, is known rather as a man of letters than as
a diplomat. In addition to numerous articles, published chiefly
in the North American Review, of which he was the editor from
1829 to 1835, he wrote: Europe, or a General Survey of the
Political Situation of the Principal Powers, with Conjectures on
their Future Prospects (1822), which attracted considerable
attention in Europe and was translated into German, French
and Spanish; New Ideas on Population (1822); America, or a
General Survey of the Political Situation of the Several Powers
of the Western Continent, with Conjectures on their Future Pros-
pects (1827), which was translated into several European lan-
guages; a volume of Poems (1845); an d Critical and Miscellane-
ous Essays (first series, 1845; second series, 1847).
EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL (1829-1900), American
divine and philosopher, was born on the i9th of June 1829, at
Brunswick, Maine. He studied at Bowdoin College, where he
graduated in 1850, after which he proceeded to Berlin. Subse-
quently he took a degree in divinity at the Harvard Divinity
School. From 1859 to 1869 he was pastor of the Independent
Congregational (Unitarian) church at Bangor, Maine. This
charge he resigned to take the Bussey professorship of theology
at- Harvard University, and, in 1878, became dean of the faculty
of theology. Interested in a variety of subjects, he devoted
himself chiefly to the philosophy of religion, and published The
Science of Thought (Boston, 1869; revised 1891). He also wrote
Fickle' s Science of Knowledge (1884); Poetry, Comedy and Duty
(1888); Religions before Christianity (1883); Ethics for Young
People (1891) ; The Gospel of Paul (1892). He died at Cambridge
on the i6th of October 1900.
EVERETT, EDWARD (1794-1865), American statesman and
orator, was born in Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the nth of
April 1794. He was the son of Rev. Oliver Everett and the
brother of Alexander Hill Everett (q.v.). His father died in
1802, and his mother removed to Boston with her family after
Her husband's death. At seventeen Edward Everett graduated
from Harvard College, taking first honours in his class. While
at 'college he was the chief editor of The Lyceum, the earliest
in the series of college journals published at the American
Cambridge. His earlier predilections were for the study of law,
but the advice of Joseph Stevens Buckminster, a distinguished
preacher in Boston, led him to prepare for the pulpit, and as a
preacher he at once distinguished himself. He was called to
the ministry of the Brattle Street church (Unitarian) in Boston
before he was twenty years old. His sermons attracted wide
attention in that community, and he gained a considerable
reputation as a theologian and a controversialist by his pub-
lication in 1814 of a volume entitled Defence of Christianity,
written in answer to a work, The Grounds of Christianity Exa-
mined (1813), by George Bethune English (1787-1828), an
adventurer, who, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, was in turn
a student of law and of theology, an editor of a newspaper, and
a soldier of fortune in Egypt. Everett's tastes, however, were
then, as always, those of a scholar; and in 1815, after a service
of little more than a year in the pulpit, he resigned his charge
to accept a professorship of Greek literature in Harvard College.
After nearly five years spent in Europe in preparation, he
entered with enthusiasm on his duties, and, for five years more,
gave a vigorous impulse, not only to the study of Greek, but to
all the work of the college. In January 1820 he assumed the
charge of the North American Review, which now became a
quarterly; and he was indefatigable during the four years of
his editorship in contributing on a great variety of subjects.
From 1825 to 1835 he was a member of the National House of
Representatives, supporting generally the administration of
President J. Q. Adams and opposing that of Jackson, which
succeeded it. He bore a part in almost every important debate,
and was a member of the committee of foreign affairs during
the whole time of his service in Congress. Everett was a member
of nearly all the most important select committees, such as those
on the Indian relations of the state of Georgia, the Apportion-
ment Bill, and the Bank of the United States, and drew the
report either of the majority or the minority. The report on the
congress of Panama, the leading measure of the first session of
the Nineteenth Congress, was drawn up by Everett, although he
was the youngest member of the committee and had just entered
Congress. He led the unsuccessful opposition to the Indian
policy of General Jackson (the removal of the Cherokee and other
Indians, without their consent, from 'lands guaranteed to them
by treaty).
In 1835 he was elected governor of Massachusetts. He brought
to the duties of the office the untiring diligence which was the
characteristic of his public life. We can only allude to a few
of the measures which received his efficient support, e.g. the
establishment of the board of education (the first of such boards
in the United States), the scientific surveys of the state (the first
of such public surveys), the criminal law commission, and the
preservation of a sound currency during the panic of 1837.
Everett filled the office of governor for four years, and was then
defeated by a single vote, out of more than one hundred thousand.
The election is of interest historically as being the first important
American election where the issue turned on the question of the
prohibition of the retail sale of intoxicating liquors. In the
following spring he made a visit with his family to Europe. In
1841, while residing in Florence, he was named United States
minister to Great Britain, and arrived in London to enter upon
the duties of his mission at the close of that year. Great ques-
tions were at that time open between the two countries the
north-eastern boundary, the affair of M'Leod, the seizure of
American vessels on the coast of Africa, in the course of a few
months the affair of the " Creole," to which was soon added the
Oregon question. His position was more difficult by reason of
the frequent changes that took place in the department at home,
which, in the course of four years, was occupied successively by
Messrs Webster, Legare, Upshur, Calhoun and Buchanan. From
all these gentlemen Everett received marks of 'approbation and
confidence.
By the institution of the special mission of Lord Ashburton,
however, the direct negotiations between the two governments
were, about the time of Everett's arrival in London, transferred
to Washington, though much business was transacted at the
American legation in London.
Immediately after the accession of Polk to the presidency
Everett was recalled. From January 1846 to 1849, as the
successor of Josiah Quincy, he was president of Harvard College.
On the death, in October 1852, of his friend Daniel Webster, to
whom he had always been closely attached, and of whom he was
always a confidential adviser, he succeeded him as secretary of
state, which post he held for the remaining months of P'illmore's
administration, leaving it to go into the Senate in 1853, as one
of the representatives of Massachusetts. Under the work of
the long session of 1853-1854 his health gave way. In May
1854 he resigned his seat, on the orders of his physician, and
retired to what was called private life.
But, as it proved, the remaining ten years of his life most widely
established his reputation and influence throughout America.
As early as 1820 he had established a reputation as an orator,
such as few men in later days have enjoyed. He was frequently
invited todeliveran " oration" on sometopicof historical or other
interest. With him these " orations," instead of being the
ephemeral entertainments of an hour, became careful studies
of some important theme. Eager to avert, if possible, the im-
pending conflict of arms between the North and South, Everett
EVERETT EVERGREEN
prepared an " oration " on George Washington, which he de-
livered in every part of America. In this way, too, he raised
more than one hundred thousand dollars, for the purchase of
the old home of Washington at Mount Vernon. Everett also
prepared for the Encyclopaedia Britannica a biographical sketch
of Washington, which was published separately in 1860. In
1860 Everett was the candidate of the short-lived Consti-
tutional-Union party for the vice-presidency, on the ticket
with John Bell (q.v.), but received only 39 electoral votes.
During the Civil War he zealously supported the national
government and was called upon in every quarter to speak at
public meetings. He delivered the last of his great orations at
Gettysburg, after the battle, on the consecration of the national
cemetery there. On the gth of January 1865 he spoke at a public
meeting in Boston to raise funds for the southern- poor in
Savannah. At that meeting he caught cold, and the immediate
result was his death on the isth of January 1865.
In Everett's life and career was a combination of the results
of diligent training, unflinching industry, delicate literary tastes
and unequalled acquaintance with modern international politics.
This combination made him in America an entirely exceptional
person. He was never loved by the political managers; he was
always enthusiastically received by assemblies of the people.
He would have said himself that the most eager wish of his life
had been for the higher education of his countrymen. His
orations have been collected in four volumes (1850-1859). A
work on international law, on which he was engaged at his death,
was never finished. Allibone records 84 titles of his books and
published addresses. (E. E. H.)
EVERETT, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
adjoining Chelsea and 3 m. N. of Boston, of which it is a resi-
dential suburb. Pop. (1880) 4159; (1890) 11,068; (1900)
2 4.336, of whom 6882 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
33,484. It covers an area of about 3 sq. m. and is served by
the Boston & Maine railway and by interurban electric lines.
Everett has the Frederick E. Parlin memorial library (1878), the
Shute memorial library (1898), the Whidden memorial hospital
and Woodlawn cemetery (176 acres). The principal manufac-
tures are coke, chemicals and boots and shoes; among others are
iron and structural steel. According to the U.S. Census of
Manufactures (1905), " the coke industry in Everett is unique,
inasmuch as illuminating gas is the primary product and coke
really a by-product, while the coal used is brought from mines
located in Nova Scotia." The value of the city's total factory
product increased from $4,437,180 in 1900 to $6,135,650 in 1905
r 38-3%. Everett was first settled about 1630, remaining a
part of Maiden (and being known as South Maiden) until 1870,
when it was incorporated as a township. It was chartered as
a city in 1892.
EVERETT, a city, a sub-port of entry, and the county-seat of
Snohomish county, Washington, U.S.A., on Puget Sound, at
the mouth of the Snohomish river, about 35 m. N. of Seattle.
Pop. (1900) 7838; (1910 U. S. census) 24,814. The city is
served by the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railways,
being the western terminus of the latter's main transcontinental
line, by interurban electric railway, and by several lines of
Sound and coasting freight and passenger steamboats. Everett
has a fine harbour with several large iron piers. Among its
principal buildings are a Carnegie library, a Y.M.C.A. building
and two hospitals. The buildings of the Pacific College were
erected here by the United Norwegian Lutheran Church in 1908.
The city is in a rich lumbering, gardening, farming, and copper-,
gold- and silver-mining district. There is a U.S. assayer's office
here, and there are extensive shipyards, a large paper mill, iron
works, and, just outside the city limits, the smelters of the
American Smelters Securities Company, in connexion with which
is one of the two plants in the United States for saving arsenic
from smelter fumes. Lumber interests, however, are of most
importance, and here are some of the largest lumber plants in
the Pacific Northwest. Red-cedar shingles are an important
product. Everett was settled in 1891 and was incorporated in
1893. Its rapid growth is due to its favourable situation as a
commercial port, its transportation facilities, and its nearness
to extensive forests whence the material for its chief industries
is obtained.
EVERGLADES, an American lake, about 8000 sq. m. in area,
in which are numerous half -submerged islands; situated in the
southern part of Florida, U.S.A., in Lee, De'Soto, Bade and
St Lucie counties. West of it is the Big Cypress Swamp. The
floor of the lake is a limestone basin, extending from Lake
Okechobee in the N. to the extreme S. part of the state, and
the lake varies in depth from i to 12 ft., its water being pure
and clear. The surface is above tide level, and the lake is
enclosed, probably on all sides, within an outcropping limestone
rim, averaging about 10 ft. above mean low tide, and approach-
ing much nearer to the Atlantic on the E. than to the gulf on the
W. There are several small outlets, such as the Miami river and
the New river on the E. and the Shark river on the S.W., but
no streams empty into the Everglades, and the water-supply is
furnished by springs and precipitation. There is a general south-
easterly movement of the water. The soil of the islands is very
fertile and is subject to frequent inundations, but gradually
the water area is being replaced by land. The vegetation is
luxuriant, the live oak, wild lemon, wild orange, cucumber,
papaw, custard apple and wild rubber trees being among the
indigenous species; there are, besides, many varieties of wild
flowers, the orchids being especially noteworthy. The fauna
is also varied; the otter, alligator and crocodile are found, also
the deer and panther, and among the native birds are the ibis,
egret, heron and limpkin. There are two seasons, wet and dry,
but the climate is equable.
Systematic exploration has been prevented by the dense
growth of saw grass (Cladium effusum), a kind of sedge, with
sharp, saw-toothed leaves, which grows everywhere on the muck-
covered rock basin and extends several feet above the shallow
water. The first white man to enter the region was Escalente
de Fontenada, a Spanish captive of an Indian chief, who named
the lake Laguno del Espiritu Santo and the islands Cayos del
Espiritu Santo. Between 1841 and 1856 various United States
military forces penetrated the Everglades for the purpose of
attacking and driving out the Seminoles, who took refuge here.
The most important explorations during the later years of the
1 9th century were those of Major Archie P. Williams in 1883,
James E. Ingraham in 1892 and Hugh L. Willoughby in 1897.
The Seminole Indians were in 1909 practically the only inhabi-
tants. In 1850 under the " Arkansas Bill," or Swamp and Over-
flow Act, practically all of the Everglades, which the state had
been urging the federal government to drain and reclaim, were
turned over to the state for that purpose, with the provision
that all proceeds from such lands be applied to their reclamation.
A board of trustees for the Internal Improvement Fund, created
in 1855 and having as members ex officio the governor, comp-
troller, treasurer, attorney-general and commissioner-general,
sold and allowed to railway companies much of the grant.
Between 1881 and 1896 a private company owning 4,000,000
acres of the Everglades attempted to dig a canal from Lake
Okechobee through Lake Hicpochee and along the Caloosa-
hatchee river to the Gulf of Mexico; the canal was closed in
1902 by overflows. Six canals were begun under state control
in 1905 from the lake to the Atlantic, the northernmost at
Jensen, the southernmost at Ft. Lauderdale; the total cost,
estimated at $1,035,000 for the reclamation of 12,500 sq. m.,
is raised by a drainage tax (not to exceed 10 cents per acre)
levied by the trustees of the Internal Improvement Fund and
Board of Drainage commissioners. The small area reclaimed
prior to that year (1905) was found very fertile and particularly
adapted to raising sugar-cane, oranges and garden truck.
See Hugh L. Willoughby's Across the Everglades (Philadelphia,
1898), and especially an article " The Everglades of Florida " by
Edwin A. Dix and John M. MacGonigle, in the Century Magazine
for February 1905.
EVERGREEN, a general term applied to plants which are
always in leaf, as contrasted with deciduous trees which
are bare for some part of the year (see HORTICULTURE). In
10
EVERLASTING EVESHAM
temperate or colder zones where a season favourable to vegeta-
tion is succeeded by an unfavourable or winter season, leaves of
evergreens must be protected from the frost and cold drying
winds, and are therefore tougher or more leathery in texture
than those of deciduous trees, and frequently, as in pines, firs
and other conifers, are needle-like, thus exposing a much smaller
surface to the drying action of cold winds. The number of
seasons for which the leaves last varies in different plants; every
season some of the older leaves fall, while new ones are regularly
produced. The common English bramble is practically ever-
green, the leaves lasting through winter and until the new leaves
are developed next spring. In privet also the leaves fall after the
production of new ones in the next year. In other cases the
leaves last several years, as in conifers, and may sometimes
be found on eleven-year-old shoots.
EVERLASTING, or IMMORTELLE, a plant belonging to the
division Tubuliflorae of the natural order Compositae, known
botanically as Helichrysum orientate. It is a native of North
Africa, Crete, and the parts of Asia bordering on the Mediter-
ranean; and it is cultivated in many parts of Europe. It first
became known in Europe about the year 1629, and has been culti-
vated since 1815. In common with several other plants of the
same group, known as " everlastings," the immortelle plant
possesses a large involucre of dry scale-like or scarious bracts,
which preserve their appearance when dried, provided the plant
be gathered in proper condition. The chief supph'es of Helichry-
sum orientate come from lower Provence, where it is cultivated
in large quantities on the ground sloping to the Mediterranean,
in positions well exposed to the sun, and usually in plots sur-
rounded by dry stone walls. The finest flowers are grown on the
slopes of Bandols and Ciotat, where the plant begins to flower in
June. It requires a light sandy or stony soil, and is very readily
injured by rain or heavy dews. It can be propagated in quantity
by means of offsets from the older stems. The flowering stems
are gathered in June, when the bracts are fully developed, all the
fully-expanded and immature flowers being pulled off and re-
jected. A well-managed plantation is productive for eight or
ten years. The plant is tufted in its growth, each plant produc-
ing 60 or 70 stems, while each stem produces an average of 20
flowers. About 400 such stems weigh a kilogramme. A hectare
of ground will produce 40,000 plants, bearing from 2,400,000 to
2,800,000 stems, and weighing from 5^ to 6 tons, or from 2 to
3 tons per acre. The colour of the bracts is a deep yellow.
The natural flowers are commonly used for garlands for the dead,
or plants dyed black are mixed with the yellow ones. The plant
is also dyed green or orange-red, and thus employed for bouquets
or other ornamental purposes.
Other species of Helichrysum and species of allied genera with
scarious heads of flowers are also known as " everlastings." One
of the best known is the Australian species H. bractealum, with
several varieties, including double forms, of different colours;
H. veslilum (Cape of Good Hope) has white satiny heads. Others
are species of Helipterum (West Australia and South Africa),
Ammobium and Waitzia (Australia) and Xeranthemum (south
Europe). Several members of the natural order Amarantaceae
have also " everlasting " flowers; such are Gomphrena globosa,
with rounded or oval heads of white, orange, rose or violet,
scarious bracts, and Celosia pyramidalis, with its elegant, loose,
pyramidal inflorescences. Frequently these everlastings are
mixed with bleached grasses, as Lagurus ovatus, Briza maxima,
Bromus brizaeformis, or with the leaves of the Cape silver tree
(Leucadendron argenteum), to form bouquets or ornamental
groups.
EVERSLEY, CHARLES SHAW LEFEVRE, VISCOUNT (1794-
1888), speaker of the British House of Commons, eldest son of
Mr Charles Shaw (who assumed his wife's name of Lefevre in
addition to his own on his marriage), was born in London on the
22nd of February 1794, and educated at Winchester and at
Trinity College, Cambridge. He was called to the bar in 1819,
and though a diligent student was also a keen sportsman.
Marrying a daughter of Mr Samuel Whitbread, whose wife was
the sister of Earl Grey, afterwards premier, he thus became
connected with two influential political families, and in 1830 he
entered the House of Commons as member for Downton, in the
Liberal interest. In 1831 he was returned, after a severe contest,
as one of the county members for Hampshire, in which he resided ;
and after the passing of the Reform Act of 1832 he was elected
for the Northern Division of the county. For some years Mr
Shaw Lefevre was chairman of a committee on petitions for
private bills. In 1835 he was chairman of a committee on
agricultural distress, but as his report was not accepted by the
House, he published it as a pamphlet addressed to his con-
stituents. He acquired a high reputation in the House of
Commons for his judicial fairness, combined with singular tact
and courtesy, and when Mr James Abercromby retired in 1839,
he was nominated as the Liberal candidate for the chair. The
Conservatives put forward Henry Goulburn, but Mr Shaw
Lefevre was elected by 3 1 7 votes to 299. The period was one of
fierce party conflict, and the debates were frequently very
acrimonious; but the dignity, temper and firmness of the new
speaker were never at fault. In 1857 he had served longer than
any of his predecessors, except the celebrated Arthur Onslow
(1691-1768), who was speaker for more than 33 years in five
successive parliaments. Retiring on a pension, he was raised
to the peerage as Viscount Eversley of Heckfield, in the county
of Southampton. His appearances in the House of Lords were
very infrequent, but in his own county he was active in the
public service. From 1 859 he was an ecclesiastical commissioner,
and he was also appointed a trustee of the British Museum.
He died on the 28th of December 1888, the viscountcy becoming
extinct.
His younger brother, Sir JOHN GEORGE SHAW LEFEVRE (1797-
1879), who was senior wrangler at Cambridge in 1818, had a long
and distinguished career as a public official. He was under-
secretary for the colonies, and had much to do with the intro-
duction of the new poor law in 1834, and with the foundation
of the colony of South Australia; then having served on several
important commissions he was made clerk of the parliaments in
1855, and in the same year became one of the first civil service
commissioners. He helped to found the university of London,
of which he was vice-chancellor for twenty years, and also the
Athenaeum Club. He died on the 2oth of August 1879.
The latter's son, GEORGE JOHN SHAW LEFEVRE (b. 1832),
was created Baron Eversley in 1906, in recognition of long and
prominent services to the Liberal party. He had filled the
following offices: civil lord of the admiralty, 1856; secretary
to the board of trade, 1860-1871; under-secretary, home
office, 1871; secretary to the admiralty, 1871-1874; first
commissioner of works, 1881-1883; postmaster-general, 1883-
1884; first commissioner of works, 1892-1893; president of
local government board, 1894-1895; chairman of royal com-
mission on agriculture, 1893-1896.
EVESHAM, a market-town and municipal borough in the
Evesham parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England,
107 m. W.N.W. of London by the Great Western railway, and
15 m. S.E. by E. of Worcester, with a station on the Redditch-
Ashchurch branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 7101.
It lies on the right (north) bank of the Avon, in the rich and
beautiful Vale of Evesham. The district is devoted to market-
gardening and orchards, and the trade of the town is mainly
agricultural. Evesham is a place of considerable antiquity, a
Benedictine house having been founded here by St Egwin in
the 8th century. It became a wealthy abbey, but was almost
wholly destroyed at the Dissolution. The churchyard, however,
is entered by a Norman gateway, and there survives also a
magnificent isolated bell-tower dating from 1533, of the best
ornate Perpendicular workmanship. The abbey walls surround
the churchyard, but almost the only other remnant is a single
Decorated arch. Close to the bell-tower, however, are the two
parish churches of St Lawrence and of All Saints, the former
of the i6th century, the latter containing Early English work,
and the ornate chapel of Abbot Lichfield, who erected the bell-
tower. Other buildings include an Elizabethan town hall, the
grammar school, founded by Abbot Lichfield, and the picturesque
EVIDENCE
ii
almonry. The borough includes the parish of Bengeworth
St Peter, on the left bank of the river. Evesham is governed
by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2265 acres.
Evesham (Homme, Ethomme) grew up around the Benedictine
abbey, and had evidently become of some importance as a trad-
ing centre in 1055, when Edward the Confessor gave it a market
and the privileges of a commercial town. It is uncertain when
the town first became a borough, but the Domesday statement
that the men paid 203. may indicate the existence of a more or
less organized body of tradesmen. Before 1482 the burgesses
were holding the town at a fee farm rent of twenty marks, but
the abbot still had practical control of the town, and his steward
presided over the court at which the bailiffs were chosen. After
the Dissolution the manor with the markets and fairs and other
privileges was granted to Sir Philip Hoby, who increased his
power over the town by persuading the burgesses to agree that,
after they had nominated six candidates for the office of bailiff,
the steward of the court instructed by him should indicate the
two to be chosen. This privilege was contested by Queen
Elizabeth, but when the case was taken before the court of the
exchequer it was decided in favour of Sir Philip's heir, Sir
Edward Hoby. In 1604 James I. granted the burgesses their
first charter, but in the following year, by a second charter, he
incorporated Evesham with the village of Bengeworth, and
granted that the borough should be governed by a mayor and
seven aldermen,-to whom he gave the power of holding markets
and fairs and several other privileges which had formerly belonged
to the lord of the manor. Evesham received two later charters,
but in 1688 that of 1605 was restored and still remains the govern-
ing charter of the borough. Evesham returned two members
to parliament in 1295 and again in 1337, after which date the
privilege lapsed until 1 604. Its two members were reduced to one
by the act of 1867, and the borough was disfranchised in 1885.
Evesham gave its name to the famous battle, fought on the
4th of August 1265, between the forces of Simon de Montfort,
earl of Leicester, and the royalist army under Prince Edward.
After a masterly campaign, in which the prince had succeeded
in defeating Leicester in the valleys of the Severn and Usk, and
had destroyed the forces of the younger Montfort at Kenilworth
before he could effect a junction with the main body, the royalist
forces approached Evesham in the morning of the 4th of August
in time to intercept Leicester's march towards Kenilworth.
Caught in the bend of the river Avon by the converging columns,
and surrounded on all sides, the old earl attempted to cut his
way out of the town to the northward. At first the fury of his
assault forced back the superior numbers of the prince; but
Simon's Welsh levies melted away and his enemies closed the
last avenue of escape. The final struggle took place on Green
Hill, a little to the north-west of the town, where the devoted
friends of de Montfort formed a ring round their leader, and died
with him. The spot is marked with an obelisk.
EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly), a term
which may be defined briefly as denoting the facts presented to
the mind of a person for the purpose of enabling him to decide
a disputed question. Evidence in the widest sense includes all
such facts, and reference may be made to the article LOGIC for
the science or art of dealing with the proper way of drawing
correct conclusions and the nature of proof. In a narrower
sense, however, evidence includes in English law only such facts
as are allowed to be so presented in the course of judicial pro-
ceedings. Thus we say that a fact is not evidence, meaning
thereby that it is not admissible as evidence in accordance with
the rules of English law. The law of legal evidence is part of the
law of procedure. It determines the kinds of evidence which
may be produced in judicial proceedings, and regulates the mode
in which, and the conditions under which, evidence may be
produced and tested.
The English law of evidence is of comparatively modern growth.
It enshrines certain maxims, some derived from Roman law,
History some invented by Coke, who, as J. B. Thayer says,
" spawned Latin maxims freely." But for the most
part it was built up by English judges in the course of the
1 8th century, and consists of this judge-made law, as modified
by statutory enactments of the igth century. Early Teutonic
procedure knew nothing of evidence in the modern sense, just
as it knew nothing of trials in the modern sense. What it knew
was " proofs." There were two modes of proof, ordeals and
oaths. Both were appeals to the supernatural. The judicial
combat was a bilateral ordeal. Proof followed, instead of pre-
ceding, judgment. A judgment of the court, called by German
writers the Beweisurteil, and by M. M. Bigelow the " medial
judgment," awarded that one of the two litigants must prove
his case, by his body in battle, or by a one-sided ordeal, or by
an oath with oath-helpers, or by the oaths of witnesses. The
court had no desire to hear or weigh conflicting testimony. To
do so would have been to exercise critical faculties, which the
court did not possess, and the exercise of which would have been
foreign to the whole spirit of the age. The litigant upon whom
the burden of furnishing proof was imposed had a certain task
to perform. If he performed it, he won; if he failed, he lost.
The number of oath-helpers varied in different cases, and was
determined by the law or by the court. They were probably,
at the outset, kinsmen, who would have had to take up the
blood-feud. At a later stage they became witnesses to character.
In the cases, comparatively rare, where the oaths of witnesses
were admitted as proof, their oaths differed materially from the
sworn testimony of modern courts. As a rule no one could
testify to a fact unless, when the fact happened, he was solemnly
" taken to witness." Then, when the witness was adduced, he
came merely to swear to a set formula. He did not make a
promissory oath to answer questions truly. He merely made an
assertory oath in a prescribed form.
In the course of the lath and i3th centuries the old formal
accusatory procedure began to break down, and to be super-
seded by another form of procedure known as inquisitio, inquest,
or enquSle. Its decay was hastened by the decree of the fourth
Lateran Council in 1215, which forbade ecclesiastics to take part
in ordeals. The Norman administrative system introduced into
England by the Conquest was familiar with a method of ascer-
taining and determining facts by means of a verdict, return or
finding made on oath by a body of men drawn from the locality.
The system may be traced to Carolingian, and even earlier,
sources. Henry II., by instituting the grand assize and the
four petty assizes, placed at the disposal of litigants in certain
actions the opportunity of giving proof by the verdict of a sworn
inquest of neighbours, proof " by the country." The system was
gradually extended to other cases, criminal as well as civil. The
verdict given was that of persons having a general, but not neces-
sarily a particular, acquaintance with the persons, places and
facts to which the inquiry related. It was, in fact, a finding by
local popular opinion. Had the finding of such an inquest been
treated as final and conclusive in criminal cases, English
criminal procedure might, like the continental inquisition, the
French enquete, have taken the path which, in the forcible lan-
guage of Fortescue (De laudibus, &c.) " leads to hell " (semita
ipsa est ad gehennam). Fortunately English criminal procedure
took a different course. The spirit of the old accusatory pro-
cedure was applied to the new procedure by inquest. In serious
cases the words of the jurors, the accusing jurors, were treated
not as testimony, but as accusation, the new indictment was
treated as corresponding to the old appeal, and the preliminary
finding by the accusing jury had to be supplemented by the
verdict of another jury. In course of time the second jury were
required to base their findings not on their own knowledge, but
on evidence submitted to them. Thus the modern system of
inquiry by grand jury and trial by petty jury was gradually
developed.
A few words may here be said about the parallel development
of criminal procedure on the continent of Europe. The tendency
in the i2th and i3th centuries to abolish the old formal methods
of procedure, and to give the new procedure the name of inquisi-
tion or inquest, was not peculiar to England. Elsewhere the
old procedure was breaking down at the same time, and for
similar reasons. It was the great pope Innocent III., the pope
12
EVIDENCE
of the fourth Lateran Council, who introduced the new in-
quisitorial procedure into the canon law. The procedure
was applied to cases of heresy, and, as so applied, especially by
the Dominicans, speedily assumed the features which made it
infamous. " Every safeguard of innocence was abolished or
disregarded; torture was freely used. Everything seems to have
been done to secure a conviction." Yet, in spite of its monstrous
defects, the inquisitorial procedure of the ecclesiastical courts,
secret in its methods, unfair to the accused, having torture as
an integral element, gradually forced its way into the temporal
courts, and may almost be said to have been adopted by the
common law of western Europe. In connexion with this in-
quisitorial procedure continental jurists elaborated a theory of
evidence, or judicial proofs, which formed the subject of an
extensive literature. Under the rules thus evolved full proof
(plena probatio) was essential for conviction, in the absence of
confession, and the standard of full proof was fixed so high that
it was in most cases unattainable. It therefore became material
to obtain confession by some means or other. The most effective
means was torture, and thus torture became an essential feature
in criminal procedure. The rules of evidence attempted to
graduate the weight to be attached to different kinds of testi-
mony and almost to estimate that weight in numerical terms.
" Le parlement de Toulouse," said Voltaire, " a un usage tres
singulier dans les preuves par temoins. On admet ailleurs des
demi-preuves, . . . mais a Toulouse on admet des quarts et des
huitiemes de preuves." Modern continental procedure, as em-
bodied in the most recent codes, has removed the worst features
of inquisitorial procedure, and has shaken itself free from the
trammels imposed by the old theory and technical rules of proof.
But in this, as in other branches of law, France seems to have
paid the penalty for having been first in the field with codification
by lagging behind in material reforms. The French Code of
Criminal Procedure was largely based on Colbert's Ordonnance of
1670, and though embodying some reforms, and since amended
on certain points, still retains some of the features of the un-
reformed procedure which was condemned in the i8th century by
Voltaire and the philosophes. Military procedure is in the rear
of civil procedure, and the trial of Captain Dreyfus at Rennes in
1899 presented some interesting archaisms. Among these were
the weight attached to the rank and position of witnesses as
compared with the intrinsic character of their evidence, and the
extraordinary importance attributed to confession even when
made under suspicious circumstances and supported by flimsy
evidence.
The history of criminal procedure in England has been traced
by Sir James Stephen. The modern rules and practice as to
evidence and witnesses in the common law courts, both in civil
and in criminal cases, appear to have taken shape in the course
of the 1 8th century. The first systematic treatise on the
English law of evidence appears to have been written by Chief
Baron Gilbert, who died in 1726, but whose Law of Evidence
was not published until 1761. In writing it he is said to have
been much influenced by Locke. 1 It is highly praised by Black-
stone as " a work which it is impossible to abstract or abridge
without losing some beauty and destroying the charm of the
whole "; but Bentham, who rarely agrees with Blackstone,
speaks of it as running throughout " in the same strain of
anility, garrulity, narrow-mindedness, absurdity, perpetual mis-
representation and indefatigable self-contradiction." In any
case it remained the standard authority on the law of evidence
throughout the remainder of the i8th century. Bentham wrote
his Rationale of Judicial Evidence, specially applied to English
Practice, at various times between the years 1802 and 1812.
1 Reference may be made to a well-known passage in the Essay
concerning Human Understanding (Book iv. ch. xv.) : " The grounds
of probability are First, the conformity of anything with our own
knowledge, observation and experience. Second, the testimony of
others touching their observation and experience. In the testimony
of others is to be considered (l) the number, (2) the integrity,
(3) the skill of the witnesses. (4) The design of the author, where
it is a testimony out of a book cited. (5) The consistency of the
parts and circumstances of the relation. (6) Contrary testimonies."
By this time he had lost the nervous and simple style of his
youth, and required an editor to make him readable. His
great interpreter, Dumont, condensed his views on evidence
into the Traite des preuves judiciaires, which was published in
1823. The manuscript of the Rationale was edited for English
reading, and to a great extent rewritten, by J. S. Mill, and
was published in five volumes in 1827. The book had a great
effect both in England and on the continent. The English
version, though crabbed and artificial in style, and unmeasured
in its invective, is a storehouse of comments and criticisms on the
principles of evidence and the practice of the courts, which are
always shrewd and often profound. Bentham examined the
practice of the courts by the light of practical utility. Starting
from the principle that the object of judicial evidence is the
discovery of truth, he condemned the rules which excluded some
of the best sources of evidence. The most characteristic feature
of the common-law rules of evidence was, as Bentham pointed
out, and, indeed, still is, their exclusionary character. They
excluded and prohibited the use of certain kinds of evidence
which would be used in ordinary inquiries. In particular, they
disqualified certain classes of witnesses on the ground of interest
in the subject-matter of the inquiry, instead of treating the
interest of the witness as a matter affecting his credibility. It
was against this confusion between competency and credibility
that Bentham directed his principal attack. He also attacked
the system of paper evidence, evidence by means of affidavits
instead of by oral testimony in court, which prevailed in the
court of chancery, and in ecclesiastical courts. Subsequent
legislation has endorsed his criticisms. The Judicature Acts
have reduced the use of affidavits in chancery proceedings within
reasonable limits. A series of acts of parliament have removed,
step by step, almost all the disqualifications which formerly
made certain witnesses incompetent to testify.
Before Bentham's work appeared, an act of 1814 had removed
the incompetency of ratepayers as witnesses in certain cases
relating to parishes. The Civil Procedure Act 1833 enacted
that a witness should not be objected to as incompetent, solely
on the ground that the verdict or judgment would be admissible
in evidence for or against him. An act of 1840 removed some
doubts as to the competency of ratepayers to give evidence
in matters relating to their parish. The Evidence Act 1843
enacted broadly that witnesses should not be excluded from
giving evidence by reason of incapacity from crime or interest.
The Evidence Act 1851 made parties to legal proceedings ad-
missible witnesses subject to a proviso that " nothing herein
contained shall render any person who in any criminal proceed-
ing is charged with the commission of any indictable offence, or
any offence punishable on summary conviction, competent or
compellable to give evidence for or against himself or herself, or
shall render any person compellable to answer any question
tending to criminate himself or herself, or shall in any criminal
proceeding render any husband competent or ccmpellable to give
evidence for or against his wife, or any wife competent or com-
pellable to give evidence for or against her husband." The
Evidence (Scotland) Act 1853 made a similar provision for Scot-
land. The Evidence Amendment Act 1853 made the husbands
and wives of parties admissible witnesses, except that husbands
and wives could not give evidence for or against each other in
criminal proceedings or in proceedings for adultery, and could
not be compelled to disclose communications made to each other
during marriage. Under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857 the
petitioner can be examined and cross-examined on oath at the
hearing, but is not bound to answer any question tending to
show that he or she has been guilty of adultery. Under the
Matrimonial Causes Act 1859, on a wife's petition for dissolution
of marriage on the ground of adultery coupled with cruelty or
desertion, husband and wife are competent and compellable to
give evidence as to the cruelty or desertion. The Crown Suits
&c. Act 1865 declared that revenue proceedings were not to
be treated as criminal proceedings for the purposes of the acts
of 1851 and 1853. The Evidence Further Amendment Act 1869
declared that parties to actions for breach of promise of marriage
EVIDENCE
were competent to give evidence in the action, subject to a
proviso that the plaintiff should not recover unless his or her
testimony was corroborated by some other material evidence.
It also made the parties to proceedings instituted in consequence
of adultery, and their husbands and wives, competent to give
evidence, but a witness in any such proceeding, whether a party
or not, is not to be liable to be asked or bound to answer any
question tending to show that he or she has been guilty of
adultery, unless the witness has already given evidence in the
same proceeding in disproof of the alleged adultery. There are
similar provisions applying to Scotland in the Conjugal Rights
(Scotland) Amendment Act 1861, and the Evidence Further
Amendment (Scotland) Act 1874. The Evidence Act 1877
enacts that " on the trial of any indictment or other proceeding
for the non-repair of any public highway or bridge, or for a
nuisance to any public highway, river, or bridge, and of any
other indictment or proceeding instituted for the purpose of
trying or enforcing a civil right only, every defendant to such
indictment or proceeding, and the wife or husband of any such
defendant shall be admissible witnesses and compellable to give
evidence." From 1872 onwards numerous enactments were
passed making persons charged with particular offences, and
their husbands and wives, competent witnesses. The language
and effect of these enactments were not always the same, but
the insertion of some provision to this effect in an act creating
a new offence, especially if it was punishable by summary
proceedings, gradually became almost a common form in legis-
lation. In the year 1874 a bill to generalize these particular
provisions, and to make the evidence of persons charged with
criminal offences admissible in all cases was introduced by Mr
Gladstone's government, and was passed by the standing com-
mittee of the House of Commons. During the next fourteen
years bills for the same purpose were repeatedly introduced,
either by the government of the day, or by Lord Bramwell as
an independent member of the House of Lords. Finally the
Criminal Evidence Act 1898, introduced by Lord Halsbury, has
enacted in general terms that " every person charged with an
offence, and the wife or husband, as the case may be, of the
person so charged, shall be a competent witness for the defence
at every stage of the proceedings, whether the person so charged
is charged solely or jointly with any other person." But this
general enactment is qualified by some special restrictions, the
nature of which will be noticed below. The act applies to
Scotland but not to Ireland. It was not to apply to proceedings
in courts-martial unless so applied by general orders or rules
made under statutory authority. The provisions of the act have
been applied by rules to military courts-martial, but have not
yet been applied to naval courts-martial. The removal of dis-
qualifications for want of religious belief is referred to below
under the head of " Witnesses."
The act of 1898 finishes for the present the history of English
legislation on evidence. For a view of the legal literature on the
. .,,, _ subject it is necessary to take a step backwards. Early
- in the igth century Chief Baron Gilbert was superseded
as an authority on the English law of evidence by the books of
Phillips (1814) and Starkie (1824), who were followed by Roscoe
(Nisi Prius, 1827; Criminal Cases, 1835), Greenleaf (American,
1842), Taylor (based on Greenleaf, 1848), and Best (1849). In
1876 Sir James Fitzjames Stephen brought out his Digest of the
Law of Evidence, based upon the Indian Evidence Act 1872, which
he had prepared and passed as law member of the council of the
governor-general of India. This Digest obtained a rapid and
well-deserved success, and has materially influenced the form of
subsequent writings on the English law of evidence. It sifted
out what Stephen conceived to be the main rules of evidence
from the mass of extraneous matter in which they had been em-
bedded. Roscoe's Digests told the lawyer what things must be
proved in order to sustain particular actions or criminal charges,
and related as much to pleadings and to substantive law as to
evidence proper. Taylor's two large volumes were a vast storehouse
of useful information, but his book was one to consult, not to master.
Stephen eliminated much of this extraneous matter, and summed up
his rules in a series of succinct propositions, supplemented by apt
illustrations, and couched in such a form that they could be easily
read and remembered. Hence the English Digest, like the Indian
Act, has been of much educational value. Its most original feature,
but unfortunately also its weakest point, is its theory of relevancy.
Pondering the multitude of " exclusionary " rules which had been
laid down by the English courts, Stephen thought that he had
discovered the general principle on which those rules reposed, and
could devise a formula by which the principle could be expressed.
" My study of the subject," he says, " both practically and in books
has conyinced me that the doctrine that all facts in issue and relevant
to the issue, and no others, may be proved, is the unexpressed
principle which forms the centre of and gives unity to all the express
negative rules which form the great mass of the law." The result was
the chapter on the relevancy of facts in the Indian Evidence Act,
and the definition of relevancy in s. 7 of that act. This definition
was based on the view that a distinction could be drawn between
things which were and things which were not causally connected
with each other, and that relevancy depended on causal connexion.
Subsequent criticism convinced Stephen that his definition was in
some respects too narrow and in others too wide, and eventually
he adopted a definition out of which all reference to causality was
dropped. But even in their amended form the provisions about
relevancy are open to serious criticism. The doctrine of relevancy,
i.e. of the probative effect of facts, is a branch of logic, not of law,
and is out of place both in an enactment of the legislature and in a
compendium of legal rules. The necessity under which Stephen
found himself of extending the range of relevant facts by making it
include facts " deemed to be relevant," and then narrowing it by
enabling the judge to exclude evidence of facts which are relevant,
illustrates the difference between the rules of logic and the rules of
law. Relevancy is one thing; admissibility is another; and the
confusion between them, which is much older than Stephen, is to
be regretted. Rightly or wrongly English judges have, on practical
grounds, declared inadmissible evidence of facts, which are relevant
in the ordinary sense of the term, and which are so treated in non-
judicial inquiries. Under these circumstances the attempt so to
define relevancy as to make it conterminous with admissibility is
misleading, and most readers of Stephen's Act and Digest would
find them more intelligible and more useful if " admissible " were
substituted for " relevant " throughout. Indeed it is hardly too
much to say that Stephen's doctrine of relevancy is theoretically
unsound and practically useless. The other parts of the work contain
terse and vigorous statements of the law, but a Procrustean attempt
to make legal rules square with a preconceived theory has often
made the language and arrangement artificial, and the work, in
spite of its compression, still contains rules which, under a more
scientific treatment, would find their appropriate place in other
branches of the law. These defects are characteristic of a strong
and able man, who saw clearly, and expressed forcibly what he did
see, but was apt to ignore or to deny the existence of what he did
not see, whose mind was vigorous rather than subtle or accurate,
and who, in spite of his learning, was somewhat deficient in the
historical sense. But notwithstanding these defects, the con-
spicuous ability of the author, his learning, and his practical
experience, especially in criminal cases, attach greater weight to
Fitzjames Stephen's statements than to those of any other English
writer on the law of evidence.
The object of every trial is, or may be, to determine two
classes of questions or issues, which are usually distinguished
as questions of law, and questions of fact, although
the distinction between them is not so clear as might
appear on a superficial view. In a trial by jury these two classes
of questions are answered by different persons. The judge lays
down the law. The jury, under the guidance of the judge, find
the facts. It was with reference to trial by jury that the English
rules of evidence were originally framed; it is by the peculiarities
of this form of trial that many of them are to be explained; it
is to this form of trial alone that some of the most important of
them are exclusively applicable. The negative, exclusive, or
exclusionary rules which form the characteristic features of the
English law of evidence, are the rules in accordance with which
the judge guides the jury. There is no difference of principle
between the method of inquiry in judicial and in non-judicial
proceedings. In either case a person who wishes to find out
whether a particular event did or did not happen, tries, in the
first place, to obtain information from persons who were present
and saw what happened (direct evidence), and, failing this, to
obtain information from persons who can tell him about facts
from which he can draw an inference as to whether the event
did or did not happen (indirect evidence). But in judicial
inquiries the information given must be given on oath, and be
liable to be tested by cross-examination. And there are rules
of law which exclude from the consideration of the jury certain
classes of facts which, in an ordinary inquiry,. would, or might,
be taken into consideration. Facts so excluded are said to be
" not admissible as evidence," or " not evidence," according
EVIDENCE
as the word is used in the wider or in the narrower sense. Am
the easiest way of determining whether a fact is or is not evidence
in the narrower sense, is first to consider whether it has any
bearing on the question to be tried, and, if it has, to consider
whether it falls within any one or more of the rules of exclusion
laid down by English law. These rules of exclusion are peculiar
to English law and to systems derived from English law. They
have been much criticized, and some of them have been repealed
or materially modified by legislation. Most of them may be
traced to directions given by a judge in the course of trying a
particular case, given with special reference to the circumstances
of that case, but expressed in general language, and, partly
through the influence of text-writers, eventually hardened into
general rules. In some cases their origin is only intelligible by
reference to obsolete forms of pleading or practice. But in most
cases they were originally rules of convenience laid down by the
judge for the assistance of the jury. The judge is a man of trainee
experience, who has to arrive at a conclusion with the help ol
twelve untrained men, and who is naturally anxious to keep them
straight, and give them every assistance in his power. The
exclusion of certain forms of evidence assists the jury by con-
centrating their attention on the questions immediately before
them, and by preventing them from being distracted or be-
wildered by facts which either have no bearing on the question
before them, or have so remote a bearing on those questions as
to be practically useless as guides to the truth. It also prevents a
jury from being misled by statements the effect of which, through
the prejudice they excite, is out of all proportion to their true
weight. In this respect the rules of exclusion may be compared
to blinkers, which keep a horse's eyes on the road before him.
In criminal cases the rules of exclusion secure fair play to the
accused, because he comes to the trial prepared to meet a specific
charge, and ought not to be suddenly confronted by statements
which he had no reason to expect would be made against him.
They protect absent persons against statements affecting their
character. And lastly they prevent the infinite waste of time
which would ensue in the discussion -of a question of fact if an
inquiry were allowed to branch out into all the subjects with
which that fact is more or less connected. The purely practical
grounds on which the rules are based, according to the view of
a great judge, may be illustrated by some remarks of Mr Justice
Willes (1814-1872). In discussing the question whether evi-
dence of the plaintiff's conduct on other occasions ought to be
admitted, he said:
" It is not easy in all cases to draw the line and to define with
accuracy where probability ceases and speculation begins; but
we are bound to lay down the rule to the best of our ability. No
doubt the rule as to confining the evidence to that which is relevant
and pertinent to the issue is one of great importance, not only as
regards the particular case, but also with reference to saving the
time of the court, and preventing the minds of the jury from being
drawn away from the real point they have to decide. . . . Now it
appears to me that the evidence proposed to be given in this case,
if admitted, would not have shown that it was more probable that
the contract was subject to the condition insisted upon by the
defendant. The question may be put thus, Does the fact of a person
having once or many times in his life done a particular act in a
particular way make it more probable that he has done the same
thing in the same way upon another and different occasion? To
admit such speculative evidence would, I think, be fraught with
great danger. ... If such evidence were held admissible it would
be difficult to say that the defendant might not in any case, where
the question was whether or not there had been a sale of goods on
credit, call witnesses to prove that the plaintiff had dealt with other
persons upon a certain credit; or, in an action for an assault, that
the plaintiff might not give evidence of former assaults committed
by the defendant upon other persons, or upon other persons of a
particular class, for the purpose of showing that he was a quarrelsome
individual, and therefore that it was highly probable that the
particular charge of assault was well founded. The extent to which
this sort of thing might be carried is inconceivable .... To obviate
the prejudices, the injustice, and the waste of time to which the
admission of such evidence would lead, and bearing in mind the
extent to which it might be carried, and that litigants are mortal,
it is necessary not only to adhere to the rule, but to lay it down
strictly. I think, therefore, the fact that the plaintiff had entered
into contracts of a particular kind with other persons on other
occasions could not be properly admitted in evidence where no
custom of trade to make such contracts, and no connexion between
such and the one in question, was shown to exist" (Hollineham v
Head, 1858, 4 C.B. N.S. 388).
There is no difference between the principles of evidence in
civil and in criminal cases, although there are a few special rules,
such as those relating to confessions and to dying declarations]
which are only applicable to criminal proceedings. But in civil
proceedings the issues are narrowed by mutual admissions of
the parties, more use is made of evidence taken out of court, such
as affidavits, and, generally, the rules of evidence are less strictly
applied. It is often impolitic to object to the admission of
evidence, even when the objection may be sustained by previous
rulings. The general tendency of modern procedure is to place
a more liberal and less technical construction on rules of evidence,
especially in civil cases. In recent volumes of law reports cases
turning on the admissibility of evidence are conspicuous by their
rarity. Various causes have operated in this direction. One of
them has been the change in the system of pleading, under which
each party now knows before the actual trial the main facts on
which his opponent relies. Another is the interaction of chancery
and common-law practice and traditions since the Judicature
Acts. In the chancery courts the rules of evidence were always
less carefully observed, or, as Westminster would have said,
less understood, than in the courts of common law. A judge
trying questions of fact alone might naturally think that blinkers,
though useful for a jury, are unnecessary for a judge. And the
chancery judge was apt to read his affidavits first, and to deter-
mine their admissibility afterwards. In the meantime they had
affected his mind.
The tendency of modern text-writers, among whom Professor
J. B. Thayer (1831-1902), of Harvard, was perhaps the most
independent, instructive and suggestive, is to restrict materially
the field occupied by the law of evidence, and to relegate to other
branches of the law topics traditionally treated under the head
of evidence. Thus in every way the law of evidence, though
still embodying some principles of great importance, is of less
comparative importance as a branch of English law than it was
half a century ago. Legal rules, like dogmas, have their growth
and decay. First comes the judge who gives a ruling in a parti-
cular case. Then comes the text-writer who collects the scattered
rulings, throws them into the form of general propositions,
connects them together by some theory, sound or unsound,
and often ignores or obscures their historical origin. After him
comes the legislator who crystallizes the propositions into enact-
ments, not always to the advantage of mankind. So also with
decay. Legal rules fall into the background, are explained away,
are ignored, are denied, are overruled. Much of the English
law of evidence is in a stage of decay.
The subject-matter of the law of evidence may be arranged
differently according to the taste or point of view of the writer,
tt will be arranged here under the following heads: I. Prelimin-
ary Matter; II. Classes of Evidence; III. Rules of Exclusion;.
[V. Documentary Evidence; V. Witnesses.
I. PRELIMINARY MATTER
Under this head may be grouped certain principles and con-
siderations which limit the range of matters to which evidence
relates.
i. Law and Fact. Evidence relates only to facts. It is
therefore necessary to touch on the distinction between law
and facts. Ad quaeslionem facli non respondent judices; ad
quaestitnem juris non respondent juratores. Thus Coke, attribut-
ng, after his wont, to Bracton a maxim which may have been
nvented by himself. The maxim became the subject of political
controversy, and the two rival views are represented by Pul-
*.eney's lines
" For twelve honest men have decided the cause
Who are judges alike of the facts and the laws,"
md by Lord Mansfield's variant
" Who are judges of facts, but not judges of laws."
The particular question raised with respect to the law of libel
EVIDENCE
was settled by Fox's Libel Act 1792. Coke's maxim describes
in a broad general way the distinction between the functions of
the judge and of the jury, but is only true subject to important
qualifications. Judges in jury cases constantly decide what may
be properly called questions of fact, though their action is
often disguised by the language applied or the procedure em-
ployed. Juries, in giving a general verdict, often practically
take the law into their own hands. The border-line between the
two classes of questions is indicated by the " mixed questions
of law and fact," to use a common phrase, which arise in such
cases as those relating to " necessaries," " due diligence,"
" negligence," " reasonableness," " reasonable and probable
cause." In the treatment of these cases the line has been drawn
differently at different times, and two conflicting tendencies
are discernible. On the one hand, there is the natural tendency
to generalize common inferences into legal rules, and to fix legal
standards of duty. On the other hand, there is the sound instinct
that it is a mistake to define and refine too much in these cases,
and that the better course is to leave broadly to the jury, under
the general guidance of the judge, the question what would be
done by the " reasonable " or " prudent " man in particular
cases. The latter tendency predominates in modern English
law, and is reflected by the enactments in the recent acts codify-
ing the law on bills of exchange and sale of goods, that certain
questions of reasonableness are to be treated as questions of
fact. On the same ground rests the dislike to limit the right of
a jury to give a genera) verdict in criminal cases. Questions of
custom begin by being questions of fact, but as the custom obtains
general recognition it becomes law. Many of the rules of the
English mercantile law were " found " as customs by Lord
Mansfield's special juries. Generally, it must be remembered
that the jury act in subordinate co-operation with the judge,
and that the extent to which the judge limits or encroaches on
the province of the jury is apt to depend on the personal idiosyn-
crasy of the judge.
2. Judicial Notice. It may be doubted whether the subject
of judicial notice belongs properly to the law of evidence, and
whether it does not belong rather to the general topic of legal or
judicial reasoning. Matters which are the subject of judicial
notice are part of the equipment of the judicial mind. It would
be absurd to require evidence of every fact; many facts must
be assumed to be known. The judge, like the juryman, is sup-
posed to bring with him to the consideration of the question
which he has to try common sense, a general knowledge of
human nature and the ways of the world, and also knowledge of
things that " everybody is supposed to know." Of such matters
judicial notice is said to be taken. But the range of general
knowledge is indefinite, and the range of judicial notice has, for
reasons of convenience, been fixed or extended, both by rulings
of the judges and by numerous enactments of the legislature.
It would be impossible to enumerate here the matters of which
judicial notice must or may be taken. These are to be found
in the text-books. For present purposes it must suffice to say
that they include not only matters of fact of common and certain
knowledge, but the law and practice of the courts, and many
matters connected with the government of the country.
3. Presumptions. A presumption in the ordinary sense is an
inference. It is an argument, based on observation, that what
has happened in some cases will probably happen in others of the
like nature. The subject of presumptions, so far as they are
mere inferences or arguments, belongs, not to the law of evidence,
or to law at all, but to rules of reasoning. But a legal presump-
tion, or, as it is sometimes called, a presumption of law, as dis-
tinguished from a presumption of fact, is something more. It
may be described, in Stephen's language, as " a rule of law that
courts and judges shall draw a particular inference from a
particular fact, or from particular evidence, unless and until
the truth " (perhaps it would be better to say 'soundness ')
" of the inference is disproved." Courts and legislatures have
laid down such rules on grounds of public policy or general con-
venience, and the rules have then to be observed as rules of
positive law, not merely used as part of the ordinary process of
reasoning or argument. Some so-called presumptions are rules
of substantive law under a disguise. To this class appear to
belong " conclusive presumptions of law," such as the common-
law presumption that a child under seven years of age cannot
commit a felony. So again the presumption that every one
knows the law is merely an awkward way of saying that ignorance
of the law is not a legal excuse for breaking it. Of true legal
presumptions, the majority may be dealt with most appropriately
under different branches of the substantive law, such as the law
of crime, of property, or of contract, and accordingly Stephen
has included in his Digest of the Law of Evidence only some which
are common to more than one branch of the law. The effect
of a presumption is to impute to certain facts or groups of facts
a prima facie significance or operation, and thus, in legal pro-
ceedings, to throw upon the party against whom it works the
duty of bringing forward evidence to meet it. Accordingly the
subject of presumptions is intimately connected with the subject
of the burden of proof, and the same legal rule may be expressed
in different forms, either as throwing the advantage of a presump-
tion on one side, or as throwing the burden of proof on the other.
Thus the rule in Stephen's Digest, which says that the burden of
proving that any person has been guilty of a crime or wrongful
act is on the person who asserts it, appears in the article entitled
" Presumption of Innocence." Among the more ordinary and
more important legal presumptions are the presumption of
regularity in proceedings, described generally as a presumption
omnia esse rite acta, and including the presumption that the
holder of a public office has been duly appointed, and has duly
performed his official duties, the presumption of the legitimacy
of a child born during the mother's marriage, or within the
period of gestation after her husband's death, and the presump-
tions as to life and death. " A person shown not to have been
heard of for seven years by those (if any) who, if he had been
alive, would naturally have heard of him, is presumed to be dead
unless the circumstances of the case are such as to account for
his not being heard of without assuming his death; but there is
no presumption as to the time when he died, and the burden of
proving his death at any particular time is upon the person who
asserts it. There is no presumption " (i.e. legal presumption)
" as to the age at which a person died who is shown to have been
alive at a given time, or as to the order in which two or more
persons died who are shown to have died in the same accident,
shipwreck or battle" (Stephen, Dig., art. 99). A document
proved or purporting to be thirty years old is presumed to be
genuine, and to have been properly executed and (if necessary)
attested if produced from the proper custody. And the legal
presumption of a " lost grant," i.e. the presumption that a right
or alleged right which has been long enjoyed without interrup-
tion had a legal origin, still survives in addition to the common
law and statutory rules of prescription.
4. Burden of Proof. The expression onus probandi has come
down from the classical Roman law, and both it and the Roman
maxims, Agenti incumbit probatio, Necessitas probandi incumbit
ei qui dicit non ei qui negat, and Reus excipiendo fit actor, must
be read with reference to the Roman system of actions, under
which nothing was admitted, but the plaintiff's case was tried
first; then, unless that failed, the defendant's on his exceptio;
then, unless that failed, the plaintiff's on his replicatio, and so
on. Under such a system the burden was always on the " actor."
In modern law the phrase " burden of proof " may mean one of
two things, which are often confused the burden of establish-
ing the proposition or issue on which the case depends, and the
burden of producing evidence on any particular point either at
the beginning or at a later stage of the case. The burden in the
former sense ordinarily rests on the plaintiff or prosecutor. The
burden in the latter sense, that of going forward with evidence
on a particular point, may shift from side to side as the case
proceeds. The general rule is that he who alleges a fact must
prove it, whether the allegation is couched in affirmative or
negative terms. But this rule is subject to the effect of presump-
tions in particular cases, to the principle that in considering the
amount of evidence necessary to shift the burden of proof regard
i6
EVIDENCE
must be had to the opportunities of knowledge possessed by the
parties respectively, and to the express provisions of statutes
directing where the burden of proof is to lie in particular cases.
Thus many statutes expressly direct that the proof of lawful
excuse or authority, or the absence of fraudulent intent, is to lie
on the person charged with an offence. And the Summary
Jurisdiction Act 1848 provides that if the information or com-
plaint in summary proceedings negatives any exemption, excep-
tion, proviso, or condition in the statute on which it is founded,
the prosecutor or complainant need not prove the negative, but
the defendant may prove the affirmative in his defence.
II. CLASSES OF EVIDENCE
Evidence is often described as being either oral or document-
ary. To these two classes should be added a third, called by
Bentham real evidence, and consisting of things presented
immediately to the senses of the judge or the jury. Thus the
judge or jury may go to view any place the sight of which may
help to an understanding of the evidence, and may inspect any-
thing sufficiently identified and produced in court as material
to the decision. Weapons, clothes and things alleged to have
been stolen or damaged are often brought into court for this
purpose. Oral evidence consists of the statements of witnesses.
Documentary evidence consists of documents submitted to the
judge or jury by way of proof. The distinction between primary
and secondary evidence relates only to documentary evidence,
and will be noticed in the section under that head. A division
of evidence from another point of view is that into direct and
indirect, or, as it is sometimes called, circumstantial evidence.
By direct evidence is meant the statement of a person who saw,
or otherwise observed with his senses, the fact in question. By
indirect or circumstantial evidence is meant evidence of facts
from which the fact in question may be inferred. The difference
between direct and indirect evidence is a difference of kind,
not of degree, and therefore the rule or maxim as to " best
evidence " has no application to it. Juries naturally attach
more weight to direct evidence, and in some legal systems it is
only this class of evidence which is allowed to have full probative
force. In some respects indirect evidence is superior to direct
evidence, because, as Paley puts it, " facts cannot lie," whilst
witnesses can and do. On the other hand facts often deceive;
that is to say, the inferences drawn from them are often erroneous.
The circumstances in which crimes are ordinarily committed are
such that direct evidence of their commission is usually not
obtainable, and when criminality depends on a state of mind,
such as intention, that state must necessarily be inferred by
means of indirect evidence.
III. RULES OF EXCLUSION
It seems desirable to state the leading rules of exclusion in
their crude form instead of obscuring their historical origin by
attempting to force them into the shape of precise technical
propositions forming parts of a logically connected system. The
judges who laid the foundations of our modern law of evidence,
like those who first discoursed on the duties of trustees, little
dreamt of the elaborate and artificial system which was to be
based upon their remarks. The rules will be found, as might be
expected, to be vague, to overlap each other, to require much
explanation, and to be subject to many exceptions. They may
be stated as follows: (i) Facts not relevant to the issue cannot
be admitted as evidence. (2) The evidence produced must be
the best obtainable under the circumstances. (3) Hearsay is
not evidence. (4) Opinion is not evidence.
i . Rule of Relevancy. The so-called rule of relevancy is some-
times stated by text-writers in the form in which it was laid
down by Baron Parke in 1837 (Wright v. Doe and Tatham, 7 A.
and E. 384), when he described " one great principle " in the
law of evidence as being that " all facts which are relevant to the
issue may be proved." Stated in different forms, the rule has
been made by Fitzjames Stephen the central point of his theory
of evidence. But relevancy, in the proper and natural sense,
as we have said, is a matter not of law, but of logic. If Baron
Parke's dictum relates to relevancy in its natural sense it is not
true; if it relates to relevancy in a narrow and artificial sense,
as equivalent to admissible, it is tautological. Such practical
importance as the rule of relevancy possesses consists, not in
what it includes, but in what it excludes, and for that reason
it seems better to state the rule in a negative or exclusive form.
But whether the rule is stated in a positive or in a negative form
its vagueness is apparent. No precise line can be drawn between
" relevant " and " irrelevant " facts. The two classes shade
into each other by imperceptible degrees. The broad truth is
that the courts have excluded from consideration certain matters
which have some bearing on the question to be decided, and
which, in that sense, are relevant, and that they have done so
on grounds of policy and convenience. Among the matters so
excluded are matters which are likely to mislead the jury, or to
complicate the case unnecessarily, or which are of slight, remote,
or merely conjectural importance. Instances of the classes of
matters so excluded can be given, but it seems difficult to refer
their exclusion to any more general principle than this. Rules
as to evidence of character and conduct appear to fall under this
principle. Evidence is not admissible to show that the person
who is alleged to have done a thing was of a disposition or char-
acter which makes it probable that he would or would not have
done it. This rule excludes the biographical accounts of the
prisoner which are so familiar in French trials, and is an im-
portant principle in English trials. It is subject to three excep-
tions: first, that evidence of good character is admissible in
favour of the prisoner in all criminal cases; secondly, that a
prisoner indicted for rape is entitled to call evidence as to the
immoral character of the prosecutrix; and thirdly, that a
witness may be called to say that he would not believe a previous
witness on his oath. The exception allowing the good character
of a prisoner to influence the verdict, as distinguished from the
sentence, is more humane than logical, and seems to have been
at first admitted in capital cases only. The exception in rape
cases does not allow evidence to be given of specific acts of im-
morality with persons other than the prisoner, doubtless on the
ground that such evidence would affect the reputations of third
parties. Where the character of a person is expressly in issue,
as in actions of libel and slander, the rule of exclusion, as stated
above, does not apply. Nor does it prevent evidence of bad
character from being given in mitigation of damages, where the
amount of damages virtually depends on character, as in cases of
defamation and seduction. As to conduct there is a similar
general rule, that evidence of the conduct of a person on other
occasions is not to be used merely for the purpose of showing the
likelihood of' his having acted in a similar way on a particular
occasion. Thus, on a charge of murder, the prosecutor cannot
give evidence of the prisoner's conduct to other persons for the
purpose of proving a bloodthirsty and murderous disposition.
And in a civil case a defendant was not allowed to show that
the plaintiff had sold goods on particular terms to other persons
for the purpose of proving that he had sold similar goods on the
same terms to the defendant. But this general rule must be
carefully construed. Where several offences are so connected
with each other as to form parts of an entire transaction, evidence
of one is admissible as proof of another. Thus, where a prisoner
is charged with stealing particular goods from a particular place,
evidence may be given that other goods, taken from the same
place at the same time, were found in his possession. And where
it is proved or admitted that a person did a particular act, and
the question is as to his state of mind, that is to say, whether he
did the act knowingly, intentionally, fraudulently, or the like,
evidence may be given of the commission by him of similar acts
on other occasions for the purpose ofJproving his' state of mind
on the occasion. This principle is most commonly applied in
charges for uttering false documents or base coin, and not uncom-
monly in charges for false pretences, embezzlement or murder.
In proceedings for the receipt or possession of stolen property,
the legislature has expressly authorized evidence to be given of
the possession by the prisoner of other stolen property, or of his
previous conviction of an offence involving fraud or dishonesty
EVIDENCE
(Prevention of Crimes Act 1871). Again, where there is a
question whether a person committed an offence, evidence may
be given of any fact supplying a motive or constituting prepara-
tion for the offence, of any subsequent conduct of the person
accused, which is apparently influenced by the commission of
the offence, and of any act done by him, or by his authority, in
consequence of the offence. Thus, evidence may be given that,
after the commission of the alleged offence, the prisoner ab-
sconded, or was in possession of the property, or the proceeds
of the property, acquired by the offence, or that he attempted
to conceal things which were or might have been used in com-
mitting the offence, or as to the manner in which he conducted
himself when statements were made in his presence and hearing.
Statements made to or in the presence of a person charged with
an offence are admitted as evidence, not of the facts stated, but
of the conduct or demeanour of the person to whom or in whose
presence they are made, or of the general character of the trans-
action of which they form part (under the res gestae rule men-
tioned below).
2. Best Evidence Rule. Statements to the effect of the best
evidence rule were often made by Chief Justice Holt about the
beginning of the i8th century, and became familiar in the courts.
Chief Baron Gilbert, in his book on evidence, which must have
been written before 1726, says that " the first and most signal
rule in relation to evidence is this, that a man must have the
utmost evidence the nature of the fact is capable of." And in
the great case of Omichund v. Barker (1744), Lord Hardwicke
went so far as to say, " The judges and sages of the law have laid
down that there is but one general rule of evidence, the best that
the nature of the case will admit " (i Atkyns 49). It is no
wonder that a rule thus solemnly stated should have found a
prominent place in text-books on the law of evidence. But,
apart from its application to documentary evidence, it does not
seem to be more than a useful guiding principle which underlies,
or may be used in support of, several rules.
It is to documentary evidence that the principle is usually
applied, in the form of the narrower rule excluding, subject to
exceptions, secondary evidence of the contents of a document
where primary evidence is obtainable. In this form the rule is
a rule of exclusion, but may be most conveniently dealt with
in connexion with the special subject of documentary evidence.
As noticed above, the general rule does not apply to the differ-
ence between direct and indirect evidence. And, doubtless on
account of its vague character, it finds no place in Stephen's
Digest.
3. Hearsay. The term " hearsay " primarily applies to what
a witness has heard another person say in respect to a fact in
dispute. But it is extended to any statement, whether reduced
to writing or not, which is brought before the court, not by the
author of the statement, but by a person to whose knowledge the
statement has been brought. Thus the hearsay rule excludes
statements, oral or written, made in the first instance by a person
who is not called as a witness in the case. Historically this rule
may be traced to the time when the functions of the witnesses
were first distinguished from the functions of the jury, and when
the witnesses were required by their formula to testify de visu
suo et auditu, to state what they knew about facts from the direct
evidence of their senses, not from the information of others.
The rule excludes statements the effect of which is liable to be
altered by the narrator, and which purport to have been made
by persons who did not necessarily speak under the sanction of
an oath, and whose accuracy or veracity is not tested by cross-
examination. It is therefore of practical utility in shutting out
many loose statements and much irresponsible gossip. On the
other hand, it excludes statements which are of some value as
evidence, and may indeed be the only available evidence. Thus,
a statement has been excluded as hearsay, even though it can be
proved that the author of the statement made it on oath, or
that it was against his interest when he made it, or that he is
prevented by insanity or other illness from giving evidence him-
self, or that he has left the country and disappeared, or that he
is dead.
Owing to the inconveniences which would be caused by a strict
application of the rule, it has been so much eaten into by exceptions
that some persons doubt whether the rule and the exceptions ought
not to change places. Among the exceptions the following may be
noticed: (a) Certain sworn statements. In many cases statements
made by a person whose evidence is material, but who cannot come
before the court, or could not come before it without serious diffi-
culty, delay or expense, may be admitted as evidence under proper
safeguards. Under the Indictable Offences Act 1848, where a person
has made a deposition before a justice at a preliminary inquiry into
an offence, his deposition may be read in evidence on proof that the
deponent is dead, or too ill to travel, that the deposition was taken
in the presence of the accused person, and that the accused then had
a full opportunity of cross-examining the deponent. The deposition
must appear to be signed by the justice before whom it purports to
have been taken. Depositions taken before a coroner are admissible
under the same principle. And the principle probably extends to
cases where the deponent is insane, or kept away by the person
accused. There are other statutory provisions for the admission of
depositions, as in the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867; the
Foreign Jurisdiction Act 1890; and the Children Act 1908, incor-
porating an act of 1894. In civil cases the rule excluding statements
not made in court at the trial is much less strictly applied. Frequent
use is made of evidence taken before an examiner, or under a com-
mission. Affidavits are freely used for subordinate issues or under
an arrangement between the parties, and leave may be given to use
evidence taken in other proceedings. The old chancery practice,
under which evidence, both at the trial and at other stages of a
proceeding, was normally taken by affidavit, irrespectively of consent,
was altered by the Judicature Acts. Under the existing rules of
the supreme court evidence may be given by affidavit upon any
motion, petition or summons, but the court or a judge may, on the
application of either party, order the attendance for cross-examina-
tion of the person making the affidavit. (b) Dying declarations.
In a trial for murder or manslaughter a declaration by the person
killed as to the cause of his death, or as to any of the circumstances
of the transaction which resulted in his death, is admissible as
evidence. But this exception is very strictly construed. It must
be proved that the declarant, at the time of making the declaration,
was in actual danger of death, and had given up all nope of recovery.
(c) Statements in pedigree cases. On a question of pedigree the
statement of a deceased person, whether based on his own personal
knowledge or on family tradition, is admissible as evidence, if it is
proved that the person who made the statement was related to the
person about whose family relations the statement was made, and
that the statement was made before the question with respect to
which the evidence is required had arisen, (d) Statements as to
matters of public_ or general interest. Statements by deceased per-
sons are admissible as evidence of reputation or general belief in
questions relating to the existence of any public or general right
or custom, or matter of public and general interest. Statements of
this kind are constantly admitted in questions relating to right of
way, or rights of common, or manorial or other local customs.
Maps, copies of court rolls, leases and other deeds, and verdicts,
judgments, and orders of court fall within the exception in cases of
this kind. (e) Statements in course of duty or business. A statement
with respect to a particular fact made by a deceased person in
pursuance of his duty in connexion with any office, employment or
business, whether public or private, is admissible as evidence of that
fact, if the statement appears to have been made from personal
knowledge, and at or about the time when the fact occurred. This
exception covers entries by clerks and other employees. (/) Statements
against interest. A statement made by a deceased person against
his pecuniary or proprietary interest is admissible as evidence,
without reference to the time at which it was made. Where such a
statement is admissible the whole of it becomes admissible, though
it may contain matters not against the interest of the person who
made it, and though the total effect may be in his favour. Thus,
where there was a<juestion whether a particular sum was a gift or a
loan, entries in an account book of receipt of interest on the sum
were admitted, and a statement in the book that the alleged debtor
had on a particular date acknowledged the loan was also admitted.
(g) Public documents. Under this head may be placed recitals in
public acts of parliament, notices in the London, Edinburgh, or Dublin
Gazette (which are made evidence by statute in a large number of
cases), and entries made in the performance of duty in official
registers or records, such as registers of births, deaths or marriages,
registers of companies, records in judicial proceedings, and the like.
An entry in a public document may be treated as a statement made
in the course of duty, but it is admissible whether the person who
made the statement is alive or dead, and without any evidence as
to personal knowledge, or the time at which the statement is made.
(h) Admissions. By the term " admission," as here used, is meant
a statement made out of the witness-box by a part v to the proceedings,
whether civil or criminal, or by some person whose statements are
binding on that party, against the interest of that party. The term
includes admissions made in answer to interrogatories, or to a notice
to admit facts, but not admissions made on the pleadings. Admis-
sions, in this sense of the term, are admissible as evidence against the
person by whom they are made, or on whom they are binding,
i8
EVIDENCE
without reference to the life or death of the person who made them.
A person is bound by the statements of his agent, acting within the
scope of his authority, and barristers and solicitors are agents for
their clients in the conduct of legal proceedings. Conversely, a
person suing or defending on behalf of another, e.g. as agent or
trustee, is bound by the statements of the person whom he repre-
sents. Statements respecting property made by a predecessor in
title bind the successor. Where a statement is put in evidence as an
admission by, or binding on, any person, that person is entitled to
have the whole statement given in evidence. The principle of this
rule is obviously sound, because it would be unfair to pick out from
a man's statement what tells against him, and to suppress what is
in his favour. But the application of the rule is sometimes attended
with difficulty. An admission will not be allowed to be used as
evidence if it was made under a stipulation, express or implied, that
it should not be so used. Such admissions are said to be made
" without prejudice." (i) Confessions. A confession is an admission
by a person accused of an offence that he has committed the offence
of which he is accused. But the rules about admitting as evidence
confessions in criminal proceedings are much more strict than the
rules about admissions in civil proceedings. The general rule is,
that a confession is not admissible as evidence against any person
except the person who makes it. But a confession made by one
accomplice m the presence of another is admissible against the latter
to this extent, that, if it implicates him, his silence under the charge
may be used against him, whilst on the other hand his prompt
repudiation of the charge might tell in his favour. In other words,
the confession may be used as evidence of the conduct of the person
in whose presence it was made. A confession cannot be admitted
as evidence unless proved to be voluntary. A confession is not
treated as being voluntary if it appears to the court to have been
caused by any inducement, threat or promise which proceeded
from a magistrate or other person in authority concerned in the
charge, and which, in the opinion of the court, gave the accused
person reasonable ground for supposing that by making a confession
he would gain some advantage or avoid some evil in reference to the
proceedings against him. This applies to any inducement, threat
or promise having reference to the charge, whether it is addressed
directly to the accused person or is brought to his knowledge indirectly.
But a confession is not involuntary merely because it appears to
have been caused by the exhortations of a person in authority to
make it as a matter of religious duty, or by an inducement collateral
to the proceedings, or by an inducement held out by a person having
nothing to do with the apprehension, prosecution or examination
of the prisoner. Thus, a confession made to a gaol chaplain in con-
sequence of religious exhortation has been admitted as evidence.
So also has a confession made by a prisoner to a gaoler in consequence
of a promise by the gaoler, that if the prisoner confessed he should
be allowed to see his wife. To make a confession involuntary, the
inducement must have reference to the prisoner's escape from the
charge against him, and must be made by some person having power
to relieve him, wholly or partially, from the consequences of the
charge. A confession is treated as voluntary if, in the opinion of the
court, it was made after the complete removal of the impression
produced by any inducement, threat or promise which would have
made it involuntary. Where a confession was made under an
inducement which makes the confession involuntary, evidence
may be given of facts discovered in consequence of the confession,
and of so much of the confession as distinctly relates to those facts.
Thus, A. under circumstances which make the'confession involuntary,
tells a policeman that he, A., had thrown a lantern into the pond.
Evidence may be given that the lantern was found in the pond, and
that A. said he had thrown it there. It is of course improper to try
to extort a confession by fraud or under the promise of secrecy.
But if a confession is otherwise admissible as evidence, it does not
become inadmissible merely because it was made under a promise
of secrecy, or in consequence of a deception practised on the accused
person for the purpose of obtaining it, or when he was drunk, or
because it was made in answer to questions, whether put by a
magistrate or by a private person, or because he was not warned
that he was not bound to make the confession, and that it might
be used against him. If a confession is given in evidence, the whole
of it must be given, and not merely the parts disadvantageous to the
accused person. Evidence amounting to a confession may be used
as such against the person who gave it, though it was given on oath,
and though the proceeding in which it was given had reference to
the same subject-matter as the proceeding in which it is to be used,
and though the witness might have refused to answer the questions
put to him. But if, after refusing to answer such questions, the
witness is improperly compelled to answer, his answers are not
a voluntary confession. The grave jealousy and suspicion with
which the English law regards confessions offer a marked contrast
to the importance attached to this form of evidence in other systems
of procedure, such as the inquisitorial system which long prevailed,
and still to some extent prevails, on the continent. (;') Res gestae.
Statements are often admitted as evidence on the ground that they
form part of what is called the " transaction," or res gestae, the
occurrence or nature of which is in question. For instance, where
an act may be proved, statements accompanying and explaining
the act made by or to the person doing it, may be given in evidence.
There is no difficulty in understanding the principle on which this
exception from the hearsay rule rests, but there is often practical
difficulty in applying it, and the practice has varied. How long is
the " transaction " to be treated as lasting? What ought to be
treated as " the immediate and natural effect of continuing action,"
and, for that reason, as part of the res gestae ? When an act of violence
is committed, to what extent are the terms of the complaint made
by the sufferer, as distinguished from the fact of a complaint having
been made, admissible as evidence ? These are some of the questions
raised. The cases in which statements by a person as to his bodily
or mental condition may be put in evidence may perhaps be treated
as falling under the same principle. In the Rugeley poisoning case,
statements by the deceased person before his illness as to his state
of health, and as to his symptoms during illness, were admitted as
evidence for the prosecution. Under the same principle may also
be brought the rule as to statements in conspiracy cases. In charges
of conspiracy, after evidence has been given of the existence of the
plot, and of the connexion of the accused with it, the charge against
one conspirator may be supported by evidence of anything done,
written, or said, not only by him, but by any other of the conspirators,
in furtherance of the common purpose. On the other hand, a state-
ment made by one conspirator, not in execution of the common
purpose, but in narration of some event forming part of the con-
spiracy, would be treated, not as part of the " transaction," but as
a statement excluded by the hearsay rule. Thus the admissibility
of writings in conspiracy cases may depend on the time when they
can be shown to have been in the possession of a fellow-conspirator,
whether before or after the prisoner's apprehension, (k) Complaints
in rape cases, &c. In trials for rape and similar offences, the fact
that shortly after the commission of the alleged offence a complaint
was made by the person against whom the offence was committed,
and also the terms of the complaint, have been admitted as evidence,
not of the facts complained of, but of the consistency of the com-
plainant's conduct with the story told by her in the witness-box, and
as negativing consent on her part.
4. Opinion. The rule excluding expressions of opinion also
dates from the first distinction between the functions of wit-
nesses and jury. It was for the witnesses to state facts, for the
jury to form conclusions. Of course every statement of fact
involves inference, and implies a judgment on phenomena ob-
served by the senses. And the inference is often erroneous, as in
the answer to the question, " Was he drunk ?" A prudent wit-
ness will often guard himself, and is allowed to guard himself, by
answering to the best of his belief. But, for practical purposes,
it is possible to draw a distinction between a statement of facts
observed and an expression of opinion as to the inference to be
drawn from these facts, and the rule telling witnesses to state
facts and not express opinions is of great value in keeping their
statements out of the region of argument and conjecture. The
evidence of " experts," that is to say, of persons having a special
knowledge of some particular subject, is generally described as
constituting the chief exception to the rule. But perhaps it
would be more accurate to say that experts are allowed a much
wider range than ordinary witnesses in the expression of their
opinions, and in the statement of facts on which their opinions
are based. Thus, in a poisoning case, a doctor may be asked
as an expert whether, in his opinion, a particular poison produces
particular symptoms. And, where lunacy is set up as a defence,
an expert may be asked whether, in his opinion, the symptoms
exhibited by the alleged lunatic commonly show unsoundness of
mind, and whether such unsoundness of mind usually renders
persons incapable of knowing the nature of their acts, or of
knowing that what they do is either wrong or contrary to the
law. Similar principles are applied to the evidence of engineers,
and in numerous other cases. In cases of disputed handwriting
the evidence of experts in handwriting is expressly recognized
by statute (Evidence and Practice on Criminal Trials 1865).
IV. DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE
Charters and other writings were exhibited to the jury at a
very early date, and it is to writings so exhibited that the term
" evidence " or " evidences " seems to have been originally
applied par excellence. The oral evidence of witnesses came
later. Where a document is to be used as evidence the first
question is how its contents are to be proved. To this question
the principle of " best evidence " applies, in the form of the rule
that primary evidence must be given except in the cases where
secondary evidence is allowed. By primary evidence is meant
the document itself produced for inspection. By secondary
EVIDENCE
evidence is meant a copy of the document, or verbal accounts of
its contents.
The rule as to the inadmissibility of a copy of a document is
applied much more strictly to private than to public or official
documents. Secondary evidence may be given of the contents of
a private document in the following cases:
(a) Where the original is shown or appears to be in the possession
of the adverse party, and he, after having been served
with reasonable notice to produce it, does not do so.
(6) Where the original is shown or appears to be in the possession
or power of a stranger not legally bound to produce it, and
he, after having been served with a writ of subpoena duces
tecum, or after having been sworn as a witness and asked
for the document, and having admitted that it is in court,
refuses to produce it.
(c) Where it is shown that proper search has been made for the
original, and there is reason for believing that it is destroyed
or lost.
(d) Where the original is of such a nature as not to be easily
movable, as in the case of a placard posted on a wall, or
of a tombstone, or is in a country from which it is not
permitted to be removed.
(e) Where the original is a document for the proof of which special
provision is made by any act of parliament, or any law in
force for the time being. Documents of that kind are
practically treated on the same footing as private docu-
ments.
(/) Where the document is an entry in a banker's book, provable
according to the special provisions of the Bankers' Books
Evidence Act 1879.
Secondary evidence of a private document is usually given either
by producing a copy and calling a witness who can prove the copy
to be correct, or, when there is no copy obtainable, by calling a
witness who has seen the document, and can give an account of its
contents. No general definition of public document is possible,
but the rules of evidence applicable to public documents are expressly
applied by statute to many classes of documents. Primary evidence
of any public document may be given by producing the document
from proper custody, and by a witness identifying it as being what
it professes to be. Public documents may always be proved by
secondary evidence, but the particular kind of secondary evidence
required is in many cases defined by statute. Where a document
is of such a public nature as to be admissible in evidence on its mere
production from the proper custody, and no statute exists which
renders its contents provable by means of a copy, any copy thereof
or extract therefrom is admissible as proof of its contents, if it is
proved to be an examined copy or extract, or purports to be signed
or certified as a true copy or extract by the officer to whose custody
the original is entrusted. Many statutes provide that various
certificates, official and public documents, documents and proceed-
ings of corporations and of joint stock and other companies, and
certified copies of documents, by-laws, entries in registers and other
books, shajl be receivable as evidence of certain particulars in courts
of justice, if they are authenticated in the manner prescribed by the
statutes. Whenever, by virtue of any such provision, any such
certificate or certified copy is receivable as proof of any p^. rt j-
cular in any court of justice, it is admissible as evidence, if it
purports to be authenticated in the manner prescribed by law,
without calling any witness to prove any stamp, seal, or signature
required for its authentication, or the official character of the person
who appears to have signed it. The Documentary Evidence Acts
1868, 1882 and 1895, provide modes of proving the contents of
several classes of proclamations, orders and regulations.
If a document is of a kind which is required by law to be attested,
but not otherwise, an attesting witness must be called to prove its
due execution. But this rule is subject to the following exceptions :
(d) If it is proved that there is no attesting witness alive, and
capable of giving evidence, then it is sufficient to prove
that the attestation of at least one attesting witness is in
his handwriting, and that the signature of the person
executing the document is in the handwriting of that
person.
(6) If the document is proved, or purports to be, more than
thirty years old, and is produced from what the court
considers to be its proper custody, an attesting witness
need not be called, and it will be presumed without evidence
that the instrument was duly executed and attested.
Where a document embodies a judgment, a contract, a grant,
or disposition of property, or any other legal transaction or
" act in the law," on which rights depend, the validity of the
transaction may be impugned on the ground of fraud, incapacity,
want of consideration, or other legal ground. But this seems
outside the law of evidence. In this class of cases a question
often arises whether extrinsic evidence can be produced to vary
the nature of the transaction embodied in the document. The
answer to this question seems to depend on whether the docu-
ment was or was not intended to be a complete and final state-
ment of the transaction which it embodies. If it was, you cannot
go outside the document for the purpose of ascertaining the
nature of the transaction. If it was not, you may. But the
mere statement of this test shows the difficulty of formulating
precise rules, and of applying them when formulated. Fitz-
James Stephen mentions, among the facts which may be proved
in these cases, the existence of separate and consistent oral
agreements as to matters on which the document is silent, if there
is reason to believe that the document is not a complete and final
statement of the transaction, and the existence of any usage or
custom with reference to which a contract may be presumed to
have been made. But he admits that the rules on the subject
are " by no means easy to apply, inasmuch as from the nature
of the case an enormous number of transactions fall close on
one side or the other of most of them." The underlying principle
appears to be a rule of substantive law rather than of evidence.
When parties to an arrangement have reduced the terms of the
arrangement to a definite, complete, and final written form, they
should be bound exclusively by the terms embodied in that form.
The question in each case is under what circumstances they
ought to be treated as having done so.
The expression " parol evidence," which includes written as
well as verbal evidence, has often been applied to the extrinsic
evidence produced for the purpose of varying the nature of the
transaction embodied in a document. It is also applied to ex-
trinsic evidence used for another purpose, namely, that of ex-
plaining the meaning of the terms used in a document. The two
questions, What is the real nature of the transaction referred
to in a document? and, What is the meaning of a document? are
often confused, but are really distinct from each other. The
rules bearing on the latter question are rules of construction or
interpretation rather than of evidence, but are ordinarily treated
as part of the law of evidence, and are for that reason included
by Fitz James Stephen in his Digest. In stating these rules he
adopts, with verbal modifications, the six propositions laid down
by Vice-Chancellor Wigram in his Examinations of the Rules of
Law respecting the admission of Extrinsic Evidence in Aid of the
Interpretation of Wills. The substance of these propositions
appears to be this, that wherever the meaning of a document
cannot be satisfactorily ascertained from the document itself,
use may be made of any other evidence for the purpose of
elucidating the meaning, subject to one restriction, that, except
in cases of equivocation, i.e. where a person or thing is described
in terms applicable equally to more than one, resort cannot be
had to extrinsic expressions of the author's intention.
V. WITNESSES
1. Attendance. If a witness does not attend voluntarily he
can be required to attend by a writ of subpoena.
2. Competency. As a general rule every person is a com-
petent witness. Formerly persons were disqualified by crime
or interest, or by being parties to the proceedings, but these
disqualifications have now been removed by statute, and the
circumstances which formerly created them do not affect the
competency, though they may often affect the credibility, of a
witness.
Under the general law as it stood before the Criminal Evidence
Act 1898 came into force, a person charged with an offence was
not competent to give evidence on his own behalf. But many
exceptions had been made to this rule by legislation, and the rule
itself was finally abolished by the act of 1898. Under that law
a person charged is a competent witness, but he can only give
evidence for the defence, and can only give evidence if he himself
applies to do so. Under the law as it stood before 1898, persons
jointly charged and being tried together were not competent to
give evidence either for or against each other. Under the act
of 1898 a person charged jointly with another is a competent
witness, but only for the defence, and not for the prosecution.
If, therefore, one of the persons charged applies to give evidence
his cross-examination must not be conducted with a view to
establish the guilt of the other. Consequently, if it is thought
20
EVIDENCE
desirable to use against one prisoner the evidence of another
who is being tried with him, the latter should be released, or a
separate verdict of not guilty taken against him. A prisoner so
giving evidence is popularly said to turn king's evidence. It
follows that, subject to what has been said above as to persons
tried together, the evidence of an accomplice is admissible
against his principal, and vice versa. The evidence of an accom-
plice is, however, always received with great jealousy and caution.
A conviction on the unsupported testimony of an accomplice
may, in some cases, be strictly legal, but the practice is to require
it to be confirmed by unimpeachable testimony in some material
part, and more especially as to his identification of the person or
persons against whom his evidence may be received. The wife
of a person charged is now a competent witness, but, except in
certain special cases, she can only give evidence for the defence,
and can only give evidence if her husband applies that she should
do so. The special cases in which a wife can be called as a
witness either for the prosecution or for the defence, and without
the consent of the person charged, are cases arising under parti-
cular enactments scheduled to the act of 1898, and relating
mainly to offences against wives and children, and cases in which
the wife is by common law a competent witness against her
husband, i.e. where the proceeding is against the husband for
bodily injury or violence inflicted on his wife. The rule of ex-
clusion extends only to a lawful wife. There is no ground for
supposing that the wife of a prosecutor is an incompetent witness.
A witness is incompetent if, in the opinion of the court, he is
prevented by extreme youth, disease affecting his mind, or any
other cause of the same kind, from recollecting the matter on
which he is to testify, from understanding the questions put to him,
from giving rational answers to those questions, or from knowing
that he ought to speak the truth. A witness unable to speak
or hear is not incompetent, but may give his evidence by writing
or by signs, or in any other manner in which he can make it in-
telligible. The particular form of the religious belief of a witness,
or his want of religious belief, does not affect his competency.
This ground of incompetency has now been finally removed by the
Oaths Act 1888. It will be seen that the effect of the successive
enactments which have gradually removed the disqualifications
attaching to various classes of witnesses has been to draw a
distinction between the competency of a witness and his credibility.
No person is disqualified on moral or religious grounds, but his
character may be such as to throw grave doubts on the value
of his evidence. No relationship, except to a limited extent that
of husband and wife, excludes from giving evidence. The parent
may be examined on the trial of the child, the child on that of
the parent, master for or against servant, and servant for or
against master. The relationship of the witness to the prose-
cutor or the prisoner in such cases may affect the credibility of
the witness, but does not exclude his evidence.
3. Privilege. It does not follow that, because a person is
competent to give evidence, he can therefore be compelled to
do so.
No one, except a person charged with an offence when giving
evidence on his own application, and as to the offence where-
with he is charged, is bound to answer a question if the answer
would, in the opinion of the court, have a tendency to expose
the witness, or the wife or husband of the witness, to any criminal
charge, penalty, or forfeiture, which the court regards as reason-
ably likely to be preferred or sued for. Accordingly, an accom-
plice cannot be examined without his consent, but if an accom-
plice who has come forward to give evidence on a promise of
pardon, or favourable consideration, refuses to give full and fair
information, he renders himself liable to be convicted on his
own confession. However, even accomplices in such circum-
stances are not required to answer on their cross-examination
as to other offences. Where, under the new law, a person charged
with an offence offers himself as a witness, he may be asked any
question in cross-examination, notwithstanding that it would
tend to criminate him as to the offence charged. But he may
not be asked, and if he is asked must not be required to answer,
any question tending to show that he has committed, or been
convicted of, or been charged with, any other offence, or is of
bad character, unless:
(i.) The proof that he has committed, or been convicted of, the
other offence is admissible evidence to show that he is
guilty of the offence with which he is then charged ; or,
(ii.) He has personally, or by his advocate, asked questions of
the witnesses for the prosecution, with a view to establish
his own good character, or has given evidence of his good
character, or the nature or conduct of the defence is such
as to involve imputations on the character of the prose-
cutor or the witnesses for the prosecution; or,
(iii.) He has given evidence against any other person charged
with the same offence.
He may not be asked questions tending to criminate his wife.
The privilege as to criminating answers does not cover answers
merely tending to establish a civil liability. No one is excused
from answering a question or producing a document only because
the answer or document may establish or tend to establish that
he owes a debt, or is otherwise liable to any civil proceeding.
It is a privilege for the protection of the witness, and therefore
may be waived by him. But there are other privileges which
cannot be so waived. Thus, on grounds of public policy, no one
can be compelled, or is allowed, to give evidence relating to any
affairs of state, or as to official communications between public
officers upon public affairs, except with the consent of the head
of the department concerned, and this consent is refused if the
production of the information asked for is considered detri-
mental to the public service.
Again, in cases in which the government is immediately con-
cerned, no witness can be compelled to answer any question the
answer to which would tend to discover the names of persons
by or to whom information was given as to the commission of
offences. It is, as a rule, for the court to decide whether the per-
mission of any such question would or would not, under the
circumstances of the particular case, be injurious to the ad-
ministration of justice.
A husband is not compellable to disclose any communication
made to him by his wife during the marriage; and a wife is not
compellable to disclose any communication made to her by her
husband during the marriage.
A legal adviser is not permitted, whether during or after the
termination of his employment as such, unless with his client's
express consent, to disclose any communication, oral or docu-
mentary, made to him as such legal adviser, by or on behalf of
his client, during, in the course of, and for the purpose of his
employment, or to disclose any advice given by him to his client
during, in the course of, and for the purpose of such employment.
But this protection does not extend to
(a) Any such communication if made in furtherance of any
criminal purpose; nor
(b) Any fact observed by a legal adviser in the course of his
employment as such, showing that any crime or fraud has been
committed since the commencement of his employment, whether
his attention was directed to such fact by or on behalf of his
client or not; nor
(c) Any fact with which the legal adviser became acquainted
otherwise than in his character as such.
Medical men and clergymen are not privileged from the dis-
closure of communications made to them in professional con-
fidence, but it is not usual to press for the disclosures of com-
munications made to clergymen.
4. Oaths. A witness must give his evidence under the sanction
of an oath, or of what is equivalent to an oath, that is to say, of
a solemn promise to speak the truth. The ordinary form of oath
is adapted to Christians, but a person belonging to a non-
Christian religion may be sworn in any form prescribed or
recognized by the custom of his religion. (See the article OATH.)
5. Publicity. The evidence of a witness at a trial must, as
a general rule, be given in open court in the course of the trial.
The secrecy which was such a characteristic feature of the
" inquisition " procedure is abhorrent to English law, and, even
where publicity conflicts with decency, English courts are very
reluctant to dispense with or relax the safeguards for justice
which publicity involves.
EVIL EYE
21
6. Examination. The normal course of procedure is this.
The party who begins, i.e. ordinarily the plaintiff or prosecutor,
calls his witnesses in order. Each witness is first examined on
behalf of the party for whom he is called. This is called the
examination in chief. Then he is liable to be cross-examined
on behalf of the other side. And, finally, he may be re-examined
on behalf of his own side. After the case for the other side has
been opened, the same procedure is adopted with the witnesses
for that side. In some cases the party who began is allowed to
adduce further evidence in reply to his opponent's evidence.
The examination is conducted, not by the court, but by or on
behalf of the contending parties. It will be seen that the prin-
ciple underlying this procedure is that of the duel, or conflict
between two contending parties, each relying on and using his
own evidence, and trying to break down the evidence of his
opponent. It differs from the principle of the " inquisition "
procedure, in which the court takes a more active part, and in
which the cases for the two sides are not so sharply distinguished.
In a continental trial it is often difficult to determine whether
the case for the prosecution or the case for the defence is proceed-
ing. Conflicting witnesses stand up together and are " con-
fronted " with each other. In the examination in chief questions
must be confined to matters bearing on the main question at
issue, and a witness must not be asked leading questions, i.e.
questions suggesting the answer which the person putting the
question wishes or expects to receive, or suggesting disputed
facts about which the witness is to testify. But the rule about
leading questions is not applied where the questions asked are
simply introductory, and form no part of the real substance of
the inquiry, or where they relate to matters which, though
material, are not disputed. And if the witness called by a person
appears to be directly hostile to him, or interested on the other
side, or unwilling to reply, the reason for the rules applying to
examination in chief breaks down, and the witness may be
asked leading questions and cross-examined, and treated in every
respect as though he was a witness called on the other side, except
that a party producing a witness must not impeach his credit by
general evidence of bad character (Evidence and Practice on
Criminal Trials Act 1865). In cross-examination questions not
bearing on the main issue and leading questions may be put and
(subject to the rules as to privilege) must be answered, as the
cross-examiner is entitled to test the examination in chief by
every means in his power. Questions not bearing on the main
issue are often asked in cross-examination merely for the purpose
of putting off his guard a witness who is supposed to have learnt
up his story. In cross-examination questions may also be asked
which tend either to test the accuracy or credibility of the
witness, or to shake his credit by impeaching his motives or in-
juring his character. The licence allowed in cross-examination has
often been seriously abused, and the power of the court to check
it is recognized by one of the rules of the supreme court (R.S.C.
xxxvi. 30, added in 1883). It is considered wrong to put
questions which assume that facts have been proved which have
not been proved, or that answers have been given contrary to
the fact. A witness ought not to be pressed in cross-examination
as to any facts which, if admitted, would not affect the question
at issue or the credibility of the witness. If the cross-examiner
intends to adduce evidence contrary to the evidence given by
the witness, he ought to put to the witness in cross-examination
the substance of the evidence which he proposes to adduce, in
order to give the witness an opportunity of retracting or explain-
ing. Where a witness has answered a question which only tends
to affect his credibility by injuring his character, it is only in a
limited number of cases that evidence can be given to contra-
dict his answer. Where he is asked whether he has ever been
convicted of any felony or misdemeanour, and denies or refuses
to answer, proof may be given of the truth of the facts suggested
(28 & 29 Viet. c. 15, s. 6). The same rule is observed where
he is asked a question tending to show that he is not impartial.
Where a witness has previously made a statement inconsistent
with his evidence, proof may be given that he did in fact make
it. But before such proof is given the circumstances of the alleged
statement, sufficient to designate the particular occasion, must
be mentioned to the witness, and he must be asked whether he
did or did not make the statement. And if the statement was
made in, or has been reduced to, writing, the attention of the
witness must, before the writing is used against him, be called to
those parts of the writing which are to be used for the purpose of
contradicting him (Evidence and Practice on Criminal Trials Act
1865, ss. 4, 5). The credibility of a witness may be impeached
by the evidence of persons who swear that they, from their
knowledge of the witness, believe him to be unworthy of
credit on his oath. These persons may not on their examina-
tion in chief give reasons for their belief, but they may be
asked their reasons in cross-examination, and their answers
cannot be contradicted. When the credit of a witness is so
impeached, the party who called the witness may give evidence
in reply to show that the witness is worthy of credit. Re-
examination must be directed exclusively to the explanation
of matters referred to in cross-examination, and if new matter
is, by the permission of the court, introduced in re-examination,
the other side may further cross-examine upon it. A witness
under examination may refresh his memory by referring to any
writing made by himself at or about the time of the occurrence
to which the writing relates, or made by any other person, and
read and found accurate by the witness at or about the time.
An expert may refresh his memory by reference to professional
treatises.
For the history of the English law of evidence, see Brunner,
Entstehung der Schwurgerichte; Bigelow, History of Procedure in
England; Stephen (Sir J. F.), History of the Criminal Law of England;
Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, bk. ii. ch. ix. ;
Thayer, Preliminary Treatise on Evidence at the Common Law. The
principal text-books now in use are Roscoe, Digest of the Law of
Evidence on the Trial of Actions at Nisi Prius (i8th ed., 1907);
Roscoe, Digest of the Law of Evidence in Criminal Cases (i3th ed.,
1908); Taylor, Treatise on the Law of Evidence (loth ed., 1906);
Best, Principles of the Law of Evidence (loth ed., 1906); Powell,
Principles and Practice of the Law of Evidence (8th ed., 1904);
Stephen, Digest of the Law of Evidence (8th ed., 1907) ; Wills, Theory
and Practice of the Law of Evidence (1907). For the history of the law
of criminal evidence in France, see Esmein, Hist, de la procedure
criminelle en France. For Germany, see Holtzendorff, Encyclopiidie
der Rechtswissenschaft (passages indexed under head " JBeweis ") ;
Holtzendorff, Rechtslexikon (" Beweis "). (C. P. I.)
EVIL EYE. The terror of the arts of " fascination," i.e. that
certain persons can bewitch, injure and even kill with a glance,
has been and is still very widely spread. The power was not
thought to be always maliciously cultivated. It was as often
supposed to be involuntary (cf. Deuteronomy xxviii. 54); and
a story is told of a Slav who, afflicted with the evil eye, at last
blinded himself in order that he might not be the means of injur-
ing his children (Woyciki, Polish Folklore, trans, by Lewenstein,
p. 25). Few of the old classic writers fail to refer to the dread
power. In Rome the " evil eye " was so well recognized that
Pliny states that special laws were enacted against injury to
crops by incantation, excantation or fascination. The power
was styled fta.aKa.via by the Greeks and fascinatio by the Latins.
Children and young animals of all kinds were thought to be speci-
ally susceptible. Charms were worn against the evil eye both
by man and beast, and in Judges viii. 21 it is thought there is
a reference to this custom in the allusion to the " ornaments "
on the necks of camels. In classic times the wearing of amulets
was universal. They were of three classes: (i) those the in-
tention of which was to attract on to themselves, as the light-
ning-rod the lightning, the malignant glance; (2) charms hidden
in the bosom of the dress; (3) written words from sacred writ-
ings. Of these three types the first was most numerous. They
were oftenest of a grotesque and generally grossly obscene nature.
They were also made in the form of frogs, beetles and so on.
But the ancients did not wholly rely on amulets. Spitting was
among the Greeks and Romans a most common antidote to the
poison of the evil eye. According to Theocritus it is necessary
to spit three times into the breast of the person who fears] fascina-
tion. Gestures, too, often intentionally obscene, Vere regarded
as prophylactics on meeting the dreaded individual. The evil
eye was believed to have its impulse in envy, and thus it came
22
EVOLUTION
[HISTORY
to be regarded as unlucky to have any of your possessions praised.
Among the Romans, therefore, it was customary when praising
anything to add Praefiscini dixerim (Fain Evil! I should say).
This custom survives in modern Italy, where in like circumstances
is said Si mal occhio non ci fosse (May the evil eye not strike it).
The object of these conventional phrases was to prove that the
speaker was sincere and had no evil designs in his praise. Though
there is no set formula, traces of the custom are found in English
rural sayings, e.g. the Somersetshire " I don't wish ee no harm,
so I on't zay no more." This is what the Scots call " fore-
speaking," when praise beyond measure is likely to be followed
by disease or accident. A Manxman will never say he is very
well: he usually admits that he is " middling," or qualifies his ad-
mission of good health by adding " now " or " just now." The
belief led in many countries to the saying, when one heard any-
body or anything praised superabundantly, " God preserve him
or it." So in Ireland, to avoid being suspected of having the evil
eye, it is advisable when looking at a child to say " God bless it";
and when passing a farm-yard where cows are collected at milking
time it is usual for the peasant to say, " The blessing of God be
on you and all your labour." Bacon writes: " It seems some
have been so curious as to note that the times when the stroke
... of an envious eye does most hurt are particularly when
the party envied is beheld in glory and triumph."
The powers of the evil eye seem indeed to have been most
feared by the prosperous. Its powers are often quoted as almost
limitless. Thus one record solemnly declares that in a town
of Africa a fascinator called Elzanar killed by his evil art no less
than 80 people in two years (W. W. Story, Castle St Angela,
1877, p. 149). The belief as affecting cattle was universal in the
Scottish Highlands as late as the i8th century and still lingers.
Thus if a stranger looks admiringly on a cow the peasants still
think she will waste away, and they offer the visitor some of her
milk to drink in the belief that in this manner the spell is broken.
The modern Turks and Arabs also think that their horses and
camels are subject to the evil eye. But the people of Italy,
especially the Neapolitans, are the best modern instances of
implicit believers. The jettatore, as the owner of the evil eye is
called, is #o feared that at his approach it is scarcely an ex-
aggeration to say that a street will clear: everybody will rush
into doorways or up alleys to avoid the dreaded glance. The
jettatore di bambini (fascinator of children) is the most dreaded
of all. The evil eye is still much feared for horses in India,
China, Turkey, Greece and almost everywhere where horses are
found. In rural England the pig is of all animals oftenest
" overlooked." While the Italians are perhaps the greatest
believers in the evil eye as affecting persons, the superstition
is rife in the East. In India the belief is universal. In Bombay
the blast of the evil eye is supposed to be a form of spirit-pos-
session. In western India all witches and wizards are said to
be evil-eyed. Modern Egyptian mothers thus account for the
sickly appearance of their babies. In Turkey passages from
the Koran are painted on the outside of houses to save the in-
mates, and texts as amulets are worn upon the person, or hung
upon camels and horses by Arabs, Abyssinians and other
peoples. The superstition is universal among savage races.
For a full discussion see Evil Eye by F. T. Elworthy (London,
1895); also W. W. Story, Castle St Angela and the Evil Eye (1877);
E. N. Rolfe and H. Ingleby, Naples in 1888 (1888); Johannes
Christian Frommann, Tractatus de fascinatione novus et singularis,
&c., &c. (Nuremburg, 1675) ; R. C. Maclagan, Evil Eye in the Western
Highlands (1902).
EVOLUTION. The modern doctrine of evolution or " evolv-
ing," as opposed to that of simple creation, has been denned by
Prof. James Sully in the pth edition of this encyclopaedia as a
" natural history of the cosmos including organic beings, ex-
pressed in physical terms as a mechanical process." The follow-
ing exposition of the historical development of the doctrine is
taken from Sully's article, and for the most part is in his own
words.
In the modern doctrine of evolution the cosmic system appears
as a natural product of elementary matter and its laws. The
various grades of life on our planet are the natural consequences
of certain physical processes involved in the gradual transfor-
mations of the earth. Conscious life is viewed as conditioned by
physical (organic and more especially nervous) processes, and
as evolving itself in close correlation with organic evolution.
Finally, human development, as exhibited in historical and pre-
historical records, is regarded as the highest and most complex
result of organic and physical evolution. This modern doctrine
of evolution is but an expansion and completion of those physical
theories (see below) which opened the history of speculation.
It differs from them in being grounded on exact and verified
research. As such, moreover, it is a much more limited theory
of evolution than the ancient. It does not necessarily concern
itself about the question of the infinitude of worlds in space and
in time. It is content to explain the origin and course of develop-
ment of the world, the solar or, at most, the sidereal system
which falls under our own observation. It would be difficult to
say what branches of science had done most towards the establish-
ment of this doctrine. We must content ourselves by referring
to the progress of physical (including chemical) theory, which has
led to the great generalization of the conservation of energy; to
the discovery of the fundamental chemical identity of the matter
of our planet and of other celestial bodies, and of the chemical
relations of organic and inorganic bodies; to the advance of
astronomical speculation respecting the origin of the solar system,
&c.; to the growth of the science of geology which has necessi-
tated the conception of vast and unimaginable periods of time
in the past history of our globe, and to the rapid march of the
biological sciences which has made us familiar with the simplest
types and elements of organism; finally, to the development
of the science of anthropology (including comparative psycho-
logy, philology, &c.), and to the vast extension and improvement
of all branches of historical study.
History of the Idea of Evolution. The doctrine of evolution
in its finished and definite form is a modern product. It required
for its formation an amount of scientific knowledge which could
only be very gradually acquired. It is vain, therefore, to look
for clearly defined and systematic presentations of the idea among
ancient writers. On the other hand, nearly all systems of philo-
sophy have discussed the underlying problems. Such questions
as the origin of the cosmos as a whole, the production of organic
beings and of conscious minds, and the meaning of the observable
grades of creation, have from the dawn of speculation occupied
men's minds; and the answers to these questions often imply a
vague recognition of the idea of a gradual evolution of things.
Accordingly, in tracing the antecedents of the modern philosophic
doctrine we shall have to glance at most of the principal systems
of cosmology, ancient and modern. Yet since in these systems
inquiries into the esse and fieri of the world are rarely distin-
guished with any precision, it will be necessary to indicate
very briefly the general outlines of the system so far as they
are necessary for understanding their bearing on the problems
of evolution.
Mythological Interpretation. The problem of the origin of the
world was the first to engage man's speculative activity. Nor
was this line of inquiry pursued simply as a step in the more
practical problem of man's final destiny. The order of ideas
observable in children suggests the reflection that man began to
discuss the "whence" of existence before the "whither." At
first, as in the case of the child, the problem of the genesis of
things was conceived anthropomorphically: the question
" How did the world arise?" first shaped itself to the human
mind under the form " Who made the world?" As long as the
problem was conceived in this simple manner there was, of course,
no room for the idea of a necessary self-conditioned evolution.
Yet the first indistinct germ of such an idea appears to emerge
in combination with that of creation in some of the ancient
systems of theogony. Thus, for example, in the myth of the
ancient Parsees, the gods Ormuzd and Ahriman are said to
evolve themselves out of a primordial matter. It may be sup-
posed that these crude fancies embody a dim recognition of the
physical forces and objects personified under the forms of deities,
and a rude attempt to account for their genesis as a natural
HISTORY]
EVOLUTION
process. These first unscientific ideas of a genesis of the per-
manent objects of nature took as their pattern the process of
organic reproduction and development, and this, not only
because these objects were regarded as personalities, but also
because this particular mode of becoming would most impress
these early observers. This same way of looking at the origin
of the material world is illustrated in the Egyptian notion of a
cosmic egg out of which issues the god (Phta) who creates the
world.
Indian Philosophy. Passing from mythology to speculation
properly so called, we find in the early systems of philosophy of
India theories of emanation which approach in some respects
the idea of evolution. Brahma is conceived as the eternal self-
existent being, which on its material side unfolds itself to the
world by gradually condensing itself to material objects through
the gradations of ether, fire, water, earth and the elements. At
the same time this eternal being is conceived as the all-embracing
world-soul from which emanates the hierarchy of individual
souls. In the later system of emanation of Sankhya there is a
more marked approach to a materialistic doctrine of evolution.
If, we are told, we follow the chain of causes far enough back
we reach unlimited eternal creative nature or matter. Out of
this " principal thing " or " original nature " all material and
spiritual existence issues, and into it will return. Yet this prim-
ordial creative nature is endowed with volition with regard to
its own development. Its first emanation as plastic nature
contains the original soul or deity out of which all individual
souls issue.
Early Greek Physicists. Passing by Buddhism, which, though
teaching the periodic destruction of our world by fire, &c., does
not seek to determine the ultimate origin of the cosmos, we come
to those early Greek physical philosophers who distinctly set
themselves to eliminate the idea of divine interference with the
world by representing its origin and changes as a natural process.
The early Ionian physicists, including Thales, Anaximander and
Anaximenes, seek to explain the world as generated out of a
primordial matter (Gr. uXrj; hence the name " Hylozoists "),
which is at the same time the universal support of things. This
substance is endowed with a generative or transmutative force
by virtue of which it passes into a succession of forms. They
thus resemble modern evolutionists, since they regard the world
with its infinite variety of forms as issuing from a simple mode
of matter. More especially the cosmology of Anaximander
resembles the modern doctrine of evolution in its conception of
the indeterminate ( TO aireipov ) out of which the particular forms
of the cosmos are differentiated. Again, Anaximander may be
said to prepare the way for more modern conceptions of material
evolution by regarding his primordial substance as eternal, and
by looking on all generation as alternating with destruction,
each step of the process being of course simply a transformation
of the indestructible substance. Once more, the notion that
this indeterminate body contains potentially in itself the funda-
mental contraries hot, cold, &c. by the excretion or evolution
of which definite substances were generated, is clearly a fore-
casting of that antithesis of potentiality and actuality which
from Aristotle downwards has been made the basis of so many
theories of development. In conclusion, it is noteworthy that
though resorting to utterly fanciful hypotheses respecting the
order of the development of the world, Anaximander agrees with
modern evolutionists in conceiving the heavenly bodies as
arising out of an aggregation of diffused matter, and in assigning
to organic life an origin in the inorganic materials of the primitive
earth (pristine mud). The doctrine of Anaximenes, who unites
the conceptions of a determinate and indeterminate original
substance adopted by Thales and Anaximander in the hypothesis
of a primordial and all-generating air, is a clear advance on these
theories, inasmuch as it introduces the scientific idea of con-
densation and rarefaction as the great generating or transforming
agencies. For the rest, his theory is chiefly important as em-
phasizing the vital character of the original substance. The
primordial air is conceived as animated. Anaximenes seems
to have inclined to a view of cosmic evolution as throughout
involving a quasi-spiritual factor. This idea of the air as the
original principle and source of life and intelligence is much
more clearly expressed by a later writer, Diogenes of Apollonia.
Diogenes made this conception of a vital and intelligent air the
ground of a teleological view of climatic and atmospheric pheno-
mena. It is noteworthy that he sought to establish the identity
of organic and inorganic matter by help of the facts of vegetal
and animal nutrition. Diogenes distinctly taught'that the world
is of finite duration, and will be renewed out of the primitive
substance.
Heraclitus again deserves a prominent place in a history of
the idea of evolution. Heraclitus conceives of the incessant
process of flux in which all things are involved as consisting of
two sides or moments generation and decay which are re-
garded as a confluence of opposite streams. In thus making
transition or change, viewed as the identity of existence and
non-existence, the leading idea of his system, Heraclitus antici-
pated in some measure Hegel's peculiar doctrine of evolution
as a dialectic process. 1 At the same time we may find expressed
in figurative language the germs of thoughts which enter into
still newer doctrines of evolution. For example, the notion of
conflict (TroXe/ios) as the father of all things and of harmony as
arising out of a union of discords, and again of an endeavour by
individual things to maintain themselves in permanence against
the universal process of destruction and renovation, cannot but
remind one of certain fundamental ideas in Darwin's theory of
evolution.
Empedocles. Empedocles took an important step in the direc-
tion of modern conceptions of physical evolution by teaching that
all things arise, not by transformations of some primitive form of
matter, but by various combinations of a number of permanent
elements. Further, by maintaining that the elements are con-
tinually being combined and separated by the two forces love
and hatred, which appear to represent in a figurative way the
physical forces of attraction and repulsion, Empedocles may be
said to have made a considerable advance in the construction
of the idea of evolution as a strictly mechanical process. It
may be observed, too, that the hypothesis of a primitive com-
pact mass (sphaerus), in which love (attraction) is supreme,
has some curious points of similarity to, and contrast with, that
notion of a primitive nebulous matter with which the modern
doctrine of cosmic evolution usually sets out. Empedocles tries
to explain the genesis of organic beings, and, according to Lange,
anticipates the idea of Darwin that adaptations abound, because
it is their nature to perpetuate themselves. He further recog-
nizes a progress in the production of vegetable and animal forms,
though this part of his theory is essentially crude and unscientific.
More important in relation to the modern problems of evolution
is his thoroughly materialistic way of explaining the origin of
sensation and knowledge by help of his peculiar hypothesis of
effluvia and pores. The supposition that sensation thus rests
on a material process of absorption from external bodies natur-
ally led up to the idea that plants and even inorganic subtances
are precipient, and so to an indistinct recognition of organic life
as a scale of intelligence.
Atomists. In the theory of Atomism taught by Leucippus
and Democritus we have the basis of the modern mechanical
conceptions of cosmic evolution. Here the endless harmonious
diversity of our cosmos, as well as of other worlds supposed to
coexist with our own, is said to arise through the various com-
bination of indivisible material elements differing in figure and
magnitude only. The force which brings the atoms together in
the forms of objects is inherent in the elements, and all their
motions are necessary. The origin of things, which is also their
substance, is thus laid in the simplest and most homogeneous
elements or principles. The real world thus arising consists only
of diverse combinations of atoms, having the properties of
magnitude, figure, weight and hardness, all other qualities being
relative only to the sentient organism. The problem of the
genesis of mind is practically solved by identifying the soul,
1 This is brought out by F. Lassalle, Die Philosophic Herakleitos,
p. 126.
EVOLUTION
[HISTORY
or vital principle, with heat or fire which pervades in unequal
proportions, not only man and animals, but plants and nature
as a whole, and through the agitation of which by incoming
effluvia all sensation arises.
Aristotle. Aristotle is much nearer a conception of evolution
than his master Plato. It is true he sets out with a transcendent
Deity, and follows Plato in viewing the creation of the cosmos
as a process of descent from the more to the less perfect accord-
ing to the distance from the original self-moving agency. Yet
on the whole Aristotle leans to a teleo logical theory of evolution,
which he interprets dualistually by means of certain meta-
physical distinctions. Thus even his idea of the relation of the
divine activity to the world shows a tendency to a pantheistic
notion of a divine thought which gradually realizes itself in the
process of becoming. Aristotle's distinction of form and matter,
and his conception of becoming as a transition from actuality
to potentiality, provides a new ontological way of conceiving
the process of material and organic evolution. 1 To Aristotle
the whole of nature is instinct with a vital impulse towards some
higher manifestation. Organic life presents itself to him as a
progressive scale of complexity determined by its final end,
namely, man. 2 In some respects Aristotle approaches the
modern view of evolution. Thus, though he looked on species
as fixed, being the realization of an unchanging formative prin-
ciple (tj>vais), he seems, as Ueberweg observes, to have inclined
to entertain the possibility of a spontaneous generation in the
case of the lowest organisms. Aristotle's teleological concep-
tion of organic evolution often approaches modern mechanical
conceptions. Thus he says that nature fashions organs in the
order of their necessity, the first being those essential to life.
So, too, in his psychology he speaks of the several degrees of
mind as arising according to a progressive necessity. 3 In his
view of touch and taste, as the two fundamental and essential
senses, he may remind one of Herbert Spencer's doctrine. At
the same time Aristotle precludes the idea of a natural develop-
ment of the mental series by the supposition that man contains,
over and above a natural finite soul inseparable from the body,
a substantial and eternal principle (vovs) which enters into the
individual from without. Aristotle's brief suggestions respect-
ing the origin of society and governments in the Politics show a
leaning to a naturalistic interpretation of human history as a
development conditioned by growing necessities.
Strata. Of Aristotle's immediate successors one deserves
to be noticed here, namely, Strato of Lampsacus, who de-
veloped his master's cosmology into a system of naturalism.
Strato appears to reject Aristotle's idea of an original source
of movement and life extraneous to the world in favour of an
immanent principle. All parts of matter have an inward plastic
life whereby they can fashion themselves to the best advantage,
according to their capability, though not with consciousness.
The Stoics. In the cosmology of the Stoics we have the germ
of a monistic and pantheistic conception of evolution. All things
are said to be developed out of an original being, which is at once
material (fire) and spiritual (the Deity), and in turn they will
dissolve back into this primordial source. At the same time the
world as a developed whole is regarded as an organism which is
permeated with the divine Spirit, and so we may say that the
world-process is a self-realization of the divine Being. The forma-
tive principle or force of the world is said to contain the several
rational germinal forms of things. Individual things are sup-
posed to arise out of the original being, as animals and plants out
of seeds. Individual souls are an efflux from the all-compassing
world-soul. The necessity in the world's order is regarded by
the Stoics as identical with the divine reason, and this idea is
used as the basis of a teleological and optimistic view of nature.
Very curious, in relation to modern evolutional ideas, is the
Stoical doctrine that our world is but one of a series of exactly
1 Zeller says that through this distinction Aristotle first made
possible the idea of development.
* See this well brought out in G. H. Lewes's Aristotle, p. 187.
3 Grote calls attention to the contrast between Plato's and Aris-
totle's way of conceiving the gradations of mind (Aristotle, ii. 171).
identical ones, all of which are destined to be burnt up and
destroyed.
The Epicureans Lucretius. The Epicureans differed from
the Stoics by adopting a purely mechanical view of the world-
process. Their fundamental conception is that of Democritus;
they seek to account for the formation of the cosmos, with its
order and regularity, by setting out with the idea of an original
(vertical) motion of the atoms, which somehow or other results
in movements towards and from one another. Our world is but
one of an infinite number of others, and all the harmonies and
adaptations of the universe are regarded as a special case of the
infinite possibilities of mechanical events. Lucretius regards the
primitive atoms (first beginnings or first bodies) as seeds out
of which individual things are developed. All living and sentient
things are formed out of insentient atoms (e.g. worms spring out
of dung). The peculiarity of organic and sentient bodies is due
to the minuteness and shape of their particles, and to their special
motions and combinations. So, too, mind consists but of ex-
tremely fine particles of matter, and dissolves into air when the
body dies. Lucretius traces, in the fifth book of his poem, the
progressive genesis of vegetal and animal forms out of the mother-
earth. He vaguely anticipates the modern idea of the world
as a survival of the fittest when he says that many races may
have lived and died out, and that those which still exist have
been protected either by craft, courage or speed. Lucretius
touches on the development of man out of a primitive, hardy,
beast-like condition. Pregnant hints are given respecting a
natural development of language which has its germs in sounds
of quadrupeds and birds, of religious ideas out of dreams and
waking hallucinations, and of the art of music by help of the
suggestion of natural sounds. Lucretius thus recognizes the
whole range of existence to which the doctrine of evolution may
be applied.
Neoplatonists. In the doctrines of the Neoplatonists, of
whom Plotinus is the most important, we have the world-
process represented after the example of Plato as a series of
descending steps, each being less perfect than its predecessors,
since it is further removed from the first cause. 4 The system
of Plotinus, Zellar remarks, is not strictly speaking one of
emanation, since there is no communication of the divine
essence to the created world; yet it resembles emanation inas-
much as the genesis of the world is conceived as a necessary
physical effect, and not as the result of volition. In Proclus we
find this conception of an emanation of the world out of the
Deity, or the absolute, made more exaot, the process being re-
garded as threefold (i) persistence of cause in effect, (2) the
departure of effect from cause, and (3) the tendency of effect to
revert to its cause.
The Fathers. The speculations of the fathers respecting
the origin and course of the world seek to combine Christian
ideas of the Deity with doctrines of Greek philosophy. The
common idea of the origin of things is that of an absolute creation
of matter and mind alike. The course of human history is
regarded by those writers who are most concerned to refute
Judaism as a progressive divine education. Among the Gnostics
we meet with the hypothesis of emanation, as, for example, in
the curious cosmic theory of Valentinus.
Middle Ages Early Schoolmen. In the speculative writings
of the middle ages, including those of the schoolmen, we find
no progress towards a more accurate and scientific view of nature.
The cosmology of this period consists for the most part of the
Aristotelian teleological view of nature combined with the
Christian idea of the Deity and His relation to the world. In
certain writers, however, there appears a more elaborate trans-
formation of the doctrine of creation into a system of emanation.
According to John Scotus Erigena, the nothing out of which the
world is created is the divine essence. Creation is the act by
which God passes through the primordial causes, or universal
ideas, into the region of particular things (processio), in order
finally to return to himself (reversio). The transition from the
* Zeller observes that this scale of decreasing perfection is a
necessary consequence of the idea of a transcendent deity.
HISTORY]
EVOLUTION
universal to the particular is of course conceived as a descent
or degradation. A similar doctrine of emanation is to be found
in the writings of Bernhard of Chartres, who conceives the
process of the unfolding of the world as a movement in a circle
from the most general to the individual, and from this back to
the most general. This movement is said to go forth from God
to the animated heaven, stars, visible world and man, which
represent decreasing degrees of cognition.
Arab Philosophers. Elaborate doctrines of emanation, largely
based on Neoplatonic ideas, are also propounded by some of
the Arabic philosophers, as by FarabI and Avicenna. The
leading thought is that of a descending series of intelligences,
each emanating from its predecessor, and having its appropriate
region in the universe.
Jewish Philosophy. In the Jewish speculations of the middle
ages may be found curious forms of the doctrine of emanations
uniting the Biblical idea of creation with elements drawn from
the Persians and the Greeks. In the later and developed form
of the Kabbala, the origin of the world is represented as a gradu-
ally descending emanation of the lower out of the higher. Among
the philosophic Jews, the Spanish Avicebron, in his Fans Vitae,
expounds a curious doctrine of emanation. Here the divine will
is viewed as an efflux from the divine wisdom, as the inter-
mediate link between God, the first substance, and all things,
and as the fountain out of which all forms emanate. At the
same time all forms, including the higher intelligible ones, are
said to have their existence only in matter. Matter is the one
universal substance, body and mind being merely specifica-
tions of this. Thus Avicebron approaches, as Salomon Munk
observes, 1 a pantheistic conception of the world, though he
distinctly denies both matter and form to God.
Later Scholastics. Passing now to the later schoolmen, a bare
mention must be made of Thomas Aquinas, who elaborately
argues for the absolute creation of the world out of nothing, and
of Albertus Magnus, who reasons against the Aristotelian idea
of the past eternity of the world. More importance attaches to
Duns Scotus, who brings prominently forward the idea of a
progressive development in nature by means of a process of
determination. The original substance of the world is the
materia primo-prima, which is the immediate creation of the
Deity. This serves Duns Scotus as the most universal basis
of existence, all angels having material bodies. This matter
is differentiated into particular things (which are not privations
but perfections) through the addition of an individualizing
principle (haecceitas) to the universal (quidditas) . The whole
world is represented by the figure of a tree, of which the seeds
and roots are the first indeterminate matter, the leaves the
accidents, the twigs and branches corruptible creatures, the
blossoms the rational soul, and the fruit pure spirits or angels.
It is also described as a bifurcation of two twigs, mental and
bodily creation out of a common root. One might almost say
that Duns Scotus recognizes the principle of a gradual physical
evolution, only that he chooses to represent the mechanism by
which the process is brought about by means of quaint scholastic
fictions.
Revival of Learning. The period of the revival of learning,
which was also that of a renewed study of nature, is marked by
a considerable amount of speculation respecting the origin of
the universe. In some of these we see a return to Greek theories,
though the influence of physical discoveries, more especially those
of Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo, is distinctly traceable.
Telesio. An example of a return to early Greek speculation
is to be met with in Bernardino Telesio. By this writer the world
is explained as a product of three principles dead matter, and
two active forces, heat and cold. Terrestrial things arise through
a confluence of heat, which issues from the heavens, and cold,
which comes from the earth. Both principles have sensibility,
and thus all products of their collision are sentient, that is, feel
pleasure and pain. The superiority of animals to plants and
metals in the possession of special organs of sense is connected
with the greater complexity and heterogeneity of their structure.
1 Melanges de philosophic jtiive et arabe, p. 225.
Giordano Bruno. In the system of Giordano Bruno, who
sought to construct a philosophy of nature on the basis of new
scientific ideas, more particularly the doctrine of Copernicus,
we find the outlines of a theory of cosmic evolution conceived
as an essentially vital process. Matter and form are here identi-
fied, and the evolution of the world is presented as the unfolding
of the world-spirit to its perfect forms according to the plastic
substratum (matter) which is but one of its sides. This process
of change is conceived as a transformation, in appearance only,
of the real unchanging substance (matter and form). All parts
of matter are capable of developing into all forms; thus the
materials of the table and chair may under proper circumstances
be developed to the life of the plant or of the animal. The
elementary parts of existence are the minima, or monads, which
are at once material and mental. On their material side they are
not absolutely unextended, but spherical. Bruno looked on our
solar system as but one out of an infinite number of worlds.
His theory of evolution is essentially pantheistic, and he does not
employ his hypothesis of monads in order to work out a more
mechanical conception.
Campanella. A word must be given to one of Bruno's con-
temporary compatriots, namely Campanella, who gave poetic
expression to that system of universal vitalism which Bruno
developed. He argues, from the principle quicquid est in ejfectibus
esse et in causis, that the elements and the whole world have
sensation, and thus he appears to derive the organic part of
nature out of the so-called " inorganic."
Boehme. Another writer of this transition period deserves
a passing reference here, namely, Jacob Boehme the mystic,
who by his conception of a process of inner diremption as the
essential character of all mind, and so of God, prepared the
way for later German theories of the origin of the world as
the self-differentiation and self-externalization of the absolute
spirit.
Hobbes and Gassendi. The influence of an advancing study of
nature, which was stimulated if not guided by Bacon's writings,
is seen in the more careful doctrines of materialism worked out
almost simultaneously by Hobbes and Gassendi. These theories,
however, contain little that bears directly on the hypothesis of
a natural evolution of things. In the view of Hobbes, the
difficulty of the genesis of conscious minds is solved by saying
that sensation and thought are part of the reaction of the organ-
ism on external movement. Yet Hobbes appears (as Clarke
points out) to have vaguely felt the difficulty; and in a passage
of his Physics (chap. 25, sect. 5) he says that the universal exist-
ence of sensation in matter cannot be disproved, though he
shows that when there are no organic arrangements the mental
side of the movement (phantasma) is evanescent. The theory
of the origin of society put forth by Hobbes, though directly
opposed in most respects to modern ideas of social evolution,
deserves mention here by reason of its enforcing that principle
of struggle (helium omnium contra omnes) which has played
so conspicuous a part in the modern doctrine of evolution.
Gassendi, with some deviations, follows Epicurus in his theory
of the formation of the world. The world consists of a finite
number of atoms, which have in their own nature a self-moving
force or principle. These atoms, which are the seeds of all things,
are, however, not eternal but created by God. Gassendi dis-
tinctly argues against the existence of a world-soul or a principle
of life in nature.
Descartes. In the philosophy of Descartes we meet with a
dualism of mind and matter which does not easily lend itself
to the conception of evolution. His doctrine that consciousness
is confined to man, the lower animals being unconscious machines
(automata), excludes all idea of a progressive development of
mind. Yet Descartes, in his Principia Philosophiae, laid the
foundation of the modern mechanical conception of nature and
of physical evolution. In the third part of this work he inclines
to a thoroughly natural hypothesis respecting the genesis of the
physical world, and adds in the fourth part that the same kind
of explanation might be applied to the nature and formation
of plants and animals. He is indeed careful to keep right with
26
EVOLUTION
[HISTORY
the orthodox doctrine of creation by saying that he does not
believe the world actually arose in this mechanical way out of
the three kinds of elements which he here supposes, but that he
simply puts out his hypothesis as a mode of conceiving how it
might have arisen. Descartes's account of the mind and its
passions is thoroughly materialistic, and to this extent he works
in the direction of a materialistic explanation of the origin of
mental life.
Spinoza. In Spinoza's pantheistic theory of the world, which
regards thought and extension as but two sides of one substance,
the problem of becoming is submerged in that of being. Al-
though Spinoza's theory attributes a mental side to all physical
events, he rejects all teleological conceptions and explains the
order of things as the result of an inherent necessity. He recog-
nizes gradations of things according to the degree of complexity
of their movements and that of their conceptions. To Spinoza
(as Kuno Fischer observes) man differs from the rest of nature
in the degree only and not in the kind of his powers. So far
Spinoza approaches the conception of evolution. He may be
said to furnish a further contribution to a metaphysical con-
ception of evolution in his view of all finite individual things
as the infinite variety to which the unlimited productive power
of the universal substance gives birth. Sir F. Pollock has
taken pains to show how nearly Spinoza approaches certain
ideas contained in the modern doctrine of evolution, as for
example that of self-preservation as the determining force in
things.
Locke. In Locke we find, with a retention of certain anti-
evolutionist ideas, a marked tendency to this mode of viewing
the world. To Locke the universe is the result of a direct act of
creation, even matter being limited in duration and created.
Even if matter were eternal it would, he thinks, be incapable of
producing motion; and if motion is itself conceived as eternal,
thought can never begin to be. The first eternal being is thus
spiritual or " cogitative," and contains in itself all the perfections
that can ever after exist. He repeatedly insists on the impos-
sibility of senseless matter putting on sense. 1 Yet while thus
placing himself at a point of view opposed to that of a gradual
evolution of the organic world, Locke prepared the way for this
doctrine in more ways than one. First of all, his genetic method
as applied to the mind's ideas which kid the foundations of
English analytical psychology was a step in the direction of
a conception of mental life as a gradual evolution. Again he
works towards the same end in his celebrated refutation of the
scholastic theory of real specific essences. In this argument he
emphasizes the vagueness of the boundaries which mark off
organic species with a view to show that these do not correspond
to absolutely fixed divisions in the objective world, that they
are made by the mind, not by nature. 2 This idea of the continuity
of species is developed more fully in a remarkable passage
(Essay, bk. iii. ch. vi. 12), where he is arguing in favour of the
hypothesis, afterwards elaborated by Leibnitz, of a graduated
series of minds (species of spirits) from the Deity down to the
lowest animal intelligence. He here observes that " all quite
down from us the descent is by easy steps, and a continued
series of things, that in each remove differ very little from one
another." Thus man approaches the beasts, and the animal
kingdom is nearly joined with the vegetable, and so on down
to the lowest and " most inorganical parts of matter." Finally,
it is to be observed that Locke had a singularly clear view of
organic arrangements (which of course he explained according
to a theistic teleology) as an adaptation to the circumstances
of the environment or to " the neighbourhood of the bodies that
surround us." Thus he suggests that man has not eyes of a
microscopic delicacy, because he would receive no great advan-
tage from such acute organs, since though adding indefinitely
to his speculative knowledge of the physical world they would
1 Yet he leaves open the question whether the Deity has annexed
thought to matter as a faculty, or whether it rests on a distinct
spiritual principle.
1 Locke half playfully touches on certain monsters, with respect
to which it is difficult to determine whether they ought to be called
men. (Essay, book iii. ch. vi. sect. 26, 27.)
not practically benefit their possessor (e.g. by enabling him to
avoid things at a convenient distance). 3
Idea of Progress in History. Before leaving the I7th century
we must just refer to the writers who laid the foundations of the
essentially modern conception of human history as a gradual
upward progress. According to Flint, 4 there were four men who
in this and the preceding century seized and made prominent
this idea, namely, Bodin, Bacon, Descartes and Pascal. The
former distinctly argues against the idea of a deterioration of
man in the past. In this way we see that just as advancing
natural science was preparing the way for a doctrine of physical
evolution, so advancing historical research was leading to the
application of a similar idea to the collective human life.
English Writers of the i8th Century Hume. The theological
discussions which make up so large a part of the English specu-
lation of the i8th century cannot detain us here. There is,
however, one writer who sets forth so clearly the alternative
suppositions respecting the origin of the world that he claims a
brief notice. We refer to David Hume. In his Dialogues con-
cerning Natural Religion he puts forward tentatively, in the
person of one of his interlocutors, the ancient hypothesis that
since the world resembles an animal or vegetal organism rather
than a machine, it might more easily be accounted for by a pro-
cess of generation than by an act of creation. Later on he
develops the materialistic view of Epicurus, only modifying it
so far as to conceive of matter as finite. Since a finite number
of particles is only susceptible of finite transpositions, it must
happen (he says), in an eternal duration that every possible
order or position will be tried an infinite number of times, and
hence this world is to be regarded (as the Stoics maintained) as an
exact reproduction of previous worlds. The speaker seeks to
make intelligible the appearance of art and contrivance in the
world as a result of a natural settlement of the universe (which
passes through a succession of chaotic conditions) into a stable
condition, having a constancy in its forms, yet without its
several parts losing their motion and fluctuation.
French Writers of the i8th Century. Let us now pass to the
French writers of the i8th century. Here we are first struck
by the results of advancing physical speculation in their bearing
on the conception of the world. Careful attempts, based on new
scientific truths, are made to explain the genesis of the world as
a natural process. Maupertuis, who, together with Voltaire,
introduced the new idea of the universe as based on Newton's
discoveries, sought to account for the origin of organic things by
the hypothesis of sentient atoms. Buffon the naturalist specu-
lated, not only on the structure and genesis of organic beings,
but also on the course of formation of the earth and solar system,
which he conceived after the analogy of the development of
organic beings out of seed. Diderot, too, in his varied intellectual
activity, found time to speculate on the genesis of sensation
and thought out of a combination of matter endowed with an
elementary kind of sentience. De la Mettrie worked out a
materialistic doctrine of the origin of things, according to which
sensation and consciousness are nothing but a development out
of matter. He sought (L'Homme-machine) to connect man in
his original condition with the lower animals, and emphasized
(L'Homme-plante) the essential unity of plan of all living things.
Helvdtius, in his work on man, referred all differences between
our species and the lower animals to certain peculiarities of
organization, and so prepared the way for a conception of human
development out of lower forms as a process of physical evolution .
Charles Bonnet met the difficulty of the origin of conscious beings
much in the same way as Leibnitz, by the supposition of eternal
minute organic bodies to which are attached immortal souls.
Yet though in this way opposing himself to the method of the
modern doctrine of evolution, he aided the development of
this doctrine by his view of the organic world as an ascending
8 A similar coincidence between the teleological and the modern
evolutional way of viewing things is to be met with in Locke's account
of the use of pain in relation to the preservation of our being (bk. ii.
ch. vii. sect. 4).
4 Philosophy of History (1893), p. 103, where an interesting sketch
of the growth of the idea of progress is to be found.
HISTORY]
EVOLUTION
27
scale from the simple to the complex. Robinet, in his treatise
De la nature, worked out the same conception of a gradation in
organic existence, connecting this with a general view of nature
as a progress from the lowest inorganic forms of matter up to
man. The process is conceived as an infinite series of variations
or specifications of one primitive and common type. Man is
the chef-d'oeuvre of nature, which the gradual progression of
beings was to have as its last term, and all lower creations are
regarded as pre-conditions of man's existence, since nature
" could only realize the human form by combining in all imagin-
able ways each of the traits which was to enter into it." The
formative force in this process of evolution (or " metamor-
phosis ") is conceived as an intellectual principle (idee generalrice).
Robinet thus laid the foundation of that view of the world as
wholly vital, and as a progressive unfolding of a spiritual for-
mative principle, which was afterwards worked out by Schelling.
It is to be 'added that Robinet adopted a thorough-going
materialistic view of the dependence of mind on body, going
even to the length of assigning special nerve-fibres to the moral
sense. The system of Holbach seeks to provide a consistent
materialistic view of the world and its processes. Mental opera-
tions are identified with physical movements, the three con-
ditions of physical movement, inertia, attraction and repulsion,
being in the moral world self-love, love and hate. He left open
the question whether the capability of sensation belongs to all
matter, or is confined to the combinations of certain materials.
He looked on the actions of the individual organism and of
society as determined by the needs of self-preservation. He
conceived of man as a product of nature that had gradually
developed itself from a low condition, though he relinquished the
problem of the exact mode of his first genesis and advance as
not soluble by data of experience. Holbach thus worked out the
basis of a rigorously materialistic conception of evolution.
The question of human development which Holbach touched
on was one which occupied many minds both in and out of
France during the i8th century, and more especially towards
its close. The foundations of this theory of history as an upward
progress of man out of a barbaric and animal condition were
laid by Vico in his celebrated work Principii di scienza nuova.
In France the doctrine was represented by Turgot and Condorcet.
German Writers of the i8th Century Leibnitz. In Leibnitz
we find, if not a doctrine of evolution in the strict sense, a theory
of the world which is curiously related to the modern doctrine.
The chief aim of Leibnitz is no doubt to account for the world
in its static aspect as a co-existent whole, to conceive the ultimate
reality of things in such a way as to solve the mystery of mind
and matter. Yet by his very mode of solving the problem he
is led on to consider the nature of the world-process. By placing
substantial reality in an infinite number of monads whose essen-
tial nature is force or activity, which is conceived as mental
(representation), Leibnitz was carried on to the explanation of
the successive order of the world. He prepares the way, too,
for a doctrine of evolution by his monistic idea of the substantial
similarity of all things, inorganic and organic, bodily and spiritual,
and still more by his conception of a perfect gradation of existence
from the lowest " inanimate " objects, whose essential activity
is confused representation, up to the highest organized being
man with his clear intelligence. 1 Turning now to Leibnitz's
conception of the world as a process, we see first that he supplies,
in his notion of the underlying reality as force which is repre-
sented as spiritual (quelque chose d'analogique au sentiment et
d l'app(tit), both a mechanical and a Ideological explanation of
its order. More than this, Leibnitz supposes that the activity
of the monads takes the form of a self-evolution. It is the follow-
ing out of an inherent tendency or impulse to a series of changes,
all of which were virtually pre-existent, and this process cannot
be interfered with from without. As the individual monad,
so the whole system which makes up the world is a gradual
1 G. H. Lewes points out that Leibnitz is inconsistent in his account
of the intelligence of man in relation to that of lower animals, since
when answering Locke he no longer regards these as differing in
degree only.
development. In this case, however, we cannot say that each
step goes out of the other as in that of individual development.
Each monad is an original independent being, and is determined
to take this particular point in the universe, this place in the scale
of beings. We see how different this metaphysical conception
is from that scientific notion of cosmic evolution in which the
lower stages are the antecedents and conditions of the higher.
It is probable that Leibnitz's notion of time and space, which
approaches Kant's theory, led him to attach but little importance
to the successive order of the world. Leibnitz, in fact, presents
to us an infinite system of perfectly distinct though parallel
developments, which on their mental side assume the aspect of
a scale, not through any mutual action, but solely through
the determination of the Deity. Even this idea, however, is
incomplete, for Leibnitz fails to explain the physical aspect of
development. Thus he does not account for the fact that organic
beings which have always existed as preformations (in the case
of animals as animaux spermatiques) come to be developed
under given conditions. Yet Leibnitz prepared the way for a
new conception of organic evolution. The modern monistic
doctrine, that all material things consist of sentient elements,
and that consciousness arises through a combination of these,
was a natural transformation of Leibnitz's theory. 2
Lessing. Of Leibnitz's immediate followers we may mention
Lessing, who in his Education of the Human Race brought out
the truth of the process of gradual development underlying
human history, even though he expressed this in a form incon-
sistent with the idea of a spontaneous evolution.
Herder. Herder, on the other hand, Lessing's contemporary,
treated the subject of man's development in a thoroughly
naturalistic spirit. In his Ideen zur Philosophic der Geschichte,
Herder adopts Leibnitz's idea of a graduated scale of beings, at
the same time conceiving of the lower stages as the conditions
of the higher. Thus man is said to be the highest product of
nature, and as such to be dependent on all lower products. All
material things are assimilated to one another as organic, the
vitalizing principle being inherent in all matter. The develop-
ment of man is explained in connexion with that of the earth,
and in relation to climatic variations, &c. Man's mental faculties
are viewed as related to his organization, and as developed under
the pressure of the necessities of life. 3
Kant. Kant's relation to the doctrine of evolution is a
many-sided one. In the first place, his peculiar system of sub-
jective idealism, involving the idea that time is but a mental
form to which there corresponds nothing in the sphere of
noumenal reality, serves to give a peculiar philosophical inter-
pretation to every doctrine of cosmic evolution. Kant, like
Leibnitz, seeks to reconcile the mechanical and Ideological
views of nature, only he assigns to these different spheres. The
order of the inorganic world is explained by properly physical
causes. In his Natitrgeschichte des Himmels, in which he antici-
pated the nebular theory afterwards more fully developed by
Laplace, Kant sought to explain the genesis of the cosmos as
a product of physical forces and laws. The worlds, or systems
of worlds, which fill infinite space are continually being formed
and destroyed. Chaos passes by a process of evolution into a
cosmos, and this again into chaos. So far as the evolution of
the solar system is concerned, Kant held these mechanical causes
as adequate. For the world as a whole, however, he postulated
a beginning in time (whence his use of the word creation), and
further supposed that the impulse of organization which was
conveyed to chaotic matter by the Creator issued from a central
point in the infinite space spreading gradually outwards. 4 While
2 Both Lewes and du Bois Reymond have brought out the points
of contact between Leibnitz's theory of monads and modern bio-
logical speculations (Hist, of Phil. ii. 287, and Leibnitzsche Gedanken
in der modernen Naturwissenschaft, p. 23 seq.).
_ ' For Herder's position in relation to the modern doctrine of evolu-
tion see F. von Barenbach's Herder als Vorgdnger Darwins, a work
which tends to exaggerate the proximity of the two writers.
4 Kant held it probable that other planets besides our earth are
inhabited, and that their inhabitants form a scale of beings, their
perfection increasing with the distance of the planet which they
inhabit from the sun.
28
EVOLUTION
[HISTORY
in his cosmology Kant thus relies on mechanical conceptions, in
his treatment of organic life his mind is, on the contrary, domin-
ated by Ideological ideas. An organism was to him something
controlled by a formative organizing principle. It was natural,
therefore, that he rejected the idea of a spontaneous generation
of organisms (which was just then being advocated by his friend
Forster), not only as unsupported by experience but as an in-
adequate hypothesis. Experience forbids our excluding organic
activity from natural causes, also our excluding intelligence from
purposeful (zwecktatigen) causes; hence experience forbids our
denning the fundamental force or first cause out of which living
creatures arose. 1 Just as Kant thus sharply marks off the regions
of the inorganic and the organic, so he sets man in strong oppo-
sition to the lower animals. His ascription to man of a unique
faculty, free-will, forbade his conceiving our species as a link
in a graduated series of organic developments. In his doctrine
of human development he does indeed recognize an early stage
of existence in which our species was dominated by sensuous
enjoyment and instinct. He further conceives of this stage as
itself a process of (natural) development, namely, of the natural
disposition of the species to vary in the greatest possible manner
so as to preserve its unity through a process of self-adaptation
(Anarten) to climate. This, he says, must not be conceived as
resulting from the action of external causes, but is due to a
natural disposition (Anlage). From this capability of natural
development (which already involves a teleological idea) Kant
distinguishes the power of moral self-development or self-
liberation from the dominion of nature, the gradual realization
of which constitutes human history or progress. This moral
development is regarded as a gradual approach to that rational,
social and political state in which will be realized the greatest
possible quantity of liberty. Thus Kant, though he appropriated
and gave new form to the idea of human progress, conceived of
this as wholly distinct from a natural (mechanical) process.
In this particular, as in his view of organic actions, Kant dis-
tinctly opposed the idea of evolution as one universal process
swaying alike the physical and the moral world.
Schelling. In the earlier writings of Schelling, containing
the philosophy of identity, existence is represented as a becom-
ing, or process of evolution. Nature and mind (which are the
two sides, or polar directions, of the one absolute) are each
viewed as an activity advancing by an uninterrupted succession
of stages. The side of this process which Schelling worked out
most completely is the negative side, that is, nature. Nature
is essentially a process of organic self-evolution. It can only be
understood by subordinating the mechanical conception to the
vital, by conceiving the world as one organism animated by a
spiritual principle or intelligence (Weltseele). From this point
of view the processes of nature from the inorganic up to the most
complex of the organic become stages in the self-realization of
nature. All organic forms are at bottom but one organization,
and the inorganic world shows the same formative activity in
various degrees or potences. Schelling conceives of the gradual
self-evolution of nature in a succession of higher and higher forms
as brought about by a limitation of her infinite productivity,
showing itself in a series of points of arrest. The detailed exhi-
bition of the organizing activity of nature in the several processes
of the organic and inorganic world rests on a number of fanciful
and unscientific ideas. Schelling's theory is a bold attempt to
revitalize nature in the light of growing physical and physio-
logical science, and by so doing to comprehend the unity of the
world under the idea of one principle of organic development.
His highly figurative language might leave us in doubt how far
he conceived the higher stages of this evolution of nature as
following the lower in time. In the introduction to his work
Von der Weltseele, however, he argues in favour of the possibility
of a transmutation of species in periods incommensurable with
ours. The evolution of mind (the positive pole) proceeds by
1 Kant calls the doctrine of the transmutation of species " a
hazardous fancy of the reason." Yet, as Strauss and others have
shown, Kant's mind betrayed a decided leaning at times to a more
mechanical conception of organic forms as related by descent.
way of three stages theoretic, practical and aesthetical activity.
Schelling's later theosophic speculations do not specially concern
us here.
Followers of Schelling. Of the followers of Schelling a word
or two must be said. Heinrich Steffens, in his Anthropologie,
seeks to trace out the origin and history of man in connexion
with a general theory of the development of the earth, and this
again as related to the formation of the solar system. All these
processes are regarded as a series of manifestations of a vital
principle in higher and higher forms. Oken, again, who carries
Schelling's ideas into the region of biological science, seeks to
reconstruct the gradual evolution of the material world out of
original matter, which is the first immediate appearance of God,
or the absolute. This process is an upward one, through the
formation of the solar system and of our earth with its inorganic
bodies, up to the production of man. The process is essentially
a polar linear action, or differentiation from a common centre.
By means of this process the bodies of the solar system separate
themselves, and the order of cosmic evolution is repeated in
that of terrestrial evolution. The organic world (like the world
as a whole) arises out of a primitive chaos, namely, the infusorial
slime. A somewhat similar working out of Schelling's idea is
to be found in H. C. Oersted's work entitled The Soul in Nature
(Eng. trans.). Of later works based on Schelling's doctrine of
evolution mention may be made of the volume entitled Natur
und Idee, by G. F. Cams. According to this writer, existence is
nothing but a becoming, and matter is simply the momentary
product of the process of becoming, while force is this process
constantly revealing itself in these products.
Hegel. Like Schelling, Hegel conceives the problem of exist-
ence as one of becoming. He differs from him with respect to
the ultimate motive of that process of gradual evolution which
reveals itself alike in nature and in mind. With Hegel the
absolute is itself a dialectic process which contains within itself
a principle of progress from difference to difference and from
unity to unity. " This process (W. Wallace remarks) knows
nothing of the distinctions between past and future, because it
implies an eternal present." This conception of an immanent
spontaneous evolution is applied alike both to nature and to
mind and history. Nature to Hegel is the idea in the form of
hetereity; and finding itself here it has to remove this exteriority
in a progressive evolution towards an existence for itself in life
and mind. Nature (says Zeller) is to Hegel a system of grada-
tions, of which one arises necessarily out of the other, and is the
proximate truth of that out of which it results. There are three
stadia, or moments, in this process of nature (i) the mechanical
moment, or matter -devoid of individuality; (2) the physical
moment, or matter which has particularized itself in bodies
the solar system; and (3) the organic moment, or organic beings,
beginning with the geological organism or the mineral kingdom,
plants and animals. Yet this process of development is not to
be conceived as if one stage is naturally produced out of the other,
and not even as if the one followed the other in time. Only
spirit has a history; in nature all forms are contemporaneous. 2
Hegel's interpretation of mind and history as a process of evolu-
tion has more scientific interest than his conception of nature.
His theory of the development of free-will (the objective spirit),
which takes its start from Kant's conception of history, with
its three stages of legal right, morality as determined by motive
and instinctive goodness (Sittlichkeit) , might almost as well be
expressed in terms of a thoroughly naturalistic doctrine of
human development. So, too, some of his conceptions respecting
the development of art and religion (the absolute spirit) lend
themselves to a similar interpretation. Yet while, in its applica-
tion to history, Hegel's theory of evolution has points of re-
semblance with those doctrines which seek to explain the world-
process as one unbroken progress occurring in time, it constitutes
on the whole a theory apart and sui generis. It does not conceive
of the organic as succeeding on the inorganic, or of conscious life
2 Hegel somewhere says that the question of the eternal duration
of the world is unanswerable : time as well as space can be predicated
of nnitudes only.
HISTORY]
EVOLUTION
29
as conditioned in time by lower forms. In this respect it re-
sembles Leibnitz's idea of the world as a development ; the idea
of evolution is in each case a metaphysical as distinguished from
a scientific one. Hegel gives a place in his metaphysical system
to the mechanical and the Ideological views; yet in his treatment
of the world as an evolution the idea of end or purpose is the
predominant one.
Of the followers of Hegel who have worked out his peculiar
idea of evolution it is hardly necessary to speak. A bare reference
may be made to J. K. F. Rosenkranz, who in his work Hegel's
Naturphilosophie seeks to develop Hegel's idea of an earth-
organism in the light of modern science, recognizing in crystalliza-
tion the morphological element.
Schopenhauer. Of the other German philosophers immediately
following Kant, there is only one who calls for notice here,
namely, Arthur Schopenhauer. This writer, by his conception of
the world as will which objectifies itself in a series of gradations
from the lowest manifestations of matter up to conscious man,
gives a slightly new shape to the evolutional view of Schelling,
though he deprives this view of its optimistic character by
denying any co-operation of intelligence in the world-process.
In truth, Schopenhauer's -conception of the world as the activity
of a blind force is at. bottom a materialistic and mechanical
'rather than a spiritualistic and Ideological theory. Moreover,
Schopenhauer's subjective idealism, and his view of time as
something illusory, hindered him from viewing this process as a
sequence of events in time. Thus he ascribes eternity of existence
to species under the form of the " Platonic ideas." As Ludwig
Noire observes, Schopenhauer has no feeling for the problem
of the origin of organic beings. He says Lamarck's original
animal is something metaphysical, not physical, namely, the
will to live. " Every species (according to Schopenhauer) has of
its own will, and according to the circumstances under which
it would live, determined its form and organization, yet not
as something physical in time, but as something metaphysical
out of time."
Von Baer. Before leaving the German speculation of the
first half of the century, a word must be said of von Baer, to
whose biological contributions we shall refer later in this article,
who recognized in the law of development the law of the universe
as a whole. In his Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere (p. 264)
he distinctly tells us that the law of growing individuality is
" the fundamental thought which goes through all forms and
degrees of animal development and all single relations. It is
the same thought which collected in the cosmic space the divided
masses into spheres, and combined these to solar systems;
the same which caused the weather-beaten dust on the surface
of our metallic planet to spring forth into living forms." Von
Baer thus prepared the way for Herbert Spencer's generalization
of the law of organic evolution as the law of all evolution.
Comte. As we arrive at the igth century, though yet before the
days of Darwin, biology is already beginning to affect the general
aspect of thought. It might suffice to single out the influence
of Auguste Comte, as the last great thinker who wrote before
Darwinism began to permeate philosophic speculation. Though
Comte did not actually contribute to a theory of cosmic organic
evolution, he helped to lay the foundations of a scientific con-
ception of human history as a natural process of development
determined by general laws of human nature together with the
accumulating influences of the past. Comte does not recognize
that this process is aided by any increase of innate capacity;
on the contrary, progress is to him the unfolding of fundamental
faculties of human nature which always pre-existed in a latent
condition; yet he may perhaps be said to have prepared the
way for the new conception of human progress by his inclusion
of mental laws under biology.
Development of the Biological Doctrine. In the ipth century
the doctrine of evolution received new biological contents and
became transformed from a vague, partly metaphysical theory
to the dominant modern conception. At this point it is con-
venient to leave the guidance of Professor J. Sully and to follow
closely T. H. Huxley, who in the Qth edition of this encyclopaedia
traced the history of the growth of the biological idea of evolution
from its philosophical beginnings to its efflorescence in Charles
Darwin. .
In the earlier half of the i8th century the term " evolution "
was introduced into biological writings in order to denote the
mode in which some of the most eminent physiologists of that
time conceived that the generation of living things took place;
in opposition to the hypothesis advocated, in the preceding
century, by W. Harvey in that remarkable work 1 which would
give him a claim to rank among the founders of biological science,
even had he not been the discoverer of the circulation of the
blood.
One of Harvey's prime objects is to defend and establish, on
the basis of direct observation, the opinion already held by
Aristotle, that, in the higher animals at any rate, the formation
of the new organism by the process of generation takes place,
not suddenly, by simultaneous accretion of rudiments of all or
the most important of the organs of the adult, nor by sudden
metamorphosis of a formative substance into a miniature of
the whole, which subsequently grows, but by epigenesis, or
successive differentiation of a relatively homogeneous rudiment
into the parts and structures which are characteristic of the
adult.
" Et primo, quidem, quoniam per epigenesin sive partium super-
exorientiura additamentum pullum fabricari certum est: quaenam
pars ante alias omnes exstruatur, et quid de ilia ejusque generandi
modo observandum veniat, dispiciemus. Ratum sane est et in ovo
manifesto apparet quod Arisloteles de perfectorum animalium genera-
tione enuntiat: nimirum, non omnes paries simul fieri, sed ordine
aliam post aliam; primumque existere particulam genitalem, cujus
virtute postea (tanquam ex principio quodam) reliquae omnes
partes prosiliant. Qualem in plantarum seminibus (fabis, puta,
aut glandibus) gemmam sive apicem protuberantem cernimus, totius
futurae arboris principium. Estque haec particula velul flius eman-
cipatus seorsumque collocalus, et principium per se vivens; unde
postea membrorum ordo describilur; et quaecunque ad absohendum
animal pertinent, disponuntur? Quoniam enim nulla pars se ipsam
general; sed foslquam generata est, se ipsam jam auget; idea earn
primum orin necesse est, quae principium augendi contineat (sive
enim planta, sive animal est, aeque omnibus inesl quod vim habeat
vegetandi, sive nutriendi), 3 simulque reliquas omnes partes suo
quamque ordine distinguat et formet; proindeque in eadem primo-
genita particula anima primario inest, sensus, motusque, et totius
vitae auctor et principium." (Exercilatio 51.)
Harvey proceeds to contrast this view with that of the
" Medici," or followers of Hippocrates and Galen, who, " badly
philosophizing," imagined that the brain, the heart, and the
liver were simultaneously first generated in the form of vesicles;
and, at the same time, while expressing his agreement with
Aristotle in the principle of epigenesis, he maintains that it is
the blood which is the primal generative part, and not, as
Aristotle thought, the heart.
In the latter part of the i7th century the doctrine of epigenesis
thus advocated by Harvey was controverted on the ground of
direct observation by M. Malpighi, who affirmed that the body
of the chick is to be seen in the egg before the punctum sanguineum
makes it appearance. But from this perfectly correct observa-
tion a conclusion which is by no means warranted was drawn,
namely, that the chick as a whole really exists in the egg ante-
cedently to incubation; and that what happens in the course of
the latter process is no addition of new parts, " alias post alias
natas," as Harvey puts it, but a simple expansion or unfolding
of the organs which already exist, though they are too small
and inconspicuous to be discovered. The weight of Malpighi's
observations therefore fell into the scale of that doctrine which
Harvey terms metamorphosis, in contradistinction to epigenesis.
The views of Malpighi were warmly welcomed on philosophical
grounds by Leibnitz, 4 who found in them a support to his
1 The Exercitationes de generatione animalium, which Dr George
Ent extracted from him and published in 1651.
2 De generatione animalium, lib. ii. cap. x.
8 De generatione animalium, lib. ii. cap. iv.
* " Cependant, pour revenir aux formes ordinaires ou aux ames
materielles, cette duree qu'il leur faut attribuer, & la place de celle
qu'on avoit attribute aux atomes pourroit faire douter si elles ne vont
pas de corps en corps; ce qui seroit la metempsychose, a peu pres
comme quelques philosophes ont cru la transmission du mouvement
EVOLUTION
[HISTORY
hypothesis of monads, and by Nicholas Malebranche; 1 while, in
the middle of the i8th century, not only speculative considera-
tions, but a great number of new and interesting observations on
the phenomena of generation, led the ingenious Charles Bonnet
and A. von Haller, the first physiologist of the age, to adopt,
advocate and extend them.
Bonnet affirms that, before fecundation, the hen's egg contains
an excessively minute but complete chick; and that fecundation
and incubation simply cause this germ to absorb nutritious
matters, which are deposited in the interstices of the elementary
structures of which the miniature chick, or germ, is made up.
The consequence of this intussusceptive growth is the " develop-
ment " or " evolution " of the germ into the visible bird. Thus
an organized individual (tout organist} " is a composite body
consisting of the original, or elementary, parts and of the matters
which have been associated with them by the aid of nutrition ";
so that, if these matters could be extracted from the individual
(tout), it would, so to speak, become concentrated in a point,
and would thus be restored to its primitive condition of a germ;
" just as, by extracting from a bone the calcareous substance
which is the source of its hardness, it is reduced to its primitive
state of gristle or membrane." 2
" Evolution " and " development " are, for Bonnet, synony-
mous terms; and since by " evolution " he means simply the
expansion of that which was invisible into visibility, he was
naturally led to the conclusion, at which Leibnitz had arrived
by a different line of reasoning, that no such thing as generation,
in the proper sense of the word exists in nature. The growth of
an organic being is simply a process of enlargement, as a particle
of dry gelatine may be swelled up by the intussusception of
water; its death is a shrinkage, such as the swelled jelly might
undergo on desiccation. Nothing really new is produced in the
living world, but the germs which develop have existed since the
beginning of things; and nothing really dies, but, when what we
call death takes place, the living thing shrinks back into its germ
state. 3
et celle des especes. Mais cette imagination est bien eloignee de
la nature des choses. II n'y a point de tel passage; et c'est ici
ou les transformations de Messieurs Swammerdam, Malpighi, et
Leewenhoek, qui sont des plus excellens observateurs de notre terns,
sont venues a mon secours et m'ont fait admettre plus aisement, que
1'animal, et toute autre substance organisee ne commence point
lorsque nous le croyons, et que sa generation apparente n'est qu'un
developpement et une espece d 'augmentation. Aussi ai-je remarque
que 1'auteur de la Recherche de la verite, M. Regis, M. Hartsoeker,
et d'autres habiles hommes n'ont pas ete fort eloignes de ce senti-
ment." Leibnitz, Systimenouveaude la nature (1695). Thedoctrine
of " Emboitement " is contained in the Considerations sur le principe
de vie (1705) ; the preface to the Theodicee (1710) ; and the Principes
de la nature et de la grace ( 6) (1718).
" II est vrai que la pensee la plus raisonnable et la plus conforme
& 1'experience sur cette question tres difficile de la formation du
foetus; c'est que les enfans sont deja presque tout formes avant
m6me 1'action par laquelle ils sont congus; et que leurs meres ne
font que leur donner I'accroissement ordinaire dans le temps de la
grossesse." De la recherche de la verite, livre ii. chap. vii. p. 334
(7th ed., 1721).
2 Considerations sur les corps organises, chap. x.
' Bonnet had the courage of his opinions, and in the Palingenesie
philosophique, part vi. chap, iv., he develops a hypothesis which he
terms " evolution naturelle "; and which, making allowance for his
peculiar views of the nature of generation, bears no small resemblance
to what is understood by " evolution " at the present day:
"Si la volontfe divine a cree par un seul Acte 1'Universalite des
fitres, d'oft venoient ces plantes et ces animaux dont Moyse nous
decrit la Production au troisieme et au cinquieme jour du renouvelle-
ment de notre monde ?
" Abuserois-je de la liberte de conjectures si je disois, que les
Plantes et les Animaux qui existent aujourd'hui sont parvenus par
une sprte devolution naturelle des Etres organises qui p^euplaient ce
premier Monde, sorti immediatement des MAINS du CREATEUR ? . . .
" Ne supposons que trois revolutions. La Terre vient de sortir
des MAINS du CREATEUR. Des causes preparees par sa SAGESSE font
developper de toutes parts les Germes. Les Etres organises commen-
cent a jouir de 1'existence. Ils etoient probablement alors bien
differens de ce qu'ils sont aujourd'hui. Ils 1'etoient autant que
ce premier Monde differoit de celui que nous habitons. Nous
manquons de moyens pour juger de ces dissemblances, et pout-Sire
que le plus habile Naturaliste qui auroit ete place dans ce premier
Monde y auroit entierement meconnu nos Plantes et nos Animaux."
The two parts of Bonnet's hypothesis, namely, the doctrine
that all living things proceed from pre-existing germs, and that
these contain, one enclosed within the other, the germs of all
future living things, which is the hypothesis of " emboltement,"
and the doctrine that every germ contains in miniature all the
organs of the adult, which is the hypothesis of evolution or
development, in the primary senses of these words, must be
carefully distinguished. In fact, while holding firmly by the
former, Bonnet more or less modified the latter in his later
writings, and, at length, he admits that a " germ " need not be
an actual miniature of the organism, but that it may be
merely an " original 'preformation " capable of producing the
latter. 4
But, thus defined, the germ is neither more nor less than the
"particula genitalis" of Aristotle, or the "primordium vegetale"
or " ovum " of Harvey; and the " evolution " of such a germ
would not be distinguishable from " epigenesis."
Supported by the great authority of Haller, the doctrine of
evolution, or development, prevailed throughout the whole
of the i8th century, and Cuvier appears to have substantially
adopted Bonnet's later views, though probably he would not
have gone all lengths in the direction of " emboitement." In
a well-known note to Charles Leopold Laurillard's loge, prefixed
to the last edition of the Ossemensfossiles, the " radical de 1'etre "
is much the same thing as Aristotle's " particula genitalis " and
Harvey's " ovum." 6
Bonnet's eminent contemporary, Buff on, held nearly the same
views with respect to the nature of the germ, and expresses them
even more confidently.
" Ceux qui ont cru que le cceur etoit le premier forme, se sont
trompes; ceux qui disent que c'est le sang se trompent aussi: tout
est forme en mime temps. Si 1'on ne consulte que Vobservation, le
poulet se voit dans 1'ceuf avant qu'il ait et couve."
" J'ai ouvert une grande quantite d'ceufs a differens temps avant
et apres 1'incubation, et ie me suis convaincu par mes yeux que le
poulet existe en entier dans le milieu de la cicatrule au moment
qu'il sort du corps de la poule." *
The " moule interieur " of Buffon is the aggregate of ele-
mentary parts which constitute the individual, and is thus the
equivalent of Bonnet's germ,* as defined in the passage cited
above. But Buffon further imagined that innumerable " mole-
cules organiques " are dispersed throughout the world, and that
alimentation consists in the appropriation by the parts of an
organism of those molecules which are analogous to them.
Growth, therefore, was, on this hypothesis, partly a process
of simple evolution, and partly of what has been termed syn-
genesis. Buffon's opinion is, in fact, a sort of combination of
views, essentially similar to those of Bonnet, with others, some-
what similar to those of the " Medici " whom Harvey condemns.
The " molecules organiques " are physical equivalents of Leib-
nitz's " monads."
It is a striking example of the difficulty of getting people
to use their own powers of investigation accurately, that this
form of the doctrine of evolution should have held its ground
so long; for it was thoroughly and completely exploded, not
long after its enunciation, by Caspar Frederick Wolff, who in his
Theoria generationis, published in 1759, placed the opposite
theory of epigenesis upon the secure foundation of fact, from
which it has never been displaced. But Wolff had no immediate
4 " Ce mot (germe) ne designera pas seulement un corps organise
reduit en petit; il designera encore toute espece de preformation
originelle dont un Tout organique peut resulter comme de son principe
immediat." Palingenesie philosophique, part. x. chap. ii.
6 " M. Cuvier consid6rant que tous les Rtres organises sont derives
de parens, et ne voyant dans la nature aucune force capable de
produire 1'organisation, croyait a la pre-existence des germes; non
pas a la pre-existence d'un 6tre tout forme, puisqu'il est bien evident
que ce n est que par des developpemens successifs que I'etre acquiert
sa forme; mais, si Ton peut s'exprimer ainsi, & la pre-existence du
radical de I'etre, radical qui existe avant que la serie des Evolutions
ne commence, et qui remonte certainement, suivant la belle observa-
tion de Bonnet, a plusieurs generations." Laurillard, Eloge de
Cuvier, note 12.
6 Hisloire naturelle, torn. ii. ed. ii. (1750), p. 350.
7 Ibid. p. 351. 8 See particularly Button, I.e. p. 41.
HISTORY]
EVOLUTION
successors. The school of Cuvier was lamentably deficient in
embryologists; and it was only in the course of the first thirty
years of the ipth century that Prevost and Dumas in France,
and, later on, Dollinger, Pander, von Bar, Rathke, and Remak
in Germany, founded modern embryology; and, at the same
time, proved the utter incompatibility of the hypothesis of
evolution as formulated by Bonnet and Haller with easily
demonstrable facts.
Nevertheless, though the conceptions originally denoted
by " evolution " and " development " were shown to be unten-
able, the words retained their application to the process by which
the embryos of living beings gradually make their appearance;
and the terms" development,"" Entwickelung,"and " evolutio "
are now indiscriminately used for the series of genetic changes
exhibited by living beings, by writers who would emphatically
deny that " development " or " Entwickelung " or " evolutio,"
in the sense in which these words were usually employed by
Bonnet or Haller, ever occurs.
Evolution, or development, is, in fact, at present employed
in biology as a general name for the history of the steps by
which any living being has acquired the morphological and the
physiological characters which distinguish it. As civil history
may be divided into biography, which is the history of individuals,
and universal history, which is the history of the human race,
so evolution falls naturally into two categories the evolution
of the individual (see EMBRYOLOGY) and the evolution of the
sum of living beings.
The Evolution of the Sum of Living Beings. The notion that
all the kinds of animals and plants may have come into existence
by the growth and modification of primordial germs is as old
as speculative thought; but the modern scientific form of the
doctrine can be traced historically to the influence of several
converging lines of philosophical speculation and of physical
observation, none of which go further back than the i7th century.
These are:
1. The enunciation by Descartes of the conception that the
physical universe, whether living or not living, is a mechanism,
and that, as such, it is explicable on physical principles.
2. The observation of the gradations of structure, from
extreme simplicity to very great complexity, presented by
living things, and of the relation of these graduated forms to
one another.
3. The observation of the existence of an analogy between
the series of gradations presented by the species which compose
any great group of animals or plants, and the series of embryonic
conditions of the highest members of that group.
4. The observation that large groups of species of widely
different habits present the same fundamental plan of structure;
and that parts of the same animal or plant, the functions of which
are very different, likewise exhibit modifications of a common
plan.
5. The observation of the existence of structures, in a rudi-
mentary and apparently useless condition, in one species of a
group, which are fully developed and have definite functions
in other species of the same group.
6. The observation of the effects of varying conditions in
modifying living organisms.
7. The observation of the facts of geographical distribution.
8. The observation of the facts of the geological succession
of the forms of life.
i. Notwithstanding the elaborate disguise which fear of
the powers that were led Descartes to throw over his real opinions,
it is impossible to read the Principes de la philosophic without
acquiring the conviction that this great philosopher held that the
physical world and all things in it, whether living or not living,
have originated by a process of evolution, due to the continuous
operation of purely physical causes, out of a primitive relatively
formless matter. 1
'As Buffon has well said: " L'idee de ramener 1'explication de
tous les phenomenes des principes mecaniques est assurement
grande et belle.ce pas est le plus hardi qu'on peut faire en philosophie,
et c'est Descartes qui 1'a fait." I.e. p. 50.
The following passage is especially instructive:
" Et tant s'en faut que je veuille que Ton croie toutes les choses
que j'ecrirai, que meme je pretends en proposer ici quelques-unes
que je crois absolument 6tre fausses; a savoir, je ne doute point
que le monde n'ait ete cree au commencement avec autant de per-
fection qu'il en a; en sorte que le soleil, la terre, la lune, et les
etoiles ont ete des lors; et que la terre n'a pas eu seulement en soi
les semences des plantes, mais que les plantes meme en ont couvert
une partie; et qu'Adam et Eve n'ont pas ete crees enfans mais en
Ige d'hommes parfaits. La religion chretienne veut que nous le
croyons ainsi, et la raison naturelle nous persuade entierement cette
verite; car si nous considerons la toute puissance de Dieu, nous
devons juger que tout ce qu'il a fait a eu des le commencement
toute la perfection qu'il devoit avoir. Mais neanmoins, comme on
connoitroit beaucoup mieux quelle a ete la nature d'Adam et celle
des arbres de Paradis si on avoit examine comment les enfants se
forment peu 4 peu dans le ventre de leurs meres et comment les
plantes sortent de leurs semences, que si on avoit seulement considere
quels ils ont ete quand Dieu les a crees : tout de me"me, nous ferons
mieux entendre quelle est generalement la nature de toutes les
choses qui sont au monde si nous pouvons imaginer quelques prin-
cipes qui soient fort intelligibles et fort simples, desquels nous
puissions voir clairement que les astres et la terre et ennn tout ce
monde visible auroit pu lire produit ainsi que de quelques semences
(bien que nous sachions qu'il n'a pas ete produit en cette facon)
que si nous la decrivions seulement comme il est, ou bien comme
nous croyons qu'il a ete cree. Et parceque je pense avoir trouve des
principes qui sont tels, je tacherai ici de les expliquer." 2
If we read between the lines of this singular exhibition of
force of one kind and weakness of another, it is clear that
Descartes believed that he had divined the mode in which the
physical universe had been evolved; and the Traite de I'homme
and the essay Sur les passions afford abundant additional
evidence that he sought for, and thought he had found, an
explanation of the phenomena of physical life by deduction
from purely physical laws.
Spinoza abounds in the same sense, and is as usual perfectly
candid
" Naturae leges et regulae, secundum quas omnia fiunt et ex unis
formis in alias mutantur, sunt ubique et semper eadem." 3
Leibnitz's doctrine of continuity necessarily led him in the
same direction; and, of the infinite multitude of monads with
which he peopled the world, each is supposed to be the focus of
an endless process of evolution and involution. In the Protogaea,
xxvi., Leibnitz distinctly suggests the mutability of species
" Alii mirantur in saxis passim species videri quas vel in orbe
cognito, vel saltern in vicinis locis frustra quaeras. Ita Cornua
Ammonis, quae ex nautilorum numero habeantur, passim et forma
et magnitudine (nam et pedali diametro aliquando reperiuntur)
ab omnibus illis naturis discrepare dicunt, quas praebet mare. Sed
quis absconditos ejus recessus aut subterraneas abysses pervesti-
gavit ? quam multa nobis animalia antea ignota offert novus orbis ?
Et credibile est per magnas illas conversiones etiam animalium
species plurimum immutatas."
Thus in the end of the i?th century the seed was sown which
has at intervals brought forth recurrent crops of evolutional
hypotheses, based, more or less completely, on general reasonings.
Among the earliest of these speculations is that put forward
by Benolt de Maillet in his Telliamed, which, though printed in
1735, was not published until twenty-three years later. Con-
sidering that this book was written before the time of Haller,
or Bonnet, or Linnaeus, or Hutton, it surely deserves more
respectful consideration than it usually receives. For De
Maillet not only has a definite conception of the plasticity of
living things, and of the production of existing species by the
modification of their predecessors, but he clearly apprehends
the cardinal maxim of modern geological science, that the
explanation of the structure of the globe is to be sought in the
deductive application to geological phenomena of the principles
established inductively by the study of the present course of
nature. Somewhat later, P. L. M. de Maupertuis 4 suggested
a curious hypothesis as to the causes of variation, which he
thinks may be sufficient to account for the origin of all animals
1 Principes de la philosophie, Troisieme partie, 45.
3 Ethices, Pars tertia, Praefatio.
4 Sysleme de la Nature. Essai sur la formation des corps organises,
1751. xiv.
EVOLUTION
[HISTORY
PV
from a single pair. Jean Baptiste Ren6 Robinet 1 followed out
much the same line of thought, as De Maillet, but less soberly;
and Bonnet's speculations in the Palingenesie, which appeared
in 1769, have already been mentioned. Buffon (1753-1778),
at first a partisan of the absolute immutability of species, subse-
quently appears to have believed that larger or smaller groups
of species have been produced by the modification of a primitive
stock; but he contributed nothing to the general doctrine of
evolution.
Erasmus Darwin (Zoonomia, 1794), though a zealous evolu-
tionist, can hardly be said to have made any real advance on his
predecessors; and, notwithstanding the fact that Goethe had
the advantage of a wide knowledge of morphological facts, and
a true insight into their signification, while he threw all the
power of a great poet into the expression of his conceptions, it
may be questioned whether he supplied the doctrine of evolution
with a firmer scientific basis than it already possessed. Moreover,
whatever the value of Goethe's labours in that field, they were
not published before 1820, long after evolutionism had taken
a new departure from the works of Treviranus and Lamarck
the first of its advocates who were equipped for their task with
the needful large and accurate knowledge of the phenomena
of life as a whole. It is remarkable that each of these writers
seems to have been led, independently and contemporaneously,
to invent the same name of " biology " for the science of the
phenomena of life; and thus, following Buffon, to have recog-
nized the essential unity of these phenomena, and their contra-
distinction from those of inanimate nature. And it is hard to
say whether Lamarck or Treviranus has the priority in pro-
pounding the main thesis of the doctrine of evolution; for
though the first volume of Treviranus's Biologic appeared only
in 1802, he says, in the preface to his later work, the Erschei-
nungen und Gesetze des organischen Lebens, dated 1831, that he
wrote the first volume of the Biologic " nearly five-and-thirty
years ago," or about 1796.
Now, in 1794, there is evidence that Lamarck held doctrines
which present a striking contrast to those which are to be
found in the Philosophic zoologique, as the following passages
show:
" 685. Quoique mon unique objet dans cet article n'ait ete que
de trailer de la cause physique de 1'entretien de la vie des tres
organiques, malgre cela j'ai ose avancer en debutant, que 1'existence
de ces 6tres etonnants n'appartiennent nulleraent a la nature; que
tout ce qu'on peut entendre par le mot nature, ne pouvoit donner
la vie, c'est-a-dire, que toutes les qualites de la matiere, jointes a
toutes les circonstances possibles, et mSme A I'activite repandue
dans 1'univers, ne pouvaient point produire un Stre muni du mouve-
ment organique, capable de reproduire son semblable, et sujet a
la mort.
" 686. Tous les individus de cette nature, qui existent, proviennent
d'individus semblables qui tous ensemble constituent 1'espece
entiere. Or, je crois qu'il est aussi impossible 4 1'homme de connoitre
la cause physique du premier individu de chaque espece, que
d'assigner aussi physiquement la cause de 1'existence de la matiere ou
de 1'univers entier. C'est au moins ce que le resultat de mes con-
naissances et de mes reflexions me portent 4 penser. S'il existe
beaucoup de varietes produites par 1'effet des circonstances, ces
varietes ne denaturent point les especes; mais on se trompe, sans
doute souvent, en indiquant comme espece, ce qui n'est que variete;
et alors je sens que cette erreur peut tirer a consequence dans les
raisonnements que Ton fait sur cette matiere." !
The first three volumes of Treviranus's Biologic, which contains
his general views of evolution, appeared between 1802 and 1805.
The Recherches sur I 'organisation des corps vivants, which sketches
out Lamarck's doctrines, was published in 1802; but the full
development of his views in the Philosophic zoologique did not
take place until 1809.
1 Considerations philosophiques sur la gradation naturelle des
formes de I'etre; ou les essais de la nature qui apprend a faire 1'homme
(1768).
* Recherches sur les causes des principaux fails physiques, par J, B.
Lamarck. Paris. Seconde anneedelaRepublique. In the preface,
Lamarck says that the work was written in 1776, and presented to
the Academy in 1780; but it was not published before 1794, and at
that time it presumably expressed Lamarck's mature views. It
would be interesting to know what brought about the change of
opinion manifested in the Recherches sur I' organisation des corps
vivants, published only seven years later.
The Biologic and the Philosophic zoologique are both very
remarkable productions, and are still worthy of attentive study,
but they fell upon evil times. The vast authority of Cuvier
was employed in support of the traditionally respectable hypo-
theses of special creation and of catastrophism; and the wild
speculations of the Discours sur les revolutions de la surface du
globe were held to be models of sound scientific thinking, while
the really much more sober and philosophical hypotheses of
the Hydro geologic were scouted. For many years it was the
fashion to speak of Lamarck with ridicule, while Treviranus was
altogether ignored.
Nevertheless, the work had been done. The conception of
evolution was henceforward irrespressible, and it incessantly
reappears, in one shape or another, 3 up to the year 1858, when
Charles Darwin and A. R. Wallace published their Theory oj
Natural Selection. The Origin of Species appeared in 1859;
and thenceforward the doctrine of evolution assumed a position
and acquired an importance which it never before possessed. In
the Origin of Species, and in his other numerous and important
contributions to the solution of the problem of biological
evolution, Darwin confined himself to the discussion of the
causes which have brought about the present condition of living
matter, assuming such matter to have once come into existence.
On the other hand, Spencer 4 and E. Haeckel 5 dealt with
the whole problem of evolution. The profound and vigorous
writings of Spencer embody the spirit of Descartes in the know-
ledge of our own day, and may be regarded as the Principes
de la philosophic of the igth century; while, whatever hesita-
tion may not unfrequently be felt by less daring minds in
following Haeckel in many of his speculations, his attempt
to systematize the doctrine of evolution and to exhibit its
influence as the central thought of modern biology, cannot fail
to have a far-reaching influence on the progress of science.
If we seek for the reason of the difference between the scientific
position of the doctrine of evolution in the days of Lamarck
and that which it occupies now, we shall find it in the great
accumulation of facts, the several classes of which have been
enumerated above, under the second to the eighth heads. For
those which are grouped under the second to the seventh of these
classes, respectively, have a clear significance on the hypothesis
of evolution, while they are unintelligible if that hypothesis
be denied. And those of the eighth group are not only unin-
intelligible without the assumption of evolution, but can be
proved never to be discordant with that hypothesis, while, in
some cases, they are exactly such as the hypothesis requires.
The demonstration of these assertions would require a volume,
but the general nature of the evidence on which they rest may be
briefly indicated.
2. The accurate investigation of the lowest forms of animal
life, commenced by Leeuwenhoek and Swammerdam, and
continued by the remarkable labours of Reaumur, Abraham
Trembley, Bonnet, and a host of other observers in the latter
part of the i7th and the first half of the i8th centuries, drew
the attention of biologists to the gradation in the complexity
of organization which is presented byliving beings, and culminated
in the doctrine of the echelle des elres, so powerfully and clearly
stated by Bonnet, and, before him, adumbrated by Locke and
by Leibnitz. In the then state of knowledge, it appeared that
all the species of animals and plants could be arranged in one
series, in such a manner that, by insensible gradations, the
mineral passed into the plant, the plant into the polype, the
polype into the worm, and so, through gradually higher forms
of life, to man, at the summit of the animated world.
But, as knowledge advanced, this conception ceased to be
tenable in the crude form in which it was first put forward.
Taking into account existing animals and plants alone, it became
obvious that they fell into groups which were more or less
sharply separated from one another; and, moreover, that even
' See the " Historical Sketch " prefixed to the last edition of the
Origin of Species.
4 First Principles and Principles of Biology (1860-1864).
6 Cenerelle Morphologic (1866).
HISTORY]
EVOLUTION
33
the species of a genus can hardly ever be arranged in linear
series. Their natural resemblances and differences are only
to be expressed by disposing them as if they were branches
springing from a common hypothetical centre.
Lamarck, while affirming the verbal proposition that animals
form a single series, was forced by his vast acquaintance with
the details of zoology to limit the assertion to such a series as
may be formed out of the abstractions constituted by the
common characters of each group. 1
Cuvier on anatomical, and Von Baer on embryological grounds,
made the further step of proving that, even in this limited sense,
animals cannot be arranged in a single series, but that there are
several distinct plans of organization to be observed among
them, no one of which, in its highest and most complicated
modification, leads to any of the others.
The conclusions enunciated by Cuvier and Von Baer have been
confirmed in principle by all subsequent research into the
structure of animals and plants. But the effect of the adoption
of these conclusions has been rather to substitute a new metaphor
for that of Bonnet than to abolish the conception expressed by it.
Instead of regarding living things as capable of arrangement in
one series like the steps of a ladder, the results of modern in-
vestigation compel us to dispose them as if they were the twigs
and branches of a tree. The ends of the twigs represent in-
dividuals, the 'smallest groups of twigs species, larger groups
genera, and so on, until we arrive at the source of all these
ramifications of the main branch, which is represented by a
common plan of structure. At the present moment it is im-
possible to draw up any definition, based on broad anatomical
or developmental characters, by which any one of Cuvier's great
groups shall be separated from all the rest. On the contrary,
the lower members of each tend to converge towards the lower
members of all the others. The same may be said of the vegetable
world. The apparently clear distinction between flowering and
flowerless plants has been broken down by the series of grada-
tions between the two exhibited by the Lycopodiaceae, Rhizo-
carpeae, and Gymnospermeae. The groups of Fungi, Lichcneae
and Algae have completely run into one another, and, when the
lowest forms of each are alone considered, even the animal and
vegetable kingdoms cease to have a definite frontier.
If it is permissible to speak of the relations of living forms to
one another metaphorically, the similitude chosen must un-
doubtedly be that of a common root, whence two main trunks,
one representing the vegetable and one the animal world, spring;
and, each dividing into a few main branches, these subdivide into
multitudes of branchlets and these into smaller groups of twigs.
As Lamarck has well said: 2
" II n'y a que ceux qui se sont longtemps et fortement occupes de la
determination des especes, et qui ont consulte de riches collections,
qui peuvent savoir jusqu'a quel point les especes, parmi les corps
vivants, se fondent les unes dans les autres, et qui ont pu se con-
vaincre que, dans les parties ou nous voyons des especes isolees, cela
n'est ainsi que parcequ'il nous en manque d'autres qui en sont plus
voisines et que nous n'avons pas encore recueillies.
" Je ne veux pas dire pour cela que lesanimaux qui existent forment
une srie tres-simple et partout egalement nuancee; mais je dis
qu'ils forment une serie rameuse, irregulierement graduee et qui
n'a point de discontinuite dans ses parties, ou qui, du moins, n'en
a toujours pas eu, s'il est vrai que, par suite de quelques especes
perdues, il s'en trouve quelque part. II en resulte que les especes
3ui terminent chaque rameau de la serie generate tiennent, au moins
'un c6te, a d'autres especes voisines qui se nuancent avec elles.
Voili ce que 1'etat bien connu des choses me met maintenant a
portee de demontrer. Je n'ai besoin d'aucune hypothese ni d'aucune
supposition pour cela : j 'en atteste tous les naturalistes observateurs."
3. In a remarkable essay 3 Meckel remarks:
" There is no good physiologist who has not been struck by the
observation that the original form of all organisms is one and the
" II s'agit done de prouver que la serie qui constitute 1'echelle
animale reside essentiellement dans la distribution des masses princi-
pales qui la composent et non dans celle des especes ni me"me toujours
dans celle des genres." Phil, zoplogique, chap. v.
2 Philosophic zoologique, premiere partie, chap. iii.
' Entwurf einer Darstellung der zwischen clem Embryozustande
der hoheren Thiere und dem permanenten der niederen stattfindenden
Parallele," Beytrdge zur vergleichenden Anatomic, Bd. ii. 1811.
same, and that out of this one form, all, the lowest as well as the
highest, are developed in such a manner that the latter pass through
the permanent forms of the former as transitory stages. Aristotle,
Haller, Harvey, Kielmeyer, Autenrieth, and many others have
either made this observation incidentally, or, especially the latter,
have drawn particular attention to it, and drawn therefrom results
of permanent importance for physiology."
Meckel proceeds to exemplify the thesis, that the lower forms
of animals represent stages in the course of the development
of the higher, with a large series of illustrations.
After comparing the salamanders and the perenni-branchiate
Urodela with the tadpoles and the frogs, and enunciating the
law that the more highly any animal is organized the more
quickly does.it pass through the lower stages, Meckel goes on to
say:
" From these lowest Vertebrata to the highest, and to the highest
forms among these, the comparison between the embryonic condi-
tions of the higher animals and the adult states of the lower can
be more completely and thoroughly instituted than if the survey is
extended to the Invertebrata, inasmuch as the latter are in many
respects constructed upon an altogether too dissimilar type ; indeed
they often differ from one another far more than the lowest vertebrate
does from the highest mammal; yet the following pages will show
that the comparison may be also extended to them with interest.
In fact, there is a period when, as Aristotle long ago said, the embryo
of the highest animal has the form of a mere worm, and, devoid of
internal and external organization, is merely an almost structureless
lump of polype-substance. Notwithstanding the origin of organs, it
still for a certain time, by reason of its want of an internal bony
skeleton, remains worm and mollusk, and only later enters into the
series of the Vertebrata, although traces of the vertebral column
even in the earliest periods testify its claim to a place in that series."
Op. cit. pp. 4, 5.
If Meckel's proposition is so far qualified, that the comparison
of adult with embryonic forms is restricted within the limits of
one type of organization; and if it is further recollected, that
the resemblance between the permanent lower form and the
embryonic stage of a higher form is not special but general, it
is in entire accordance with modern embryology; although there
is no branch of biology which has grown so largely, and improved
its methods so much since Meckel's time, as this. In its original
form, the doctrine of " arrest of development," as advocated by
Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire and Serres, was no doubt an over-state-
ment of the case. It is not true, for example, that a fish is a
reptile arrested in its development, or that a reptile was ever a
fish; but it is true that the reptile embryo, at one stage of its
development, is an organism which, if it had an independent
existence, must be classified among fishes; and all the organs
of the reptile pass, in the course of their development, through
conditions which are closely analogous to those which are
permanent in some fishes.
4. That branch of biology which is termed morphology is a
commentary upon, and expansion of, the proposition that widely
different animals or plants, and widely different parts of animals
or plants, are constructed upon the same plan. From the rough
comparison of the skeleton of a bird with that of a man by
Pierre Delon, in the i6th century (to go no further back), down
to the theory of the limbs and the theory of the skull at the
present day; or, from the first demonstration of the homologies
of the parts of a flower by C. F. Wolff, to the present elaborate
analysis of the floral organs, morphology exhibits a continual
advance towards the demonstration of a fundamental unity
among the seeming diversities of living structures. And this
demonstration has been completed by the final establishment of
the cell theory (see CYTOLOGY), which involves the admission of a
primitive conformity, not only of all the elementary structures
in animals and plants respectively, but of those in the one of
these great divisions of living things with those in the other.
No a priori difficulty can be said to stand in the way of evolution,
when it can be shown that all animals and all plants proceed by
modes of development, which are similar in principle, from a
fundamental protoplasmic material.
5. The innumerable cases of structures, which are rudimentary
and apparently useless, in species, the close allies of which
possess well-developed and functionally important homologous
x. 2
34
EVOLUTION
(ONTOGENY
structures, are readily intelligible on the theory of evolution,
while it is hard to conceive their raison d'etre on any other
hypothesis. However, a cautious reasoner will probably rather
explain such cases deductively from the doctrine of evolution
than endeavour to support the doctrine of evolution by them.
For it is almost impossible to prove that any structure, however
rudimentary, is useless that is to say, that it plays no part
whatever in the economy; and, if it is in the slightest degree
useful, there is no reason why, on the hypothesis of direct
creation, it should not have been created. Nevertheless, double-
edged as is the argument from rudimentary organs, there is
probably none which has produced a greater effect in promoting
the general acceptance of the theory of evolution.
6. The older advocates of evolution sought for the causes of
the process exclusively in the influence of varying conditions,
such as climate and station, or hybridization, upon living forms.
Even Treviranus has got no further than this point. Lamarck
introduced the conception of the action of an animal on itself
as a factor in producing modification. Starting from the well-
known fact that the habitual use of a limb tends to develop the
muscles of the limb, and to produce a greater and greater facility
in using it, he made the general assumption that the effort of
an animal to exert an organ in a given direction tends to develop
the organ in that direction. But a little consideration showed
that, though Lamarck had seized what, as far as it goes, is a true
cause of modification, it is a cause the actual effects of which
are wholly inadequate to account for any considerable modifica-
tion in animals, and which can have no influence at all in the
vegetable world; and probably nothing contributed so much
to discredit evolution, in the early part of the igth century, as
the floods of easy ridicule which were poured upon this part
of Lamarck's speculation. The theory of natural selection, or
survival of the fittest, was suggested by William Charles Wells
in 1813, and further elaborated by Patrick Matthew in 1831.
But the pregnant suggestions of these writers remained practically
unnoticed and forgotten, until the theory was independently
devised and promulgated by Charles Robert Darwin and Alfred
Russell Wallace in 1858, and the effect of its publication was
immediate and profound.
Those who were unwilling to accept evolution, without
better grounds than such as are offered by Lamarck, and who
therefore preferred to suspend their judgment on the question,
found in the principle of selective breeding, pursued in all its
applications with marvellous knowledge and skill by Darwin,
a valid explanation of the occurrence of varieties and races;
and they saw clearly that, if the explanation would apply to
species, it would not only solve the problem of their evolution,
but that it would account for the facts of teleology, as well as
for those of morphology; and for the persistence of some forms
of life unchanged through long epochs of time, while others
undergo comparatively rapid metamorphosis.
How far " natural selection " suffices for the production of
species remains to be seen. Few can doubt that, if not the
whole cause, it is a very important factor in that operation;
and that it must play a great part in the sorting out of varieties
into those which are transitory and those which are permanent.
But the causes and conditions of variation have yet to be
thoroughly explored; and the importance of natural selection
will not be impaired, even if further inquiries should prove
that variability is definite, and is determined in certain directions
rather than in others, by conditions inherent in that which varies.
It is quite conceivable that every species tends to produce
varieties of a limited number and kind, and that the effect of
natural selection is to favour the development of some of these,
while it opposes the development of others along their pre-
determined lines of modification.
7. No truths brought to light by biological investigation
were better calculated to inspire distrust of the dogmas intruded
upon science in the name of theology than those which relate
to the distribution of animals and plants on the surface of the
earth. Very skilful accommodation was needful, if the limitation
of sloths to South America, and of the Ornithorhynchus to
Australia, was to be reconciled with the literal interpretation
of the history of the Deluge; and, with the establishment of
the existence of distinct provinces of distribution, any serious
belief in the peopling of the world by migration from Mount
Ararat came to an end.
Under these circumstances, only one alternative was left for
those who denied the occurrence of evolution; namely, the
supposition that the characteristic animals and plants of each
great province were created, as such, within the limits in which
we find them. And as the hypothesis of " specific centres,"
thus formulated, was heterodox from the theological point of
view, and unintelligible under its scientific aspect, it may be
passed over without further notice, as a phase of transition from
the creational to the evolutional hypothesis.
8. In fact, the strongest and most conclusive arguments in
favour of evolution are those which are based upon the facts
of geographical, taken in conjunction with those of geological,
distribution.
Both Darwin and Wallace lay great stress on the close relation
which obtains between the existing fauna of any region and that
of the immediately antecedent geological epoch in the same
region; and rightly, for it is in truth inconceivable that there
should be no genetic connexion between the two. It is possible
to put into words the proposition, that all the animals and plants
of each geological epoch were annihilated, and that a new set
of very similar forms was created for the next epoch, but it
may be doubted if any one who ever tried to form a distinct
mental image of this process of spontaneous generation on the
grandest scale ever really succeeded in realizing it.
In later years the attention of the best palaeontologists has
been withdrawn from the hodman's work of making " new
species " of fossils, to the scientific task of completing our
knowledge of individual species, and tracing out the succession
of the forms presented by any given type in time.
Evolution at the Beginning of the zoth century. Since Huxley
and Sully wrote their masterly essays in the pth edition of this
encyclopaedia, the doctrine of evolution has outgrown the
trammels of controversy and has been accepted as a fundamental
principle. Writers on biological subjects no longer have to waste
space in weighing evolution against this or that philosophical
theory or religious tradition; philosophical writers have frankly
accepted it, and the supporters of religious tradition have made
broad their phylacteries to write on them the new words. A
closer scrutiny of the writers of all ages who preceded Charles
Darwin, and, in particular, the light thrown back from Darwin
on the earlier writings of Herbert Spencer, have made plain
that without Darwin the world by this time might have come
to a general acceptance of evolution; but it seems established
as a historical fact that the world has come to accept evolution,
first, because of Darwin's theory of natural selection, and second,
because of Darwin's exposition of the evidence for the actual
occurrence of organic evolution. The evidence as set out by
Darwin has been added to enormously; new knowledge has in
many cases altered our conceptions of the mode of the actual
process of evolution, and from time to time a varying stress has
been laid on what are known as the purely Darwinian factors
in the theory. The balance of these tendencies has been against
the attachment of great importance to sexual selection, and in
favour of attaching a great importance to natural selection;
but the dominant feature in the recent history of the theory
has been its universal acceptance and the recognition that this
general acceptance has come from the stimulus given by Darwin.
A change has taken place in the use of the word evolution.
Huxley, following historical custom, devoted one section of his
article to the " Evolution of the Individual." The Otttogen
facts and theories respecting this are now discussed
under such headings as EMBRYOLOGY; HEREDITY; VARIATION
AND SELECTION; under these headings must be sought informa-
tion on the important recent modifications with regard to the
theory of the relation between the development of the individual
and the development of the race, the part played by the environ-
ment on the individual, and the modern developments of the
PHYLOGENY]
EVOLUTION
35
old quarrel between evolution and epigenesis. The most striking
general change has been against seeing in the facts of ontogeny
any direct evidence as to phylogeny. The general proposition
as to a parallelism between individual and ancestral development
is no doubt indisputable, but extended knowledge of the very
different ontogenetic histories of closely allied forms has led us
to a much fuller conception of the mode in which stages in
embryonic and larval history have been modified in relation
to their surroundings, and to a consequent reluctance to attach
detailed importance to the embryological argument for evolution.
The vast bulk of botanical and zoological work on living and
extinct forms published during the last quarter of the igth
Ph 1 a centurv increased almost beyond all expectation the
' evidence for the fact of evolution. The discovery of
a single fossil creature in a geological stratum of a wrong period,
the detection of a single anatomical or physiological fact irrecon-
cilable with origin by descent with modification, would have been
destructive of the theory and would have made the reputation
of the observer. But in the prodigious number of supporting
discoveries that have been made no single negative factor has
appeared, and the evolution from their predecessors of the
forms of life existing now or at any other period must be taken
as proved. It is necessary to notice, however, that although
the general course of the stream of life is certain, there is not the
same certainty as to the actual individual pedigrees of the
existing forms. In the attempts to place existing creatures in
approximately phylogenetic order, a striking change, due to a
more logical consideration of the process of evolution, has become
established and is already resolving many of the earlier difficulties
and banishing from the more recent tables the numerous hypo-
thetical intermediate forms so familiar in the older phylogenetic
trees. The older method was to attempt the comparison between
the highest member of a lower group and the lowest member of
a higher group to suppose, for example, that the gorilla and the
chimpanzee, the highest members of the apes, were the existing
representatives of the ancestors of man and to compare these
forms with the lowest members of the human race. Such a
comparison is necessarily illogical, as the existing apes are
separated from the common ancestor by at least as large a number
of generations as separate it from any of the forms of existing
man. In the natural process of growth, the gap must necessarily
be wider between the summits of the twigs than lower down,
and, instead of imagining " missing links," it is necessary to
trace each separate branch as low down as possible, and to
institute the comparisons between the lowest points that can be
reached. The method is simply the logical result of the fact
that every existing form of life stands at the summit of a long
branch of the whole tree of life. A due consideration of it leads to
the curious paradox that if any two animals be compared, the
zoologically lower will be separated from the common ancestor
by a larger number of generations, since, on the average, sexual
maturity is reached more quickly by the lower form. Naturally
very many other factors have to be considered, but this alone is
a sufficient reason to restrain attempts to place existing forms
in linear phylogenetic series. In embryology the method finds
its expression in the limitation of comparisons to the correspond-
ing stages of low and high forms and the exclusion of the com-
parisons between the adult stages of low forms and the embryonic
stages of higher forms. Another expression of the same method,
due to Cope, and specially valuable to the taxonomist, is
that when the relationship between orders is being considered,
characters of subordinal rank must be neglected. It must not
be supposed that earlier writers all neglected this method, or
still less that all writers now employ it, but merely that formerly
it was frequently overlooked by the best writers, and now is
neglected only by the worst. The result is, on the one hand,
clearing away of much fantastic phylogeny, on the other,
an enormous reduction of the supposed gaps between groups.
There has been a renewed activity in the study of existing
forms from the point of view of obtaining evidence as to the
nature and origin of species. Comparative anatomists have been
learning to refrain from basing the diagnosis of a species, or the
description of the condition of an organ, on the evidence of a
single specimen. Naturalists who deal specially with museum
collections have been compelled, it is true, for other
reasons to attach an increasing importance to what is ^" p ^ ra "
called the type specimen, but they find that this insist- torn"""
ence on the individual, although invaluable from the
point of view of recording species, is unsatisfactory from the point
of view of scientific zoology; and propositions for the ameliora-
tion of this condition of affairs range from a refusal of Linnaean
nomenclature in such cases, to the institution of a division
between master species for such species as have been properly
revised by the comparative morphologist, and provisional species
for such species as have been provisionally registered by those
working at collections. Those who work with living forms of
which it is possible to obtain a large number of specimens, and
those who make revisions of the provisional species of palaeonto-
logists, are slowly coming to some such conception as that a
species is the abstract central point around which a group of
variations oscillate, and that the peripheral oscillations of one
species may even overlap those of an allied species. It is plain
that we have moved far from the connotation and denotation
of the word species at the time when Darwin began to discuss the
origin of species, and that the movement, on the one hand, tends
to simplify the problem philosophically, and, on the other, to
make it difficult for the amateur theorist.
The conception of evolution is being applied more rigidly to
the comparative anatomy of organs and systems of organs.
When a series of the modifications of an anatomical structure
has been sufficiently examined, it is frequently possible to decide
that one particular condition is primitive, ancestral or central,
and that the other conditions have been derived from it. Such
a condition has been termed, with regard to the group of animals
or plants the organs of which are being studied, archecentric.
The possession of the character in the archecentric condition
in (say) two of the members of the group does not indicate that
these two members are more nearly related to one another
than they are to other members of the group; the archecentric
condition is part of the common heritage of all the members of
the group, and may be retained by any. On the other hand,
when the ancestral condition is modified, it may be regarded
as having moved outwards along some radius from the arche-
centric condition. Such modified conditions have been termed
apocentric. It is obvious that the mere apocentricity of a char-
acter can be no guide to the affinities of its possessor. It is
necessary to determine if the modification be a simple change
that might have occurred in independent cases, in fact if it
be a multiradial apocentricity, or if it involved intricate and
precisely combined anatomical changes that we could not expect
to occur twice independently; that is to say, if it be a uniradial
apocentricity. Multiradial apocentricities lie at the root of
many of the phenomena that have been grouped under the
designation convergence. Especially in the case of manifest
adaptations, organs possessed by creatures far apart genealogic-
ally may be moulded into conditions that are extremely alike.
Sir E. Ray Lankester's term, homoplasy, has passed into currency
as designating such cases where different genetic material has
been pressed by similar conditions into similar moulds. These
may be called heterogeneous homoplasies, but it is necessary
to recognize the existence of homogeneous homoplasies,
here called multiradial apocentricities. A complex apocentric
modification of a kind which we cannot imagine to have
been repeated independently, and which is to be designated as
uniradial, frequently forms a new centre around which new
diverging modifications are produced. With reference to any
particular group of forms such a new centre of modification
may be termed a metacentre, and it is plain that the archecentre
of the whole group is a metacentre of the larger group cf which
the group under consideration is a branch. Thus, for instance,
the archecentric condition of any Avian structure is a meta-
centre of the Sauropsidan stem. A form of apocentricity
extremely common and often perplexing may be termed pseudo-
centric; in such a condition there is an apparent simplicity that
EVOLUTION
[BIONOMICS
reveals its secondary nature by some small and apparently
meaningless complexity.
Another group of investigations that seems to play an im-
portant part in the future development of the theory of evolution
relates to the study of what is known as organic
symmetry. The differentiations of structure that char-
acterize animals and plants are being shown to be
orderly and definite in many respects; the relations of the
various parts to one another and to the whole, the modes of
repetition of parts, and the series of changes that occur in groups
of repeated parts appear to be to a certain extent inevitable,
to depend on the nature of the living material itself and on the
necessary conditions of its growth. Closely allied to the study
of symmetry is the study of the direct effect of the circumambient
media on embryonic young and adult stages of living beings
(see EMBRYOLOGY: Physiology; HEREDITY; and VARIATION
AND SELECTION), and a still larger number of observers have
added to our knowledge of these. It is impossible here to give
even a list of the names of the many observers who in recent
times have made empirical study of the effects of growth-forces
and of the symmetrical limitations and definitions of growth.
It is to be noticed, however, that, even after such phenomena
have been properly grouped and designated under Greek names
as laws of organic growth, they have not become explanations of
the series of facts they correlate. Their importance in the theory
of evplution is none the less very great. In the first place, they
lessen the number of separate facts to be explained; in the
second, they limit the field within which explanation must be
sought, since, for instance, if a particular mode of repetition of
parts occur in mosses, in flowering-plants, in beetles and in
elephants, the seeker of ultimate explanations may exclude
from the field of his inquiry all the conditions individual to
these different organic forms, and confine himself only to what
is common to all of them; that is to say, practically only
the living material and its environment. The prosecution
of such inquiries is beginning to make unnecessary much in-
genious speculation of a kind that was prominent from 1880
to 1000; much futile effort has been wasted in the endeavour
to find on Darwinian principles special " selection-values " for
phenomena the universality of which places them outside the
possibility of having relations with the particular conditions
of particular organisms. On the other hand, many of those
who have been specially successful in grouping diverse pheno-
mena under empirical generalizations have erred logically in
posing their generalizations against such a vera causa as
the preservation of favoured individuals and races. The thirty
years which followed the publication of the Origin of Species
were characterized chiefly by anatomical and embryological
work; since then there has been no diminution in anatomical
and embryological enthusiasm, but many of the continually
increasing body of investigators have turned again to bionomical
work. Inasmuch as Lamarck attempted to frame a theory of
evolution in which the principle of natural selection had no part,
the interpretation placed on their work by many bionomical
investigators recalls the theories of Lamarck, and the name
Neo-Lamarckism has been used of such a school of biologists,
particularly active in America. The weakness of the Neo-
Lamarckian view lies in its interpretation of heredity; its
strength lies in its zealous study of the living world and the
detection therein of proximate empirical laws, a strength shared
by very many bionomical investigations, the authors of which
would prefer to call themselves Darwinians, or to leave them-
selves without sectarian designation.
Statistical inquiry into the facts of life has long been employed,
and in particular Francis Gallon, within the Darwinian period, has
advocated its employment and developed its methods.
metrics. Within quite recent years, however, a special school
has arisen with the main object of treating the pro-
cesses of evolution quantitatively. Here it is right to speak of
Karl Pearson as a pioneer of notable importance. It has been
the habit of biologists to use the terms variation, selection,
elimination, correlation and so forth, vaguely; the new school,
which has been strongly reinforced from the side of physical
science, insists on quantitative measurements of the terms.
When the anatomist says that one race is characterized by long
heads, another by round heads, the biometricist demands numbers
and percentages. When an organ is stated to be variable, the
biometricist demands statistics to show the range of the varia-
tions and the mode of their distribution. When a character is
said to be favoured by natural selection, the biometricist demands
investigation of the death-rate of individuals with or without
the character. When a character is said to be transmitted, or
to be correlated with another character, the biometricist declares
the statement valueless without numerical estimations of the
inheritance or correlation. The subject is still so new, and its
technical methods (see VARIATION AND SELECTION) have as
yet spread so little beyond the group which is formulating and
defining them, that it is difficult to do more than guess at the
importance of the results likely to be gained. Enough, however,
has already been done to show the vast importance of the
method in grouping and codifying the empirical facts of life,
and in so preparing the way for the investigation of ultimate
" causes." The chief pitfall appears to be the tendency to attach
more meaning to the results than from their nature they can bear.
The ultimate value of numerical inquiries must depend on the
equivalence of the units on which they are based. Many of
the characters that up to the present have been dealt with by
biometrical inquiry are obviously composite. The height or
length of the arm of a human being, for instance, is the result
of many factors, some inherent, some due to environment, and
until these have been sifted out, numerical laws of inheritance
or of correlation can have no more than an empirical value.
The analysis of composite characters into their indivisible units
and statistical inquiry into the behaviour of the units would
seem to be a necessary part of biometric investigation, and one
to which much further attention will have to be paid.
It is well known that Darwin was deeply impressed by differ-
ences in flora and fauna, which seemed to be functions of
locality, and not the result of obvious dissimilarities of
environment. A. R. Wallace's studies of island life,
and the work of many different observers on local
races of animals and plants, marine, fluviatile and terrestrial,
have brought about a conception of segregation as apart from
differences of environment as being one of the factors in the
differentiation of living forms. The segregation may be geo-
graphical, or may be the result of preferential mating, or of
seasonal mating, and its effects plainly can be made no more of
than proximate or empirical laws of differentiation, of great
importance in codifying and simplifying the facts to be explained.
The minute attention paid by modern systematists to the exact
localities of subspecies and races is bringing together a vast
store of facts which will throw further light on the problem
of segregation, but the difficulty of utilizing these facts is in-
creased by an unfortunate tendency to make locality itself one
of the diagnostic characters.
Consideration of phylogenetic series, especially from the
palaeontological side, has led many writers to the conception
that there is something of the nature of a growth-force
* i i DBtntBtsm,
inherent in organisms and tending inevitably towards
divergent evolution. It is suggested that even in the absence of
modification produced by any possible Darwinian or Lamarckian
factors, that even in a neutral environment, divergent evolution
of some kind would have occurred. The conception is necessarily
somewhat hazy, but the words bathmism and bathmic Evolution
have been employed by a number of writers for some such
conception. Closely connected with it, and probably under-
lying many of the facts which have led to it, is a more definite
group of ideas that may be brought together under the phrase
" phylogenetic limitation of variation." In its simplest form,
this phrase implies such an obvious fact as that whatever be the
future development of, say, existing cockroaches, it will be on
lines determined by the present structure of these creatures.
In a more general way, the phrase implies that at each successive
branching of the tree of life, the branches become more specialized,
EVORA EVREUX
37
more defined, and, in a sense, more limited. The full implications
of the group of ideas require, and are likely to receive, much
attention in the immediate future of biological investigation,
but it is enough at present to point out that until the more
obvious lines of inquiry have been opened out much more fully,
we cannot be in a position to guess at the existence of a residuum,
for which such a metaphysical conception as bathmism would
serve even as a convenient disguise for ignorance.
Almost every side of zoology has contributed to the theory
of evolution, but of special importance are the facts and theories
associated with the names of Gregor Mendel, A. Weismann
and Hugo de Vries. These are discussed under the headings
HEREDITY; MENDELISM; and VARIATION AND SELECTION. It
has been a feature of great promise in recent contributions to the
theory of evolution, that such contributions have received
attention almost directly in proportion to the new methods of
observation and the new series of facts with which they have
come. Those have found little favour who brought to the
debate only formal criticisms or amplifications of the Darwinian
arguments, or re-marshallings of the Darwinian facts, however
ably conducted. The time has not yet come for the attempt
to synthesize the results of the many different and often
apparently antagonistic groups of workers. The great work that
is going on is the simplification of the facts to be explained by
grouping them under empirical laws; and the most general state-
ment relating to these that can yet be made is that no single one
of these laws has as yet shown signs of taking rank as a vera causa
comparable with the Darwinian principle of natural selection.
For evolution in relation to society see SOCIOLOGY.
REFERENCES. Practically, every botanical and zoological pub-
lication of recent date has its bearing on evolution. The following
are a few of the more general works: Bateson, Materials for the
Study of Variation; Bunge, Vilalismus und Mechanismus; Cope,
Origin of the Fittest, Primary Factors of Organic Evolution, Darwin's
Life and Letters; H. de Vries, Species and Varieties and their Origin
by Mutation; Eimer, Organic Evolution; Gulick, " Divergent
Evolution through Cumulative Segregation," Jour. Linn. Soc. xx. ;
Haacke, Schopfung des Menschen; Mitchell, " Valuation of Zoo-
logical Characters," Trans. Linn. Soc. viii. pt. 7; Pearson, Grammar
of Science; Romanes, Darwin and after Darwin; Sedgwick, Presi-
dential Address to Section Zoology, Brit. Ass. Rep. 1899; Wallace,
Darwinism; Weismann, The Germ-Plasm. Further references of
great value will be found in the works of Bateson and Pearson
referred to above, and in the annual volumes of the Zoological
Record, particularly under the head " General Subject." (P. C. M.)
EVORA, the capital of an administrative district in the
province of Alemtejo, Portugal; 72 m. E. by S. of Lisbon, on
the Casa Branca-Evora-Elvas railway. Pop. (1900) 16,020.
Evora occupies a fertile valley enclosed by low hills. It is sur-
rounded by ramparts flanked with towers, and is further
defended by two forts; but the neglected condition of these,
combined with the narrow arcaded streets and crumbling walls
of Roman or Moorish masonry, gives the city an appearance
corresponding with its real antiquity. Evora is the see of an
archbishop, and has several churches, convents and hospitals,
barracks, a diocesan school and a museum. A university,
founded in 1550, was abolished on the expulsion of the Jesuits
in the i8th century. The cathedral, originally a Romanesque
building erected 1186-1204, was restored in Gothic style about
1400; its richly decorated chancel was added in 1761. The
church of Sao Francisco (1507-1525) is a good example of the
blended Moorish and Gothic architecture known as Manoellian.
The art gallery, formerly the archbishop's palace, contains a
collection of Portuguese and early Flemish paintings. An
ancient tower, and the so-called aqueduct of Sertorius, 9 m.
long, have been partly demolished to make room for the market-
square, in which one of the largest fairs in Portugal is held at
midsummer. Both tower and aqueduct were long believed to
have been of Roman origin, but are now known to have been
constructed about 1540-1555 in the reign of John III., at the
instance of an antiquary named Resende. The aqueduct was
probably constructed on the site of the old Roman one. A small
Roman temple is used as a public library; it is usually known
as the temple of Diana, a name for which no valid authority
exists. Evora is of little commercial importance, except as an
agricultural centre, but its neighbourhood is famous for its mules
and abounds in cork- woods; there are also mines of iron, copper,
and asbestos and marble quarries.
Under its original name of Ebora, the city was from 80 to 72 B.C.
the headquarters of Sertorius, and it long remained an important
Roman military station. It was called Liberalitas Juliae on
account of certain municipal privileges bestowed on it by
Julius Caesar (c. 100-44 B.C.). Its bishopric, founded in the
5th century, was raised to an archbishopric in the i6th. In
712 Evora was conquered by the Moors, who named it Jabura;
and it was only retaken in 1166. Fom 1663 to 1665 it was held
by the Spaniards. In 1832 Dom Miguel, retreating before Dom
Pedro, took refuge in Evora; and here was signed the con-
vention of Evora, by which he was banished. (See PORTUGAL.)
The administrative district of Evora coincides with the sentral
part of Alemtejo (q.v.); pop. (1900) 128,062; area, 2856 sq. m.
JJVREUX, a town of north-western France, capital of the
department of Eure, 67 m. W.N.W. of Paris on the Western
railway to Cherbourg. Pop. (1906) town, 13,773; commune,
18,971. Situated in the pleasant valley of the Iton, arms of
which traverse it, the town, on the south, slopes up toward
the public gardens and the railway station. It is the seat of a
bishop, and its cathedral is one of the largest and finest in France.
Part of the lower portion of the nave dates from the nth century;
the west facade with its two ungainly towers is, for the most part,
the work of the late Renaissance, and various styles of the
intervening period are represented in the rest of the church.
A thorough restoration was completed in 1896. The elaborate
north transept and portal are in the flamboyant Gothic; the choir,
the finest part of the interior, is in an earlier Gothic style.
Cardinal de la Balue, bishop of Evreux in the latter half of the
iSth century, constructed the octagonal central tower, with its
elegant spire; to him is also due the Lady chapel, which is remark-
able for some finely preserved stained glass. Two rose windows
in the transepts and the carved wooden screens of the side chapels
are masterpieces of 16th-century workmanship. The episcopal
palace, a building of the isth century, adjoins the south side
of the cathedral. An interesting belfry, facing the handsome
modern town hall, dates from the 15th century. The church of
St Taurin, in part Romanesque, has a choir of the i4th century
and other portions of later date; it contains the shrine of St
Taurin, a work of the i3th century. At Vieil Evreux, 35 m.
south-east of the town, the remains of a Roman theatre, a palace,
baths and an aqueduct have been discovered, as well as various
relics which are now deposited in the museum of Evreux. Evreux
is the seat of a prefect, a court of assizes, of tribunals of first
instance and commerce, a chamber of commerce and a board of
trade arbitrators, and has a branch of the Bank of France, a
lycee and training colleges for teachers. The making of ticking,
boots and shoes, agricultural implements and gas motors, and
metal-founding and bleaching are carried on.
Vieil-Evreux (Mediolanum Aulercorum) was the capital of the
Gallic tribe of the Aulerci Eburovices and a flourishing city dur-
ing the Gallo-Roman period. Its bishopric dates from the 4th
century.
The first family of the counts of Evreux which is known
was descended from an illegitimate son of Richard I., duke of
Normandy, and became extinct in the male line with the death
of Count William in 1 1 18. The countship passed in right of Agnes,
William's sister, wife of Simon de Montfort-l'Amaury (d. 1087)
to the house of the lords of Montfort-l'Amaury. Amaury III.
of Montfort ceded it in 1200 to King Philip Augustus. Philip
the Fair presented it (1307) to his brother Louis, for whose benefit
Philip the Long raised the countship of Evreux into a peerage
of France (1317). Philip of Evreux, son of Louis, became king
of Navarre by his marriage with Jeanne, daughter of Louis the
Headstrong (Hutin), and their son Charles the Bad and their
grandson Charles the Noble were also kings of Navarre. The
latter ceded his countships of Evreux, Champagne and Brie
to King Charles VI. (1404). In 1427 the countship of Evreux
was bestowed by King Charles VII. on Sir John Stuart of
EWALD
Darnley (c. 1365-1429), the commander of his Scottish body-
guard, who in 1423 had received the seigniory of Aubigny and
in February 1427/8 was granted the right to quarter the royal
arms of France for his victories over the English (see Lady
Elizabeth Cust, Account of the Stuarts of Aubigny in France,
1422-1672, 1891). On Stuart's death (before Orleans during an
attack on an English convoy) the countship reverted to the crown.
It was again temporarily alienated (1569-1584) as an appanage
for Francis, duke of Anjou, and in 1651 was finally made over to
Frederic Maurice de la Tour d'Auvergne, duke of Bouillon, in
exchange for the principality of Sedan.
EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON (1803-1875),
German Orientalist and theologian, was born on the i6th of
November 1803 at Gottingen, where his father was a linen-
weaver. In 1815 he was sent to the gymnasium, and in 1820
he entered the university of his native town, where under
J. G. Eichhorn and T. C. Tychsen he devoted himself specially
to the study of Oriental languages. At the close of his academical
career in 1823 he was appointed to a mastership in the gymnasium
at Wolfenbiittel, and made a study of the Oriental manuscripts
in the Wolfenbiittel library. But in the spring of 1824 he was
recalled to Gottingen as repetent, or theological tutor, and in
1827 (the year of Eichhorn's death) he became professor extra-
ordinarius in philosophy and lecturer in Old Testament exegesis.
In 1831 he was promoted to the position of professor ordinarius
in philosophy; in 1833 he became a member of the Royal
Scientific Society, and in 1835, after Tychsen's death, he entered
the faculty of theology, taking the chair of Oriental languages.
Two years later occurred the first important episode in his
studious life. In 1837, on the i8th of November, along with six
of his colleagues he signed a formal protest against the action
of King Ernst August (duke of Cumberland) in abolishing the
liberal constitution of 1833, which had been granted to the
Hanoverians by his predecessor William IV. This bold procedure
of the seven professors led to their speedy expulsion from the
university (i4th December). Early in 1838 Ewald received a
call to Tubingen, and there for upwards of ten years he held a
chair as professor ordinarius, first in philosophy and afterwards,
from 1841, in theology. To this period belong some of his most
important works, and also the commencement of his bitter feud
with F. C. Baur and the Tubingen school. In 1847, " the great
shipwreck-year in Germany," as he has called it, he was invited
back to Gottingen on honourable terms the liberal constitution
having been restored. He gladly accepted the invitation. In
1862-1863 he took an active part in a movement for reform
within the Hanoverian Church, and he was a member of the synod
which passed the new constitution. He had an important share
also in the formation of the Protestantenverein, or Protestant
association, in September 1863. But the chief crisis in his life
arose out of the political events of 1866. His loyalty to King
George (son of Ernst August) would not permit him to take the
oath of allegiance to the victorious king of Prussia, and he was
therefore placed on the retired list, though with the full amount
of his salary as pension. Perhaps even this degree of severity
might have been held by the Prussian authorities to be un-
necessary, had Ewald been less exasperating in his language.
The violent tone of some of his printed manifestoes about this
time, especially of his Lob des Konigs u. des Volkes, led to his
being deprived of the venia legendi (1868) and also to a criminal
process, which, however, resulted in his acquittal (May 1869).
Then, and on two subsequent occasions, he was returned by the
city of Hanover as a member of the North German and German
parliaments. In June 1874 he was found guilty of a libel on
Prince Bismarck, whom he had compared to Frederick II. in
" his unrighteous war with Austria and his ruination of religion
and morality," to Napoleon III. in his way of " picking out the
best time possible for robbery and plunder." For this offence
he was sentenced to undergo three weeks' imprisonment. He
died in his 72nd year of heart disease on the 4th of May 1875.
Ewald was no common man. In his public life he displayed
many noble characteristics, perfect simplicity and sincerity,
intense moral earnestness, sturdy independence, absolute
fearlessness. As a teacher he had a remarkable power of kindling
enthusiasm; and he sent out many distinguished pupils, among
whom may be mentioned Hitzig, Schrader, Noldeke, Diestel
and Dillmann. His disciples were not all of one school, but many
eminent scholars who apparently have been untouched by his
influence have in fact developed some of the many ideas which he
suggested. His numerous writings, from 1823 onwards, were
the reservoirs in which the entire energy of a life was stored.
His Hebrew Grammar inaugurated a new era in biblical philology.
All subsequent works in that department have been avowedly
based on his, and to him will always belong the honour of having
been, as Hitzig has called him, " the second founder of the
science of the Hebrew language. " As an exegete and biblical critic
no less than as a grammarian he has left his abiding mark. His
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, the result of thirty years' labour,
was epoch-making in that branch of research. While in every line
it bears the marks of intense individuality, it is at the same time
a product highly characteristic of the age, and even of the decade,
in which it appeared. If it is obviously the outcome of immense
learning on the part of its author, it is no less manifestly the
result of the speculations and researches of many laborious
predecessors in all departments of history, theology and philo-
sophy. Taking up the idea of a divine education of the human
race, which Lessing and Herder had made so familiar to the
modern mind, and firmly believing that to each of the leading
nations of antiquity a special task had been providentially
assigned, Ewald felt no difficulty about Israel's place in universal
history, or about the problem which that race had been called
upon to solve. The history of Israel, according to him, is simply
the history of the manner in which the one true religion really
and truly came into the possession of mankind. Other nations,
indeed, had attempted the highest problems in religion; but
Israel alone, in the providence of God, had succeeded, for Israel
alone had been inspired. Such is the supreme meaning of that
national history which began with the exodus and culminated
(at the same time virtually terminating) in the appearing of
Christ. The historical interval that separated these two events is
treated as naturally dividing itself into three great periods,
those of Moses, David and Ezra. The periods are externally
indicated by the successive names by which the chosen people
were called Hebrews, Israelites, Jews. The events prior to
the exodus are relegated by Ewald to a preliminary chapter of
primitive history; and the events of the apostolic and post-
apostolic age are treated as a kind of appendix. The entire con-
struction of the history is based, as has already been said, on a
critical examination and chronological arrangement of the
available documents. So far as the results of criticism are still
uncertain with regard to the age and authorship of any of these,
Ewald's conclusions must of course be regarded as unsatisfactory.
But his work remains a storehouse of learning and is increasingly
recognized as a work of rare genius.
Of his works the more important are : Die Composition der
Genesis kritisch untersucht (1823), an acute and able attempt to
account for the use of the two names of God without recourse to the
document-hypothesis; he was not himself, however, permanently
convinced by it; De metris carminum Arabicorum (1825); Das
Hohelied Salome's ubersetzt u. erklart (1826; 3rd ed., 1866); Kritische
Grammatik der hebr. Sprache (1827) this afterwards became the
Ausfiihrliches Lehrbuch der hebr. Sprache (8th ed., 1870); and it was
followed by the Hebr. Sprachlehre fur Anfanger (4th ed., 1874);
Uber einige alter e Sanskritmetra (1827); Liber Vakedii de Meso-
polamiae expugnatae historia (1827); Commentarius in Apocalypsin
Johannis (1828); Abhandlungen zur biblischen u. orientahschen
Liter atur (1832); Grammatica critica linguae Arabicae (1831-1833);
Die poetischen Biicher des alien Bundes (1835-1837, 3rd ed., 1866-
1867); Die Propheten des alien Bundes (1840-1841, 2nd ed., 1867-
1868); Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1843-1859, 3rd ed., 1864-1868);
Alterthumer Israels (1848); Die drei erslen Evangelien ubersetzt u.
erklart (1850); Uber das dlhiopische Buck Henoch (1854); Die
Sendschreiben des Apostels Paulus ubersetzt u. erklart (1857); Die
Johanneischen Schriflen ubersetzt u. erklart (1861-1862); Uber das
vierte Esrabuch (1863); Sieben Sendschreiben des neuen Bundes
(1870) ; Das Sendschreiben an die Hebrder u. Jakobos' Rundschreiben
(1870) ; Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott, oder Theologie des alien u.
neuen Bundes (1871-1875). The Jahrbucher der biblischen Wissen-
schaft (1849-1865) were edited, and for the most part written, by
him. He was the chief promoter of the Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des
EWALD
39
Morgenlandes, begun in 1837; and he frequently contributed on
various subjects to the G oiling, gelehrle Anzeigen. He was also the
author of many pamphlets of an occasional character.
The following have been translated into English : Hebrew Gram-
mar, by John Nicholson (from 2nd German edition) (London 1836) ;
Introductory Hebrew Grammar (from 3rd German edition) (London,
1870); History of Israel, 5 yols. (corresponding to vols. i.-iv. of the
German), by Russell Martineau and J. Estlin Carpenter (London,
1867-1874); Antiquities of Israel, by H. S. Solly (London, 1876);
Commentary on the Prophets of the Old Testament, by J. Frederick
Smith (2 vols., London, 1876-1877); Isaiah the Prophet, chaps,
i.-xxxiii., by O. Glover (London, 1869) ; Life of Jesus Christ, also
by O. Glover (London, 1865).
See the article in Herzoe-Hauck; T. Witton Davies, Heinricn
Ewald (1903) ; and cf. T. K. Cheyne, Founders of Old Testament
Criticism (1893); F. Lichtenberger, History of German Theology in
the Nineteenth Century (1889).
EWALO, JOHANNES (1743-1781), the greatest lyrical poet of
Denmark, was the son of a melancholy and sickly chaplain at
Copenhagen, where he was born on the i8th of November 1743.
At the age of eleven he was sent to school at Schleswig, his
father's birthplace, and returned to the capital only to enter
the university in 1758. His father was by that time dead, and
in his mother, a frivolous and foolish woman, he found neither
sympathy nor moral support. At fifteen he fell passionately
in love with Arense Hulegaard, a girl whose father afterwards
married the poet's mother; and the romantic boy resolved on
various modes of making himself admired by the young lady.
He began to learn Abyssinian, for the purpose of going out as a
missionary to Africa, but this scheme was soon given up, and he
persuaded a brother, four years older than himself, to run away
that they might enlist as hussars in the Prussian army. They
managed to reach Hamburg just when the Seven Years' War
was commencing and were allowed to enter a regiment. But
the elder brother soon got tired and ran away, while the poet,
after a series of extraordinary adventures, deserted to the
Austrian army, where from being drummer he rose to being
sergeant, and was only not made an officer because he was a
Protestant. In 1 760 he was weary of a soldier's life and deserted
again, getting safe back to Denmark. For the next two years
he worked with great diligence at the university, but the Arense
for whom he had gone through so much hardship and taken so
much pains married another man almost immediately after
Ewald's final and very successful examination. The disappoint-
ment was one from which he never recovered, but his own
weakness of will was largely to blame for it. He plunged into
dissipation of every kind, and gave his serious thoughts only to
poetry.
In 1763 his first work, a perfunctory dissertation, De pyrologia
sacra, first saw the light. In 1 764 he made a considerable success
with a short prose story in the popular manner of Sneedorf,
Lykkens Tempel (The Temple of Fortune), which was translated
into German and Icelandic. On the death of Frederick V., how-
ever, Ewald first appeared prominently as a poet ; he published in
1 766 three Elegies over the dead king, which were received with
universal acclamation, and of which one, at least, is a veritable
masterpiece. But his dramatic poem Adam og Eva (Adam and
Eve), by far the finest imaginative work produced in Denmark
up to that time, was rejected by the Society of Arts in 1767 and
was not published until 1769. At the latter date, however, its
merits were perceived. In 1770 Ewald attained success with
Philet, a narrative and lyrical poem, and still more with his
splendid Rolf Krage, the first original Danish tragedy. For the
next ten years Ewald was occupied in producing one brilliant
poetical work after another, in rapid succession. In 1771 he
published De brutale Klappers (The Brutal Clappers), a tragi-
comedy or parody satirizing the dispute then raging between
the critics and the manager of the Royal Theatre; in 1772
he translated from the German the lyrical drama of Philemon
and Baucis, and brought out his versified comedy of Harlequin
Patriot, a satire on the passion for political scribbling created by
Struensee's introduction of the liberty of the press. In 1773 he
published Pebersvendene (Old Bachelors), a prose comedy.
In 1771 he had already collected some of his lyrical poems under
the title of Adskilligt af Johannes Ewald (Miscellanies). In 1774
appeared the heroic opera of Balder 's Dod (Balder's Death),
and in 1779 the finest of his works, the lyrical drama Fiskerne
(The Fishers), which contains the Danish National Song, " King
Christian stood by the high Mast," his most famous lyric. In
the two poems last mentioned, however, Ewald passed beyond
contemporary taste, and these great works, the pride of Danish
literature, were coldly received. But while the new poetry was
slowly winning its way into popular esteem, the poet did not lack
admirers, and at the head of these he founded in 1775 the Danish
Literary Society, a body which became influential, and which
made the study of Ewald a cultus. But the poet's health had
broken; when he was writing Rolf Krage he was already an
inmate of the consumptive hospital, and when he seemed to be
recovering, his health was shattered again by a night spent in the
frosty streets. He embittered his existence by the recklessness
of his private life, and finally, through a fall from a horse, he
ended by becoming a complete invalid. His last ten years were
full of acute suffering; his mother treated him with cruelty,
his family with neglect, and but few even of his friends showed
any manliness or generosity towards him. Ini774he was placed
in the house of an inspector of fisheries at Rungsted, where
Anna Hedevig Jacobsen, the daughter of the house, tended the
wasted poet with infinite tenderness and skill. He stayed in
this house for three years, and wrote there some of his finest later
lyrics. Meanwhile he had fallen deeply in love with the charming
solace of his sufferings and won her consent to a marriage.
This step, however, was prevented by his family, who roughly
removed him to their own keeping near Kronborg. Here he
was treated so infamously that he insisted on being taken back
to Copenhagen in 1777, where he found an older, but no less
tender nurse, in Ane KirsUiie Skou. Here he wrote Fiskerne
with his imagination full of the familiar shore at Hornbaek,
near Rungsted. In 1780 he was a little better, and managed to
be present at the theatre at the first performance of his poem.
But this excitement hastened his end, and after months of extreme
agony he died on the I7th of March 1781, and was carried to
the grave by a large assembly of his admirers, since he was now
just recognized by the public for the first time as the greatest
national poet. Among his papers were found fragments of
three dramas, two on old Scandinavian subjects, entitled
Frode and Helgo, and the third a tragedy on the story of
Hamlet, which he meant to treat in a way wholly distinct from
Shakespeare's.
Ewald belongs to the race of poetical reformers who appeared
in all countries of Europe at the end of the i8th century; but it is
interesting to observe that in point of time he preceded all of
them. He was born six years earlier than Goethe and Alfieri,
sixteen years before Schiller, nine years before Andre Ch6nier,
and twenty-seven years earlier than Wordsworth, but he did for
Denmark what each of these poets did for his own country.
Ewald found Danish literature given over to tasteless rhetoric,
and without art or vigour. He introduced vivacity of style,
freshness and brevity of form, and an imaginative study of nature
which was then unprecedented. But perhaps his greatest claim
to notice is the fact that he was the first person to call the atten-
tion of the Scandinavian peoples to the treasuries of their ancient
history and mythology, and to suggest the use of these in imagina-
tive writing. With a colouring more distinctly modern than that
of Collins and Gray, his lyrics yet resemble the odes of these his
English contemporaries more closely than those of any continental
poet; from another point of view his ballads remind us of those
of Schiller, which they preceded. His dramas, which had an
immense influence on the Danish stage, are now chiefly of anti-
quarian interest, with the exception of " The Fishers," a work
that must always live as a great national poem. In personal
character and in fate Ewald seems to have been not unlike
Heinrich Heine.
The first collected edition of Ewald's works began to appear in
his lifetime. It is in four volumes, 1780-1784. His works have
constantly been reprinted, but the standard edition is that by
Liebenberg, in 8 vols., 1850-1855. The best biographies of him are
those by C. Molbech (1831), Hammerich (1860) and Andreas Dolleris
(looo)/ (E. G.)
40'
EWART EWING
EWART, WILLIAM (1798-1869), English politician, was
born in Liverpool on the ist of May 1798. He was educated at
Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, gaining the Newdigate prize
for English verse. He was called to the bar at the Middle
Temple in 1827, and the next year entered parliament for the
borough of Bletchingley in Surrey. He subsequently sat for
LiverpDol from 1830 to 1837, for Wigan in 1839, and for Dumfries
Burghs from 1841 until his retirement from public life in 1868.
He died at Broadleas, near Devizes, on the 23rd of January 1869.
Ewart, who was an advanced liberal in politics, was responsible
during his long political career for many useful measures. In
1834 he carried a bill for the abolition of hanging in chains, and
in 1837 he was successful in getting an act passed for abolishing
capital punishment for cattle-stealing and other offences. In
1850 he carried a bill for establishing free libraries supported out
of the rates, and in 1864 he was instrumental in getting an act
passed for legalizing the use of the metric system of weights and
measures. He was always a strong advocate for the abolition
of capital punishment, and on his motion in 1864 a select com-
mittee was appointed to consider the subject. Other reforms
which he advocated and which have since been carried out were
an annual statement on education, and the examination of
candidates for the civil service and army.
EWE, a group of Negro peoples of the Slave Coast. West
Africa. By the natives their country is called Ewe-me, " Land
of the Ewe." The Ewe family forms five linguistic groups:
the Anlo or Anglawa on the Gold Coast frontier, the Krepi of
Anfueh speech, the Jeji, the Dahomeyans and the Mahi.
See further DAHOMEY, and A. B. Ellis, The Ewe-Speaking Peoples
of the Slave Coast . . . (London, 1890).
EWELL, RICHARD STODDERT (1817-1872), American
soldier, lieutenant-general in the Confederate army, was born in
Georgetown, now a part of Washington, D.C., on the 2nd of
February 1817, and graduated at West Point in 1840. As a
cavalry officer he saw much active service in the Mexican War
and later in Indian warfare in New Mexico. He resigned his
commission at the outbreak of the Civil War, and entered the
Confederate service. He commanded a brigade in the first Bull
Run campaign, and a division in the famous Valley Campaign
of " Stonewall " Jackson, to whom he was next in rank. At Cross
Keys he was in command of the forces which defeated General
Fremont. Ewell's division served with Jackson in the Seven
Days and in the campaign of Second Bull Run. At the action
of Groveton Ewell lost a leg, but did not on that account retire
from active service, though other generals led his men in the
sanguinary battles of Antietam (where they lost 47% of their
numbers) and Fredericksburg. After the death of " Stonewall "
Jackson, Ewell was promoted lieutenant-general and appointed
to command the 2nd Corps, with which he had served from the
beginning of the Valley Campaign. His promotion set aside
General J. E. B. Stuart, the temporary commander of Jackscfl's
corps; that Ewell, crippled as he was, was preferred to the
brilliant cavalry leader was a marked testimony to his sterling
qualities as a soldier. The invasion of Pennsylvania soon
followed, Ewell's corps leading the advance of Lee's army. A
federal force was skilfully cut off and destroyed near Winchester,
Va., and Ewell's corps then raided Maryland and southern
Pennsylvania unchecked. At the battle of Gettysburg, the
2nd Corps decided the fighting of the first day in favour of
the Confederates, driving the enemy before them; on the
second day it fought a desperate action on Lee's left wing.
Ewell took part in the closing operations of 1863 and in all the
battles- of the Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns. In the
final campaign of 1865 he and the remnant of his corps were cut
off and forqed to surrender at Sailor's Creek, a few days before
his chief capitulated to Grant at Appomattox. After the war
General Ewell lived in retirement. He died near Spring Hill,
Maury County, Tennessee, on the 25th of January 1872.
EWING, ALEXANDER 0814-1873), Scottish divine, was
born of an old Highland family in Aberdeen on the 25th of
March 1814. In October 1838 he was admitted to deacon's
orders, and after his return from Italy he took charge of the
episcopal congregation at Forres, and was ordained a presbyter
in the autumn of 1841. In 1846 he was elected first bishop of
the newly restored diocese of Argyll and the Isles, the duties of
which position he discharged till his death on the 22nd of May
1873. In 1851 he received the degree of D.C.L. from the univer-
sity of Oxford. Though hampered by a delicate bodily constitu-
tion, he worked in a spirit of buoyant cheerfulness. By the
charm of his personal manner and his catholic sympathies he
gradually attained a prominent position. In theological dis-
cussion he contended for the exercise of a wide tolerance, and
attached little importance to ecclesiastical authority and
organization. His own theological position had close affinity
with that of Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Frederick
Denison Maurice; but his opinions were the fruit of his own
meditation, and were coloured by his own individuality. The
trend of his teaching is only to be gathered from fragmentary
publications letters to the newspapers, pamphlets, special
sermons, essays contributed to the series of Present Day Papers,
of which he was the editor, and a volume of sermons entitled
Revelation considered as Light.
Besides his strictly theological writings, Ewing was the author
of the Cathedral or Abbey Church of lona (1865), the first part of
which contains drawings and descriptive letterpress of the ruins,
and the second a history of the early Celtic church and the mission
of St Columba. See Memoir of Alexander Ewing, D.C.L., by A. J.
Ross (1877).
EWING. JULIANA HORATIA ORR (1841-1885), English
writer of books for children, daughter of the Rev. Alfred Gatty
and of Margaret Gatty (<?..), was born at Ecclesfield, Yorkshire,
in 1841. One of a large family, she was accustomed to act as
nursery story-teller to her brothers and sisters, and her brother
Alfred Scott Gatty provided music to accompany her plays.
She was well educated in classics and modern languages, and at
an early age began to publish verses, being a contributor to
Aunt Judy's Magazine, which her mother started in 1866. The
Land of Lost Toys and many other of Juliana's stories appeared
in this magazine. In 1867 she married Major Alexander Ewing,
himself an author, and the composer of the well-known hymn
" Jerusalem the Golden." From this time until her death
(i3th may 1885), previously to which she had been a constant
invalid, Mrs Ewing produced a number of charming children's
stories. The best of these are: The Brownies (1870), A Flat-Iron
for a Farthing (1873), Lob-lie-by the Fire (1874), The Story of a
Short Life (1885) and Jackanapes (1884), the two last-named, in
particular, obtaining great success; among others may be
mentioned Mrs Over -the-W ay's Remembrances (1869), Six to
Sixteen, Jan of the Windmill (1876), A Great Emergency (1877),
We and the World (1881), Old-Fashioned Fairy Tales, Brothers
of Pity (1882), The Doll's Wash, Master Fritz, Our Garden, A
Soldier's Children, Three Little Nest- Birds, A Week Spent in a
Glass-House, A Sweet Little Dear, and Blue-Red (1883). Many
of these were published by the S.P.C.K. Simple and unaffected
in style, and sound and wholesome in matter, with quiet touches
of humour and bright sketches of scenery and character, Mrs
Ewing's best stories have never been surpassed in the style of
literature to which they belong.
EWING, THOMAS (1780-1871), American lawyer and states-
man, was born near the present West Liberty, West Virginia, on
the 28th of December 1789. His father, George Ewing, settled at
Lancaster, Fairfield county, Ohio, in 1792. Thomas graduated
at Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, in 1815, and in August 1816
was admitted to the bar at Lancaster, where he won high rank
as an advocate. He was a Whig member of the United States
senate in 1831-1837, and as such took a prominent part in the
legislative struggle over the United States Bank, whose re-
chartering he favoured and which he resolutely defended against
President Jackson's attack, opposing in able speeches the with-
drawal of deposits and Secretary Woodbury's " Specie Circular "
of 1836. In March 1841 he became secretary of the treasury in
President W. H. Harrison's cabinet. When, however, after
President Tyler's accession, the relations between the President
and the Whig Party became strained, he retired (September
1841) and was succeeded by Walter Forward (1786-1852).
EXAMINATIONS
Subsequently from March 1849 to July 1850 he was a member
of President Taylor's cabinet as the first secretary of the newly
established department of the interior. He thoroughly organized
the department, and in his able annual report advocated the
construction by government aid of a railroad to the Pacific
Coast. In 1850-1851 he filled the unexpired term of Thomas
Corwin in the U.S. Senate, strenuously opposing Clay's com-
promise measures and advocating the abolition of slavery in the
District of Columbia. He was subsequently a delegate to the
Peace Congress in 1861, and was a loyal supporter of President
Lincoln's war policy. He died at Lancaster, Ohio, on the 26th
of October 1871.
His daughter was the wife of General William T. Sherman.
His son, Hugh Boyle Ewing (1826-1905), served throughout the
Civil War in the Federal armies, rising from the rank of colonel
(1861) to that of brigadier-general (1862) and brevet major-
general (1865), and commanding brigades at Antietam and
Vicksburg and a division at Chickamauga; and was minister of
the United States to the Netherlands in 1866-1870. Another son,
Thomas Ewing (1829-1896), studied at Brown University in
1852-1854 (in 1894, by a special vote, he was placed on the
list of graduates in the class of 1856) ; he was a lawyer and a free-
state politician in Kansas in 1857-1861, and was the first chief-
justice of the Kansas supreme court (1861-1862). In the Civil
War he attained the rank of brigadier-general (March 1863) and
received the brevet of major-general (1865). He was sub-
sequently a representative in Congress from Ohio in 1877-1881;
and from 1882 to 1896 practised law in New York City, where he
was long one of the recognized leaders of the bar.
EXAMINATIONS. The term " examination " (i.e. inspecting,
weighing and testing; from Lat. examen, the tongue of a balance)
is used in the following article to denote a systematic test of
knowledge, and of either special or general capacity or fitness,
carried out under the authority of some public body.
i. History. The oldest known system of examinations in
history is that used in China for the selection of officers for the
public service (c. 1115 B.C.), and the periodic tests which they
undergo after entry (c. 2200 B.C.). See CHINA; also W. A. P.
Martin, The Lore of Cathay (1901), p. 311 et seq.; T. L. Bullock,
" Competitive Examinations in China " (Nineteenth Century,
July 1894); and Etienne Zi, Pratique des examens litteraires en
Chine (Shanghai, 1894). The abolition of this system was
announced in 1906, and, as a partial substitute, it was decided to
hold an annual examination in Peking of Chinese graduates
educated abroad (Times, 22nd of October 1906).
The majority of examinations in western countries are derived
from the university examinations of the middle ages. The first
universities of Europe consisted of corporations of teachers and
of students analogous to the trade gilds and merchant gilds of
the time. In the trade gilds there were apprentices, companions,
and masters. No one was admitted to mastership until he had
served his apprenticeship (q.v.), nor, as a rule, until he had shown
that he could accomplish a piece of work to the satisfaction of the
gild.
The object of the universities was to teach; and to the three
classes established by the gild correspond roughly the scholar,
the bachelor or pupil-teacher (see Rashdall i. 209, note 2, and 221,
note 5), and the master or doctor (two terms at first equivalent)
who, having served his apprenticeship and passed a definite
technical test, had received permission to teach. The early
universities of Europe, being under the same religious authority
and animated by the same philosophy, resembled each other very
closely in curriculum and general organization and examinations,
and by the authority of the emperor, or of the pope in most cases,
the permission to teach granted by one university was valid in
all (jus ubicunque docendi).
The earliest university examinations of which a description is
available are those in civil and in canon law held at Bologna
at a period subsequent to 1219. The student was admitted
without examination as bachelor after from four to six years'
study, and after from six to eight years' study became
qualified as a candidate for the doctorate. He might obtain
the doctorate in both branches of law in ten years (Rashdall i.
221-222).
The doctoral examination at Bologna in the I3th-i4th
centuries consisted of two parts a private examination which
was the real test, and a public one of a ceremonial character
(conventus). The candidate first took an " oath that he had
complied with all the statutable conditions, that he would give
no more than the statutable fees or entertainments to the rector
himself, the doctor or his fellow-students, and that he would
obey the rector." He was then presented to the archdeacon of
Bologna by one or more doctors, who were required to have
satisfied themselves of his fitness by private examination. Ori
the morning of the examination, after attending mass, he was
assigned by one of the doctors of the assembled college two
passages (puncta) in the civil or canon law, which he retired to
his house to study, possibly with the assistance of the presenting
doctor. Later in the day he gave a lecture on, or exposition of,
the prepared passages, and was examined on them by two of
the doctors appointed by the college. Other doctors might then
put supplementary questions on law arising out of the passages,
or might suggest objections to his answers. The vote of the
doctors present was taken by ballot, and the fate of the candidate
was determined by the majority. The successful candidate,
who received the title of licentiate, was, on payment of a heavy
fee and other expenses, permitted to proceed to the conventus,
or final public examination. This consisted in the delivery of
a speech and the defence of a thesis on some point of law,
selected by the candidate, against opponents selected from among
the students. The successful candidate received from the arch-
deacon the formal " licence to teach " by the authority of the
pope in the name of the Trinity, and was invested with the
insignia of office. At Bologna, though not at Paris, the " per-
mission to teach " soon became fictitious, only a small number
of doctors being allowed to exercise the right of teaching in that
university (Rashdall).
In the faculty of arts of Paris, towards the end of the i3th
century, the system was already more complicated than at
Bologna. The baccalaureate, licentiateship, and mastership
formed three distinct degrees. For admission to the baccalaureate
a preliminary test or " Responsions " was first required, at which
the candidate had to dispute in grammar or logic with a master.
The examiners then inspected the certificates (schedulae) of
residence and of having attended lectures in the prescribed
subjects, and examined him in the contents of his books. The
successful candidate was admitted to maintain a thesis against
an opponent, a process called " determination " (see Rashdall
i. 443 et seq.), and as bachelor was then permitted to give
"cursory" lectures. After five or six years from the date of begin-
ning his studies (matriculation) and being twenty years of age
(these conditions varied at different periods), a bachelor was
permitted to present himself for the examination for the licentiate-
ship, which was divided into two parts. The first part was
conducted in private by the chancellor and four examiners
(temptatores in cameris), and included an inquiry into the
candidate's residence, attendance at lectures, and performance
of exercises, as well as examination in prescribed books; those
candidates adjudged worthy were admitted to the more im-
portant examination before the faculty, and the names of
successful candidates were sent to the chancellor in batches of
eight or more at a time, arranged in order of merit. (The order
of merit at the examination for the licentiateship existed in
Paris till quite recently.) Each successful candidate was then
required to maintain a thesis chosen by himself (quodlibetica)
in St Julian's church, and was finally submitted to a purely
formal public examination (collatio) at either the episcopal
palace or the abbey of Ste Genevieve, before receiving from
the chancellor, in the name of the Trinity, the licence to incept
or begin to teach in the faculty of arts. After some six months
more the licentiate took part " in a peculiarly solemn disputa-
tion known as his 'Vespers,' " then gave his formal inaugural
lecture or disputation before the faculty, and was received into
the faculty as master. This last process was called " inception."
EXAMINATIONS
In discussing the value of medieval examinations of the kind
described, Paulsen (TheGerman Universities (1906), p. 25) asserts
that they were well adapted to increase a student's alertness,
his power of comprehending new ideas, and his ability quickly
and surely to assimilate them to his own, and that " they did
more to enable [students] to grasp a subject than the mute and
solitary reviewing and cramming of our modern examinations
can possibly do." At their best they fulfilled precisely the
technical purpose for which they were intended; they fully
tested the capacity of the candidate to teach the subjects which
he was required to teach in accordance with the methods which
he was required to use. The limitations of the test were the
limitations of the educational and philosophic ideals of the time,
in which a dogmatic basis was presupposed to all knowledge
and criticism was limited to the superstructure. At their worst,
even with venal examiners (and additional fees were often offered
as a bribe), Rashdall regards these examinations (at the end of
the I3th century) as probably " less of a farce than the pass
examinations of Oxford and Cambridge almost within the
memory f persons now living." It is, however, to be pointed out
that the standard in Paris and elsewhere at a later date became
scandalously low in some cases. In some universities the sons of
nobles were regularly excused certain examinations. At Cam-
bridge in 1774 Fellow Commoners were examined with such
precipitation to fulfil the formal requirements of the statutes
that the ceremony was termed " huddling for a degree " (Jebb,
Remarks upon the Present Mode of Education in the University
of Cambridge, 4th ed., 1774, p. 32). The last privileges of this
kind were abolished at Cambridge by a grace passed on the 2oth
of March 1884.
In the medieval examinations described above we find most of
the elements of our present examinations: certificates of previous
study and good conduct, preparation of set-books, questioning
on subjects not specially prepared, division of examinations
into various parts, classification in order of merit, payment of
fees, the presentation of a dissertation, and the defence and
publication of a thesis (a term of which the meaning has now
become extended).
The requirement to write answers to questions written or
dictated, to satisfy a practical test (other than in teaching),
and a clinical test in medicine, appear to be of later date. 1 The
medieval candidate for the doctorate in medicine, although
required to have attended practice before presenting himself,
discussed as his thesis a purely theoretical question, often
semi-theological in character, of which as an extreme example
may be quoted " whether Adam had a navel."
The competitive system was developed considerably at
Louvain, and in the 1 5th century the candidates for the master-
ship of arts were divided into three classes (rigor osi, honour-men;
transibiles, pass-men; gratiosi, charity-passes), while a fourth,
which was not published, contained the names of those who failed.
In the 1 7th century the first class comprised the names of twelve,
and the second, of twenty-four, candidates, who were divided
on the report of their teachers into classes before the examination,
and finally arranged in order of merit by the examiners
(Vernulaeus, quoted by Sir W. Hamilton, Discussions, 1852;
p. 647; Rashdall, loc. cit. ii. 262). At the Cambridge tripos (as
described by Jebb in 1774, Remarks, &c., pp. 20-31) the first
twenty-four candidates were also selected by a preliminary test;
they were then divided further into " wranglers" (the disputants,
par excellence) and Senior Optimes, the next twelve on the list
being called the Junior Optimes. These names have in the
mathematics tripos survived the procedure. (The name Tripos
is derived from the three-legged stool on which " an old
bachilour," selected for the purpose, sat during his disputation
with the senior bachelor of the year, who was required to pro-
pound two questions to him.)
1 W. W. Rouse Ball in his History of the Study of Mathematics at
Cambridge (1889), p. 193, states that he can find no record of any
European examinations by means of written papers earlier than
those introduced by R. Bentley at Trinity College, Cambridge in
1702.
The subjects in which the medieval universities examined
were (i.) those of the trivium and quadrivium in the faculty of
arts; (ii.) theology; (iii.) medicine; and (iv.) civil and canon
law. The number of subjects in which examinations arc held
has since grown immensely. We can only sketch in outline
the transformations of certain typical university systems of
examinations.
At Oxford there is rio record of a process of formal examination
on books similar to that of Paris (Rashdall, ii. 442 et seq.),
disputations being apparently the only test applied in its early
history. Examinations were definitely introduced for the B.A.
and M.A. degrees by Laud in 1636-1638 (Brodrick, History of
Oxford, p. 114), but the standard prescribed was so much beyond
the actual requirements of later times that it may be doubted if
it was enforced. The studies fell in the i8th century into an
" abject state," from which they were first raised by a statute
passed in 1800 (Report of Oxford University Commissisn of
1850-1852, p. 60 et seq.), under which distinctions were first
allotted to the ablest candidates for the bachelor's degree.
Further changes were made in 1807 and 1825; and in 1830 a
distinction was made between honours examinations of a more
difficult character, at which successful candidates were divided
into four classes, and pass examinations of an easier character.
By the statutes of 1849 and 1858 an intermediate " Moderations "
examination was instituted between the preliminary examination
called " Responsions " and the final examination. Since 1850,
although fresh subjects of examination have been introduced,
no considerable change of system has been made.
The bachelor's degree at Oxford tended from an early period to
be postponed to an advanced stage of studies, while the require-
ments for the master's degree diminished until, in 1807, the
examination for the M.A. was abolished. It is now awarded to
bachelors of three years' standing on payment of a fee.
Cambridge in early times followed the example of Oxford,
and here also the bachelor's degree became more and more
important (Bass Mullinger, History of the University of Cambridge
from 1535. . . , p. 414), and the M.A. has been finally reduced to
a mere formality, awarded on terms similar to those of the sister
university. The standard of examinations was raised in Cam-
bridge at an earlier date than at Oxford, and in the i8th century
the tripos " established the reputation of Cambridge as a School
of Mathematical Science." The school, however, produced
few, if any, great mathematicians between Newton and George
Green. It was only between 1830 and 1840 that the standard
of the tripos became a high one. At Cambridge there is no
intermediate examination between the " Previous Examination "
(commonly called "Little-go"), which corresponds to Oxford
" Responsions " or " Smalls " and the triposes and examinations
for the " Poll " degree, which correspond to the Oxford final
honours and pass examinations respectively. But most of the
triposes have been divided into two parts, of which the second is
not obligatory in order to obtain a degree. The " senior wrangler "
was the first candidate in order of merit in the first part of the
mathematical tripos. The abolition of order of merit at this
examination was decided on in 1906, and names of candidates
appeared in this order for the last time in 1909.
At the Scottish universities the B.A. degree has become
extinct, and the M.A., awarded on the results of examination,
is the first degree in the faculty of arts.
The incorporation of the university of London in 1 836 marks an
era in the history of examinations; the teaching and examining
functions of a university were dissociated for the first time. '
Until 1858 the London examinations were open only to students
in affiliated colleges, and the teachers had no share in the appoint-
ment of the examiners or indetermining the curricula for examina-
tions; in 1858 the examinations were thrown open to all comers,
and no requirements were insisted on with regard to courses of
study except for degrees in the faculty of medicine. The sole
function of the university was to examine, and its examinations
for matriculation and for degrees in arts and science were carried
on by means of written papers not only in London but in many
centres in the United Kingdom and the colonies. From the
EXAMINATIONS
43
first the degrees were (unlike those of Oxford and Cambridge
until 1871) open to all male persons without religious distinctions;
and in 1878 they were opened to women. (Tripos examinations
were thrown open to women at Cambridge by the grace of 24th
Feb. 1881, and at Oxford women were admitted to examinations
for honours by statute of zgth April 1884. Proposals to admit
women to university degrees were rejected by Oxford and
Cambridge in 1896 and 1897 respectively.)
The standard of difficulty set by the university of London
was a high one, very much higher for its pass degrees than the
corresponding standards at Oxford and Cambridge, while the
standard for honours was equally high. In medicine the
examinations were made both wider in range and more searching
than those of any other examining body. But, for reasons dealt
with below, great discontent was roused by the new system.
In 1880 the Victoria University, Manchester, was established,
in which teaching and examining were again united; and in the
universities since established, with the exception of the Royal
University of Ireland (which was created in 1880 as an examining
body on the model of London, but which was dissolved under the
Irish Universities Act 1908, and replaced by the National Univer-
sity of Ireland and the Queen's University of Belfast), the pre-
cedent of Victoria has been followed. By an act passed in 1898,
of which the provisions came into force in 1900, the university of
London was reconstituted as a teaching university, although
provision was made for the continuance of the system of examina-
tions by " external examiners " for " external students," together
with " internal examinations " for " internal students," in which
the teachers and the external examiners of the university are
associated. The examinations in music and the final examina-
tions in law and medicine are carried on [1910] both for
" internal " and " external " students by " external " examiners
only, who are, however, appointed on the recommendation of
boards of studies consisting mainly of London teachers.
At the university of Dublin, examinations have been main-
tained both for the B.A. and M.A. degrees, and students may be
admitted to the examinations in subjects other than divinity,
law, medicine, and engineering without attendance at university
courses.
The examinations of the newer universities, the Victoria Uni-
versity of Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield
and Wales, are open only to students at these universities,
and are conducted by the teachers in association with one or
more external examiners for each subject. In some universities,
e.g. Manchester, the M.A. degree is given after examination to
students who have taken a pass, and without examination to
those who have taken an honours degree.
The universities which have departed furthest from the
medieval system of examinations, at any rate in appearance,
are those of Germany. The baccalaureate has disappeared,
but students cannot be matriculated without having passed the
Abiturienten-examen (see below), probably the most severe of
all entrance examinations (foreign students may be exempted
under certain conditions). The student desiring to proceed to
the doctorate is free from examinations thereafter until he
presents his thesis for the doctor's degree, 1 when, if it is accepted,
he is submitted to a public oral examination not only in his
principal subject (Hauptfach), but also as a rule in two or more
collateral subjects (Nebenfacher). The doctor's degree does not
give the right to teach in a faculty (venia legendi). To acquire
this a doctor must present a further thesis (Habilitationsschrifl),
and must deliver two lectures, one before the faculty, followed
by a discussion (colloquium), the other in public; but these
lectures " seem to be merely secondary and are tending to become
so more and more"; "scientific productiveness is so sharply
emphasized among the conditions for admission that it over-
shadows all the rest " (Paulsen, loc. cit. p. 165).
1 It should be mentioned that the professors of chemistry of a
number of German, Austrian and Swiss universities, have, by agree-
ment, instituted an intermediate examination in that subject which
students are required to pass before beginning work on the doctoral
thesis. The examination of the students is conducted by the teachers
concerned.
In France the examination for the baccalaureate, though
conducted in part by university examiners, has become a school-
leaving examination (see below). The licentiateship has been
preserved in the faculties of arts, science and laws, and is in
point of difficulty about equal to the pass degree examinations
of the university of London, though differing in the nature of the
tests. In the faculty of sciences, the three subjects of examina-
tion selected may, under a recent regulation, be taken separately.
Until a few years ago the successful candidates at the licentiate-
ship were arranged in order of merit. For the doctorate in the
faculty of letters two theses must be submitted, of which the
subject and plan must be approved by the faculty (until recently
one of them was required to be written in Latin). Permission
to print the theses is given by the rector or vice-rector after
report from one or more professors, and they are then discussed
publicly by the faculty and the candidate (soutenance de these).
In this public discussion the " disputation " of the middle ages
survives in its least changed form. The literary theses required
by French universities are, as a rule, volumes of several hun-
dred pages, and more important in character even than the
German Habilitationsschrift. The possession of the doctorate
is a sine qua non for eligibility to a university chair, and to a
lectureship in the university of Paris.
In the faculty of sciences a candidate for the doctorate may
submit two theses, or else submit one thesis and undergo an
oral examination.
For the doctorate in law, a thesis and two oral examinations are
required.
In the faculty of medicine there is no licentiateship, but for
the doctorate six examinations must be passed and a thesis
submitted.
There is also a special doctorate, the " doctoral d' University,"
awarded on a thesis and an oral examination; and there are
diplomas (Dipldmes d' Etudes superieures) awarded on disserta-
tions and examinations on subjects in philosophy, history and
geography, classics or modern languages, selected mainly by the
candidate and approved by the faculty.
2. Professional Examinations, (a) Teaching. University ex-
aminations for degrees having ceased to be used as technical
tests of teaching capacity, new examinations have been devised
for this purpose. The test for German university teachers has
been described above. For secondary teachers, W. von Hum-
boldt instituted a special examination in 1810 (Paulsen, Gesch.
des gelehrten Unterrichts, ii. pp. 283 and 393), and an examina-
tion for primary teachers was instituted in Prussia in 1794.
In France there is a competitive examination for secondary
teachers, the agregation, originally established in 1766. Agreges
have a right to state employment and they alone can occupy the
highest teaching post (chaire de professeur) in a state secondary
school, other posts being open to licentiates. There are also
examinations for primary teachers. The tests for teachers are
different for the two sexes.
In England there is no obligatory test for secondary teachers.
The universities and the College of Preceptors conduct examina-
tions for teaching diplomas. The Board of Education holds
special examinations (Preliminary Certificate examination and
Certificate examination, &c.) for primary teachers.
(b) Medicine. See MEDICAL EDUCATION.
(c) Other Professions. A system of professional examinations
carried on by professional bodies, in some cases with legal
sanction, was developed in England during the igth century.
Those in the following subjects are the most important:
Accountancy (Institute of Chartered Accountants and Society
of Accountants and Auditors), actuarial work (Institute of
Actuaries), music (Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of
Music, Trinity College of Music, Royal College of Organists, and
the Incorporated Society of Musicians) , pharmacy (Pharmaceuti-
cal Society), plumbing (the Plumbers' Company), surveying
(Surveyors' Institution), veterinary medicine (Royal College of
Veterinary Surgeons), technical subjects, e.g. cotton-spinning,
dyeing, motor-manufacture (City & Guilds of London Institute) ,
architecture (Royal Institute of British Architects), commercial
44
EXAMINATIONS
subjects, shorthand (the Society of Arts and London Chamber
of Commerce), engineering (Institutions of Civil Engineers, of
Mechanical Engineers, and of Electrical Engineers).
3. School-leaving Examinations. The faculty of arts in
medieval universities covered secondary as well as higher
education in the subjects concerned. The division in arts subjects
between secondary and university education has been drawn at
different levels in different countries. Thus the first two years
of the arts curriculum in English and American universities
correspond, roughly speaking, to the last two years spent in a
secondary school of Germany or' France, and the continental
" school-leaving examinations " correspond to the intermediate
examinations of the newer English universities and to the pass
examinations for the degree at Oxford and Cambridge (Mark
Pattison, Suggestions on Academical Organization, 1868, p. 238,
and Matthew Arnold, Higher Schools and Universities in
Germany, 1892, p. 209).
A tabular summary is given (see Tables I., II., III., IV.) of the
requirements of the secondary school-leaving examinations of
France, Prussia (for the nine-year secondary schools) and
Scotland, and of the university of London.
There are in England a number of school examinations which,
under prescribed conditions, also serve as school-leaving examina-
tions, and give entrance to certain universities, especially the
Oxford and Cambridge local examinations (both established in
1858), and the examinations of the Oxford and Cambridge "Joint
Board." A movement to reduce the number of entrance examina-
tions and to secure uniformity in their standard was set on foot in
1901. In that year the General Medical Council communicated
to the Board of Education a memorial on the subject from
the Headmasters' Conference. The memorial was further com-
municated to various professional bodies concerned. Conferences
were held by the consultative committee of the Board of Educa-
tion in 1903, with representatives of the universities, the Head-
masters' Conference, the Association of Head-Masters, the
Association of Head-Mistresses, the College of Preceptors, the
Private Schools' Association, and with representatives of pro-
fessional bodies. The committee were of opinion that a central
board, consisting of representatives of the Board of Education
and the different examining bodies, should be established, to
co-ordinate and control the standards of [the examinations,
and to secure interchangeability of certificates, &c., as soon as
a sufficient number of such bodies signified their willingness to
be represented on the board. They recommended that the
examination should be conducted by external and internal ex-
aminers, representing in each case the examining body and the
school staff respectively, and that reports on the school work of
candidates should be available for reference by the examiners
(circular of the Board of Education of I2th of July 1904).
The " accrediting " system in the United States was started by
the university of Michigan in 1871. A school desiring to be
accredited is submitted to inspection without previous notice.
If the inspection is satisfactory, the school is accredited by a
university for from one to three years, and upon the favourable
report of its principal any of its students are admitted to the
university by which it has been accredited without any entrance
examination. In practice it is found that many students whom
their teachers refuse to certify are able to pass the university
entrance examination. The statistics of nine years show that the
standard of the certified students is higher than that of non-
certified students. Two hundred and fifty schools are accredited
by the university of Michigan. In 1904 it was stated that the
system was gaining favour in the east, 1 and that it had been
adopted more or less by all the eastern colleges and universities
with the exception of Harvard, Yale, Princeton and Columbia.
4. Methods of Examination. Examinations may test (i.)
knowledge, or, more exactly, the power of restating facts and
arguments of a kind that may be learnt by rote; (ii.) the power
1 See E. E. Brown in Monographs on Education in the United
States (ed. by N. M. Butler, 1900, i. 164), and T. Gregory Foster and
H. R. Reichel, Report of Mostly Educational Commission (1904),
pp. 1 1 7- 1 19 and 288-289.
Written.
of doing something, e.g. of making a. precis of a written document,
of writing a letter or a report on a particular subject with a
particular object in view, of translating from or into a foreign
language, of solving a mathematical problem, of criticizing a
passage from a literary work, of writing an essay on an historical
or literary subject with the aid of books in a library, of diagnosing
the malady of a patient, of analysing a chemical mixture or com-
pound; and (the highest form under the rubric) of making an
original contribution to learning or science as the result of
personal investigation or experiment. Examinations are carried
out at present by means of (i) written papers; (2) oral examina-
tions; (3) practical, including in medicine clinical, tests; (4)
theses; or a combination of these.
In written examinations the candidates are, as a rule, supplied
with a number of printed questions, of which they must answer
all, or a certain proportion, within a given time,
varying, as a rule, from 15 to 3 hours, the latter being
the duration most generally adopted for higher examinations in
England. Whereas in France and Germany the questions are
generally few in number and require long answers, showing
constructive skill and mastery of the mother-tongue on the part
of the candidates, such "essay-papers" are comparatively rare
in England. In many subjects, the written examinations test
rnemory rather than capacity. It has been suggested that sets
of questions to be answered in writing should as a rule be divided
into two parts: (i.) a number of questions requiring short answers
and intended to test the range of the candidate's knowledge;
(ii.) questions requiring long answers, intended to test its depth,
and the candidate's powers of co-ordination and reflection.
A necessary condition for the application of the second kind of
test is that time should be given for reflection and for rewriting,
say one-third or one-quarter of the whole time allowed. A
further distinction is important, especially in such subjects as
mathematics or foreign languages, in which it is legitimate to ask
what precise power on the part of a candidate the passing of
an examination shall signify. Owing to a prevailing confusion
between tests of memory and tests of capacity, the allowance
for chance fairly applied to the former is apt to be unduly
extended to the latter. In applying tests of memory, it may be
legitimate to allow a candidate to pass who answers correctly
from 30 to 50% of the questions; such an allowance if applied
to a test of capacity, such as the performance of a sum in addi-
tion, the solution of triangles by means of trigonometrical tables,
or the translation of an easy passage from a foreign language,
appears to be irrational. A candidate who obtains only 50%
of the marks in performing such operations cannot be regarded as
being able to perform them; and, if the examination is to be
treated as a test of his capacity to perform them, he should be
rejected unless he obtains full marks, less a certain allowance
(say 10, or at most 20%) in view of the more or less artificial
conditions inherent in all examinations.
The oral examination is better suited than the written to
discover the range of a candidate's knowledge; it also serves
as a test of his powers of expression in his mother-
tongue, or in a foreign language, and may be used (as
in the examination for entrance to the Osborne Naval College)
to test the important qualities (hardly tested in any other
examinations at present), readiness of wit, common-sense and
nerve. It may be objected that candidates are heavily handi-
capped by nervousness in oral examinations, but this objec-
tion does not afford sufficient ground for rejecting the test,
provided that it is supplemented by others. Oral tests are
used almost invariably in medical examinations; and there
is a growing tendency to make them compulsory in dealing
with modern languages. Oral examinations are much more
used abroad than in England, where the pupils during their
school years receive but little exercise in the art of consecutive
speaking.
The laboratory examination may be used in subjects like
physics, chemistry, geology, zoology, botany, anatomy, physio-
logy, to test powers of manipulation and knowledge of
experimental methods. In some cases (e.g. in certain honours
Oral.
EXAMINATIONS
TABLE I PRUSSIA : ABITURIENTEN EXAMEN
45
I.
Name of
Examination.
II.
Minimum Age
for Entry.
III.
Length of Course
of Study.
IV.
Subjects.
V.
Co-ordination with
Teaching.
VI.
Examiners.
VII.
Nature of Examination and
General Remarks.
Abituricnten
Examen
(established in
1788).
Age only limited
by condition of
length of school
course. The
usual age is
17-18.
9 years.
Candidates who
have not at-
tended the 9
years' school
course may be
admitted to the
examinationoQ
special ap-
plication.
In Gymnasium.
C German essay.
Mathematics.
.S-s Translation into Latin.
> Translation from Greek into
"* L German.
(Latin.
Greek.
English or French.
Religion.
The object of the ex-
amination is defined
as being a test of
whether the candi-
date has fulfilled the
aims laid down in the
curricula, &c., pre-
scribed for a Gym-
nasium, Real-gym-
nasium or Ober-real-
schule, as the case
The Examining Board
consists of a govern-
ment inspector (der
Konigliche Kommis-
sar) acting as chair-
man, the Headmaster
of the school, and the
teachers of the high-
est classes in the
school. The inspector
may nominate a
The written examination
extends over four or five
days. Only one paper is
given each day, for which
3 to si hours are allowed
(si hours for the German
essay). For essays in
foreign languages diction-
aries may be used.
History.
Mathematics.
may be. and the sub-
jects of examination
deputy, who is, as a
rule, the headmaster
In Real-Gymnasium.
are those prescribed
in the curricula for
of the school.
Each teacher con-
{German essay.
Mathematics.
Translation from Latin.
Translation from German into,
or essay in, English or French.
the kind of school
concerned.
The report on the
school work of each
candidate in his
cerned selects for the
written examination
three alternative sub-
jects in his branch,
from which, after
Physics.
various subjects is
receiving a report
(Latin.
laid before the Exam-
thereon from the
English.
ining Board before
headmaster, the in-
French.
Physics or Chemistry.
the beginning of the
examination.
spector makes a final
choice.
Religion.
The papers are
History.
marked by the
Mathematics.
teachers concerned,
In Ober-Realsehule.
and circulated to the
C German essay.
whole Board of Ex-
aminers, who then
Mathematics.
An exercise in French and in
.-< English (an essay in one lan-
guage and a translation from
the other into German).
[ Physics or Chemistry.
decide whether in-
dividual candidates
shall be (i.) rejected,
(ii.) admitted with
exemption from the
oral examination, or
(English.
(iii.) submitted to the
French.
oral examination.
Physics.
Chemistry.
Religion.
History.
Mathematics.
TABLE II. FRANCE : BACCALAUREAT
I.
Name of
Examination .
II.
Minimum Age
for Entry.
III.
Length of Course
of Study.
IV.
Subjects.
V.
Co-ordination with
Teaching.
VI.
Examiners.
vn.
Nature of Examination and
General Remarks.
Baccalaureat dt
Part I., 16, or,
There is no re-
Part I. is divided into four Branches,
The syllabus of the ex-
The Board of Exam-
The written portion of
renseignement
secondairg.
This examina-
tion has been
carried on
under different
forms since
1808. The reg-
ulations sum-
marized here
date from 1902,
with special
permission, 15.
Part II. may not
be taken within
a n academic
year after pass-
ing Part I.
quirement of
attendance.
Part I. of the
examination
corresponds ex-
actly to the
subjects taken
in the "second
cycle" of secon-
dary education,
and Part II. to
the dassc de
viz.:
(i) Latin-Greek.
(2) Latin-modern languages.
(3) Latin-science.
(4) Science-modern languages.
In each Branch the examination is
divided into two parts, viz. written
and oral. The nature of the ex-
amination may be indicated by
the following requirements in
Branch (i):
amination is that pre-
scribed for the higher
classes in the Gov-
ernment secondary
schools.
The candidate may
submit his livret
scolaire, or school
record, which will be
taken 'into account.
iners (or "iury")
consists of (i.) Uni-
versity examiners
being members of a
faculty of letters or
facul ty of sciences ;
(it.) secondary
teachers, active or
retired, selected by
the minister of public
instruction. The
Board consists of
Part I. extends over
from 9 to 10 hours in
all (not on a single day),
in periods of 3 or 4 hours
each; the written portion
of Part II. extends over
from 6 to 9 hours. The
oral examination for each
part lasts J hour on the
average, and is public.
philosophic
and classf tie
math e m a-
tiques.
See also under V.
Written.
(i.) French composition,
(ii.) Translation from Latin.
(iii.) Translation from Greek.
(i.) Explanation of a Greek
from four to six ex-
aminers, of whom,
when the number is
even, half are chosen
from either category.
described re-
placed the
bacealaurtat-
is-lettrcs, bac-
calaureat- es-
text.
sciences, and
(ii.) F.xplanation of a Latin
fiti/'t ttl'i urt'n t
text.
de I'ensetgne-
(iii.) Explanation of a French
text.
(iv.) Test in a modern foreign
language.
"
5"
(v.) Interrogation on ancient
history.
(vi.) Interrogation on modern
history.
(vii.) Interrogation on geo
graphy.
(viii.) Interrogation on mathe-
matics.
(ix.) Interrogation on physics.
Part II. is divided into two
Branches, viz.:
(i) Philosophy.
(2) Mathematics.
The nature of the examination may
be indicated by the following re-
quirements in Branch (i):
a f (i.) An essay in French on a
philosophical subject.
'C ] (ii.) An examination in physical
? L and natural science.
{(i.) Interrogation on philosophy
and philosophical writers.
(ii.) Interrogation on contem-
porary history.
(iii.) Interrogation on physical
science.
(iv.) Interrogation on natural
science.
4 6
EXAMINATIONS
TABLE III SCOTLAND: SCHOOL-LEAVING EXAMINATION
I.
Name of
Examination.
II.
Minimum Age
for Entry.
III.
Length of Course
of Study.
IV.
Subjects.
V.
Co-ordination with
Teaching.
VI.
Examiners.
VII.
Nature of Examination and
General Remarks.
Scottish school-
17 on istof Janu-
4 years.
Candidates must pass in four subjects
Schools are inspected.
The examiners are ap-
The examination consists
leaving exam-
ary following
on the higher grade standard, or
and the course of
pointed by the Scot-
of a written examination
ination (estab-
the year in
in three subjects on the higher
instruction must be
tish Educa tion De-
and an oral examination,
lished 1888).
which the can-
grade standard and two on the
approved by the Scot-
partment.
on which stress is laid.
(See pamphlet
didate passes
lower. A pass in drawing is
tish Education De-
The length of the ex-
on the "Leav-
the last of the
accepted in lieu of one of the two
partment, but the
amination varies with the
ing Certificate
Examination "
written exam-
inations.
lower grade passes. A pass in
Gaelic is reckoned as a pass on the
examinations are con -
ducted by external
subjects selected. The
periods of examination
issued by the
lower grade. All candidates must
examiners with whom
vary from i to aj hours.
Scottish Edu-
have passed in higher English and
teachers are not
If trie candidate selects
cation Depart-
in either higher or lower grade
associated.
on the higher grade ,
ment, 1908.)
mathematics. The remaining sub-
English, Latin, mathe-
jects may be either science with
matics, and French, the
one or more languages (Latin,
examination extends over
Greek. French, German, Spanish,
19^ hours.
or Italian), or languages only. But
where two or more languages other
' .
than English are taken, the candi-
date's group must include either
higher or lower grade Latin. A
pass in Spanish, Italian, or science
(in which subjects there is only one
examination) is reckoned as a pass
on the higher grade standard.
TABLE IV UNIVERSITY OF LONDON SCHOOL EXAMINATION, MATRICULATION STANDARD
I.
Name of
Examination.
II.
Minimum Age
For Entry.
III.
Length of Course
of Study.
IV.
Subjects.
V.
Co-ordination with
Teaching.
VI.
Examiners.
VII.
Nature of Examination and
General Remarks.
School examina-
The minimum
The curriculum
Pupils must satisfy the examiners
Schools under approved
The examiners are
The examination extends
tion, matricula-
tion standard
age of entry
is 15, but if the
of each school
is considered
in not less than five subjects, as
follows:
inspection , and course
of instruction ap-
ordinarily those ap-
6oi ntrcl by the
over at least 18 hours,
and includes an oral ex-
(established in
1903).
Note A higher
school - leaving
certificate is
awarded to
pupils who(i.)
have pursued
an approved
course of study
for a period of
years at a
school or
schools under
inspection ap-
proved by tie
candidate is
under 16 he
must remain at
school until he
is 16 years of
age in order to
be qualified for
the school-leav-
ing certificate,
and cannot be
registered as a
student of the
University un-
til be has
reached (hat
age.
on its own
merits.
(i) English.
(2) Elementary mathematics.
(3) Latin, or elementary mechanics,
or elementary physics heat,
light and sound, or elementary
chemistry, or elementary botany,
or general elementary science.
(4) and (5) Two of the following
subjects, neither of which has
already been taken under section
(3). If Latin be not taken, one
of the other subjects selected
must be another language, either
ancient or modern, from the
list, and languages other than
those included in the list may
proved by the Uni-
versity.
The papers are
ordinarily set on the
matriculation sylla-
bus, but papers may
be specially set more
closely in accordance
with the school
curriculum provided
that the syllabus pro-
posed is approved by
the University as at
least equivalent to
that for which it is
substituted.
niversity for the
ordinary matricula-
tion examination.
amination in modern
languages.
University;
be taken if approved by the
and (ii.) being
University, provided that the
matriculated
language is included in the
students, have
regular curriculum : Latin,
passed the
Greek, French, German, ancient
higher school
history, modern history, history
examination"
in at least three
subjects at one
and geography, physical and
general geography, logic, geo-
metrical and mechanical draw-
and the same
ing, mathematics (more ad-
examination.
vanced), elementary mechanics,
elementary chemistry, elemen-
tary physics heat, light and
sound, elementary physics
electricity and magnetism, ele-
mentary biology botany, ele-
mentary biology zoology, gen-
eral elementary science (chem-
istry and physics).
Practical.
examinations) the examination may be prolonged over one or
more days, and may test higher powers of investigation. But
such powers can only be fully tested by the perform-
ance of original work, under conditions difficult to
fulfil in the examination room or laboratory. At the French
examinations for the prix de Rome the candidates are required
to execute a painting in a given number of days, under strict
supervision (en loge).
In medicine the clinical examination of a patient is a test
carried out under conditions more nearly approaching those of
actual work than any other; and distinction in medical examina-
tions is probably more often followed by distinction in after life
than is the case in other examinations.
For the doctor's degree (where this is not an honorary dis-
tinction) a thesis or dissertation is generally, though not in-
variably, required in England. Of recent years the
thesis has been introduced into lower examinations;
it is required for the master's degree at London in the case of
internal students, in subjects other than mathematics (1910);
both at Oxford and London, the B.Sc. degree, and at Cambridge
the B.A. degree, may be given for research, although the number
of students proceeding to a degree in this way is at present
relatively small. In certain of the honours B.A. and B.Sc.
examinations at Manchester and Liverpool, candidates may take
the written portion of the examination at the end of the second
year's course of study and submit a dissertation at the end of
the third year. Theses are generally examined by two or more
specialists.
5. Competitive Examinations. The arrangement of students in
order of merit led naturally to the use of examinations not only
as a qualifying but also as a selective test, and to the offering of
money prizes (including exhibitions, scholarships and fellowships)
on the results. In 1854 selection by examination as a method
of appointment to posts in the English public service was first
substituted for the patronage system , which had caused grave
dissatisfaction (see Macaulay's speech on the subject, The Times
of the 25th of June 1853). The first public competitive examina-
tion for the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, took place in
EXAMINATIONS
47
1855, and in 1870 the principle of open competition for the civil
service was adopted as a general rule. (For further details
see CIVIL SERVICE.)
In the Wurttemberg civil service candidates are admitted to
a year's probation after passing a theoretical examination, at
the conclusion of which they must pass an examination of a more
practical character (A. Herbert, Sacrifice of Education . . .,1889,
p. in).
In the award of scholarships, &c., it should be definitely decided
whether the scholarship is to be awarded (i) for attainment,
in which case the examination-test pure and simple may suffice,
or (2) for promise, in which case personal information and a
curriculum vitae are necessary. To take a simple instance: a
candidate partly educated in Germany may obtain more marks
in German at a scholarship examination than another who is
more gifted, but whose opportunities have been less; the question
at once arises, are the examiners to take the circumstances of
the candidate _into account or not ? It is understood that at the
colleges of the older universities such circumstances are con-
sidered. It must again be decided whether the financial circum-
stances of candidates are to be taken into account; are scholar-
ships intended as prizes, or as a means of enabling poor students
to obtain a university education? In some cases wealthy
students have been known to return the emoluments of scholar-
ships. It many universities of the United States there is a
definite understanding that emoluments shall only be accepted
by those needing them. It would not be difficult to ask candi-
dates to make a confidential declaration on this subject on
entrance and to establish in Great Britain a tradition similar
to that of the United States, and steps in this direction have been
taken both at Oxford and Cambridge (LordCurzonof Kedleston,
University Reform, p. 86).
A special allowance may be made for age. In certain scholar-
ship examinations held formerly by the London County Council
a percentage was added to the marks of each candidate pro-
portionate to the number of months by which his age fell short
of the maximum age for entry. The whole subject of entrance
scholarships at English schools and universities, and especially
their tendency to produce premature specialization, has recently
been much discussed.
6. The Organization and Conduct of Examinations. The
organization and conduct of examinations, in such a way that
each candidate shall be treated in precisely the same way as
every other candidate, is a complex matter, especially where
several thousand candidates are concerned. The greatest
precautions must be taken to ensure the secrecy of the examina-
tion papers before the examination, and the effective isolation
of individual candidates during the examination. The super-
vision should be adequate to remove all temptation to copying.
The hygienic conditions should be such as to reduce the strain
to a minimum. The question of the mental fatigue produced
by examinations has been studied by certain German observers,
but has not yet been fully investigated.
7. Marking, Classification and Errors of Detail. In applying
a single test in a qualifying examination it would be sufficient
to mark candidates as passing or failing. But examinations
consist as a rule of a number of tests, each one of which is complex;
and a mark is recorded in respect of each test or portion of a
test in order to enable the examining body to estimate the per-
formance, considered as a whole, of the candidate. At Oxford
the marks are not numerical, but the papers are judged as of this
or that supposed " class," and various degrees of merit are
indicated by the symbols a, /3, y, d, to which the signs + or
may be prefixed, according as they are above or below a
certain standard within each class. At Cambridge, numerical
marks are used. The advantage of numerical marks is that they
are more easily manipulated than symbols; the disadvantage,
that they produce the false impression that merit can be estimated
with mathematical accuracy. Professor F. Y. Edgeworth, in
two papers on " The Statistics of Examinations " and the
" Element of Chance in Competitive Examinations " (Journal
of the Royal Statistical Society, 1888 and 1890), has dealt with
the subject, although on somewhat limited lines. His investiga-
tions show clearly that with candidates near the border-line of
failure, which must necessarily be fixed at a given point (subject
to certain allowances, where more than one subject is considered),
the element of chance necessarily enters largely into the question
of pass and failure. The fact may be stated in this way: the
general efficiency of the test being granted, it is true to say that
the large majority of those who pass an examination will be
superior in efficiency to those who fail; but a few of those who
faU may be superior to a few of those who pass. These errors are
not peculiar to the examination system, they are inherent in
all human judgments. It is necessary to allow for them in
considering the failure of an individual candidate as an index
of inefficiency.
The element of chance, which prevails in the region on either
side of the border between pass and failure, obviously prevails
equally on either side of the border between " classes," where
candidates are classified; it has been suggested by Dr Schuster
that numerical order should accompany classification so as to
avoid the creation of an artificial gap between the last candidate
in one class and the highest in the next. Edgeworth's objection
to such an argument is that the number of uncertainties is far
less when candidates are classed than when they are placed in
ostensible order of merit.
The difficulties of comparison of marks are further complicated
when students take different subjects and it is necessary to
compare their merit by means of marks allotted by different
examiners and added together. In a pass examination the
question has to be considered how far, if at all, excellence in one
subject shall compensate for deficiency in another, a question
which is indeterminate until the precise object of the whole
examination is formulated. In the competitive examination
for the Indian civil service, places are allotted on the aggregate
of marks obtained in a number of subjects selected by the
candidate from a list of thirty-two. The successful candidates are
compared a year later on the results of another examination in
which there is again a choice, though a much more limited one. The
order of merit in the two examinations is, as a rule, very different.
Two further points may be noted. An examiner may have
underestimated the time required to answer the questions which
he has set; this will be obvious if with' a large number of
candidates (say 300 or 400) none approaches the maximum
mark. In this case the maximum should be reduced. Again, it
is generally recognized to be undesirable to give marks for a
smattering. In order to avoid this various devices are adopted.
The simplest is to award a proportion of marks (say 10 to 15,
or even 20%) for " general impression." In some examinations,
unless say 20% or more marks are obtained for a particular
subject, no credit is given for the paper in that subject. Latham
(The Action of Examinations, 1877, p. 490) describes other
numerical adjustments used to meet this difficulty, especially
that used in ^English civil service examinations. The numerical
results of the civil service examinations are reduced so as to
conform to a certain symmetrical " frequency-curve," of which
the abscissae represent percentages of marks between definite
limits and the ordinates the number of candidates obtaining
marks between those limits. C. E. Fawsitt (The Education of
the Examiner, Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1905)
shows that frequency-curves deduced from actual investigation
of class-marks are not symmetrical, but have two maxima
corresponding to the performance of " non-workers " and of
" workers." In pass examinations of a well-known character
there is a maximum just beyond the pass mark, this being the
point of efficiency at which many students aim.
- 8. The Object and Efficiency of Examinations, and their Indirect
Effects. In order to estimate the efficiency of an examination
as a test, the precise question should be asked in each case
what is it intended to test? Much of the evil attributed to,
and resulting from, examinations is due to the fact that this
question has not been definitely put, and that a test legitimate
for certain purposes has been used for others to which it is
unsuited. Examinations are suited in the first instance for the
4 8
EXAMINATIONS
purpose for which they were originally designed in medieval
universities the test of technical and professional capacity; it
has never been proposed to abolish qualifying examinations for
doctors, pharmaceutical chemists, &c.; the tests applied are
(or should be) direct tests of capacity carried out under con-
ditions as nearly as possible like those of actual practice. If a
student can auscultate correctly, or make up a prescription, at
an examination, he will in all probability be able to do so in other
circumstances.
Examinations as tests of the knowledge of isolated facts are
necessarily of relatively small value, because the memory of such
facts is transient; and memorization of a large number of facts
for examination purposes is generally admitted to be specially
transient; the "knowledge-test," considered apart from a
test of capacity, is in fact not a test of permanent knowledge,
but of the power of retaining facts for a length of time which it is
impossible to estimate and which with some candidates extends
over a few weeks only. When used as tests of " general culture,"
examinations, in the view of Paulsen, based on a study of German
education, not only fail in their purpose, but tend to destroy the
faculties which it is desired to develop (Geschichle des gelehrten
Unterrichls, ii. 684 et seq.); to prepare ready answers to the
numberless questions which an examiner may ask on a large
variety of subjects is to paralyse the natural and free activity
of the mind (cf . A. C. Benson on the results of English secondary
classical education, From a College Window, 3rd ed., 1906, pp.
154-177). If pushed to its logical conclusion the view of Paulsen
must, it is submitted, lead to the complete abandonment at
examinations of tests of " knowledge " as distinguished from
direct tests of capacity. Thus isolated questions on details of
grammar would disappear from papers on the mother-tongue
and on foreign languages, in which the test would consist mainly
or entirely of composition and translation. Erudition would
be tested by the power of writing, at leisure, a dissertation on
some subject selected by the examiners or the candidate or, in
the case of a teacher, by the delivery of a lecture on the subject.
At the French aggregation candidates are given twenty-four
hours for the preparation of a lecture of this kind. Such examina-
tions would test the " skill in the manipulation of facts which is
the true sign of a trained intelligence " (cf. K. Pearson, " The
Function of Science in the Modern State," Ency. Brit. loth ed.
xxxii. Prefatory essay). They might possibly be supplemented
by easy oral examinations to test both range of knowledge and
readiness of mind. But in the case of a pupil who had passed
through a good secondary school it would be as safe to rely for
supplementary information under this head on the testimony
of his teachers, as it is to rely on their evidence with regard to
the fundamental and all-important element on which no examina-
tion supplies direct information personal character.
The main arguments of those opposed to the examination
system may be summarized as follows: (i.) Examinations
tend to destroy natural interests and exclude from the attention
of the pupil all matters outside the purview of the examination
(they would not do so if examinations were so limited in character
that preparation therefor could absorb only a fraction of the
pupil's time); (ii.) they tend to cultivate a personal judgment
where no personal basis of judgment is possible. (this argument,
directed mainly against the Oxford essay system, applies not to
examinations in general, but to the character of the subjects
set for essays); (iii.) competitive examinations on the home
and Indian civil services scheme tend to diffuse mental energy
over too many subjects (but see (xviii.) below) ; (iv.) examinations,
especially competitive examinations, tend to become more and
more difficult, difficulty being confused with efficiency this has
shown itself with the Cambridge mathematical tripos, in which
for years questions of increasing difficulty were set on relatively
unimportant subjects, until the examination was reformed
(reply: all examinations should be overhauled periodically);
(v.) they tend to paralyse the powers of exposition, all statements
of knowledge being thrown into a form suitable, not for an
uninstructed person, but for one who already possesses it, the
examiner (this tendency should be counteracted by definite
training in composition); (vi.) the sample of knowledge and
capacity yielded at an examination is frequently not a fair
sample; it is liable to extreme variations in a favourable sense,
if the candidate happens to have prepared the precise questions
asked; in an unfavourable sense, if the candidate is suffering
from misfortune or from accidental ill-health, the latter, owing
to the periodic function, occurring much more frequently in the
case of women than of men [the reform of examination
methods may remove to a great extent the element of chance in
questions set; in a competitive examination it is impossible to
allow for ill-health; in a qualifying examination it is difficult
to make any allowance unless the examination is definitely
conducted in whole or in part by the teachers, and the past record
of the candidate is taken into account (cf. Paulsen, The German
Universities, pp. 344-345)]; (vii.) examinations of several
hundred candidates at a time cannot be rationally conducted
so as to be equally fair to the individuality of all candidates;
the individual test is the only complete one (it is admitted
that examinations on a large scale necessarily involve a margin
of error; but this error may be reduced to a minimum, especi-
ally by a combination of oral and practical with written work) ;
(viii.) the multiplicity of school examinations required for
different reasons produces confusion in our secondary education
(there is a growing tendency to admit equivalence of " school-
leaving " and entrance examinations; thus entrance examina-
tions of Oxford, Cambridge and London, and the Northern
Universities Joint Board are interchangeable under certain
conditions); (ix.) the multiplicity of examinations tends to
" underselling " (the success of the London examinations in
medicine proves that a high standard attracts candidates as
well as a low one; possibly intermediate standards may be
killed in the competition; it is by no means obvious that a
uniform system of examinations would conduce to efficiency);
(x.) examinations produce physical damage to health, especially
in the case of women-students (on this point more statistical
evidence is needed; see, however, Engelmann quoted by
G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence, 1905, ii. 588 et seq.); (xi.) examina-
tions have in England mechanically cast the education of women
into the same mould as that of men, without reference to the
different social functions of the two sexes (the remedy is
obvious); (xii.) it is unjustifiable to give a man a university
position on the results of his performance in the examination
room, a practice common in England though almost unknown on
the continent; a just estimate of a man's powers in research or for
teaching can only be properly based on his performance. The
present system merely leads to the transmission of the sterile art
of passing examinations. (At Oxford and Cambridge many
fellowships are now awarded on the results of examination; it is
sometimes stated, in defence of this system, that young men can-
not be expected to carry out research in classics or philosophy.)
On the other hand, the defenders of examinations reply that
(xiii.) examinations are necessary in order to test the efficiency
of schools to which grants of public money are given (this
argument has become somewhat out of date owing to the recent
substitution of " inspection " for examination as a test of the
efficiency of schools; a combination of inspection and examina-
tion is also sometimes used); (xiv.) they serve as a necessary
incentive to steady and concentrated work l (the reply made to
this is that the incentive is a bad one, and that with efficient
teachers it is unnecessary); (xv.) they show both student and
teacher where they have failed (unnecessaiy for efficient
teachers) ; (xvi.) though possibly harmful to the highest class of
men, they are good for the mass (reply: no system which
damages the highest class of men is tolerable); (xvii.) they are
indispensable as an impartial means of selecting men for the
civil service; (xviii.) in a difficult examination like the first
class civil service examination the qualities of quickness of com-
prehension, industry, concentration, power of rapidly passing
1 The Oxford commissioners of 1852 reported that " the ex-
aminations have become the chief instruments not only for testing
the proficiency of the students but also for stimulating and directing
the studies of the place " (Report, p. 61).
EXARCH EXCELLENCY
49
from one subject to another, good health, are necessary for success,
though not tested directly, and these qualities are valuable
in any kind of work (this appears to be incontrovertible);
(xix.) examination records show that success in examinations
is generally followed by success in after-life, and the test is
therefore efficient (it does not follow that certain rejected
candidates may not be extremely efficient) ; (xx.) as a plea for
purely " external examinations," teachers cannot be trusted
to be impartial and it is better for a boy to " cram " than
to curry favour with his teacher (Latham).
The brief comments in brackets, appended above to the argu-
ments, merely indicate what has been said or can be said on the
other side. It can scarcely be doubted that in spite of the
powerful objections that have been advanced against examina-
tions, they are, in the view of the majority of English people,
an indispensable element in the social organization of a highly
specialized democratic state, which prefers to trust nearly all
decisions to committees rather than to individuals. But in view
of the extreme importance of the matter, and especially of the
evidence that, for some cause or other (which may or may not
be the examination system), intellectual interest and initiative
seem to diminish in many cases very markedly during school
and college life in England, the whole subject seems to call for
a searching and impartial inquiry.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION. The works mentioned above, and
T. D. Acland, Some Account of the Origin and Objects of the New
Oxford Examinations for the Title of Associate in Arts (London, 1858) ;
Matthew Arnold, Higher Schools and Universities in Germany (1874);
Graham Balfour, The Educational Systems of Great Britain and
Ireland (2nd ed., Oxford, 1903) ; W. W. Rouse Ball, Origin and
History of the Mathematical Tripos (Cambridge, 1880) ; Adolf Beier,
Die hoheren Schulen in Preussen and Hire Lehrer (1902-1906) (in
progress) ; Cloudesley Brereton, " A New Method of awarding
Scholarships," School World, 1907, p. 409; G. C. Brodrick, A
History of the University of Oxford (London, 1886) ; F. Buisson,
Dictionnaire de pedagogic (1880-1887); Lord Curzon of Kedleston,
Principles and Methods of University Reform (1909) ; J. Demogeot
and H. Montucci, De I'enseignement superieur en Angleterre et en
Ecosse (1870); H. Denifle, Die Universitaten des Mittelalters bis
1400 (Berlin, 1885) ; F. Y. Edgeworth, " The Statistics of Examina-
tions," and " The Element of Chance in Competitive Examinations,"
Journal of the Statistical Society, 1888 and 1890 respectively;
H. W. Eve, Lecture " On Marking," in The Practice of Education
(Cambridge, 1883) ; Charles E. Fawsitt, The Education of the Ex-
aminer (Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow) (Glasgow, 1905) ;
J. G. Fitch, " The Proposed Admission of Girls to the University
Local Examination," Education Miscellanies (1865), vol. x. ; W.
Garnett, " The Representation of certain Examination Results,"
Journ. Statist. Soc. (Jan. 1910) ; G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence
(London, 1905) ; Sir W. Hamilton, Discussions on Philosophy
(London, 1853); P. J. Hartog, "Universities, Schools and Ex-
aminations" in the university Review (July 1905); P. J. Hartog
and Mrs A. H. Langdon, The Writing of English (1907); Auberon
Herbert (edited by), The Sacrifice of Education to Examination,
Letters from " All Sorts and Conditions of Men " (1889); Influence
of Examinations, Report by a Committee, British Association
Reports for 1903, p. 434, and for 1904, p. 360; John Jebb, Remarks
upon the Present Mode of Education in the University of Cambridge
(4th ed., 1774); Henry Latham, On the Action of Examinations
(Cambridge, 1877); H. C. Maxwell Lyte, A History of the University
of Oxford to the Year 1530 (London, 1886); W. A. P. Martin, The
Lore of Cathay (Edinburgh and London, 1901); T. B. Mullinger,
The University of Cambridge (Cambridge, 1873); Plow to pass
Examinations successfully, by an Oxford Coach; Mark Patti-
son, Suggestions on Academical Organization (Edinburgh, 1868);
Friedrich Paulsen, The German Universities and University Study
(London, 1906) and Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts (Leipzig,
1896) ; George Peacock, Observations on the Statutes of the University
of Cambridge (1841); Programme des examens^ du nouyeau bacca-
laureat de I'enseignement secondaire, Delalain freres, Paris ; Hastings
Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1895) ;
Rein's Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik (2nded., 1902, &c.),
articles " Prufungen " (by F. Paulsen), &c. ; Third Report of the
Royal Commissioners on Scientific Instructions, .1873; J. E. Thorold
Rogers, Education in Oxford (1861); M. E. Sadler, " Memorandum
on the Leaving Examinations ... in the Secondary Schools of
Prussia," in Report of Royal Commission on Secondary Education,
vol. v. p. 27 (1895); C. A. Schmid, Geschichte der Erziehung (Stutt-
gart, 1884, &c.), and Encyklopddie des gesammten Erziehungs- und
Unterrichtswesens (2nd ed., 1876-87), articles " Priifung," " Scnulprii-
fungen," " Versetzungsprtifungen," &c. ; Scholarships, various papers
on, by H. B. Baker, A. A. David, H. A. Miers, M. E. Sadler and
H. Bompas Smith, and others, British Association Report, 1907,
pp. 707-718; Arthur Schuster, article on " Universities and
Examinations " in the University Review (May 1905) ; W. H. Sharp,
The Educational System of Japan (Office of the Director-General of
Education in India) (Bombay, 1906) ; Special Educational Reports,
issued by the Board of Education, passim; A. M. M. Stedman,
Oxford: its Life and Schools (London, 1887); I. Todhunter, Conflict
of Studies (1873) ; William Whewell, Of a Liberal Education (London,
1845) ; Christopher Wordsworth, Scholae academicae (Cambridge,
1877) ; Etienne Zi (or Siu or Seu), Pratique des examens litteraires en
Chine (Shanghai, 1894). Private information from Professor M. E.
Sadler and Mr A. E. Twentyman. (P. J. H.; A. WN.)
EXARCH (eapx<w, a chief person or leader), a title that has
been conferred at different periods on certain chief officers or
governors, both in secular and ecclesiastical matters. Of these,
the most important were the exarchs of Ravenna (?..). In
the ecclesiastical organization the exarch of a diocese (the word
being here used of the political division) was in the 4th and sth
centuries the same as primate. This dignity was intermediate
between the patriarchal and the metropolitan, the name patriarch
being restricted after A.D. 451 to the chief bishops of the most
important cities (see PATRIARCH). The title of Exarch was also
formerly given in the Eastern Church to a general or superior
over several monasteries, and to certain ecclesiastics deputed
by the patriarch of Constantinople to collect the tribute payable
by the Church to the Turkish government. In the modern
Greek Church an exarch is a deputy, or legate a lalere, of the
patriarch, whose office it is to visit the clergy and churches in the
provinces allotted to him. The title of exarch has been borne
by the head of the Bulgarian Church (see BULGARIA), since
in 1872 it repudiated the jurisdiction of the Greek patriarch
of Constantinople. Hence the names of the politico-religious
parties in the recent history of the Near East: " Exarchists "
and " Patriarchists."
EXC AMBION (a word connected with a large class of Low Latin
and Romance forms, such as cambium, concambium, scambium,
from Lat. cambire, Gr. Ka.ii.ftta> or Kanirrtiv, to bend, turn or
fold), in Scots law, the exchange (q.ii.) of one heritable subject
for another. The modern Scottish excambion may consist in
the exchange of any heritable subjects whatever, e.g. a patronage
or, what often occurs, a portion of a glebe for servitude. Writing
is not, by the law of Scotland, essential to an excambion. Chiefly
in favour of the class of cottars and small feuars, and for con-
venience in straightening marches, the law will consider the most
informal memoranda, and even a verbal agreement, if supported
by the subsequent possession. The power to excamb was gradu-
ally conferred on entailed proprietors. The Montgomery Act,
which was passed in 1770, to facilitate agricultural improvements,
permitted 50 acres arable and 100 acres not fit for the plough
to be excambed. This was enlarged by the Rosebery Act in
1836, under which one-fourth of an entailed estate, not including
the mansion-house, home farm and policies, might be excambed,
provided the heirs took no higher grassum (O.E. gersum, fine)
than 200. The power was applied to the whole estate by the
Rutherford Act of 1848, and the necessary consents of substitute
heirs are now regulated by the Entail (Scotland) Act 1882.
EXCELLENCY (Lat. excellentia, excellence), a title or predicate
of honour. The earliest records of its use are associated with
the Frank and Lombard kings; e.g. Anastasius Bibliothecarius
(d. c. 886) in his life of Pope Honorius refers to Charlemagne
as "his excellency" (ejus excellentia); and during the middle
ages it was freely applied to or assumed by emperors, kings and
sovereign princes geneially, though rather as a rhetorical flourish
than as a part of their formal style. Its use is well illustrated in
the various charters in the Red Book of the exchequer, where
the addresses to the king vary between " your excellency,"
"your dignity" (vestra dignitas}, "your sublimity" (vestra
sublimitas) and the like, according to the taste and inventiveness
of the writers. Du Cange also gives examples of the style
excellentia being applied to the pope and even to a bishop (in
a charter of 1182). With the gradual stereotyping of titles of
honour that of " excellency " was definitively superseded in the
case of sovereigns of the highest rank, about the beginning of the
i Sth century, by those of " highness " and " grace," and later by
" majesty," first assumed in England by King Henry VIII.
EXCHANGE
Dukes and counts of the Empire and the Italian reigning princes
continued, however, to be " excellencies " for a while longer.
In 1 593 the bestowal of the title of excellence by Henry IV. of
France on the due de Nevers, his ambassador at Rome, set a
precedent that was universally followed from the time of the
treaty of Westphalia (1648). This, together with the reservation
in 1640 of the title " eminence " (q.v.) to the cardinals, led the
Italian princes to adopt the style of " highness" (altezza) instead
of " excellency." In France, from 1654 onwards, the title of
excellence was given to all high civil and military officials, and
this example was followed in Germany in the i8th century.
The subsequent fate of the title varies very greatly in different
countries. In Great Britain it is borne by the viceroy of India,
the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, all governors of colonies and
ambassadors. In the United States it is part of the official style
of the governors of states, but not of that of the president;
though diplomatic usage varies in this respect, some states
(e.g. France) conceding to him the style of " excellency," others
(e.g. Belgium) refusing it. The custom of other republics differs:
in France the president is addressed as excellence by courtesy;
in Switzerland the title is omitted; in the South American
republics it is part of the official style (Pradier-Fodere, Cows de
droit diplom. i. 89). In Spain the title of excelencia properly
belonged to the grandees and to those who had the right to be
covered in the royal presence, but it was extended also to high
officials, viceroys, ministers, captains-general, lieutenants-general,
ambassadors and knights of the Golden Fleece. In Austria the
title Exzellenz belongs properly to privy councillors. It has,
however, gradually been extended by custom to all the higher
military commands from lieutenant-field-marshal upwards.
Ministers, even when not privy councillors, are styled Exzellenz.
In Germany the title is borne by the imperial chancellor, the
principal secretaries of state, ministers and Oberpriisidenten in
Prussia, by generals from the rank of lieutenant-general upwards,
by the chief court officials, and it is also sometimes bestowed
as a title of honour in cases where it is not attached to the office
held by its recipient. In Russia the title is very common, being
borne by all officers from major-general upwards and by all
officials above the rank of acting privy councillor. Officers
and officials of the highest rank have the title of " high ex-
cellency." Finally, in Italy, the title eccelenza, which had come
to be used in the republics of Venice and Genoa as the usual
form of address to nobles, has become as meaningless as the
English title of "esquire" or the address of "sir," being, especi-
ally in the south, the usual form of address to any stranger.
In the diplomatic service the title of excellency is technically
reserved to ambassadors, but in addressing envoys also this
form is commonly used by courtesy. (W. A. P.)
EXCHANGE, in general, the action of mutual giving and
receiving objects, interests, benefits, rights, &c. The word comes
through the French from the Late Lat. excambium (see Ex-
CAMBION). The present article deals with the theory and
practice of exchange in monetary transactions, but this may
conveniently be prefaced by a brief statement as to the law
relating to the exchange of property and other matters. In
Engh'sh law exchange is defined as the mutual grant of equal
interests, the one in consideration of the other. The ancient
common law conveyance had certain restrictions, e.g. identity
in quantity of interest, fee-simple for fee-simple, &c., entry to
perfect the conveyance, and an implied warranty of title and
right of entry by either party in case of eviction. Such exchanges
are now effected by mutual conveyances with the usual covenants
for title. Exchanges are also frequently made by order of the
Board of Agriculture under the Inclosure Acts, and there are
also statutes enabling ecclesiastical corporations to exchange
benefices with the approval of the ecclesiastical commissioners.
The international exchange of territories is effected by treaties.
The exchange of prisoners of war is regulated by documents
called " cartels " (Med. Lat. cartettus, diminutive of carta,
paper, bill), which specify a certain agreed-on value for each
rank of prisoners. The practice superseded the older one of
ransom at the end of a war. By the Regimental Exchanges Act
1875 the sovereign may by regulation authorize exchanges by
officers from one regiment to another. (For " labour exchanges "
see UNEMPLOYMENT.)
Exchange in relation to money affairs denotes a species of
barter not of goods but of the value of goods, a payment in one
place being exchanged for a payment in another place. The
popular statement of the theory of exchange represents four
principals involved in two transactions. A and B are two persons
residing in one place different from the domicile of C and D;
A sells goods to C; B buys goods from D; A sells his claim
on C to B, who remits it to D in satisfaction of his debt, and D
receives the cash from C, so that, assuming the two transactions
to be of equal value, one piece of paper satisfies the four parties
to these two transactions, and the trouble, expense and risk of
sending money from both places are avoided. The piece of paper
which performs the service may be a telegraphic order, cheque
or bill of exchange. In this elementary proposition there would
be no difficulty of exchange, as the full value of A's claim on C
would be paid for by B, who is under the necessity of sending
in exactly similar amount of money to D; but it can be seen that
in actual practice the claims of one place on another place would
not be exactly balanced by the necessities of the one place to
meet obligations in the other place; thus arises the complication
of exchange, which may best be described as the price of monetary
claims on distant debtors.
Supposing, for example, that A in London had a claim on C in
Edinburgh amounting to 100, and that B in London did not
require to remit more than 90 to D in Edinburgh, it is evident
that B in London must be offered some inducement to take over
the whole of A's claim. B might give A 99: 19: o, and could
then, after satisfying his debt to D, have 10 to his credit in
Edinburgh, which he could retain there at interest until he had
incurred further liability to D, or he could have the balance of
10 returned him in coin at an expense, say, of sixpence; this
would leave B with a profit of sixpence on the transaction, and,
assuming that these figures are reasonable, exchange on Edin-
burgh in London would be one shilling discount per 100.
Supposing the necessities of B induced him to offer A only
99:14:0 for his 100 claim, A would then prefer that C
remitted him 100 in coin, which, on the above scale of expenses
would cost 55. and A would receive 99 : 1 5 : o net. On these
premises, exchange on Edinburgh in London cannot fall below
\ % discount, and the same circumstances prevent it from rising
above i% premium, for B, in no case, would pay more for A's
claim than 100 plus the cost of sending coin to Scotland. If
this basis is appreciated, all exchange problems between different
countries can be mastered, and the quotations in the daily
papers of cable payments, sight drafts (cheques) and long bills
are then understood and supply an interesting indication of the
state of international financial relations. As shown above, the
balance of indebtedness must eventually be remitted by coin,
and consequently when exchange in any city is quoted at one or
other of the limit points given in our example as j% discount
or i% premium, this exchange immediately acquires a very
serious importance, because with the development of modern
monetary systems under which enormous trade is carried on
with a most moderate foundation of actual coin the weakening
or strengthening of that foundation is a very vital matter.
While the understanding of the theory is essential for any
facile interpretation of an exchange, there are of course in-
numerable details of practice which require to be known to identify
the limit points of exchange in any particular city. The limit
points can only be taken advantage of by banking experts, and,
although we assume a trader remitting his indebtedness in coin
when he is asked to pay too high a price for his bill of exchange,
in actual affairs the banker will supply the cheque or bill and
himself will do the professional business of sending away bullion.
Similarly, we have represented one trader drawing on another
trader and selling his draft to a third trader who remits the draft
to a fourth. In actual practice, however, No. i draws on No. 2
and disposes of his draft to a banker; No. 4 draws on No. 3 and
sells his draft to a banker; because, speaking generally, whenever
EXCHANGE
goods are shipped, the shipper immediately requires his money;
he draws a bill against the goods, and it is the function of a banker
to help, as a sort of debt-collecting agency, by buying these
drafts; and the bank, being a mart for all forms of remittance,
gets an immense variety of demand for cable payments, cheques
and bills on all centres. This does not affect the theory, for it
must be remembered that the banker is a necessary link between
the buyer and seller of exchange, because the seller can only
sell what he has and the buyer must have exactly what he wants.
To return to the question of limit points: if a universal
currency system existed, with the same monetary standard
that is used in England, and the coinage kept in a proper con-
dition of weight and fineness, and the coin readily supplied
to meet every reasonable claim if, in fact, the pound sterling
were the prevalent coin and the English banking system obtained
everywhere, then we should find all exchange quotations as simple
as our case of London and Edinburgh, that is to say, all exchanges
would be quoted at par or a premium or a discount. The limit
points in any place of the exchange on London would represent
simply and obviously the cost of the transmission of the coin.
These limit points would vary at each place according to the
distance from London, the cost of freight, the risk involved
in the transmission and the local rate of interest. On the con-
tinent of Europe some advance has been made in the direction
of a universal coinage. Countries subscribing to the Latin
Union have agreed on the franc as a common unit, and Belgium,
Switzerland, France and Italy quote exchange between them-
selves at a premium or discount. Greece, Spain and other
countries are also parties to the arrangement, but their currencies
are in a bad state, and the exchange quotations involve a con-
siderable element of speculation. We have, however, to deal with
another factor in international finance, namely, the enormous
variety of currency systems; and we have then to discover,
in each case, the exchange which represents par and corresponds
to our 100 for 100 in the London-Edinburgh example. The
United States furnishes perhaps the easiest problem, and we must
find out how many dollars in gold contain exactly the same
amount of the precious metal as is contained in one hundred
sovereigns. The answer is 486!, and the arithmetic is a question
of the mint laws of the two countries. Gold coin in the United
States contains one-tenth alloy and in England one-twelfth
alloy. Ten dollars contain 258 grains of gold, nine-tenths fine.
One pound contains 123-274 grains of gold, eleven-twelfths fine,
consequently 100 is worth $4865, or, to be exact, $4863,
and when cable payments between London and New York are
quoted at 4-86f for the i sterling, exchange is about par. As
a cable payment is an immediate transfer from one city to
another, no question of interest or other charge is involved.
Owing to the cost of sending gold as detailed above, the New
York cable exchange varies from about 4-84 to 4-895; at the
former point gold leaves London for New York, and at the
latter point gold comes to England. Besides insurance, freight,
packing, commission and interest, there must also be considered
the circumstance that coin taken in bulk is always a little worn
and under full weight, and in the process of turning sovereigns
into dollars, the result would not bear out the calculation based
on the mint regulations: consequently, when taking gold from
London, the demand would first fall on the raw metal as received
from South Africa or Australia to be minted in the United States,
then on any stock of American coin the Bank of England might
have and be willing to sell by weight (which would be accounted
by tale in New York), and lastly the demand would be satisfied
by sovereigns taken by tale from the Bank of England and con-
verted by weight in America.
The instance of the American quotation may be further taken
to explain some of the numerous points which the study of the
exchange involves. In the first place, it will be noted that we
have quoted the price in dollars. In London, business in bills,
&c., on New York is quoted either in pence or in dollars, that is
to say, payments are negotiated for so many dollars either at
49 fy pence per dollar, or at the equivalent rate $4-88 for the
pound. In practice it is much more convenient to quote in
London in the money of the foreign country, as it makes com-
parison with the foreign rate on London very simple. Some
foreign countries quote exchange on London in pence, and then,
of course, in relation to those countries the same practice will
obtain in England, but the majority of the exchange quotations
on London are in francs, marks, gulden, lire, kronen or other
foreign money. Another point which must be explained is the
reason why exchange varies between what we have called the
limit points; why there is sometimes so much demand for bills
on London and why at other times so many bills are being
offered. Similar causes operate on other exchanges, and if we
develop the New York case we shall provide explanations for
exchange movements in other countries.
At one time the financial relations between England and
America were as follows. England was the principal creditor of
the United States, and the latter country had to remit continually
very large amounts in payment of interest on English money
and profits on English investments, in payment for shipping
freights, for banking commissions, insurance premiums and an
immense variety of services, besides paying for the large imports
which crossed the Atlantic from English ports. In the fall of
the year these payments would be more than offset by the
enormous exports of food-stuffs, cotton, tobacco, &c., so that
during the first half of the year exchange would be at or about
the limit of 4-895 and gold would have to be sent from New York
to supplement the deficient quantity of bills. In the autumn
the produce bills would flood the exchange market and gold
would be sent from London as exchange got to the other limit
point of 4-84. These conditions are still very potent, but latterly
another element has entered into the position, and the new
development is so powerful as to reverse sometimes what we may
call the natural and legitimate movement in the exchange. This
new element is the more intimate banking and financial relation-
ship which has been established between the two countries.
As American conditions have become more stable, with better
security for capital and an assured feeling about the currency
of the United States, bankers in London have gladly allowed
their banking friends in New York and other large cities to draw
bills on London whenever there was a good demand for sterling
remittances. We have, therefore, to consider a fresh type of
bill of which the drawer has no claim on the drawee, but, on the
other hand, incurs a debt to the drawee. To take a very usual
method, a banker in Wall Street, New York, will advance money
to stockbrokers, investors and speculators against bonds and
shares with a 20% margin. He deposits this security with a trust
company in New York which acts both for the American and
English banker. The Wall Street banker then draws a bill at
60 days' sight or 90 days' sight on the banker in Lombard Street
and sells this draft to supply the money he lends the stockbroker.
Two or three months hence the New York banker must send
money to London with which to meet the bill, so that, whereas, in
the case of a commercial bill, the produce is despatched and in due
course the consignee must find the money for the bill, in the case
of a finance bill, as it is called, the bill is drawn and in due course
the drawer must send the value with which it is to be honoured.
In any event the acceptor, the London banker, has to pay
the bill, so that it will be easily understood that relations of
the greatest confidence are necessary between the drawer and
drawee before finance bills of this class can be created.
The profit arising from the transaction we have sketched is
realized by the separate parties in this way. The New York
banker lends money for three months, say, at 5% per annum,
he pays a commission of 5*5-% to the trust company which has
custody of the security, a charge equivalent to \% interest per
annum. He draws on London at 90 days' sight and sells the bill
at 4-83!, the cable rate being 4-87!, the buyer of a three months'
bill making the allowance for the English bill stamp of 5 per
mille and the London discount rate of 3%. The drawer of the
bill must also pay a commission of -fg% to the London banker
who accepts the draft; this is equivalent to another J% per
annum in the rate of discount, so that money raised in this way
costs J % for the trust company, 3 % the London discount rate,
EXCHANGE
about |% for bill stamps, and \% for London commission
altogether, 4^%; and, as the money is loaned at 5%, there
appears to be % profit to the drawer of the bill. This, however,
is on the assumption that the cable rate is still 4-87! when the
bill falls due for payment and that the drawer would have to
pay that price to telegraph the money to meet the draft. But
exchange on London can go up or down between 4-84 and 4-895,
and if at the end of the three months the cable rate is 4-84 the
New York banker will be able to cover his bill at almost the same
rate at which he sold it and will only be out of pocket to the
extent of the commissions and stamps, so that the accommodation
will only cost him i% and his profit will be 3^%. If he has
to pay more than 4-871 for his cable at the maturity of the bill
his profit will be less than 5 %, and he may even be a loser on the
transaction.
It is obvious, then, that a high rate of interest in New York,
with a high rate of exchange on London and a low rate of dis-
count in England, would induce the creation of these finance
bills. The supply of these bills would prevent New York ex-
change reaching the limit point at which gold leaves the United
States, and the maturity of these bills in the autumn would
ensure a demand for the produce bills and possibly prevent
exchange from falling to the other limit point at which London
has to send gold to New York.
We have pointed out the essential difference between these
finance bills and what we have called produce bills, but there is
another very striking difference, that of the question of supply.
These finance bills are obviously very difficult to limit in their
amounts; produce bills are, of course, limited by the extent of
the surplus crops of the United States and by the demand for
the produce in Europe, but so long as it is mutually satisfactory
to the big finance houses in both countries to draw on credit
granted in London, so long may these accommodation bills be
created, and the pressure of the bills in New York may depress
exchange so much that gold leaves London at a time when it is
required in other directions. In such a case the embarrassment
caused by this artificial drain of the gold reserve would much
more than offset the amount of the commission earned by the
accepting houses. The Bank of England may have to raise its
rate of discount at the expense of the entire home trade; prob-
ably, also, with the rise in the value of money, consequent on the
diminished resources, all investment securities fall in value and
more onerous terms must be submitted to by the government,
corporations and colonies, in the issue of any loans they may
require. It will, therefore, be appreciated that, although these
finance bills may be perfectly safe, their excessive creation is
viewed with great disfavour, and considerable apprehension is
felt when the adventures of speculators in New York make
great demands for loans against stocks and shares, and, through
the instrumentality of these finance bills, shift the burden on to
the shoulders of the London discount market. The effect of
this is to level money rates as between New York and London,
and in the process the pressure falls on London and the relief
goes to America. Eventually, of course, the bills must be met
and funds sent for that purpose from across the Atlantic, but in
the meanwhile the disturbance of the gold supply is an incon-
venience.
We have explained the process of employing credits granted
in London to finance Wall Street; there are, also, many other
typesof bill to which the acceptor lends his name on the assurance
that he will in due course be supplied with the funds required
to meet the acceptance. In the case of the produce bills, a
London banker will accept the bills in order that they may be
more easily marketable than if they were drawn direct on the
actual consignee of the cotton, tobacco or wheat. The consignees
in Liverpool, &c., pay a commission for this assistance and
reimburse the London bank as the produce is gradually disposed
of. The transaction appears slightly more complicated when
English bankers accept bills for produce shipped from the
United States to merchants living in Hamburg, Genoa, Singapore
and all other great ports, but the principle is the same, and the
influence of such business on the exchange affects, in the first
instance, the quotation between America and London, but after-
wards, when money must be sent to London with which to honour
the bills, the exchanges with Germany, Italy or the Straits
Settlements bear their share in the eventual adjustment, the
spinners, tobacco manufacturers and corn factors requiring
drafts on London where so much of the trade of the world is
financed.
We shall have to consider later the reasons which ensure to
London this peculiar and predominant position. We have so
far used the American exchange as an example to explain causes
which produce fluctuations in all the principal exchanges on
London and to show the points between which fluctuations are
limited. The fact that America is still developing at a much
greater rate than the Old World makes an important distinction
between the financial position in New York and the financial
position of the big capitals in Europe. There is not in America
the huge accumulation of savings and investment money which
the Old World has collected, so that whereas Europe helps to
finance the United States, the latter country has so many home
enterprises that she can spare none of her funds to assist Europe.
It would not be possible for London to draw on New York such
bills as we have described as finance bills, for they could never be
discounted there except on the most onerous terms, and there is
nothing in America which corresponds to the London money
market.
' We have to deal with dollars and cents in America, with francs
in France, with marks in Germany, and different money units in
nearly every country; but, given the mint regulations, the
theoretical par of exchange and the theoretical limit points are
arrived at by simple arithmetic. An exhaustive statement with
reference to every country would involve an amount of tedious
repetition, so that for the purposes of this article it is more
instructive to consider the essential differences between the
important exchanges than to go into the details of coinage,
which would appeal rather to the numismatist than to the ex-
change expert.
The United States, offering as it does a vast field for profitable
investment, must annually remit huge amounts for interest
on bonds and shares held by Europeans; coupons and dividend
warrants payable in America are offered for sale daily in London,
and at the end of the quarters the amount of these claims,
coupons and drawn bonds is very large, and a considerable set
off to the indebtedness of Europe for American produce. It is
often asserted that the United States is rapidly getting sufficiently
wealthy to repurchase all these bonds and shares; but whenever
trade conditions are exceptionally good in the States, fresh
evidence is forthcoming that assistance from London and Europe
is essential to finance the commercial development of the United
States. This illustrates a feature common to all new countries,
and the effect is that they make annual payments to the older
countries and especially to England.
A government loan or other large borrowing arranged abroad
will immediately move the exchange in favour of the borrowing
country. A tendency adverse to the United States results from
the drafts and letters of credit of the large number of holiday
makers who cross the Atlantic and spend so much money in
Europe. When remittance is made of the incomes of Americans
who have taken up their residence in the Old World the exchange
is affected in a similar manner.
In one respect the United States stands far superior to most
of the older countries. There are no restrictions on the free
export of gold when exchange reaches the limit point showing
that the demand for bills on London exceeds the supply. New
York (with London and India) is a free gold market, and this is
undoubtedly one of the reasons why money is so readily advanced
to the United States, and the finance bills, to which we referred
above, would not be allowed to the same extent were it not for
the fact that New York will remit gold when other forms of
remittance are insufficient to satisfy foreign creditors. When
exchange between Paris and London reaches the theoretical limit
point of 25-32 (25 francs 32 centimes for the i sterling), gold
does not leave Paris for London unless the Bank of France is
EXCHANGE
53
willing to allow it. By law, silver is also legal tender in France,
and if the State Bank is pressed for gold a premium will be
charged for it if it is supplied. Gold may be collected on cheaper
terms in small amounts from the great trading corporations
or from the offices of the railways, but a large shipment can only
be made by special arrangement with the Bank of France.
Similarly, in Germany, where a gold standard is supposed to
obtain, if a banker requires a large amount of gold from the
Reichsbank he is warned that he had better not take it, and if
he persists he incurs the displeasure of the government institution
to the prejudice of his business, so that the theoretical limit
point of 20 marks 52 pf. to the pound sterling has no practical
significance, and gold cannot be secured from Berlin when
exchange is against that city, and Germany has, when put to the
test, an inconvertible and sometimes a debased currency. There
is no state bank in the United States, and no government inter-
ference with the natural course of paying debts. On the other
hand, when monetary conditions in New York indicate a great
shortage of funds, and rates of interest are uncomfortably high,
the United States treasury has sometimes parted with some of
its revenue accumulations to the principal New York bankers
on condition that they at once engage a similar amount of gold
for import from abroad, which shall be turned over to the treasury
on arrival. As these advances are made free of interest the effect
is to adjust the limit point of 484 to about 485, and the United
States treasury seems to have taken a leaf out of the book of
the German Reichsbank, which frequently offers similar facilities
to gold importers and creates an artificial limit point in the
Berlin Exchange. The Reichsbank gives credit in Berlin for
gold that has only got as far as Hamburg, and sometimes gives
so many days' credit that the agent in London of German banking
houses can afford an extravagant price for bar gold and even
risk the loss in weight on a withdrawal of sovereigns, although
the exchange may not have fallen to the other limit point of
20-32. In England the only effort that is made to attract gold
is some action by the Bank of England in the direction of raising
discount rates; occasionally, also, the bank outbids other
purchasers for the arrivals of raw gold from South Africa,
Australia and other mining countries. Quite exceptionally, for
instance during the Boer War, the Bank of England allowed
advances free of interest against gold shipped to London.
Many of the principal banking houses in all the important
capitals receive continually throughout the day telegraphic
information of the tendency and movement of all the exchanges,
and on the smallest margin of profit a large business is done in
what is called arbitrage (?..). For instance, cheques or bills
on London will be bought by X in Paris and remitted to Y in
London. X will recoup himself by selling a cable payment on
Z in New York. Z will put himself in funds to meet the cable
payment by selling 60 days' sight drafts on Y, who pays the 60
days' drafts at maturity out of the proceeds of the cheques or
bills received from Paris, and this complicated transaction,
involving no outlay of capital, must show some minute profit
after all expense of bill stamps, discount, cables and commissions
has been allowed for. Such business is very difficult and very
technical. The arbitrageur must be in first-class credit, must
make the most exact calculation, and be prompt to take
advantage of the small differences in exchange, differences
which can be only temporary, as these operations soon bring
about an adjustment.
The European exchanges with which London is chiefly con-
cerned are Paris and Berlin, through which centres most of the
financial business of the rest of Europe is conducted ; for example,
Scandinavia, Russia and Austria bank more largely with Berlin
than elsewhere. Italy, Switzerland, Belgium and Spain bank
chiefly in Paris. European claims on London or debts to London
are settled mostly through Germany or France, and consequently
the German and French rates of exchange are affected by the
relation of England with the rest of the Continent. The ex-
changes on Paris and Berlin are therefore most carefully watched
by all those big interests which are concerned with the rate of
discount and the value of money in London.
If the Paris cheque falls to 25-12, gold arrivals in the London
bullion market will be taken by French bankers unless the profit
shown by the exchange on some other country enables other
buyers to pay more for the gold than Paris can afford. If the
Paris cheque falls still further, it would pay to take sovereigns
from the Bank of England for export, and so much would be
taken as would satisfy the demand to send money to France, or
until the consequent scarcity of money in London made rates
of interest so high in England that French bankers would prefer
to leave money and perhaps increase their balances. As between
London and Paris and Berlin the greatest factor operating the
exchanges is the relative value of money in the three centres.
There is no great excess of trade balance at any season in favour
of Germany or France and against England. On the other hand
the banking relations between those countries are very intimate,
and if funds can be very profitably employed in one of these
places, there will be a good demand for remittance, and exchange
will move in favour of that place, that is to say, exchange will
go towards that limit point at which gold will be sent. The
great pastoral and agricultural countries like South America,
Egypt and India are in a position to draw very largely on London
when their crops or other products are ready for shipment.
In the early months of the year gold goes freely to South America
to pay for the cereals, hides and meat, and in the autumn Egypt
and India send such quantities of cotton and wheat that exchange
moves heavily in favour of those countries, and gold must go
to adjust the trade balance. During the rest of the year the gold
tends to return as these countries always require bills on London
or some form of payment to meet interest and dividends on
European money invested in their government debts, railways
and trading enterprises, and to pay for the European manu-
factures which they import. Exchange then moves in favour
of England, and the Bank of England can replenish its reserve.
Over the greater part of the world the rate of exchange on London
is an indication simply of the trade balance. The greater part of
the world receives payment for food stuffs, and has to pay for
European manufactures, shipping freights, banking services
and professionaljcommissions.
The greatest complication in exchange questions arises when
we have to deal with a country employing a silver standard, and,
fortunately for the development of trade, this problem has
disappeared of late years in the case of India, Ceylon, Japan,
Mexico and the Straits Settlements, and now the only important
country using silver as a standard is China. When the monetary
standard in one country is only a commodity in another country
we are as far removed from the ideal of an international currency
as can be imagined. We can fix no limit points to the exchange
and we cannot settle any theoretical par of exchange. The price
of silver in the gold-using country may vary as much as the price
of copper or tin, and in the silver-using country gold is dealt
in just as any other metal. In both cases the only metal of
constant price is the metal which is used as the money standard.
The easiest method of explaining the position is to consider that
any one in a gold-using country having a claim in currency on
a silver-using country has to offer for sale so many ounces of
silver, and vice versa the exporter in a silver-using country
sending produce to London has to offer a draft representing so
many ounces of gold. This introduces a very unsatisfactory
element. To take a practical example: a tea-grower in China
has raised his crop in spite of the usual experience of weather and
labour difficulties and the endless risks that a planter must face;
the tea is then sent to London to take its chance of good or bad
prices, and at the same time the planter has a draft to sell repre-
senting locally a certain weight of gold; now, in addition to all
the risks of weather and trading conditions, and the chances of
the fluctuations in the tea market, he is compelled to gamble
in the metal market on the price of gold. Some years ago when
a large number of important countries employed a silver standard
it was seriously suggested that a fixed ratio should be agreed
internationally at which gold and silver should be exchanged.
This advocacy of bimetallism (q.v.) was especially persistent at
a time when silver had suffered a very great fall in price and the
54
EXCHEQUER
prominent exponents could generally be identified either as
extremely practical men who were interested in the price of
silver, or as very inexperienced theorists. The difficulty of the
two standards was successfully solved by discarding the use of
silver, and the chief silver-using countries adopted a gold
standard which has given greater security for the investment
of foreign capital, has simplified business and brought about a
large increase of trade.
In the case of a country of which the government has been
subject to great financial difficulties, gold has been shipped to
satisfy foreign creditors so long as the supply held out, and the
exchange with sucTi a country will continue to move adversely
with every fresh political embarrassment and any other economic
cause reflecting on the national credit. With the collapse of the
monarchy in Brazil the value of the milreis fell from zyd. to sd.,
and all the Spanish-American countries have from time to time
afforded most distressing examples of the demoralizing effects on
the currency of unstable and reckless administration. In Europe
similar results have been shown by the mistrust inspired by the
governments of Spain, Greece, Italy and some other states.
The raising of revenue by the use of the printing press creates
an inconvertible and depreciating paper currency which frightens
foreign capital and severely taxes the unfortunate country which
must make payment abroad for the service of debt and other
obligations. With the tardy appreciation of the old proverb that
" honesty is the best policy " nearly every country of importance
has made strenuous efforts to improve the integrity of its money.
Exchange quotations are not published from many of the
British colonies, as their financial business is in the hands of a
comparatively few excellently managed banks, which establish,
by agreement, conventional exchanges fixed for a considerable
period, notably in the case of Australia, New Zealand and South
Africa. The Scottish and Irish banks supply similar examples
of a monopoly in exchange.
The following table taken from the money article of a London
daily paper indicates the exchanges which are of most interest
to England:
Foreign Exchanges.
June 14.
June 15.
June 1 6.
Paris, cheques
25 f. 18 c.
25 f. 18 c.
25 f. 18 c.
Mkt. discount .
2i-| p.c.
2H p.c.
2*-f p.C.
Brussels, cheques
25 f. 23 c.
25 f- 23* c.
Berlin, sight .
20 m. 48! pf.
20 m. 48! pf.
20 m. 48 pf.
8 days
20 m. 46^ pf.
20 m. 46J pf .
20 m. 45^ pf.
Mkt. discount
3i P-c.
3j P.C.
3l P.C.
Vienna, sight .
Holiday
24 kr. O2j h.
24 kr. O2j h.
Amsterdam, sight
12 fl. 134 c.
12 fl. I3i C.
Italy, sight
Holiday
25 lire 15 c.
Madrid, sight.
,,
27 ps. 68
Lisbon, sight .
,,
St Petersburg, 3ms. .
Bombay, T.T.
94 r. 10
is. 4<1.
94 r. 10
is. 4d.
is. 4 d.
Calcutta, T.T. . .
is. 41!.
is. 4d.
is. 4d.
Hong-Kong, T.T. .
Shanghai, T.T. .
2s. i Ad.
2S. I0|d.
2S. Ij^d.
2s. io|d.
2s. i Ad.
2S. lOfd.
Singapore, T.T. .
2s. 4rSd.
2s. 4Ad.
2S. 4^^.
Yokohama, T.T.. .
23. Ofd.
2S. Ofd.
2S. Ofd.
*Rio de Jan'ro, 90 days
i6j^d.
i6Ad.
i6JJd.
*Valparaiso, 90 days
Coml
Hid.
I 4 fd.
I4\d.
*B. Ayres, 90 days
48d.
48d.
* These rates are telegraphed on the day preceding their receipt.
In the case of Paris and Berlin it will be noticed that the
local rate of discount is also given, as the value of money in these
centres, in relation to the value of money in London, is the most
important factor in a movement of the exchange. Vienna has
become important owing to the improvement in the financial
position of Austria, and still greater improvement is shown in
the case of Italy, whose currency stands in the above list better
even than that of France. Spain, which should stand at about
the same rate, still has a depreciated paper currency. Lisbon
stands also at a discount, as the milreis should be worth 53^
pence.
In Russia the exchange showing 94.10 roubles to 10 is care-
fully and cleverly controlled in spite of the bad internal position.
The India exchanges move slightly, as the currency is firmly
established at the rate of 15 rupees to the i. Hong-Kong quotes
for the old Mexican dollar and a British trade dollar; Shanghai
for the tael containing on an average 5175 grains of fine silver.
The Straits Settlements have fixed their money on a gold basis
at 2s. 4d. per dollar, on the lines of the arrangement made in
India. In Japan there is a gold standard, and par of exchange
is as. od. for the yen. Brazil, Chile and Argentina have a
depreciated paper currency, and the last quotation of 48d. is for
the gold dollar equal to five francs, but there is a premium on
gold in the River Plate of 127.27^% and for the present a gold
standard is re-established on this basis. The letters T.T. with
the eastern exchanges signify telegraphic transfer or the rate for
payments made by cable. The very important New York rates
are always given in another part of the daily paper with other
details of American commercial interest.
These rates are all quotations for payments in England, and
all over the world the exchange on London is the exchange of
the greatest importance. This unique position was gained
originally, probably, through the geographical position of the
United Kingdom, and has been maintained owing to several
reasons which secure to London a peculiar position by comparison
with any other capital. Britain's colossal trade ensures a supply
of and a demand for English remittances. Even when goods
or produce are dealt in between foreign countries a credit is opened
in London, so that the shipper of the produce can offer in the
local market a bill of exchange which is readily saleable. With
the highly developed banking system a large amount of deposits
is collected in London, and the result is that bills of any usance
up to six months can be immediately discounted, and the pro-
ceeds, if required, can be handed over in gold. There are in
London a great number of wealthy banks and banking houses
whose reputation and solidity allow any one of them to accept
bills for amounts varying from one to ten millions sterling,
whereby large commissions are earned.
These four advantages, namely, a free gold market, a huge
trade, an enormous accumulation of wealth, and a discount
market such as exists nowhere else, have made London an
unrivalled financial centre, and consequently bills on London
are an international money and the best medium of exchange.
AUTHORITIES. A B C of the Foreign Exchanges, by George
Clare; Foreign Exchanges, by Goschen; Arbitrage, by Deutsch;
Arbitrages et Parites, by Ottoman Haupt; Swoboda, Arbitrage (i2th
edition), by Max Fuerst. (E. M. HA.)
EXCHEQUER. The word " exchequer " is the English form
of the Fr. ichiquier, low Lat. scaccarium, and its primary meaning
is a chess-board (see Chess). As the name of a government
department dealing with accounts it is derived from the exchequer
or the " abacus " by means of which such accounts were kept,
such a contrivance being almost universally in use before the
introduction of the Arabic notation. In England the department
or court of accounts was named originally " the tallies " from
the notched sticks or tallies which constituted the primitive
means of account-keeping (which were only abolished in 1826),
and was only subsequently, probably in the reign of Henry I.,
named the exchequer from the use of the abacus. Both the name
and the general features of the institution may reasonably' be
attributed to Norman influence, since we find both in Normandy
and in the Norman kingdom of Sicily, as well as in Scotland and
Ireland; the two latter cases being directly due to English
example. As a court of law the exchequer owed its existence in
England, as elsewhere, to the necessity of deciding legal questions
arising from matters of account, and its secondary activities soon
overshadowed its original functions.
We cannot say whether the exchequer, as known in England,
is older than the beginning of the i zth century. The treasury,
which may be regarded as one of its constituents, dates from
before the conquest, and the officers of the exchequer who were
drawn from the treasury staff can be traced back to Domesday.
But our earliest information about the exchequer itself, apart
from that afforded by the pipe rolls (see RECORD), rests on a
EXCHEQUER
55
treatise (Dialogus de Scaccario) written about A.D. 1179 by
Richard, bishop of London and treasurer of England. His
father, Nigel, bishop of Ely, had been treasurer of Henry I., and
nephew to that king's great financial minister Roger, bishop of
Salisbury. Nigel is said to have reconstituted the exchequer after
the troubles of Stephen's reign upon the model which he inherited
from his uncle. The Angevin, or rather the Norman, exchequer
cannot be regarded in strictness as a permanent department.
It consisted of two parts: the lower exchequer, which was
closely connected with the permanent treasury and was an
office for the receipt and payment of money; and the upper
exchequer, which was a court sitting twice a year to settle
accounts and thus nearly related to the Curia Regis (q.v.). We
dare hardly say that either exchequer existed in vacation;
indeed the word (like the word " diet ") seems to have been
limited at first to the actual sitting of the king's courtfor financial
purposes. The Michaelmas and Easter exchequers were the
sessions of this court " at the exchequer " or chess-board as it
had previously sat "at the tallies." The constitution of the
court was that of the normal Prankish curia. The king was the
nominal president, and the court consisted of his great officers
of state and his barons, or tenants-in-chief, and it is doubtless
due to the fact that the exchequer was originally the curia itself
sitting for a special purpose that its unofficial judges retained
the name of " barons " until recent times. Of the great officers
we may probably find the steward in the person of the justiciar,
the normal president of the court. He sat at the head of the
exchequer table. The butler was not represented. The chan-
cellor sat on the justiciar's left; he was custodian ex officio of
the seal of the court, and thus responsible for the issue of all writs
and summonses, and moreover for the keeping of a duplicate roll
of accounts embodying the judgments of the court. On the left
of the chancellor, and thus clear of the table, since their services
might be required elsewhere at any moment, sat the constable,
the two chamberlains and the marshal. The constable was the
chief of the outdoor service of the court, and was responsible
for everything connected with the army, or with hunting and
hawking. The two chamberlains were the lay colleagues of the
treasurer, and shared with him the duty of receiving and paying
money, and keeping safe the seal of the court, and all the records
and other contents of the treasury. The marshal, who was
subordinate to the constable, shared his duties, and was specially
responsible for the custody of prisoners and of the vouchers
produced by accountants. At the head of the table on the
justiciar's right sat, in Henry II. 's time, an extraordinary member
of the court, the bishop of Winchester. The treasurer, like the
chancellor a clerk, sat at the head of the right-hand side of the
table. He charged the accountants with their fixed debts, and
dictated the contents of the great roll of accounts (or pipe roll)
which embodied the decisions of the court as to the indebtedness
of the sheriffs and other accountants. These persons with certain
subordinates constituted the court of accounts, or upper ex-
chequer, whereas the lower exchequer, or exchequer of receipt,
consisted almost exclusively of the subordinates of the
treasurer and chamberlains. In the upper exchequer the
justiciar appointed the calculator, who exhibited the state of
each account by means of counters on the exchequer table, so
that the proceedings of the court might be clear to the presumably
illiterate sheriff. The calculator sat in the centre of the side of
the table on the president's left. The chancellor's staff consisted
of the Magisler Scriptorii (probably the ancestor of the modern
master of the rolls), whose duties are not stated; a clerk (the
modern chancellor of the exchequer) who settled the form of all
writs and summonses, charged the sheriff with all fines and
amercements, and acted as a check on the treasurer in the com-
position of the great roll; and a scribe (afterwards the comp-
troller of the pipe), who wrote out the writs and summonses and
kept a duplicate of the great roll, known as the chancellor's roll.
The constable's subordinates were the marshal and a clerk, who,
besides the duty of paying outdoor servants of the crown, had the
special task of producing duplicates of all writs issued by the
Curia Regis. The treasurer and chamberlains, being colleagues,
had a joint staff, the clerical or literate members of which were
servants of the treasurer, while the lay or illiterate members
depended on the chamberlains. Hence while the treasurer and
his clerks kept their accounts by means of rolls, the chamberlains
and their Serjeants duplicated them so far as possible by means
of tallies. Thus the great roll was written by the treasurer's
scribe (the engrosser, afterwards the clerk of the pipe), while the
payments on account and other allowances to be credited to the
sheriff were registered by the tally cutter of the chamberlains.
In the exchequer of receipt the staff was similarly divided
between the treasurer and chamberlains; the treasurer having
a clerk who kept the issue and receipt rolls (the later clerk of the
pells) and four tellers, while each of the chamberlains was repre-
sented by a knight (afterwards the deputy chamberlains) , who
controlled the clerk's account by means of tallies, and held their
lands by this serjeanty; these three had joint control of the
treasury, and 'could not act independently. The other Serjeants
were the knight or " pesour " who weighed the money, the melter
who assayed it, and the ushers of the two exchequers. It should
be noted that all the lay offices of the treasury in both exchequers
were hereditary. Henry II. had also a personal clerk who
supervised the proceedings personally in the upper, and by
deputy in the lower, exchequer.
The business of the ancient exchequer was primarily financial,
although we know that some judicial business was done there and
that the court of common pleas was derived from it rather than
from the curia proper. The principal accountants were the
sheriffs, who were bound, as the king's principal financial agents
in each county, to give an account of their stewardship twice a
year, at the exchequers of Easter and Michaelmas. Half the
annual revenue was payable at Easter, and at Michaelmas the
balance was exacted, and the accounts made up for the year,
and formally enrolled on the pipe roll. The fixed revenue con-
sisted of the.farms of the king's demesne lands within the counties,
of the county mints, and of certain boroughs (see BOROUGH)
which paid annual sums as the price of their liberties. Danegeld
was also regarded as fixed revenue, though after the accession of
Henry II. it was not frequently levied. There were also rents
of assarts and purprestures and mining and other royalties.
The casual revenue consisted of the profits of the feudal incidents
(escheat, wardship and marriage) , of the profits of justice (amerce-
ments, and goods of felons and outlaws) , and of fines, or payments
made by the king's subjects to secure grants of land, wardships
or marriages, and of immunities, as well as for the hastening
and sometimes the delaying of justice. Besides this, there were
the revenues arising from aids and scutages of the king's military
tenants, tallages of the crown lands, customs of ports, and special
" gifts," or general assessments made on particular occasions.
For the collection of all these the sheriff was primarily responsible,
though in some cases the accountants dealt directly with the
exchequer, and were bound to make their appearance in person
on the day when the sheriff accounted.
We gather both from tradition and from the example of the
Scottish exchequer that the farms of demesne lands were origin-
ally paid in kind, by way of purveyance for the royal household,
and although such farms are expressed even in Domesday Book
in terms of money, the tradition that there was a system of
customary valuation is a sufficient explanation, and not of itself
incredible. At some date, possibly under the administration of
Roger of Salisbury, the inconvenience of this arrangement led
to the substitution of money payments at the exchequer. The
rapid deterioration of a small silver coinage led to successive
efforts to maintain the value of these payments, first by a "scale "
deduction of 6d. in the for wear, then by the substitution of
payment by weight for payment by tale, and finally by the
reduction of most of such payments to their pure silver value
by means of an assay, a process originally confined to payments
from particular manors. Only the farms of counties, however,
were so treated, and not all of those. The amount to be deducted
in these cases was settled by the weighing and assaying of a
specimen pound of silver in the presence of the sheriff by the
pesour and the melter in the lower exchequer. The casual
EXCHEQUER
revenue was paid by tale, and for the determination of its
amount it was necessary to have copies of all grants made in the
chancery on which rents were reserved, or fines payable. These
were known first as conlrabrevia and later as originalia; the
profits of justice were settled by the delivery of " estreats "
from the justices, while for certain minor casualties the oath of
the sheriff was at first the only security. At a later date many of
them were determined by copies of inquisitions sent in from the
chancery. All this business might be transacted anywhere in
England, and though convenience placed the exchequer first at
Winchester (where the treasury was), and afterwards usually
at Westminster, it held occasional sessions at other towns even
in the I4th century.
The Angevin exchequer, described by Richard the Treasurer,
remained the ideal of the institution throughout its history, and
the lineaments of the original exemplar were never completely
effaced; but the rapid increase both of financial and judicial
business led to a multiplication of machinery and a growing
complexity of constitution. Even in the time of Henry II. we
gather that the great officers of state, except the treasurer and
chancellor, commonly attended by deputy. In the reign of
Henry III. the chancellor had also ceased to attend, and his clerk
acquired the title of chancellor of the exchequer. To the same
period belongs the institution of the king's and lord treasurer's
remembrancers. These at first had common duties and kept
duplicate rolls, but by the ordinance of 1323 their 'functions were
differentiated. Henceforward the king's remembrancer was more
particularly concerned with the casual, and the lord treasurer's
remembrancer with the fixed revenue. The former put all debts
in charge, while the latter saw to their recovery when they had
found their way on to the great roll. Hence the preliminary
stages of each account, the receiving and registering of the
king's writs to the treasurer and barons, and the drawing up of
all particulars of account, lay with the king's remembrancer, and
he retained the corresponding vouchers. The lord treasurer's
remembrancer exacted the " remanets " of such accounts as had
been enrolled, as well as reserved rents and fixed revenue, and
so became closely connected with the clerk of the pipe. Before
the end of the I4th century these three Offices had already
crystallized into separate departments.
In the meantime the increasing length and variety of accounts,
as well as the growth of judicial business, had led to various efforts
at reform. As early as 22 Henry II. it became necessary to
remove from the great roll the debts which it seemed hopeless to
levy, and further ordinances to the same end were made by
statute in 54 Henry III. and in 12 Edward I. By this last a
special " exannual roll " was established in which the
" desperate debts " were recorded, in order that the sheriff
might be reminded of them yearly without their overloading the
great roll. But the largest accession of financial business arose
from the " foreign accounts," that is to say, the accounts of
national services, which did not naturally form part of the
account of any county. These did not in the reign of Henry II.
form a part of the exchequer business. Such expenses as appear
on the pipe roll were paid by the sheriffs, or by the bailiffs of
" honours "; payments out of the treasury itself would only
appear on the receipt and issue rolls, and the " spending depart-
ments " probably drew their supplies from the camera curie,
and not directly from the exchequer. In the course of the i3th
century the exchequer gradually acquired partial control of these
national accounts. Even in 18 Henry II. there is an account for
the forests of England, and soon the mint, the wardrobe and the
escheators followed. The undated statute of the exchequer
(probably about 1276) provides for escheators, the earldom of
Chester, the Channel Islands, the customs and the wardrobe.
During the reign of Edward I., the wardrobe account became
unmanageable, since it not only financed the household, army,
navy and diplomatic service, but raised money on the customs
independently of the exchequer. The reform of 1323-1326, due
to Walter de Stapledon, in remedying this state of things, greatly
increased the number of " foreign accounts " by making the
great wardrobe (the storekeeping department), the butler,
purveyors, keepers of horses or of the stud, the clerk of the
" hamper " of the chancery (who took the fees for the great
seal), and the various ambassadors, directly accountable to the
exchequer. At the same time the sheriffs' accounts were ex-
pedited by the further simplification of the great roll, and by
appointing a special officer, the " foreign apposer," to take the'
account of the " green wax," or estreats, so that two accounts
could go on at once. Another baron (the sth or cursitor baron)
was appointed, and the whole business of foreign accounts was
transferred to a separate building where one baron and certain
auditors spent their whole time in settling the balances due on
the accounts already mentioned, as well as those of castles, &c.,
not let to farm, Wales, Gascony, Ireland, aids (clerical and lay),
temporalities of vacant bishoprics, abbeys, priories and dignities,
mines of silver and tin, ulnage and so forth. These balances
were accounted for in the exchequer itself, and entered on the
pipe roll, but the preliminary accounts were filed by the king's
remembrancer, and enrolled separately by the treasurer's
remembrancer as a supplement to the pipe roll.
The next important change, about the end of the isth century,
was the gradual substitution of special auditors appointed by the
crown, known as the auditors of the prests (the predecessors
of the commissioners for auditing public accounts), for the
auditors of the exchequer. Accounts when passed by them were
presented in duplicate and " declared " before the treasurer,
under-treasurer and chancellor. Of the two copies, one, on
paper, was retained by the auditors, the other, on parchment,
was successively enrolled by the king's and lord treasurer's
remembrancers, and finally by the clerk of the pipe, to secure
the levying of any " remanets " or " supers " by process of the
exchequer.
Besides the two great difficulties of the postponement of
financial to legal business, and of preventing the sheriffs from
exacting the same debt twice, the exchequer was, as has been
seen, hampered in its functions by the interference of other
departments in financial matters. Its own branches even
acquired a certain independence. The exchequer of the Jews,
which came to an end in 18 Edward I., was such a branch. In
27 Henry VIII. the court of augmentations was established to
deal with forfeited lands of monasteries. This was followed in
32 & 33 Henry VIII. by the courts of first-fruits and tenths
and of general surveyors. These were reabsorbed by the ex-
chequer in i Mary, but remained as separate departments
within it. But the development of the treasury, which succeeded
to the functions of the camera curie or the king's chamber,
ultimately reduced the administrative functions of the exchequer
to unimportance, and the audit office took over its duties with
regard to public accounts. So that when the statute of 3 & 4
William IV. cap. 99, removed the sheriff's accounts also from
its competence, and brought to an end the series of pipe rolls
which begins in 1130, the ancient exchequer may be said to have
come to an end. (C. J.)
In 1834 an act was passed abolishing the old offices of the
exchequer, and creating a new exchequer under a comptroller-
general, the detailed business of payments formerly made at
the exchequer being transferred to the paymaster-general,
whose office was further enlarged in 1836 and 1848. And in
1866, as the result of a select committee reporting unfavour-
ably on the system of exchequer control as established in
1834, the exchequer was abolished altogether as a distinct
department of state, and a new exchequer and audit depart-
ment established.
The ancient term exchequer now survives mainly as the
official title of the national banking account of the United
Kingdom. This central account is commonly called the ex-
chequer, and its statutory title is "His Majesty's Exchequer."
It may also be described with statutory authority as " The
Account of the Consolidated Fund of Great Britain and Ireland."
This account is, in fact, divided between the Banks of England
and Ireland. At the head office of each of these institutions
receipts are accepted and payments made on account of the
exchequer; but in published documents the two accounts are
EXCHEQUER
57
consolidated into one, the balances only at the two banks being
shown separately.
Operations affecting the exchequer are regulated by the
Exchequer and Audit Departments Act 1866. Section 10 pre-
scribes that the gross revenue of the United Kingdom (less
drawbacks and repayments, which are not really revenue) is
payable, and must sooner or later be paid into the exchequer.
Section n directs that payments should be made from the
fund so formed to meet the current requirements of spending
departments. Sections 13, 14, 15 lay down the conditions
under which money can be drawn from the exchequer. Drafts on
the exchequer require the approval of an officer independent
of the executive government, the comptroller and auditor-
general. But the description of the formal procedure required
by statute cannot adequately express the actual working of
the system, or the part it plays in the national finance. The
simplicity of the system laid down by the act of 1866 has been
disturbed by the diversion of v certain branches or portions of
revenue from the exchequer to " Local Taxation Accounts,"
under a system initiated by the Local Government Act 1888,
and much extended since.
While the exchequer is, as already stated, the central account,
it is not directly in contact with the details of either revenue
or expenditure. As regards revenue, the produce of taxes and
other sources of income passes, in the first instance, into the
separate accounts of the respective receiving departments
mainly, of course, those of the customs, inland revenue and post
office. A not inconsiderable portion is received in the provinces,
and remitted to London or Dublin by bills or otherwise, and the
ultimate transfers to the exchequer are made (in round sums)
from the accounts of the receiving departments in London or in
Dublin. Thus, there are always considerable sums due to the
exchequer by the revenue departments; on the other hand, as
floating balances are (for the sake of economy) used temporarily
for current expenses, there are generally amounts due by the
exchequer to the receiving departments; such cross claims
are adjusted periodically, generally once a month. The finance
accounts of the United Kingdom show the gross amounts due
to the exchequer from the departments, and likewise the amounts
payable out of the gross revenue in priority to the claim of the
exchequer. On the expenditure side a similar system prevails.
No detailed payments are made direct from the exchequer, but
round sums are issued from it to subsidiary accounts, from
which the actual drafts for the public services are met. For
instance, the interest on the national debt is paid by the Bank
of England from a separate account fed by transfers of round
sums from the exchequer as required. Similarly, payments for
army, navy and most civil services are met by the paymaster-
general out of an account of his own, fed by daily transfers from
the exchequer.
This system has two noticeable effects. Firstly, it secures the
simplicity and finality of the exchequer accounts, and therefore
of all ordinary statements of national finance. Every evening
the chancellor of the exchequer can tell his position so far as the
exchequer is concerned; on the first day of every quarter the
press is able to comment on the national income and expenditure
up to the evening before. The annual account is closed on the
evening of the 315! of March, and there can be no reopening of
the budget of a past year such as may occur under other financial
systems. The second effect of the system is to introduce a certain
artificiality into the financial statements. Actual facts cannot be
reduced to the simplicity of exchequer figures; there is always
(as already explained) revenue received by government which
has not yet reached the exchequer; and there must always
be a considerable outstanding liability in the form of cheques
issued but not yet cashed. The suggested criticism is, how-
ever, met if it can be shown that, on the whole, the differences
between the true revenue and the exchequer receipts, or
between the true (or audited) expenditure and the exchequer
issues, are not, taking one year with another, relatively con-
siderable. The following figures (ooo's omitted) illustrate this
point:
Expenditure.
Year.
Exchequer
Issues.
Audited
Expenditure.
Difference.
1888-1889
1889-1890
1890-1891
1891-1892
1892-1893
1893-1894
1894-1895
1895-1896
1896-1897
1897-1898
85,674
86,083
87,732
89,928
90,375
91,303
93,919
97-764
101,477
102,936
86,070
86,033
87,638
90,125
90,164
91-530
93,8i8
97-667
101,543
103,010
+396
- 50
- 94
+ 197
211
+22 7
IOI
- 97
+ 66
+ 74
Total for /
10 years )
927,191
927,598
+407
Revenue.
Year.
Exchequer
Receipts.
Actual Revenue.
Difference.
1888-1889
1889-1890
1890-1891
1891-1892
1892-1893
1893-1894
1894-1895
1895-1896
1896-1897
1897-1898
88,473
89,304
89,489
90,995
90,395
9i,i33
94,684
101,974
103,960
106,614
88,038
89,416
89,282
91,428
90,181
91,265
94,873
102,031
104,089
106,691
-435
+ 112
-207
+433
-214
+ 132
+ 189
+ 57
+ 129
+ 77
Total for /
10 years \
947,on
947,294
+273
Surplus.
Year.
Exchequer
Accounts.
Diff. between
Actual Rev.
and Aud. Exp.
Difference.
1888-1889
2,799
i,968
-831
1889-1890
3,221
3,383
+ 162
1890-1891
1,757
1,644
-113
1891-1892
1,067
1,303
+236
1892-1893
20
17
- 3
1893-1894
-/70
-265
- 95
1894-1895
765
1,055
+2.90
1895-1896
4.2IO
4,364
+ 154
1896-1897
2,473
2,546
+ 73
1897-1898
3,678
3,681
+ 3
Total for )
10 years \
19,820
19-696
-124
The third column in the above shows the price which has to be
paid (in the form of discrepancies between facts and figures)
for the simplicity secured to statements and records of the national
finance by the present system embodied in the term exchequer.
Probably few will think the price too high in consideration of
the advantages secured.
The principal official who derives a title from the exchequer
in its living sense is, of course, the chancellor of the exchequer.
He is the person named second in the patent appointing com-
missions for executing the office of lord high treasurer of Great
Britain and Ireland; but he is appointed chancellor of the
exchequer for Great Britain and chancellor of the exchequer
for Ireland by two additional patents. Although, in fact, the
finance minister of the United Kingdom, he has no statutory
power over the exchequer apart from his position as second
commissioner of the treasury; but in virtue of his office he is
by statute master of the mint, senior commissioner for the
reduction of the national debt, a trustee of the British Museum,
an ecclesiastical commissioner, a member of the board of agri-
culture, a commissioner of public works and buildings, local
government, and education, a commissioner for regulating the
offices of the House of Commons, and has certain functions
connected with the office of the secretary of state for India.
The only other exchequer officer requiring mention is the
EXCISE
comptroller and auditor-general, whose functions as comptroller-
general of the exchequer have been already described.
The ancient name of the national banking account has been
attached to two of the forms of unfunded national debt. Ex-
chequer bills, which date from the reign of William and Mary
(they took the place of the tallies, previously used for the same
purpose), became extinct in 1897, but exchequer bonds (first
issued by Mr Gladstone in 1853) still possess a practical import-
ance. An exchequer bond is a promise by government to pay a
specified sum after a specified period, generally three or five years,
and meanwhile to pay interest half-yearly at a specified rate
on that sum. Government possesses no general power to issue
exchequer bonds; such power is only conferred by a special act,
and for specified purposes; but when the power has been
created, exchequer bonds issued in pursuance of it are governed
by general statutory provisions contained in the Exchequer Bills
and Bonds Act 1866, and amending acts. These acts create
machinery for the issue of exchequer bonds and for the payment
of interest thereon, and protect them against forgery.
Some traces may be mentioned of the ancient uses of the
name exchequer which still remain. The chancellor of the
exchequer still presides at the ceremony of " pricking the list
of sheriffs," which is a quasi-judicial function; and on that
occasion he wears a robe of black silk with gold embroidery,
which suggests a judicial costume. In England the last judge
who was styled baron of the exchequer (Baron Pollock) died
in 1897. In Scotland the jurisdiction of the barons of the
exchequer was transferred to the court of session in 1856, but the
same act requires the appointment of one of the judges as " lord
ordinary in exchequer causes," which office still exists. In
Ireland Lord Chief Baron Palles was the last to retain the old
title. A street near Dublin Castle is called Exchequer Street,
recalling the separate Irish exchequer, which ceased in 1817.
The old term also survives in the full title of the treasury repre-
sentative in Scotland, which is " The King's and the Lord
Treasurer's Remembrancer in Exchequer," while his office in the
historic Parliament Square is styled " Exchequer Chambers."
(S. E. S.-R.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the early exchequer Thomas Madox's
History and Antiquities of the Excheqwr (London, 1711) remains the
standard authority, and in it the Dialogus de Scaccario of Richard
the Treasurer (1179) was first printed (edited since by A. Hughes,
C. G. Crump and C. Johnson, Oxford, 1902). The publications of
the Pipe Roll Society (London, 1884 et seq.), the Pipe Rolls and
Chancellor's Roll, printed by the Record Commission (London, 1833
and 1844), and H. Hall's edition of the Receipt Roll of the Exchequer
31 Henry II. (London, 1899) should also be consulted. A popular
account is in H. Hall's Court Life under the Plantagenets (London,
1901), and a careful study in Dr Parow's thesis, Compolus Vice-
comitis (Berlin, 1906). For the I3th and I4th centuries H. Hall's
edition of the Red Book of the Exchequer (London, Rolls Series, 1896)
is essential, as also the Public Record Office List of Foreign Accounts
(London, 1900). Later practice may be gathered from the similar
List and Index of Declared Accounts (London, 1893), and from such
books as Sir T. Fanshawe's Practice of the Exchequer Court, written
about A.D. 1600 (London, 1658) ; Christopher Vernon's The Exchequer
Opened (London, 1661), or Sir Geoffrey Gilbert's Treatise on the
Court of Exchequer (London, 1758), as well as from the statutes
abolishing various offices in the exchequer. H. Hall's Antiquities
of the Exchequer (London, 1891) gives many interesting details of
various dates. For the Scottish exchequer The Exchequer Rolls of
Scotland (Edinburgh, 1878 et seq.) should be consulted, while
Gilbert's book noted above gives some details on that of Ireland.
See also Appendix 13 to the great account of Public Income and
Expenditure from 1688 to 1869, in three volumes, prepared for
parliament by H. W. Chisholm (1869) ; and for sidelights on the
working of the office from 1825 to 1866 the reminiscences of the
same author (the last chief clerk of the exchequer) in Temple Bar
(January to April 1891).
EXCISE (derived through the Dutch, excijs or accijs, possibly
from Late Lat. accensare, ad, to, and census, tax; the word
owes something to a confusion with excisum, cut out), a term now
well known in public finance, signifying a duty charged on home
goods, either in the process of their manufacture, or before their
sale to the home consumers. This form of taxation implies a
commonwealth somewhat advanced in manufactures, markets
and general riches; and it interferes so directly with the
industry and liberty of the subject that it has seldom been
introduced save in some supreme financial exigency, and has as
seldom been borne, even after long usage, with less than the
ordinary impatience of taxation. Yet excise duties can boast
a respectable antiquity, having a distinct parallel in the vectigal
rerum venalium (or toll levied on all commodities sold by
auction, or in public market) of the Romans. But the Roman
excise was mild compared with that of modern nations, having
never been more than centesima, or i%, of the value; and it
was much shorter lived than the modern examples, having been
first imposed by Augustus, reduced for a time one-half by
Tiberius, and finally abolished by Caligula, A.D. 38, so that the
Roman excise cannot have had a duration of much more than
half a century. Its remission must have been deemed a great
boon in the marts of Rome, since it was commemorated by the
issue of small brass coins with the legend Remissis Centesimis,
specimens of which are still to be found in collections.
The history of this branch of revenue in the United Kingdom
dates from the period of the ci,vil wars, when the republican
government, following the example of Holland, established,
as a means of defraying the heavy expenditure of the time,
various duties of excise, which the royalists when restored to
power found too convenient or too necessary to be abandoned,
notwithstanding their origin and their general unpopularity.
On the contrary, they were destined to be steadily increased
both in number and in amount. It is curious that the
first commodities selected for excise were those on which this
branch of taxation, after great extension, had again in the period
of reform and free trade been in a manner permanently reduced,
viz. malt liquors, and such kindred beverages as cider perry
and spruce beer. The other excise duties remaining are chiefly
in the form of licences, such as to kill game and to use and carry
guns, to sell gold and silver plate, to pursue the business of
appraisers or auctioneers, hawkers or pedlars, pawnbrokers
or patent-medicine vendors, to manufacture tobacco or snuff,
to deal in sweets or in foreign wines, to make vinegar, to roast
malt, or to use a still in chemistry or otherwise. It may be
presumed that the policy of the licence duties was at first not so
much to collect revenue, though in the aggregate they yielded a
large sum, as to guard the main sources of excise, and to place
certain classes of dealers, by registration and an annual payment
to the exchequer, under a direct legal responsibility. The excise
system of the United Kingdom as now pruned and reformed,
however, while still the most prolific of all the sources of revenue,
is simple in process, and is contentedly borne as compared with
what was the case in the i8th, and the beginning of the ipth
century. The wars with Bonaparte strained the government
resources to the uttermost, and excise duties were multiplied
and increased in every practicable form. Bricks, candles, calico
prints, glass, hides and skins, leather, paper, salt, soap, and other
commodities of home manufacture and consumption were placed,
with their respective industries, under excise surveillance and fine.
When the duties could no longer be increased in number, they
were raised in rate. The duty on British spirits, which had
begun at a few pence per gallon in 1660, rose step by step to
us. 8jd. per gallon in 1820; and the duty on salt was augmented
to three or fourfold its value.
The old unpopularity of excise, though now somewhat out of
date, must have had real enough grounds. It breaks out in
English literature, from songs and pasquinades to grave political
essays and legal commentaries. Blackstone, in quoting the
declaration of parliament in 1649 that " excise is the most easy
and indifferent levy that can be laid upon the people," adds on
his own authority that " from its first original to the present time
its very name has been odious to the people of England " (book i.
cap. 8, tenth edition, 1786); while the definition of "excise"
gravely inserted by Dr Johnson in the Dictionary, at the imminent
risk of subjecting the eminent author to a prosecution for libel
viz. "a hateful tax levied upon commodities, and adjudged not
by the common judges of property, but wretches hired by those
to whom excise is paid" can hardly be ever forgotten.
The duties of excise in the United Kingdom were, until the
passing of the Finance Act 1908, under the control of the
EXCOMMUNICATION
commissioners of inland revenue; they are now under the control
of the commissioners of customs; the amount raised, apart from
changes in the rate, shows a fairly constant tendency to increase,
and is usually regarded as one of the best tests of the prosperity
of the working classes.
The spirit duty is levied according to the quantity of " proof
spirit " contained in the product of distillation, and the charge
is taken at three different points in the process of manufacture,
the trader being liable for the 'result of the highest of the three
calculations. What is known as " proof spirit " is obtained
by mixing nearly equal weights of pure alcohol and water, the
quantity of pure alcohol being in bulk about 57% of the whole.
Owing to the high rate of duty as compared with the volume
and intrinsic value of the spirits, the whole process of manufacture
is carried on under the close supervision of revenue officials.
All the vessels used are measured by them and are secured with
revenue locks; the premises are under constant survey; and
notice has to be given by the distiller of the materials used and
of the several stages of his operations. Though the charge for
duty is raised at the time when the process of distillation is
completed, the duty is not actually paid until the spirits are
required for consumption. In the meanwhile they may be
retained in an approved " warehouse," which is also subject to
close supervision.
The beer duty dates from 1880, in which year it was substituted
for the duty on malt. The specific gravity of the worts depends
chiefly on the amount of sugar which they contain, and is
ascertained by the saccharometer.
Excise licences may be divided into (a) licences for the sale
or manufacture of excisable liquors, (b) licences for other trades,
such as tobacco dealers or manufacturers, auctioneers, pawn-
brokers, &c., (c) licences for male servants, carriages, motors
and armorial bearings, and (d) gun, game and dog licences.
Nearly the whole of the licence duties is paid over to the local
taxation account.
The railway passenger duty, which was made an excise duty
by the Railway Passenger Duty Act 1847, applies only to Great
Britain. It is levied on all passenger fares exceeding id. per mile,
the rate being 2% on urban and 5% on other traffic.
The other items which go to make up the excise revenue
are the charges on deliveries from bonded warehouses, and the
duties on coffee mixture labels and on chicory.
For more detailed information reference should be made to
Highmore's Excise Laws, and the annual reports of the commissioners
of inland revenue, especially those issued in 1870 and 1885. See
also TAXATION ; ENGLISH FINANCE.
EXCOMMUNICATION (Lat. ex, out of, away from; communis,
common), the judicial exclusion of offenders from the rights
and privileges of the religious community to which they belong.
The history of the practice of excommunication may be traced
through (i) pagan analogues, (2) Hebrew custom, (3) primitive
Christian practice, (4) medieval and monastic usage, (5) modern
survivals in existing Christian churches.
1. Among pagan analogues are the Gr. -xfpvifiuv eip7<r0<u
(Demosth. 505, 14), the exclusion of an offender from purification
with holy water. This exclusion was enforced in the case of
persons whose hands were denied with bloodshed. Its con-
sequences are described Aesch. Choeph. 283, Eum. 625 f., Soph.
Oed. Tyr. 236 S. The Roman exsecratio and diris devotio was a
solemn pronouncement of a religious curse by priests, intended
to call down the divine wrath upon enemies, and to devote them
to destruction by powers human and divine. The Druids claimed
the dread power of excluding offenders from sacrifice (Caes.
B.C. vi. 13). Primitive Semitic customs recognize that when
persons are laid under a ban or taboo (herem) restrictions are
imposed on contact with them, and that the breach of these
involves supernatural dangers. Impious sinners, or enemies
of the community and its god, might be devoted to utter
destruction. .
2. Hebrew Custom. In a theocracy excommunication is
necessarily both a civil and a religious penalty. The word used
in the New Testament to describe an excommunicated person,
59
(i Cor. xvi. 22, Gal. i. 8-9, Rom. ix. 3), is the
Septuagint rendering of the Hebrew herem. The word means
" set apart " (cf. harem), and does not distinguish originally
between things set apart because devoted to God and things
devoted to destruction. Lev. xxvii. 16-34 defines the law for
dealing with " devoted " things; according to v. 28 " No
devoted thing that a man shall devote unto the Lord, of all that
he hath, whether of man or beast, or of the field of his possession,
shall be sold or redeemed. None devoted shall be ransomed,
he shall surely be put to death." As in Greece and Rome whole
cities or nations might be devoted to destruction by pronounce-
ment of a ban (Numbers xxi. 2, 3, Deut. ii. 34, iii. 6, vii. 2).
Occasionally Israelites as well as aliens fall under the curse
(Judg. xxi. 5, n). A milder form of penalty was the temporary
separation or seclusion (niddah) prescribed for ceremonial unclean-
ness. This was the ordinary form of religious discipline. In
the time of Ezra the Jewish " magistrates and judges " among
their ecclesiastico-civil functions have the right of pronouncing
sentence whether it be unto death, or to " rooting out," or to
confiscation'of goods, or to imprisonment (Ezra vii. 26). There
is also a lighter form of excommunication which " devotes "
the goods of an offender, but only separates him from the
congregation. Both major and minor kinds of excommunication
are recognized by the Talmud. The lesser (niddah) involved
exclusion from the synagogue for thirty days, and other penalties,
and might be renewed if the offender remained impenitent.
The major excommunication (herem) excluded from the Temple
as well as the synagogue and from all association with the faithful.
Spinoza was excommunicated (July 16, 1656) for contempt of
the law. Seldon (De jure nat. et gen., iv. 7) gives the text of the
curse pronounced on the culprit. The Exemplar Humanae Vitae
of Uriel d'Acosta also deserves reference. The practice of the
Jewish courts in New Testament times may be inferred from
certain passages in the Gospels. Luke vi. 22, John ix. 22, xii. 42
indicate that exclusion from the synagogue was a recognized
penalty, and that it was probably inflicted on those who confessed
Jesus as the Christ. John xvi. 2 (" Whosoever killeth you," &c.)
may point to the power of inflicting the major penalty. The
Talmud itself says that the judgment of capital cases was taken
away from Israel forty years before the destruction of the Temple.
" Forty " is probably a round number without historical value,
but the circumstance recorded by this tradition and confirmed
by the evangelist's account of the trial of Jesus is historical,
and is to be regarded as one of several restrictions imposed on
the Jewish courts in the time of the Roman procurators.
3. Primitive Christian Practice. The use of excommunication
as a form of Christian discipline is based on the precept of Christ
and on apostolic practice. The general principles which govern
the exclusion of members from a religious community may be
gathered from the New Testament writings. Matt, xviii. 15-17
prescribes a threefold admonition, first privately, then in the
presence of witnesses (cf. Titus iii. 10), then before the church.
This is a graded procedure as in the Jewish synagogue and makes
exclusion a last resort. Nothing is said as to the nature and
effects of excommunication. The tone of the passage when
compared with the disciplinary methods of the synagogue in-
dicates that its purpose was to introduce elements of reason and
moral suasion in place of sterner methods. Its object is rather
the protection of the church than the punishment of the sinner.
The offender is only treated as a heathen and publican when the
purity and safety of the church demand it. In the locus classicus
on this subject (i Cor. v. 5) Paul refers to a formal meeting of the
Corinthian church at which the incestuous person is " delivered
unto Satan for the destruction of the flesh that the spirit may be
saved in the day of the Lord Jesus." These are mysterious
words implying (i) a formal ecclesiastical censure, (2) a physical
penalty, (3) the hope of a spiritual result. The form of penalty
which would meet these conditions is not explained. There is a
reference in 2 Cor. ii. 6-1 1 to a case of discipline which may or
may not be the same. If it be the same it indicates that the ex-
communication had not been final; the offender had been
received back. If it be not the same it shows the Corinthian
6o
EXCOMMUNICATION
church exercising discipline independently of apostolic advice.
Up to this point there is no established formal practice, i Tim.
i. 20 (" Hymenaeus and Alexander whom I delivered unto Satan
that they might be taught not to blaspheme ") seems to refer
to an excommunication, but it does not appear whether the
apostle had acted as representing a church, nor is there anything
to explain the exact consequences or limits of the deliverance
to Satan, i Cor. xvi. 22, Gal. i. 8, 9, Rom. ix. 3 refer to the
practice of regarding a person as anathema. Taking these
passages as a whole they seem to point to an exclusion from
church fellowship rather than to a final cutting off from the hope
of salvation. In the pastoral letters there is already a formal
and recognized method of procedure in cases of church discipline.
i Tim. v. 19, 20 requires two or three witnesses in the case of
an accusation against an elder, and a public reproof. Tit. iii. 20
recognizes a factious spirit as a reason for excommunication
after two admonitions (cf. Tim. vi. and 2 John v. 10). In 3 John
v. 9-10 Diotrephes appears to have secured an excommunication
by the action of a party in the church. It is clear from these
illustrations that within the New Testament there is development
from spontaneous towards strictly regulated methods; also
that the use of excommunication is chiefly for disciplinary and
protective rather than punitive purposes. A process which is
intended to produce penitence and ultimate restoration cannot
at the same time contemplate handing the offender over to
eternal punishment.
4. Medieval and Monastic Usage. The writings of the church
Fathers give sufficient evidence that two degrees of excommuni-
cation, the d$opiovi6s and the a^opicr^os iraireX^s, as they
were generally called, were in use during, or at least soon after,
the apostolic age. The former, which involved exclusion from
participation in the eucharistic service and from the eucharist
itself, though not from the so-called " service of the catechu-
mens," was the usual punishment of comparatively light offences;
the latter, which was the penalty for graver scandals, involved
" exclusion from all church privileges," a vague expression
which has sometimes been interpreted as meaning total exclusion
from the very precincts of the church building (inter hiemantes
orare) and from the favour of God (Bingham, Antiquities of
Christian Church, xvi. 2. 16). For some sins, such as adultery,
the sentence of excommunication was in the 2nd century regarded
as iroLvriMft in the sense of being irrevocable. Difference of
opinion as to the absolutely " irremissible " character of mortal
sins led to the important controversy associated with the names
of Zephyrinus, Tertullian, Calistus, Hippolytus, Cyprian and
Novatian, in which the stricter and more montanistic party held
that for those who had been guilty of such sins as theft, fraud,
denial of the faith, there should be no restoration to church
fellowship even in the hour of death. On this point the
provincial synods of Illiberis (Elvira) in 305 and of Ancyra in
315 subsequently came to conflicting decisions, the council of
Elvira forbidding the reception of offenders into communion
during life, and the council of Ancyra fixing a limit to the penalty
in the same cases. But the excommunication was on all hands
regarded as being " medicinal " in its character. It is note-
worthy that the word avaBtpa. had fallen into disuse about the
beginning of the 4th century, and that, throughout the same
period, no instance of the judicial use of the phrase irapadovvcu,
T<$ 2aTaf{i can be found.
A new chapter in the history of the church censure may be
said to have begun with the publication of those imperial edicts
against heresy, the first of which, De summa trinilale et fide
catholica, dates from 380. Till then exclusion from church
privileges had been a spiritual discipline merely; thenceforward
it was to expose a man to serious temporal risks. Excommunica-
tion still continued to be occasionally used in the spirit of genuine
Christian fidelity, as by Ambrose in the case of Theodosius
himself (390) ; but the temptation to wield it as an instrument
of secular tyranny too often proved to be irresistible. The church
fell back on carnal weapons in her warfare and invoked the
secular powers to uphold the ecclesiastical. In the formula used
by Synesius (410) which is to be found in Bingham's Antiquities,
we already find the attention of magistrates specially called to
the censured person. The history of the next thousand years
shows that the magistrates were seldom slow to respond to the
appeal. Even the hastiest survey of that long and interesting
period enables the student to notice a marked development in
the theory and practice of excommunication. One or two points
may be specially noted. ( i ) When the Empire became nominally
Christian and the quality of the church life was sacrificed to the
quantity of its adherents, the original character of excommunica-
tion was lost. The power of excommunication was transferred
from the community to the bishop, and was liable to abuse from
personal motives: Gregory the Great rebukes a bishop for using
for private ends power conferred for the public good (Epist. ii.
34). Excommunication became a common penalty applied in
numberless cases (see the Penitential of Archbishop Theodosius:
Haddan and Stubbs, Councils and Documents, iii. 1737), and was
invested with superstitious terrors. (2) While it had been held
as an undoubted principle by the ancient church that this
sentence could only be passed on living individuals whose fault
had been distinctly stated and fully proved, we find the medieval
church on the one hand sanctioning the practice of excommunica-
tion of the dead (Morinus, De poenit. x. c. 9), and, on the other
hand, by means of the papal interdict, excluding whole countries
and kingdoms at once from the means of grace. The earliest
well-authenticated instance of such an interdict is that which
was passed (998) by Pope Gregory V. on France, in consequence
of the contumacy of King Robert the Wise. Other instances are
those laid respectively on Germany in 1102 by Gregory VII.
(Hildebrand), on England in 1208 by Innocent III., on Rome
itself in 1155 by Adrian IV. (3) While in the ancient church the
language used in excommunicating had been carefully measured,
we find an amazing recklessness in the phraseology employed
by the medieval clergy. The curse of Ernulphus or Arnulphus
of Rochester (c. noo), often quoted by students of English
literature, is a very fair specimen of that class of composition.
With it may be compared the formula transcribed by Dr Burton
in his History of Scotland (iii. 317 ff.). To the spoken word was
added the language of symbol. By means of lighted candles
violently dashed to the ground and extinguished the faithful
were graphically taught the meaning of the greater excommuni-
cation though in a somewhat misleading way, for it is a
fundamental principle of the canon law that disciplina est.
excommunicatio, non eradicatio. The first instance, however, of
excommunication by " bell, book and candle " is comparatively
late (c. 1190).
5. Modern Survivals in Existing Christian Churches. At the
Reformation the necessity for church discipline did not cease to
be recognized; but the administration of it in many Reformed
churches has passed through a period of some confusion. In
some instances the old episcopal power passed more or less into
the hands of the civil magistrate (a state of matters which was
highly approved by Erastus and his followers), in other cases it
was conceded to the presby terial courts. In the Anglican Church
the bishops (subject to appeal to the sovereign) have the right
of excommunicating, and their sentence, if sustained, may in
certain cases carry with it civil -consequences. But this right
is in practice never exercised. In the law of England sentence
of excommunication, upon being properly certified by the
bishop, was followed by the writ de excommunicato capiendo
for the arrest of the offender. The statute 5 Eliz. c. 23 pro-
vided for the better execution of this writ. By the 53 Geo. III.
c. 127 (which does not, however, extend to Ireland) it was enacted
that " excommunication, together with all proceedings following
thereupon, shall in all cases, save those hereafter to be specified,
be discontinued." Disobedience to or contempt of the ecclesi-
astical courts is to be punished by a new writ, de conlumace
capiendo, to follow on the certificate of the judge that the
defender is contumacious and in contempt. Sect. 2 provides
that nothing shall prevent " any ecclesiastical court from
pronouncing or declaring persons to be excommunicate on
definite sentences pronounced as spiritual censures for offences
of ecclesiastical cognizance." No persons so excommunicated
EXCRETION EXECUTION
61
shall incur any civil penalty or incapacity whatever, save such
sentence of imprisonment, not exceeding six months, as the
court shall direct and certify to the king in chancery.
In the churches which consciously shaped their polity at or
after the Reformation the principle of excommunication is
preserved in the practice of church discipline. Calvin devotes a
chapter in the Institutes (bk. iv. chap, xii.) to the " Discipline of
the Church; its Principal Use in Censure and Excommunication."
The three ends proposed by the church in such discipline are
there stated to be, (i) that those who lead scandalous lives may
not to the dishonour of God be numbered among Christians,
seeing that the church is the body of Christ; (2) that the good
may not be corrupted by constant association with the wicked;
(3) that those who are censured or excommunicated, confounded
with shame, may be led to repentance. He differentiates
decisively between excommunication and anathema. " When
Christ promises that what his ministers bind on earth shall be
bound in heaven, he limits the power of binding to the censure of
the church; by which those who are excommunicated are not
cast into eternal ruin and condemnation, but by having their
life and conduct condemned are also certified of their final
condemnation unless they repent. For excommunication differs
from anathema: anathema which ought to be very rarely, or
never, resorted to, in precluding all pardon, execrates a person,
and devotes him to eternal perdition : whereas excommunication
rather censures and punishes his conduct. Yet in such a manner
by warning him of his future condemnation it recalls him to
salvation " (Inst. bk. iv. chap. xii. 10). The Reformed churches
in England and America accepted the distinction between public
and private offences. The usual provision is that private
offences are to be dealt with according to the rule in Matt. v.
23-24, xviii. 15-17; public offences are to be dealt with according
to the rule in i Cor. v. 3-5, 13. The public expulsion or suspension
of the offender is necessary for the good repute of the church,
and its influence over the faithful members. The expelled
member may be readmitted on showing the fruits of repentance.
In Scotland three degrees of church censure are recognized
admonition, suspension from sealing ordinances (which may be
called temporary excommunication), and excommunication
properly so-called. Intimation of the last-named censure may
occasionally (but very rarely) be given by authority of a pres-
.bytery in a public and solemn manner, according to the following
formula: " Whereas thou N. hast been by sufficient proof
convicted (here mention the sin) and after due admonition and
prayer remainest obstinate without any evidence or sign of true
repentance: Therefore in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ,
and before this congregation, I pronounce and declare thee N.
excommunicated, shut out from the communion of the faithful,
debar thee from privileges, and deliver thee unto Satan for the
destruction of thy flesh, that thy spirit may be saved in the day
of the Lord Jesus." This is called the greater excommunication.
The congregation are thereafter warned to shun all unnecessary
converse with the excommunicate (see Form of Process, c. 8).
Formerly excommunicated persons were deprived of feudal
rights in Scotland; but in 1690 all acts enjoining civil pains
upon sentences of excommunication were finally repealed
(Burton's History, vii. 435).
The question whether the power of excommunication rests
in the church or in the clergy has been an important one in the
history of English and American churches. Hooker lays down
(Survey, pt. 3, pp. 33-46) four necessary conditions for the
execution of a sentence involving church discipline. " (i) The
cause exactly recorded is fully and nakedly to be presented to the
consideration of the congregation. (2) The elders are to go
before the congregation in laying open the rule so far as reacheth
any particular now to be considered, and to express their judg-
ment and determination thereof, so far as appertains to them-
selves. (3) Unless the people be able to convince them of errors
and mistakes in their sentence, they are bound to joyn their
judgment with theirs to the compleating of the sentence. (4) The
sentence thus compleatly issued is to be solemnly passed and
pronounced upon the delinquent by the ruling Elder whether
it be of censure or excommunication." In this passage it is clear
that the effective power of discipline is regarded as being wholly
in the power of the individual church or congregation. Hooker
expressly denies the power of synods to excommunicate: " that
there should be Synods, which have poteslatem juridicam is
nowhere proved in Scripture because it is not a truth " (Survey,
pt. 4, pp. 48, 49).
The confession of faith issued by the London-Amsterdam
church (the original of the Pilgrim Fathers' churches) in 1596
declares that the Christian congregation having power to elect
its minister has also power to excommunicate him if the case
so require (Walker, Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism,
p. 66). In 1603 the document known as " Points of Difference "
(i.e. from the established Anglicanism) submitted to James I.
sets forth: " That all particular Churches ought to be so con-
stituted as, having their owne peculiar Officers, the whole body
of every Church may meet together in one place, and jointly
performe their duties to God and one towards another. And that
the censures of admonition and excommunication be in due
manner executed, for sinne, convicted, and obstinately stood
in. This power also to be in the body of the Church whereof
the partyes so offending and persisting are members." The
Cambridge Platform of 1648 by which the New England churches
defined their practice, devotes ch. xiv. to " excommunication and
other censures." It follows in the main the line of Hooker and
Calvin, but adds (6) an important definition: "Excommunica-
tion being a spirituall punishment it doth not prejudice the ex-
communicate in, nor deprive him of his civil rights, therfore
toucheth not princes, or other magistrates, in point of their civil
dignity or authority. And, the excommunicate being but as a
publican and a heathen, heathen being lawfully permitted to
come to hear the word in church assemblyes; wee acknowledg
therfore the like liberty of hearing the word, may be permitted
to persons excommunicate, that is permitted unto heathen.
And because wee are not without hope of his recovery, wee are not
to account him as an enemy but to admonish him as a brother."
The Savoy Declaration of 1658 defines the theory and practice
of the older English Nonconformist churches in the section on
the " Institution of Churches and the Order appointed in them
by Jesus Christ" (xix.). The important article is as follows:
" The Censures so appointed by Christ, are Admonition and
Excommunication; and whereas some offences are or may be
known onely to some, it is appointed by Christ, that those to
whom they are so known, do first admonish the offender in
private: in publique offences where any sin, before all; or in
case of non-amendment upon private admonition, the offence
being related to the Church, and the offender not manifesting
his repentance, he is to be duely admonished in the Name of
Christ by the whole Church, by the Ministery of the Elders of the
Church, and if this Censure prevail not for his repentance, then
he is to be cast out by Excommunication with the consent of
the Church."
In contemporary English Free Churches the purity of the
church is commonly secured by the removal of persons unsuitable
for membership from the church books by a vote of the re-
sponsible authority. (D. MM.)
EXCRETION (Lat. ex, out of, cernere, cretum, to separate),
in plant and animal physiology, the separation from an organ of
some substance, also the substance separated. The term usually
refers to the separation of waste or harmful products, as dis-
tinguished from " secretion," which refers to products that
play a useful or necessary part in the functions of the organism.
EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exseculus, follow or carry
out), the carrying into effect of anything, whether a rite, a piece
of music, an office, &c. ; and so sometimes involving a notion of
skill in the performance. Technically, the word is used in law
in the execution of a deed (its formal signing and sealing), an
execution (see below) by the sheriff's officers under a " writ of
execution " (the enforcement of a judgment on a debtor's goods) ;
and execution of death has been shortened to the one word to
denote CAPITAL PUNISHMENT (q.v.).
Civil Execution may be defined as the process by which the
EXECUTION
judgments or orders of courts of law are made effectual. In
Roman law the earliest mode of execution was the seizure,
legalized by the actio per manus injectionem, of the debtor as a
slave of the creditor. During the later Republic, imprisonment
took the place of slavery. Under the regime of the actio per
manus injectionem, the debtor might dispute the debt the issue
being raised by his finding a substitute (vindex) to conduct the
case for him. By the time of Gaius (iv. 25) the actio per manus
injectionem had been superseded by the actio judicati, the object
of which was to enable the creditor to take payment of the debt
or compel the debtor to find security (pignus in causa judicati
captum: Cautio judicatum sohi), and in A.D. 320 Constantino
abolished imprisonment for debt, unless the debtor were con-
tumacious. The time allowed for payment of a judgment debt
was by the XII. Tables 30 days; it was afterwards extended
to two months, and ultimately, by Justinian, to four months.
The next stage in the Roman law of execution was the recognition
of bankruptcy either against the will of the bankrupt (missio
in bona) or on the application of the bankrupt (cessio bonorum;
and see BANKRUPTCY). Lastly, in the time of Antoninus Pius,
judgment debts were directly enforced by the seizure and sale
of the debtor's property. Slaves, oxen and implements of
husbandry were privileged; and movable property was to be
exhausted before recourse was had to land (see Hunter, Roman
Law, 4th ed. pp. 1029 et seq., Sohm, Inst. Rom. Law, 2nd ed.
pp. 302-305).
GREAT BRITAIN. The English law of execution is very compli-
cated, and only a statement of the principal processes can here be
attempted.
High Court. Fieri Facias. A judgment for the recovery of money
or costs is enforced, as a rule, by writ of fieri facias addressed to the
sheriff, and directing him to cause to be made (fieri facias) of the
goods and chattels of the debtor a levy of a sum sufficient to satisfy
the judgment and costs, which carry interest at 4% per annum.
The seizure effected by the sheriff or his officer, under this writ,
of the property of the debtor, is what is popularly known as " the
putting-in " of an execution. The seizure should be carried out
with all possible despatch. The sheriff or his officer must not break
open the debtor's house in effecting a seizure, for " a man's house
is his castle" (Semayne's Case [1604], 5 Coke Rep. 91); but this
principle applies only to a dwelling-house, and a barn or outhouse
unconnected with the dwelling-house may be broken into. The
sheriff on receipt of the writ endorses on it the day, hour, month
and year when he received it ; and the writ binds the debtor's goods
as at the date of its delivery, except as regards goods sold before
seizure in market overt, or purchased for value, without notice
before actual seizure (Sale of Goods Act 1893, s. 26, which supersedes
s. 16 of the Statute of Frauds and s. I of the Mercantile Law Amend-
ment Act 1856). This rule is limited to goods, and does not apply
to the money or bank notes of the debtor which are not bound by
the writ till seized under it (Johnson v. Pickering, Oct. 14, 1907, C.A.).
The mere seizure of the goods, however, although, subject to such
exceptions as those just stated, it binds the interest of the debtor,
and gives the sheriff such an interest in the goods as will enable
him to sue for the recovery of their possession, does not pass the
property in the goods to the sheriff. The goods are in the custody
of the law. But the property remains in the debtor who may get
rid of the execution on payment of the claim and fees of the sheriff
[as to which see Sheriffs Act 1887, s. 20, and order of 2ist of August
1888, Annual Practice (1908), vol. ii. p. 278]. The wearing apparel,
bedding, tools, &c., of the debtor to the value of 5 are protected.
Competing claims as to the ownership of the goods seized are brought
before the courts by the procedure of " interpleader." After
seizure, the sheriff must retain possession, and, in default of payment
by the execution debtor, proceed to sell. Where the judgment debt,
including legal expenses, exceeds 20, the sale must be by public
auction, unless the Court otherwise orders, and must be publicly
advertised. The proceeds of sale, after deduction of the sheriff s
fees and expenses, become the property of the execution creditor
to the extent of his claim. The Bankruptcy Act 1890 (53 & 54
Viet. c. 71, s. ii [2]) requires the sheriff in case of sale under a
judgment for a sum exceeding 20 to hold the proceeds for 14
days in case notice of bankruptcy proceedings should be served upon
him (see BANKRUPTCY). The form of the writ of fieri facias requires
the sheriff to make a return to the writ. In practice this is seldom
done unless the execution has been ineffective or there has been
delay in the execution of the writ; but the judgment creditor may
obtain an order calling on the sheriff to make a return. A sheriff
or his officer, who is guilty of extortion in the execution of the writ,
is liable to committal for contempt, and to forfeit 200 and pay all
damages suffered by the person aggrieved (Sheriffs Act 1887 [50
& 51 Viet. c. 55], s. 29 [2]), besides being civilly liable to such
person. Imprisonment for debt in execution of civil judgments is
now abolished except in cases of default in the nature of contempt,
unsatisfied judgments for penalties, defaults by persons in a fiduciary
character, and defaults by judgment debtors (Debtors Act 1869 [32
& 33 Viet. c. 62]; Bankruptcy Act 1883 [46 & 47 Viet. c. 52],
ss. 53, 103). Imprisonment for debt has been abolished within
similar limits in Scotland (Debtors Scotland] Act 1880 [43 & 44
Viet. c. 34] and Ireland, Debtors Ireland] Act 1872, 35 & 36
Viet. c. 57)- There may still be imprisonment in England, under
the writ rarely used in practice ne exeat regno, which issues to
prevent a debtor from leaving the kindgom.
Writ of Elegit. The writ of elegit is a process enabling the creditor
to satisfy his judgment debt out of the lands of the debtor. It
derives its name from the election of the creditor in favour of this
mode of recovery. It is founded on the Statute of Westminster
(1285, 13 Ed. I. c. 18), under which the sheriff was required to deliver
to the creditor all the chattels (except oxen and beasts of the plough)
and half the lands of the debtor until the debt was satisfied. By the
Judgments Act 1838 the remedy was extended to all the debtor's
lands, and by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 the writ no longer extends
to the debtor's goods. The writ is enforceable against legal interests
whether in possession or remainder (Hood-Barrs v. Cathcart, 1895,
2 Ch. 41 1), but not against equitable interests in land (Earl of Jersey
v. Uxbridge Rural Sanitary Authority, 1891, 3 Ch. 183). When the
debtor's interest is equitable, recourse is had to equitable execution
by the appointment of a receiver or to bankruptcy proceedings.
The writ is directed to the sheriff, who, after marking on it the
date of its receipt, at once in pursuance of its directions holds an
inquiry with a jury as to the nature and value of the interest of the
debtor in the lands extended under the writ, and delivers to the
creditor at a reasonable price and extent in accordance with the
writ, the lands of which the debtor was possessed in the bailiwick.
When the sheriff has returned and filed a record (in the central
office of the High Court) of the writ and the execution thereof, the
execution creditor becomes " tenant to the elegit." Where the
land is freehold the creditor acquires only a chattel interest in it;
where the land is leasehold he acquires the whole of the debtor's
interest (Johns v. Pink, 1900, I Ch. 296). The creditor is entitled
to hold the land till his debt is satisfied, or enough to satisfy it is
tendered to him, and under the Judgments Act 1864 the creditor
may obtain an order for sale. Until the land is delivered on execu-
tion and the writs which have effected the delivery are registered
in the Land Registry, the judgment does not create any charge on
the land so as to fetter the debtor's power of dealing witn it. Land
Charges Registration Acts 1888 and 1900. (See R.S.C., O. xliii.)
Writs of Possession and Delivery. Judgments for the recovery or
for the delivery of the possession of land are enforceable by writ of
possession. The recovery of specific chattels is obtained by writ
of delivery (R.S.C., O. xlvii., xlviii.).
Writ of Sequestration. Where a judgment directing the payment
of money into court, or the performance by the defendant of any
act within a limited time, has not been complied with, or where a
corporation has wilfully disobeyed a judgment, a writ of sequestra-
tion is issued, to not less than four sequestrators, ordering them to
enter upon the real estate of the party in default, and " sequester "
the rents and profits until the judgment has been obeyed (R.S.C.,
O. xliii. r. 6).
Equitable Execution. Where a judgment creditor is otherwise
unable to reach the property of his debtor he may obtain equitable
execution, usually by the appointment of a receiver, who collects
the rents and profits of the debtor's land for the benefit of the
creditor (R.S.C., O. 1. rr. I5A-22). But receivers may be appointed
of interests in personal property belonging to the debtor by virtue
of the Judicature Act 1873, s. 25 (8).
Attachment. A judgment creditor may " attach " debts due by
third parties to his debtor by what are known as garnishee proceed-
ings. Stock and shares belonging to a judgment debtor may be
charged by a charging order, so as, in the first instance, to prevent
transfer of the stock or payment of the dividends, and ultimately to
enable the judgment creditor to realise his charge. A writ of
attachment of the person of a defaulting debtor or party may be
obtained in a variety of cases akin to contempt (e.g. against a person
failing to comply with an order to answer interrogatories, or against
a solicitor not entering an appearance in an action, in breach of his
written undertaking to do so), and in the cases where imprisonment
for debt is still preserved by the Debtors Act 1869 (R.S.C., O. xliv.).
CONTEMPT OF COURT (q.v.) in its ordinary forms is also punishable
by summary committal.
County Courts. In the county courts the chief modes of execution
are " warrant of execution in the nature of a writ of fieri facias ";
garnishee proceedings; equitable execution; warrants of possession
and delivery, corresponding to the writs of possession and delivery
above mentioned; committal, where a judgment debtor has, or,
since the date of the judgment has had, means to pay his debt;
and attachment of the person for contempt of court. If the judg-
ment debtor assaults the bailiff or his officer or rescues the goods,
he is liable to a fine not exceeding 5.
SCOTLAND. The principal modes of execution or^' diligence " in
Scots law are (i.) Arrestment and forthcoming, which corresponds
to the English garnishee proceedings; (ii.) arrestment jurisdictionis
fundandae causa, i.e. the seizure of movables within the jurisdiction
EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS
to found jurisdiction against their owner, being a foreigner; this
procedure, which is not, however, strictly a " diligence," as it does
not bind the goods, is analogous to the French saisie-arrit, and
to the obsolete practice in the mayor's court of London known as
" foreign attachment " (see Glyn and Jackson, Mayor's Court
Practice, 2nd ed., vii. 260); (iii.) arrestment under meditatione fugae
warrant, corresponding to the old English writ of ne exeat regno,
and applicable in the case of a debtor who intends to leave Scotland
to evade an action ; (iv.) arrestment on dependence, i.e. of funds in
security; (v.) poinding, i.e. valuation and sale of the debtor's
goods; (vi.) sequestration, e.g. of tenant's effects under a landlord's
hypothec for rent ; (vii.) action of adjudication, by which a debtor's
" heritable " (i.e. real) estate is transferred to his judgment creditor
in satisfaction of his debt or security therefor. In Scots law
" multiplepoinding " is the equivalent of " interpleader."
IRELAND. The law of execution in Ireland (see R.S.C., 1905,
Orders xli.-xlviii.) is practically the same as in England.
BRITISH POSSESSIONS. The Judicature Acts of most of the
Colonies have also adopted English Law. Parts of the French Code
de procedure civile are still in force in Mauritius. But its provisions
have been modified by local enactment (No. 19 of 1868) as regards
realty, and the rules of the Supreme Court 1903 have introduced the
English forms of writs. Quebec and St Lucia, where French law
formerly prevailed, have now their own codes of Civil Procedure.
The law of execution under the Quebec Code resembles the French,
that under the St Lucia Code the English system. In British
Guiana and Ceylon, in which Roman Dutch law in one form or
another prevailed, the English law of execution has now in substance
been adopted (British Guiana Rules of Court, 1900, Order xxxvi.).,
Ceylon (Code of Civil Procedure, No. 2 of 1889) ; the modes of exe-
cution in the South African Colonies are also the subject of local
enactment, largely influenced by English law (cf. the Sheriffs'
Ordinance, 1902, No. 9 of 1902), (Orange River Colony) and (Pro-
clamation 17 of 1902), Transvaal (Nathan, Common Law of South
Africa, vol. iv. p. 2206) ; and generally, Van Zyl, Judicial Practice
of South Africa, pp. 198 et seq.
UNITED STATES. Execution in the United States is founded
upon English law, which it closely resembles. Substantially the
same forms of execution are in force. The provisions of the Statute
of Frauds making the lien of execution attach only on delivery to
the sheriff were generally adopted in America, and are still law in
many of the states. The law as to the rights and duties of sheriffs
is substantially the same as in England. The " homestead laws "
(q.v.) which are in force in nearly all the American States exempt
a certain amount or value of real estate occupied by a debtor as
his homestead from a forced sale for the payment of his debts.
This homestead legislation has been copied in some British colonies,
e.g. Western Australia (No. 37 of 1898, Pt. viii.), Quebec (Rev. Stats.,
ss. 1743-1748), Manitoba (Rev. Stats., 1902, c. 58, s. 29, c. 21, s. 9),
Ontario (Rev. Stats., 1897, c. 29), British Columbia (Rev. Stats.,
1897, c. 93), New South Wales (Crown Lands Act 1895, Pt. iii.),
New Zealand (Family Homes Protection Act 1895, No. 20 of 1895).
FRANCE. Provisional execution (saisie-arrt) with a view to
obtain security has been already mentioned. Execution against
personalty (saisie-execution) is preceded by a commandement or
summons, personally served upon, or left at the domicile of the debtor
calling on him to pay. The necessary bedding of debtors and of
their children residing with them, and the clothes worn by them,
cannot be seized in execution under any circumstances. Objects
declared by law to be immovable by destination (immeubles par
destination), such as beasts of burden and agricultural implements,
books relating to the debtor's profession, to the value of 300 francs,
workmen's tools, military equipments, provisions and certain cattle
cannot be seized, even for a debt due to Government, unless in respect
of provisions furnished to the debtor, or amounts due to the manu-
facturers or vendors of protected articles or to parties who advanced
moneys to purchase, manufacture or repair them. Growing fruits
cannot be seized except during the six weeks preceding the ordinary
period when they become ripe. Execution against immovable
property (la saisie immobiliere) is preceded also by a summons to
pay, and execution cannot issue until the expiry of 30 days after
service of such summons (see further Code Proc. Civ., Arts. 673-689).
Imprisonment for debt was abolished in all civil and commercial
matters by the law of 22nd of July 1867, which extends to foreigners.
It still subsists in favour of the State for non-payment of fines, &c.
The French system is in substance in force in Belgium (Code Civ.
Proc., Arts. 51 et seq.), the Netherlands (CodeCiv. Proc., Arts. 43oet
seq.), Italy (Code Civ. Proc., Arts. 553 et seq., 659 et seq.), and Spain.
GERMANY. Under the German Code of Civil Prodecure (Arts.
796 et seq.), both the goods and (if the goods do not offer adequate
security) the person of the debtor may be seized (the process is called
arrest) as a guarantee of payment. The debtor's goods cannot be
sold except in pursuance of a judgment notified to the debtor either
before or within a prescribed period after the execution (Art. 809
[3], and law of 3Oth of April 1886). Imprisonment for debt in civil
and commercial matters has been abolished or limited on the lines
of the French law of 1867 in many countries (e.g. Italy, law of the
6th of December 1877; Belgium, law of the 27th of July 1871;
Greece, law of the 9th of March 1900; Russia, decree of the 7th of
March 1879).
AUTHORITIES. Anderson, Execution (London, 1889); Annual
Practice (London, 1908) ; Johnston Edwards, Execution (London,
1888); Mather, Sheriff Law (London, 1903). As to Scots law,
Mackay, Manual of Practice (Edinburgh, 1893). As to American
law, Bingham, Judgments and Executions (Philadelphia, 1836);
A. C. Freeman, Law of Execution, Civil Cases (3rd ed., San Francisco,
1900) ; H. M. Herman, Law of Executions (New York, 1875) ; American
Notes to tit. " Execution," in Ruling Cases (London and Boston,
1897) ; Bouvier, Law Diet., ed. Rawle (1897), s.v. " Execution."
EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS, in English law, those
persons upon whom the property of a deceased person both real
and personal devolves according as he has or has not left a will.
Executors differ from administrators both in the mode of their
creation and in the date at which their estate vests. An executor
can only be appointed by the will of his testator; such appoint-
ment may be express or implied, and in the latter case he is said
to be an executor "according to the tenor." The estate of an
executor vests in him from the date of the testator's death. An
administrator on the other hand is appointed by the probate
division of the High Court, and his estate does not vest till such
appointment, the title to the property being vested till then in
the judge of the probate division. As to whom the court will
appoint administrators and the various kinds of administrators
see under ADMINISTRATION. Apart from these two points the
rights and liabilities of executors and administrators are the
same, and they may be indifferently referred to as the repre-
sentative of the deceased. As to their appointment before the
establishment of the court of probate see articles WILL and
INTESTACY. Before the Land Transfer Act 1897, the real estate
of the deceased did not devolve upon the representative but
vested directly in the devisee or heir-at-law, but by that act
it was provided that the personal representative should be also
the real representative, and therefore it may now be said broadly
that the representative takes the whole estate of the deceased.
There are, however, a few minor exceptions to this rule, of which
the most important are lands held in joint tenancy and copyhold
lands. As the representative stands in the shoes of the deceased
he is entitled to sue upon any contract or for any debt which the
deceased might have sued in his lifetime.
The duties of a representative are as follows: I. To bury the
deceased in a manner suitable to the estate he leaves behind him ;
and the expenses of such funeral take precedence of any duty or
debt whatever; but extravagant expenses will not be allowed.
No rule can be laid down as to what is a reasonable allowance for
this purpose, as it is impossible to know at the time of the funeral
what the estate of the deceased may amount to. The broad rule
is that the representative must allow such sum as seems reasonable,
having regard to all the circumstances of the case and the conditions
in life of the deceased, remembering that if he should exceed this he
will be personally liable for such excess in the event of the estate
proving insolvent.
2. He must obtain probate or letters of administration to the
deceased within six months of the death, or, if such grant be dis-
puted, within two months of the determination of such suit. The
penalty for not doing so is fixed by the Stamp Act 1815, 37, at
100, and an additional stamp duty at the rate of 10%. As to
the formalities of PROBATE see that article.
3. Strictly speaking, he must compile an inventory of all the
estate of the deceased, whether in possession or outstanding, and he
js to deliver it to the court on oath. He is to collect all the goods so
inventoried and to commence actions to get in all those outstanding,
and he is responsible to creditors for the whole of such estate,
whether in possession or in action. This duty is thrown upon the
representative by an act of 1529, but it is not the modern practice
to exhibit such inventory unless he be cited for it in the spiritual
court at the instance of a party interested. It is, however, necessary
to file an affidavit setting out the value of the estate of the deceased
upon applying for a grant of probate or letters of administration.
4. The representative must pay the debts of the deceased according
to their priority. Next to the legitimate funeral expenses come
the costs of proving and administering the estate ; in the event,
however, of the funeral and testamentary expenses being charged
by the will upon any particular fund, they will be primarily payable
out of that fund. The representative must be careful to pay the
debts according to the rules of priority, otherwise he will become
personally liable to the creditors of one degree if he has exhausted
the estate in paying creditors of a lesser degree. First of all, a
solicitor has a lien for his costs upon any fund or duty which he has
recovered for the deceased; next in order come debts due to the
crown by record or speciality; then debts given a priority by
statute, as, for example, by the Poor Relief Act 1743, money due
by an overseer of the poor to his parish. Next, debts of record, i.e.
6 4
EXEDRA EXELMANS
judgment recovered against the deceased in any court of record;
all such debts are equal among themselves, but a judgment creditor
who has sued out execution is preferred to one who has not; another
class of debts of record are statutes merchant and staple, or recog-
nizances in the nature of statute staple, i.e. bonds of record acknow-
ledged before the lord mayor of London or the mayor of the staple.
Last in the order of debts come specialty and simple contract debts,
which by Hinde Palmer's Act (the Executors Act 1869) are of equal
degree, though as between specialty debts bonds given for value
rank before voluntary bonds unless assigned for value, and as
between simple contract debts those due to the crown have priority.
Though the creditors can if necessary take all the estate of the
deceased to satisfy their claims, yet as between the various classes
of assets the representative must pay the debts out of assets in the
following order: (i.) General personal estate not specifically be-
queathed nor exempted from payment of debts; (ii.) real estate
appropriated to debts; (iii.) real estate descended; (iv.) real estate
devised charged with payment of debts; (v.) general pecuniary
legacies pro rata; (vi.) specific legacies and devises; (vii.) real
estate over which a general power of appointment has been exercised
by will; (viii.) the widow's paraphernalia.
5. The debts of the deceased being satisfied, the representative
must next proceed to satisfy the legacies and devises left by the
testator. In order to enable him to do this with safety to himself,
it is provided that he cannot be compelled to divide the estate
among the legatees or next of kin until twelve months from the
death of the deceased (this is commonly known as " the executor's
year "), though if there is no doubt as to the solvency of the estate
he may do so at once. As a further protection the representative
may give notice by advertisement for creditors to send in their
claims against the estate, and on expiration of the notices he may
proceed to divide the estate, though even then the creditor may
follow the assets to the person who has received them and recover
for his debt. As between legatees the following priorities must be
observed: (l) Specific legatees and devisees, (2) demonstrative
legatees, and (3) general legatees ; and as to this last class the testator
can give priority to one over another. If there are not sufficient
assets to pay the general legatees they must abate rateably. Legacies
were not payable out of the real estate prior to the Land Transfer
Act 1897, unless the testator charged the realty with them. Even
then unless the testator exonerates his personalty from payment of
the legacies the personalty will be the first fund chargeable. It
has been suggested that the effect of the act is to make the realty
chargeable pro rata with the personalty, but this is doubtful.
6. The residue, after all legacies and devises are satisfied, must,
if there be a will, be paid to the residuary legatee therein named,
and if there be no will the real estate will go to the heir (see IN-
HERITANCE) and the personalty to the next of kin (see INTESTACY).
It was held at one time that in default of a residuary legatee the
residue fell to the executor himself, but now nothing less than the
expressed intention of the testator can give it to him.
The liabilities of the representative may be shortly stated. He is
liable in his representative capacity in all cases where the deceased
would be liable were he alive. To this general rule there are some
exceptions. The representative cannot be sued for breach of a
contract for personal services which can be performed only in the
lifetime of the person contracting, nor again can he be sued in a
case where unliquidated damages only could have been recovered
against the deceased. He is liable in his personal capacity in the
following cases: if he contracts to pay a debt due by the deceased,
or if having admitted that he had assets in his hands sufficient to
pay a debt or legacy he has misapplied such assets so that he cannot
satisfy them; or lastly, if by mismanaging the estate and effects
of the deceased he has made himself liable For a devastavit. Shortly
stated, a representative is bound to exercise the ordinary care of a
business man in administering the estate of the deceased, and he
will be liable for the loss to the estate caused by his own negligence,
or by the negligence of a co-representative which his act or neglect
has rendered possible. Though the general rule of delegatus non
potest delegari holds good of a representative, yet in certain cases he
may " rely upon skilled persons in matters in which he cannot be
expected to be experienced," e.g. he must employ solicitors to
conduct a lawsuit.
The privileges of the representative are these : he may prefer one
creditor to another of equal degree; he may retain a debt owing
to him from the deceased as against other creditors of equal degree
(see RETAINER); he may reimburse himself out of the estate all
expenses incurred in the execution of his trust.
An executor de son tort is one who, without any title to do so,
wrongfully intermeddles with the assets of the deceased, dealing
with them in such a way as to hold himself out as executor. In
such a case he is subject to all the liabilities of an executor, and can
claim none of the privileges. He may be treated by the creditor as
the executor, and, if he is really assuming to act as executor, creditors
and legatees will get a good title from him, but he is liable to be sued
by the rightful representative for damages for interfering with the
property of the deceased.
Scotland. Executor in Scots law is a more extensive term than in
English. He is either nominative or dative, th,e latter appointed
by the court and corresponding in most respects to the English
administrator. Caution is required from the latter, not from the
former. By the common law doctrine of passive representation the
heir or executor was liable to be sued for implement of the deceased's
obligations. The Roman principle of ben*,ficium inventarii was first
introduced by an act of 1695. As the law at present stands, the heir
or executor is liable only to the value of the succession, except
where there has been vitious intromission in movables, and in
gestio pro haerede (behaviour as heir) and other cases in herit-
ables. The present inventory duty on succession to movables and
heritables depends on the Finance Acts 1 894-1909(566 ESTATE DUTY) .
In England the executor is bound to pay the debts of the deceased
in a certain order, but in Scotland they all rank part passu except
privileged debts (see PRIVILEGE).
AUTHORITIES. R. L. Vaughan Williams, The Law of Executors
and Administrators; W. G. Walker, Compendium on the Law of
Executors and Administrators; James Schouler, Law of Executors
and Administrators (3rd ed., Boston, 1901).
EXEDRA, or EXHEDRA (from Gr. e, out, and eopa, a seat),
an architectural term originally applied to a seat or recess out
of doors, intended for conversation. Such recesses were generally
semicircular, as in the important example built by Herodes
Atticus at Olympia. In the great Roman thermae (baths) they
were of large size, and like apses were covered with a hemispheri-
cal vault. An example of these exists at Pompeii in the Street
of the Tombs. From Vitruvius we learn that they were often
covered over, and they are described by him (v. n) as places
leading out of porticoes, where philosophers and rhetoricians
could debate or harangue.
EXELMANS, REN6 JOSEPH ISIDORE, COUNT (1775-1852),
marshal of France, was born at Bar-le-Duc on the I3th of
November 1775. He volunteered into the 3rd battalion of the
Meuse in 1791, became a lieutenant in 1797, and in 1798 was aide-
de-camp to General Eble, and in the following year to General
Broussier. In his first campaign in Italy he greatly distinguished
himself; and in April 1799 he was rewarded for his services by
the grade of captain of dragoons. In the same year he took
part with honour in the conquest of Naples and was again pro-
moted, and in 1801 he became aide-de-camp to General Murat.
He accompanied Murat in the Austrian, Prussian and Polish
campaigns of 1805, 1806 and 1807. At the passage of the
Danube, and in the action of Wertingen, he specially distin-
guished himself; he was made colonel for the valour which he
displayed at Austerlitz, and general of brigade for his conduct
at Eylau in 1807. In 1808 he accompanied Murat to Spain,
but was there made prisoner and conveyed to England.
On regaining his liberty in 1811 he went to Naples, where
King Joachim Murat appointed him grand-master of horse.
Exelmans, however, rejoined the French army on the eve of the
Russian campaign, and on the field of Borodino won the rank of
general of division. In the retreat from Moscow his steadfast
courage was conspicuously manifested on several occasions.
In 1813 he was made, for services in the campaign of Saxony
and Silesia, grand-officer of the Legion of Honour, and in 1814
he reaped additional glory by his intrepidity and skill in the
campaign of France. When the Bourbons were restored,
Exelmans retained his position in the army. In January 1815
he was tried on an accusation of having treasonable relations
with Murat, but was acquitted. Napoleon on his return from
Elba made Exelmans a peer of France and placed him in
command of the II. cavalry corps, which he commanded in
the Waterloo campaign, the battle of Ligny and Grouchy's
march on Wavre. In the closing operations round Paris
Exelmans won great distinction. After the second Restora-
tion he denounced, in the House of Peers, the execution of
Marshal Ney as an " abominable assassination "; thereafter he
lived in exile in Belgium and Nassau for some years, till 1819,
when he was recalled to France. In 1828 he was appointed
inspector-general of cavalry; and after the July revolution of
1 830 he received from Louis Philippe the grand cross of the Legion
of Honour, and was reinstated as a peer of France. At the
revolution of 1848 Exelmans was one of the adherents of Louis
Napoleon; and in 1851 he was, in recognition of his long and
brilliant military career, raised to the dignity of a marshal of
France. His death, which took place on the loth of July 1852,
was the result of a fall from his horse.
EXEQUATUR EXETER
EXEQUATUR, the letter patent, issued by a foreign office
and signed by a sovereign, which guarantees to a foreign consul
the rights and privileges of his office, and ensures his recognition
in the state in which he is appointed to exercise them. If a
consul is not appointed by commission he receives no exequatur;
and a notice in the Gazette in this case has to suffice. The exe-
quatur may be withdrawn, but in practice, where a consul is
obnoxious, an opportunity is afforded to his government to
recall him.
EXETER, EARL, MARQUESS AND DUKE OF. These
English titles have been borne at different times by members
of the families of Holand or Holland, Beaufort, Courtenay and
Cecil. The earls of Devon of the family of de Redvers were
sometimes called earls of Exeter; but the ist duke of Exeter
was JOHN (c. 1355-1400), a younger son of Thomas Holand,
earl of Kent (d. 1360). John's mother, Joan (d. 1385), a descend-
ant of Edward I., married for her third husband Edward the
Black Prince, by whom she was the mother of Richard II., and
her son John was thus the king's half-brother, a relationship
to which he owed his high station at the English court. He
married Elizabeth (d. 1426), a daughter of John of Gaunt, duke
of Lancaster, and was constantly in Richard's train until 1385,
when his murder of Ralph Stafford disturbed these friendly
relations. John then went to Spain as constable of the English
army under John of Gaunt; but after his return to England in
1387 he was created earl of Huntingdon, was made admiral of
the fleet and chamberlain of England, and was again high in the
king's favour. He was Richard's chief helper in the proceedings
against the lords appellant in 1397, was created duke of Exeter
in September of this year, and went with the king to Ireland in
1399. After the accession of his brother-in-law, Henry IV.,
Holand was tried for his share in the events of 1397, and was
reduced to his earlier rank of earl of Huntingdon. He was
soon plotting against Henry's life, and after the projected
rising in 1400 had failed he was captured and was probably
beheaded at Pleshey in Essex on the i6th of January I4OO. 1
He was afterwards attainted and his titles and lands were
forfeited.
In 1416 THOMAS BEAUFORT, earl of Dorset, was created duke
of Exeter; but this dignity was only granted for his life, and
consequently it expired on his death in 1426.
In 1416 JOHN (1395-1447), son of John Holand, the former
duke of Exeter, was allowed to take his father's earldom of
Huntingdon. This nobleman rendered great assistance to
Henry V. in his conquest of France, fighting both on sea and
on land. He was marshal of England, admiral of England and
governor of Aquitaine under Henry VI.; was one of the king's
representatives at the conference of Arras in 1435; and in 1443
was created duke of Exeter. When he died on the 5th of August
1447 his titles passed to his son HENRY (1430-1473), who,
although married to Anne (d. 1476), daughter of Richard, duke of
York, fought for Henry VI. during the Wars of the Roses. After
having been imprisoned by York at Pontefract, he was present
at the battle of Towton, sailed with Henry's queen, Margaret
of Anjou, to Flanders in 1463, and was wounded at Barnet in
1471. In 1461 he had been attainted and his dukedom declared
forfeited, and he died without sons, probably in 1473.
Coming to the family of Courtenay the title of marquess of
Exeter was borne by HENRY COURTENAY (c. 1496-1538), earl of
Devon, who was made a marquess in 1525. A grandson of
Edward IV., Courtenay was a prominent figure at the court of
Henry VIII. until Thomas Cromwell rose to power, when his
high birth, his great wealth and his independent position made
him an object of suspicion. Some slight discontent in the west
of England gave the occasion for his arrest, and he was tried and
beheaded on the gth of December 1538. A few days later he
was declared a traitor and his titles were forfeited; although
his only son, EDWARD (c. 1526-1556), who was restored to the
1 There is some difference of opinion about the place and manner
of the earl's death, and this question has an important bearing upon
the privilege of trial by peers of the realm. See L. W. Vernon-
Harcourt, His Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers (1907).
X. 3
earldom of Devon in 1553 and was a suitor for the hand of Queen
Mary, is sometimes called marquess of Exeter.
The title of earl of Exeter was first bestowed upon the Cecils
(see CECIL: Family) in 1605 when THOMAS, 2nd Lord Burghley
(1542-1623), the eldest son of William Cecil, Lord Burghley,
was made earl of Exeter by James I. Thomas had been a
member of parliament during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who
knighted him in 1575, and had fought under the earl of Leicester
in the Netherlands. After his father's death in 1598 he became
president of the Council of the North and was made a knight of
the Garter. He died on the 7th or 8th of February 1623. His
direct descendants continued to bear the title of earl of Exeter,
and in 1 80 1 HENRY (1754-1804), the loth earl, was advanced to
the dignity of marquess of Exeter, the present marquess being
his lineal descendant. It may be noted that the ist marquess
is Tennyson's " lord of Burghley."
See G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage (1887-1898).
EXETER, a city and county of a city, municipal, county and
parliamentary borough, and the county town of Devonshire,
England, 172 m. W.S.W. of London, on the London & South
Western and the Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 47,185.
The ancient city occupies a broad ridge of land, which rises
steeply from the left bank of the Exe. At the head of the ridge
is the castle, on the site of a great British earthwork. The High
Street and its continuation, called Fore Street, are narrow, but
very picturesque, with many houses of the i6th and I7th
centuries. There is a maze of lesser streets within the ancient
walls, the line of which may be traced. All the gates have
disappeared. The suburbs, which have greatly extended since
the beginning of the igth century, contain many good streets,
terraces and detached villas. The surrounding country is rich,
fertile and of great beauty. Extensive views are commanded in
the direction of Haldon, a stretch of high moorland which may
be regarded as an outlier of Dartmoor. The lofty mound of the
castle is laid out as a promenade, with fine trees and broad walks.
The cathedral, although not one of the largest in England, is
unsurpassed in the beauty of its architecture and the richness
of its details. With the exception of the Norman transeptal
towers, the general character is Decorated, ranging from about
1280 to 1369. Transeptal towers occur elsewhere in England
only in the collegiate church of Ottery St Mary, in Devonshire,
for which Exeter cathedral served as a model. The west front
is of later date than the rest (probably 1369-1394), and the
porch is wholly covered with statues. Within, the most note-
worthy features are the long unbroken roof, extending throughout
nave and choir, with no central tower or lantern; the beautiful
sculpture of bosses and corbels; the minstrel's gallery, projecting
from the north triforium of the nave; and the remarkable
manner in which the several parts of the church are made to
correspond. The window tracery is much varied; but each
window answers to that on the opposite side of nave or choir;
pier answers to pier, aisle to aisle, and chapel to chapel, while
the transeptal towers complete the balance of parts. A complete
restoration under Sir G. G. Scott was carried out between 1870
and 1877. The modern stall work, the reredos, the choir pave-
ment of tiles, rich marbles and porphyries, the stained glass and
the sculptured pulpits in choir and nave are meritorious. The
episcopal throne, a sheaf of tabernacle work in wood, was erected
by Bishop Stapeldon about 1320, and in the north transept is
an ancient clock. The most interesting monuments are those of
bishops of the i2th and i3th centuries, in the choir and lady
chapel. Some important MSS., including the famous book of
Saxon poetry given by Leofric to his cathedral, are preserved
in the chapter-house. The united sees of Devonshire and
Cornwall were fixed at Exeter from the installation there of
Leofric (1050) by the Confessor, until the re-erection of the
Cornish see in 1876. The bishop's palace embodies Early
English portions. The diocese covers the greater part of Devon-
shire, with a very small part of Dorsetshire.
The guildhall in the High Street is a picturesque Elizabethan
building, which contains some interesting portraits; among
them being one of General Monk, who was a native of Devon,
66
EXETER
and another of Henrietta, duchess of Orleans, given by her
brother Charles II. Both are by Sir Peter Lely. The assize
hall and sessions house dates from 1774. The Albert Memorial
Museum contains a school of art, an excellent free library, a
reading-room, and a museum of natural history and antiquities.
There is a good collection of local birds, and some remarkable
pottery and bronze relics extracted from barrows near Honiton
or found in various parts of Devonshire. Of the castle, called
Rougemont, the chief architectural remnant is a portion of a
gateway tower which may be late Norman. Traces are also
seen of the surrounding earthworks, which may have belonged
to the original British stronghold. Beneath the castle wall is
the pleasant promenade of Northernhay. The churches of
Exeter are of little importance, being mostly small, and closely
beset with buildings, but the modern church of St Michael (1860)
deserves notice. The Devon and Exeter Institution, founded
in 1813, contains a large and valuable library, and among
educational establishments may be noticed the technical and
university extension college, the diocesan training college and
school; and the grammar school, which was founded under a
scheme of Walter de Stapeldon, bishop of Exeter and founder of
Exeter College, Oxford, in 1332, and refounded in 1629, but
occupies modern buildings ( 1 886) outside the city . It is endowed
with a large number of leaving exhibitions, and about 150 boys
are educated. There are two market-houses in the city, many
hospitals and many charitable institutions, including the pictur-
esque hospital or almshouse of William Wynard, recorder of
Exeter (1439)-
Exeter is one of the principal railway centres in the south-west,
and it also has some shipping trade, communicating with the
sea by way of the Exeter ship-canal, originally cut in the reign
of Elizabeth (1564), and enlarged in 1675 and 1827. This canal
is an interesting work, being the first canal carried out in the
United Kingdom for the purpose of enabling sea-going vessels to
pass to an inland port. The river Exe was very early utilized
by small craft trading to Exeter, parliament having granted
powers for the improvement of the navigation by the construc-
tion of a canal 3 m. long from Exeter to the river; at a later
date this canal was extended lower down to the tidal estuary of
the Exe. Previous to the year 1820 it was only available for
vessels of a draft not exceeding 9 ft., but by deepening it, raising
the banks, and constructing new locks, vessels drawing 14 ft. of
water were enabled to pass up to a basin and wharves at Exeter.
These works were carried out under the advice of Thomas
Telford. A floating basin is accessible to vessels of 350 tons.
Larger vessels lie at Topsham, at the junction of the canal with
the estuary of the Exe; while at the mouth of the estuary is
the port of Exmouth. Imports are miscellaneous, while paper,
grain, cider and other goods are exported. Brewing, paper-
making and iron-founding are carried on, and the city is an
important centre of agricultural trade. The parliamentary
borough returns one member. The city is governed by a
mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 3158 acres.
The eastern suburb of Heavitree, where is the Exeter city
asylum, is an urban district with a population (1901) of 7529.
Exeter was the Romano-British country town of Isca Dam-
noniorum the most westerly town in the south-west of Roman
Britain. Mosaic pavements, potsherds, coins and other relics
have been found, and probably traces of the Roman walls survive
here and there in the medieval walls. It is said to be the Caer
Isce of the Britons, and its importance as a British stronghold is
shown by the great earthwork which the Britons threw up to
defend it, on the site of which the castle was afterwards built, and
by the number of roads which branch from it. Exeter is famous
for the number of sieges which it sustained as the chief town
in the south-west of England. In 1001 it was unsuccessfully
besieged by the Danes, but in the following year was given by
King ^Ethelred to Queen Emma, who appointed as reeve, Hugh, a
Frenchman, owing to whose treachery it was taken and destroyed
by Sweyn in 1003. By 1050, however, it had recovered, and
was chosen by Leofric as the new seat of the bishops of Devon.
In 1068, after a siege of eighteen days, Exeter surrendered to
the Conqueror, who threw up a castle which was called Rouge-
mont, from the colour of the rock on which it stood. Again in
1137 the town was held for Matilda by Baldwin de Redvers for
three months and surrendered, at last, owing to lack of water.
Three times subsequently Exeter held out successfully for the king
in 1467 against the Yorkists, in 1497 against Perkin Warbeck,
and in 1549 against the men of Cornwall and Devon, who rose
in defence of the old religion. During the civil wars the city
declared for parliament, but was in 1643 taken by the royalists,
who held it until 1646. The only other historical event of
importance is the entry of William, prince of Orange, in 1688,
shortly after his arrival in England. Exeter was evidently a
borough by prescription some time before the Conquest, since
the burgesses are mentioned in the Domesday Survey. Its
first charter granted by Henry I. gave the burgesses all the free
customs which the citizens of London enjoyed, and was confirmed
and enlarged by most of the succeeding kings. By 1227 govern-
ment by a reeve had given place to that by a mayor and four
bailiffs, which continued until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835.
Numerous trade gilds were incorporated in Exeter, one of the
first being the tailors' gild, incorporated in 1466. This by 1482
had become so powerful that it interfered with the government
of the town, and was dissolved on the petition of the burgesses.
Another powerful gild was that of the merchant adventurers,
incorporated in 1559, which is said to have dictated laws to which
the mayor and bailiffs submitted. From 1295 to 1885 Exeter
was represented in parliament by two members, but in the latter
year the number of representatives was reduced to one. Exeter
was formerly noted for the manufacture of woollen goods,
introduced in Elizabeth's reign, and the value of its exports
at one time exceeded half a million sterling yearly. The trade
declined partly owing to the stringent laws of the trade gilds,
and by the beginning of the I9th century had entirely dis-
appeared, although at the time of its greatest prosperity it
had been surpassed in value and importance only by that of
Leeds.
See Victoria County History, Devon; Richard Izacke, Antiquities
of the City of Exeter (1677) ; George Oliver, The History of the City
of Exeter (1861); and E. A. Freeman, Exeter (" Historic Towns "
series) (London, 1887), in the preface to which the names of earlier
historians of the city are given.
EXETER, a town and one of the county-seats of Rockingham
county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Squamscott river,
about 12 m. S.W. of Portsmouth and about 51 m. N. by E. of
Boston, Mass. Pop. (1890) 4284; (1900) 4922 (1066 foreign-
born); (1910) 4897; area, about 17 sq. m. It is served by the
Western Division of the Boston & Maine railway. The town
has a public library and some old houses built in the colonial
period, and is the seat of Phillips Exeter Academy (incorporated
in 1781 and opened in 1783). In its charter this institution is
described as " an academy for the purpose of promoting piety
and virtue, and for the education of youth in the English, Latin
and Greek languages, in writing, arithmetic, music and the art
of speaking, practical geometry, logic and geography, and such
other of the liberal arts and sciences or languages, as opportunity
may hereafter permit." It was founded by Dr John Phillips
(1719-1795), a graduate of Harvard College, who acquired
considerable wealth as a merchant at Exeter and gave nearly
all of it to the cause of education. The academy is one of the
foremost secondary schools in the country, and among its
alumni have been Daniel Webster, Edward Everett, Lewis
Cass (born in Exeter in a house still standing), John Parker Hale,
George Bancroft, Jared Sparks, John Gorham Palfrey, Richard
Hildreth and Francis Bowen. The government of the academy
is vested in a board of six trustees, regarding whom the founder
provided that a majority should be laymen and not inhabitants
of Exeter. In 1909-1910 the institution had 20 buildings, 32
acres of recreation grounds, 16 instructors and 488 students,
representing 38 states and territories of the United States and
4 foreign countries. At Exeter also is the Robinson female
seminary (1867), with 14 instructors and 272 students in 1906-
1907. The river furnishes water-power, and among the manu-
factures of the town are shoes, machinery, cottons, brass, &c.
EXETER BOOK EXHIBITION
67
The town is one of the oldest in the state; it was founded in
1638 by Rev. John Wheelwright, an Antinomian leader who
with a number of followers settled here after his banishment
from Massachusetts. For their government the settlers adopted
(1639) a plantation covenant. There was disagreement from the
first, however, with regard to the measure of loyalty to the king,
and in 1643, when Massachusetts had asserted her claim to this
region and the other three New Hampshire towns had submitted
to her jurisdiction, the majority of the inhabitants of Exeter
also yielded, while the minority, including the founder, removed
from the town. In 1680 the town became a part of the newly
created province of New Hampshire. During the French and
Indian wars it was usually protected by a garrison, and some
of the garrison houses are still standing. From 1776 to 1784
the state legislature usually met at Exeter.
See C. H. Bell, History of the Town of Exeter (Exeter, 1888).
EXETER BOOK [Codex Exoniensis], an anthology of Anglo-
Saxon poetry presented to Exeter cathedral by Leofric, 1 bishop
of Exeter, England, from 1050 to 1071, and still in the possession
of the dean and chapter. It contains some legal documents, the
poems entitled Crist, Guthlac, Phoenix, Juliana, The Wanderer
and others, and concludes with between eighty and ninety
riddles. It was first described in Humphrey Wanley's Catalogus
. . . (1705) in detail but with many inaccuracies; subse-
quently by J. J. Conybeare, Account of a Saxon Manuscript
(a paper read in 1812; printed with some extracts from the
MS. in Archaeologia, vol. xvii. pp. 180-197, 1814). A complete
transcript made (1831) by Robert Chambers is in the British
Museum (Addit. MS. 9067). It was first printed in 1842 by
Benjamin Thorpe for the Soc. of Antiq., London, as Codex
Exoniensis . . . with an English Translation, Notes and Indexes.
More recent editions, chiefly based on Thorpe's text, are: in
Chr. Grein's Bibliotftek der A.S. Poesie (vol. iii. part i, ed.
R. Wiilker, Leipzig, 1897, with a bibliography), J. Schipper in
Pfeiffer's Cermania, vol. xix. pp. 327-339, and Israel Gollancz,
The Exeter Book, pt. i. (1895), with English translation, for the
Early English Text Society.
A detailed account, with bibliographies of the separate poems, is
given by R. Wiilker, in Crundriss . . . der A.S. Literatur, pp. 218-236
(Leipzig, 1885) ; see also the introduction to The Crist of Cynewulf . . . ,
edited by Prof. A. S. Cook, with introduction, notes and a glossary
(Boston, U.S.A., 1900). For the poems contained in the MS. see
also CYNEWULF and RIDDLES.
EXHIBITION, a term, meaning in general a public display, 2
which has a special modern sense as applied to public shows of
goods for the promotion of trade (Fr. exposition). The first
exhibition in this sense of which there is any account, in either
sacred or profane history, was that held by King Ahasuerus,
who, according to the Book of Esther, showed in the third year
of his reign " the riches of his glorious kingdom, and the honour
of his excellent majesty, many days, even a hundred and four-
score days." The locale of this function was Shushan, the
palace and the exhibits consisted of " white, green and blue
hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver
rings and pillars of marble: the beds were of gold and silver,
upon a pavement of red, and blue, and white and black marble.
And they gave them drink in vessels of gold, the vessels being
diverse one from another." The first exhibition since the
Christian] era was at Venice during the dogeship of Lorenzo
Tiepolo, in 1268. On that occasion there was a grand display,
consisting of a water fete, a procession of the trades and an
industrial exhibition. The various gilds of the Queen City of the
Seas marched through the narrow streets to the great square of
St Mark, and their leaders asked the dogaressa to inspect the
products of their industry. Other medieval exhibitions were
the fairs held at Leipzig and Nizhni Novgorod in Europe, at
Tanta in Egypt, and in 1689 that by the Dutch at Leiden.
1 For Leofric, see F. E. Warren, The Leofric Missal (1883).
1 An " exhibition," in the sense of a minor scholarship, or annual
payment to a student from the funds of a school or college, is a
modern survival from the obsolete meaning of " maintenance " or
" endowment " (cf. Late Lat. exhibitio et tegumentum, i.e. food and
raiment).
The first modern exhibition was held at London in 1756 by
the Society of Arts, which offered prizes for improvements in
the manufacture of tapestry, carpets and porcelain, the exhibits
being placed side by side. Five years afterwards, in 1761, the
same society gave an exhibition of agricultural machinery.
In 1797 a collective display of the art factories of France, includ-
ing those of Sevres, the Gobelins and the Savonnerie, was made
in the palace of St Cloud, and the exhibition was repeated during
the following year in the rue de Varennes, Paris. This experiment
was so successful that in the last three days of the same year an
exhibition under official auspices, at which private exhibitors
were allowed to compete, was held in the Champ de Mars. Four
years later, in 1801, there was a second official exhibition in
the grand court of the Louvre. Upon that occasion juries of
practical men examined the objects shown, and the winners of a
gold medal were invited to dine with Napoleon, who was at
that time First Consul. In the report of the jury the following
remarkable sentence appeared: " There is not an artist or
inventor who, once obtaining thus a public recognition of
his ability, has not found his reputation and his business
largely increased." The third Paris Exhibition, held in 1802,
was the first to publish an official catalogue. There were 540
exhibitors, including J. E. Montgolfier, the first aeronaut, and
J. M. Jacquard, the inventor of the loom which bears his name.
The fourth exhibition was held in 1806 in the esplanade in front
of the H6tel des Invalides, and attracted 1422 exhibitors. There
were no more exhibitions till after the fall of the empire, but in
1819 the fifth was held during the reign of Louis XVIII., with
1622 exhibitors. Others were held at Paris at various intervals,
that in 1849 having 4500 exhibitors.
Other exhibitions, though on a smaller scale, were held in
Dublin, London, and in various parts of Germany and Austria
during the first half of the i9th century that in 1844, held at
Berlin, having 3040 exhibitors. Switzerland, Holland, Belgium,
Sweden, Russia, Poland, Italy, Spain and Portugal all held
exhibitions, and there was a Free Trade Bazaar of British
Manufactures at Covent Garden theatre in 1845, which at
the time created a great deal of interest. But all these
exhibitions were confined to the products of the country
in which they took place, and the first great International
Exhibition was held in London in 1851 by the Society of Arts,
under the presidency of the prince consort. All nations were
invited to compete; a site was obtained in Hyde Park, and a
building 20 acres in extent was erected, after the design of Sir
Joseph Paxton, at a cost of 193,168. The exhibition was open
for five months and fifteen days. The receipts amounted to
506,100, and the surplus was 186,000. The number of visitors
was 6,039,195, and the money taken at the doors was 423,792.
The total number of exhibitors was 13,937, of which Great
Britain contributed 6861, the British colonies 520 and foreign
countries 6556. The International Exhibition of 1851 was
followed by those of New York and Dublin in 1853, Melbourne
and Munich in 1854, and Paris in 1855 this latter was held in
the Palais d'Industrie, which remained in existence until pulled
down to make room for the two Palais des Beaux Arts, which
formed one of the attractions of the 1900 exhibition. The
exhibitors numbered 20,839 and the visitors 5,162,330. There
were national exhibitions during the following years in several
European countries, but the next great world's fair was held at
London in 1862. The total space roofed in amounted to 988,000
sq. ft., 22-65 acres, the number of visitors was 6,211,103, an d
the amount received at the doors 408,530. The death of the
prince consort had a depressing effect upon the enterprise.
In 1865 an exhibition was held at Dublin, the greater proportion
of the funds being supplied by Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness.
The number of attendances during six months was 900,000, and
the exhibition was opened at night. An Italian exhibition was
held at Rome in 1862.
The Paris Exhibition of 1867 was upon a far larger scale than
that of 1855. It was held, like those that preceded and succeeded
it, at the Champ de Mars, and covered 41 acres. The building
resembled an exaggerated gasometer. The external ring was
68
EXHIBITION
devoted to machinery, the internal to the gradual develop-
ment of civilization, commencing with the stone age and con-
tinuing to the present era. A great feature of the exhibition was
the park, which was studded with specimens of every style of
modern architecture Turkish mosques, Swedish cottages,
English lighthouses, Egyptian palaces and Swiss chalets. The
number of attendances was 6, 805,969. The exhibitors numbered
43,217, and the total amount received for entrances, concessions,
&c., was 420,735. This was the first exhibition at which there
were international restaurants. The cost of the exhibition was
defrayed partly by the state and partly by private subscriptions.
Small exhibitions were held in various parts of Europe between
1867 and 1870, and in the latter year a series of international
exhibitions, confined to one or two special descriptions of
produce or manufactures, was inaugurated in London at South
Kensington. These continued till 1874, but they failed to attract
any very large attendance of the public and were abandoned.
A medal was given to each exhibitor, and reports on the various
exhibits were published, but there was no examination of the
exhibits by jurors. In 1873 there was an International Exhibi-
tion at Vienna. The main building, a rotunda, was erected in
the beautiful park of the Austrian capital. There were halls
for machinery and agricultural products, and hundreds of
buildings, erected by different nations, were scattered amongst
the woodlands of the Prater. Unfortunately, an outbreak
of cholera diminished the attendance of visitors, and the receipts
were only 206,477, although the visitors were said to have
reached 6,740,500, and the number of exhibitors was 25,760.
None of the International Exhibitions held between 1857
and 1873 had attracted as many as 7,000,000 visitors, but the
gradual extension of education amongst the masses, and the
greater facilities for locomotion, brought about by the growth
of the railway system in all portions of the civilized world,
largely increased the attendances at subsequent World's Fairs.
The Centennial Exhibition of 1876, to celebrate the one-hundredth
anniversary of American Independence, was held at Fairmount
Park, Philadelphia. The funds were raised partly by private
subscriptions, and partly by donations from the city of Phila-
delphia, from Pennsylvania and some of the neighbouring states.
The central government at Washington made a large loan,
which was subsequently repaid. The principal buildings, five in
number, occupied an area of 485 acres, and there were several
smaller structures, which in the aggregate must have filled half
as much space more, the largest being that devoted to the ex-
hibits of the various departments of the United States govern-
ment, which covered 7 acres. Several novelties in exhibition
management were introduced at Philadelphia. Instead of gold,
silver and bronze medals, only one description, bronze, was
issued, the difference between the merits of the different exhibits
being shown by the reports. Season tickets were not issued,
and the price of admission, the same on all occasions, was half
a dollar, or about zs. id. The exhibition was not open at night
or on Sundays, thus following the British, and not the con-
tinental, precedent. The number of visitors was 9,892,625, of
whom 8,004,214 paid for admission, the balance being exhibitors,
officials and attendants. The total receipts amounted to
763,899. Upon one occasion, the Pennsylvania day, 274,919
persons the largest number that had visited any exhibition
up to that date passed through the turnstiles. The display
of machinery was the finest ever made, that of the United States
occupying 480,000 sq. ft. The motive-power was obtained from
a Corliss engine of 1600 horse-power. At this exhibition the
United Kingdom and the British Colonies of Canada, Victoria,
New South Wales, New Zealand, Cape Colony and Tasmania
made a very fine display, which was only excelled by that of the
United States,
The Paris Exhibition of 1878 was upon a far larger scale in
every respect than any which had been previously held in any
part of the world. The total area covered not less than 66 acres,
the main building in the Champ de Mars occupying 54 acres.
The French exhibits filled one-half the entire space, the remaining
moiety being occupied by the other nations of the world. The
United Kingdom, British India, Canada, Victoria, New South
Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Cape Colony and some
of the British crown colonies occupied nearly one-third of the
space set aside for nations outside France. Germany was the
only great country which was not represented, but there were a
few German paintings. The display of fine arts and machinery
was upon a very large and comprehensive scale, and the Avenue
des Nations, a street 2400 ft. in length, was devoted to specimens
of the domestic architecture of nearly every country in Europe,
and of several in Asia, Africa and America. The palace of the
Trocadero, on the northern bank of the Seine, was erected for
the exhibition. It was a handsome structure, with towers 2 50 ft.
in height and flanked by two galleries. The rules for admission
were the same as those at Philadelphia, and every person
exhibitor, journalist or official who had the right of entrance
was compelled to forward two copies of his or her photograph,
one of which was attached to the card of entry. The ordinary
tickets were not sold at the doors, but were obtainable at various
government offices and shops, and from numerous pedlars in
all parts of the city and suburbs. The buildings were somewhat
unfinished upon the opening day, political complications having
prevented the French government and the French people from
paying much attention to the exhibition till about six months
before it was opened; but the efforts made in April were pro-
digious, and by June ist, a month after the opening, the exhibi-
tion was complete, and afforded an object-lesson of the recovery
of France from the calamities of 1870-1871. The decisions
arrived at by the international juries were accompanied by
medals of gold, silver and bronze. The expenditure by the
United Kingdom was defrayed out of the consolidated* revenue,
each British colony defraying its own expenses. The display of
the United Kingdom was under the control of a royal commission,
of which the prince of Wales was president. The number of
paying visitors to the exhibition was 13,000,000, and the cost
of the enterprise to the French government, which supplied all
the funds, was a little less than a million sterling, after allowing
for the value of the permanent buildings and the Trocadero
Palace, which were sold to the city of Paris. The total number
of persons who visited Paris during the time the exhibition was
open was 571,792, or 308,974 more than came to the French
metropolis during the year 1877, and 46,021 in excess of the
visitors during the previous exhibition of 1867. It was stated
at the time that, in addition to the impetus given to the trade of
France, the revenue of the Republic and of the city of Paris
from customs and octroi duties was increased by nearly three
millions sterling as compared with the previous year.
Exhibitions on a scale of considerable magnitude were held at
Sydney and Melbourne in 1879 and 1880, and many continental
and American manufacturers took advantage of them in order
to bring the products of their industry directly under the notice
of Australian consumers, who had previously purchased their
supplies through the instrumentality of British merchants.
The United Kingdom and India made an excellent display at
both cities, but the effect of the two great Australian exhibitions
was to give a decided impetus to German, American, French and
Belgian trade. One of the immediate results was that lines of
steamers to Melbourne and Sydney commenced to run from
Marseilles and Bremen; another, that for the first time in the
history of the Australian colonies, branches of French banks
were opened in the two principal cities. The whole cost of these
exhibitions was defrayed by the local governments.
Exhibitions were held at Turin and Brussels during 1880,
and smaller ones at Newcastle, Milan, Lahore, Adelaide, Perth,
Moscow, Ghent and Lille during 1881 and 1882, and at Zurich,
Bordeaux and Caraccas in Venezuela during 1883. The next
of any importance was held at Amsterdam in the latter year.
On that occasion a new departure in exhibition management
was made. The government of the Netherlands was to a certain
extent responsible for the administration of the exhibition,
but the funds were obtained from private sources, and a charge
was made to each nation represented for the space it occupied.
The United Kingdom, India, Victoria and New South Wales
EXHIBITION
69
took part in the exhibition, but there was no official representa-
tion of the mother country. Exhibitions on somewhat similar
lines were held at Nice and Calcutta in the winter of 1883 and
1884, and at Antwerp in 1895.
A series of exhibitions, under the presidency of the then prince
of Wales, and managed by Sir Cunliffe Owen, was commenced at
South Kensington in 1883. The first was devoted to a display of
the various industries connected with fishing; the second, in
1884, to objects connected with hygiene; the third, in 1885, to
inventions; and the fourth, in 1886, to the British colonies and
India. These exhibitions attracted a large number of visitors
and realized a substantial profit. They might have been con-
tinued indefinitely if it had not been that the buildings in which
they were held had become very dilapidated, and that the ground
covered by them was required for other purposes. There was
no examination of the exhibits by juries, but a tolerably liberal
supply of instrumental music was supplied by military and
civil bands. The Crystal Palace held a successful International
Exhibition in 1884, and there was an Italian Exhibition at Turin,
and a Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh, during the same year.
A World's Industrial Fair was held at New Orleans in 1884-1885,
and there were universal Exhibitions at Montenegro and Antwerp
in 1885, at Edinburgh in 1886, Liverpool, Adelaide, Newcastle
and Manchester in 1887, and at Glasgow, Barcelona and Brussels
in 1888. Melbourne held an International Exhibition in 1888-
1889 to celebrate the Centenary of Australia. Great Britain,
Germany, France, Austria and the United States were officially
represented, and an expenditure of 237,784 was incurred by the
local government.
The Paris Exhibition of 1889 marked an important change
in the policy which had previously characterized the management
of these gatherings. The funds were contributed partly by the
state, which voted 17,000,000 francs, and by the municipality of
Paris, which gave 8,000,000. A guarantee fund amounting to
23,124,000 francs was raised, and on this security a sum of
18,000,000 francs was obtained and paid into the coffers of the
administration. The bankers who advanced this sum recouped
themselves by the issue of 1,200,000 " bons," each of 25 francs.
Every bon contained 25 admissions, valued at i franc, and
certain privileges in the shape of participation in a lottery, the
grand prix being 20,000. The calculations of the promoters
were tolerably accurate. The attendances reached the then
unprecedented number of 32,350,297, of whom 25,398,609 paid
in entrance tickets and 2,723,366 entered by season tickets. A
sum of 2,307,999 francs was obtained by concessions for
restaurants and " side-shows," upon which the administration
relied for much of the attractiveness of the exhibition. The
total expenditure was 44,000,000 francs, and there was a small
surplus. The space covered in the Champ de Mars, the Trocadero,
the Palais d'Industrie, the Invalides and the Quai d'Orsay was
72 acres, as compared with 66 acres in 1878 and 41 acres in 1867.
Amongst the novelties was the Eiffel Tower, 1000 ft. in height,
and a faithful reproduction of a street in Cairo. The system of
international juries was continued, but instead of gold, silver
and copper medals, diplomas of various merits were granted,
each entitling the holder to a uniform medal of bronze. Some
of the " side-shows," although perhaps pecuniary successes,
did not add to the dignity of the exhibition. The date at which
it was held, the Centenary of the French Revolution, did not
commend it to several European governments. Austria,
Hungary, Belgium, China, Egypt, Spain, Great Britain, Italy,
Luxemburg, Holland, Peru, Portugal, Rumania and Russia
took part, but not officially, while Germany, Sweden, Turkey
and Montenegro were conspicuous by their absence. On the
other hand, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, the United States, Greece,
Guatemala, Morocco, Mexico, Nicaragua, Norway, Paraguay,
Salvador, the South African Republic, Switzerland, Uruguay
and Venezuela sent commissioners, who were accredited to the
government of the French Republic. The total number of
exhibitors was 61,722, of which France contributed 33,937, and
the rest of the world 27,785. The British and colonial section
was under the management of the Society of Arts, which obtained
a guarantee fund of 16,800, and, in order to recoup itself for its
expenditure, made a charge to exhibitors of 55. per sq. ft. for the
space occupied. There were altogether 1149 British exhibitors,
of whom 429 were in the Fine Arts section. One of the features
of the exhibition was the number of congresses and conferences
held in connexion with it.
During the year 1890 there was a Mining Exhibition at the
Crystal Palace, and a Military Exhibition in the grounds of
Chelsea Hospital; in 1891 a Naval Exhibition at Chelsea and
an International at Jamaica. In 1891-1892 there were exhibi-
tions at Palermo and at Launceston in Tasmania; in 1892, a
Naval Exhibition at Liverpool, and one of Electrical Appliances
at the Crystal Palace. A series of small national exhibitions
under private management was held at Earl's Court between
1887 and 1891. The first of the series was that of the United
States Italy followed in 1888, Spain in 1889, France in 1890
and Germany in 1891.
The next exhibition of the first order of magnitude was at
Chicago in 1893, and was held in celebration of the 4ooth anni-
versary of the discovery of America by Columbus. The financial
arrangements were undertaken by a company, with a capital of
2,000,000. The central government at Washington allotted
20,000 for the purposes of foreign exhibits, and 300,000 for
the erection and administration of a building for exhibits from
the various government departments. The exhibition was held
at Jackson Park, a place for public recreation, 580 acres in extent,
situated on the shore of Lake Michigan, on the southern side of
the city, with which it was connected by railways and tramways.
Special provision was made for locomotion in the grounds
themselves by a continuous travelling platform and an elevated
electric railway. The proximity of the lake, and of some artificial
canals which had been constructed, rendered possible the service
of electric and steam launches. The exhibition remained open
from the ist of May to the 3oth of October, and was visited by
21,477,212 persons, each of whom paid half a dollar (about
2s. id.) for admission. The largest number of visitors on any
one day was 716,881. In addition to its direct vote of 320,000,
Congress granted soo,oqo to the exhibition in a special coinage,
which sold at an enhanced price. The receipts from admissions
were 2,120,000; from concessions, 750,000; and the miscel-
laneous receipts, 159,000: total, 3,029,000. The total
expenses were 5,222,000. Of the sums raised by the Company,
400,000 was returned to the subscribers. Speaking roughly, it
may be said that the total outlay on the Chicago Exhibition was
six millions sterling, of which three millions were earned by the
Fair, two millions subscribed by Chicago and a million provided
by the United States government. The sums expended by the
participating foreign governments were estimated at i ,440,000.
The total area occupied by buildings at Chicago was as nearly as
possible 200 acres, the largest building, that devoted to manu-
factures, being 1687 ft. by 787, and 30-5 acres. The funds for
the British commission, which was under the control of the
Society of Arts, were provided by the imperial government,
which granted 60,000. The number of British exhibitors was
2236, of whom 597 were Industrial, 501 Fine Arts and 1138
Women's work. In this total were included 18 Indian exhibi-
tors. The space occupied by Great Britain was 306,285 sq. ft.;
and, in addition, separate buildings were erected in the grounds.
These were Victoria House, the headquarters of the British
commission; the Indian Pavilion, erected by the Indian Tea
Association; the Kiosk of the White Star Steamship Company;
and the structure set up by the Maxim-Nordenfelt Company.
Canada and New South Wales had separate buildings, which
covered 100,140 and 56,951 sq. ft. respectively; and Cape
Colony occupied 5250, Ceylon 27,574, British Guiana 3367,
Jamaica 4250, Trinidad 3400 and India 3584 sq. ft. in the
several buildings. The total space occupied by the British
Colonies was therefore 193,660 sq. ft. The system of awards
was considered extremely unsatisfactory. Instead of inter-
national juries, a single judge was appointed for each class, and
the recompenses were all of one grade, a bronze medal and a
diploma, on which was stated the reasons which induced the
EXHIBITION
judge to make his decision. Some judges took a high standard,
and refused to make awards except to a small proportion of
selected exhibits; others took a low one, and gave awards
indiscriminately. About 1183 awards were made to British
exhibitors. The French refused to accept any awards. The
value of the British goods exhibited was estimated, exclusive
of Fine Arts, at 430,000, and the expenses of showing them at
200,000. A large expenditure was incurred in the erection of
buildings, which were more remarkable for their beauty and
grandeur than for their suitableness to the purposes for which
they were intended. Considerable areas were devoted to " side-
shows," and the Midway Plaisance, as it was termed, resembled
a gigantic fair. Every country in the world contributed some-
thing. There were sights and shows of every sort from every-
where. The foreign countries represented were Argentina,
Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Cuba, Curacoa, Denmark, Danish West Indies,
Ecuador, France, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Honduras,
Hayti, Japan, Johore, Korea, Liberia, Mexico, Monaco, Nether-
lands, Norway, Orange Free State, Paraguay, Persia, Portugal,
Russia, Siam, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United Kingdom and
Colonies, Uruguay and Venezuela.
Exhibitions were held at Antwerp, Madrid and Bucharest
in 1894; Hobart in 1804-1895; Bordeaux, 1895; Nizhni
Novgorod, Berlin and Buda-Pest in 1896; Brussels and Brisbane
in 1897. A series of exhibitions, under the management of the
London Exhibitions Company, commenced at Earl's Court in
1895 and continued in successive years.
The Paris Exhibition of 1000 was larger than any which had
been previously held in Europe. The buildings did not cover
so much ground as those at Chicago, but many of those at Paris
had two or more floors. In addition to the localities occupied
in 1889, additional space was obtained at the Champs Elysees,
the park of Vincennes, on the north bank of the Seine between
the Place de la Concorde, and at the Trocadero. The total
superficial area occupied was as follows: Champ de Mars,
124 acres; Esplanade des Invalides, 30 acres; Trocadero
Gardens, 40 acres; Champs Elysees, 37 acres; quays on left
bank of Seine, 23 acres; quays on right bank of Seine, 23 acres;
park at Vincennes, 270 acres : total, 549 acres. The space occupied
by buildings and covered in amounted to 4,865,328 sq. ft., nij
acres. The French section covered 2,691,000 sq. ft., the foreign
1,829,880, and those at the park of Vincennes 344,448 sq. ft.
About one hundred French and seventy-five foreign pavilions and
detached buildings were erected in the grounds in addition to
the thirty-six official pavilions, which were for the most part
along the Quai d'Orsay. Funds were raised upon the same
system as that adopted in 1889. The French government granted
800,000, and a similar sum was contributed by the munici-
pality of Paris. 2,400,000 was raised by the issue of 3,250,000
" bons," each of the value of 20 francs, and containing 20
tickets of admission to the exhibition of the face value of one
franc each, and a document which gave its holder a right either
to a reduced rate for admission to the different " side-shows "
or else to a diminution in the railway fare to and from Paris,
together with a participation in the prizes, amounting to six
million francs, drawn at a series of lotteries. Permission to
erect restaurants, and to open places of amusement in buildings
erected for that purpose, were sold at high prices, and for these
privileges, which only realised 2,307,999 francs in 1889, the
concessionaires agreed to pay 8,864,442 francs in 1900. The
results did not justify the expectations which had been formed,
and the administration finally consented to receive a much
smaller sum. The administration calculated that they would
ha ve 65,000,000 paying visitors,though there were only 13,000,000
in 1878 and 25,398,609 in 1889. A very few weeks after the
opening day, April isth, it became evident that the estimated
figures would not be reached, since a large number of holders
of " bons " threw them on the market, and the selling price of
an admission ticket declined from the par value of one franc to
less than half that amount, or from 30 to 50 centimes. The
proprietors of the restaurants and " side-shows " discovered
that they had paid too much for their concessions, that the
buildings they had erected were far too handsome and costly
to be profitable, and that the public preferred the exhibition
itself to the so-called attractions. The exhibition was largely
visited by foreigners, but various causes kept away many
persons of wealth and position. Although many speculators were
ruined, the exhibition itself was successful. The attendance
was unprecedentedly large, and during the seven months the
exhibition was open, 39,000,000 persons paid for admission with
47,000,000 tickets, since from two to five tickets were demanded
at certain times of the day and on certain occasions. The entries
of exhibitors, attendants and officials totalled 9,000,000. The
receipts were 114,456,213 francs (4,578,249), and the ex-
penditure 1 16,500,000 (4,660,000) , leaving a deficiency of rather
more than two millions of francs (80,000). It was calculated
that the expenditure of the foreign nations which took part in
the exhibition was six millions sterling, and of the French
exhibitors and concessionaires three millions sterling.
A new plan of classifying exhibits was adopted at Paris, all
being displayed according to their nature, and not according to
their country of origin, as had been the system at previous
exhibitions. One-half the space in each group was allotted to
France, so that the exhibitors of that nation were enabled to
overwhelm their rivals by the number and magnitude of the
objects displayed by them. All the agricultural implements,
whatever their nationality, were in one place, all the ceramics
in another, so that there was no exclusively British and no
exclusively German court. The only exception to this rule was
in the Trocadero, where the French, British, Dutch, and Portu-
guese Colonies, Algeria, Tunis, Siberia, the South African
Republic, China and Japan were allowed to erect at their own
cost separate pavilions. The greater number of the nationalities
represented had palaces of their own in the rue des Nations along
the Quai d'Orsay, in which thoroughfare were to be seen the
buildings erected by Italy, Turkey, the United States, Denmark,
Portugal, Austria, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Peru, Hungary, the
United Kingdom, Persia, Belgium, Norway, Luxemburg,
Finland, Germany, Spain, Bulgaria, Monaco, Sweden, Rumania,
Greece, Servia and Mexico. Scattered about the grounds, in
addition to those in the Trocadero, were the buildings of San
Marino, Morocco, Ecuador and Korea. Nearly every civilized
country in the world was represented at the exhibition, the most
conspicuous absentees being Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and some
other South and Central American Republics, and a number
of the British colonies. The most noteworthy attractions of the
exhibition were the magnificent effects produced by electricity
in the palace devoted to it in the Chateau d'Eau and in the Hall
of Illusions, the two palaces of the Fine Arts in the Champs
Elysees, and the Bridge over the Seine dedicated to the memory
of Alexander II. These permanent Fine Art palaces were
devoted, the one to modern painting and sculpture, the
other to the works of French artists and art workmen who
flourished from the dawn of French art up to the end of the i8th
century.
The United Kingdom was well but not largely represented
both in Fine Arts and Manufactures, the administration of the
section being in the hands of a royal commission, presided over
by the prince of Wales. The British pavilion contained an
important collection of paintings of the British school, chiefly
by Reynolds, Gainsborough and their contemporaries, and by
Turner and Burne-Jones. Special buildings had been erected
by the British colonies and by British India. Canada, West
Australia and Mauritius occupied the former, India and Ceylon
the latter. For the first time since the war of 1870 Germany
took part in a French International Exhibition, and the exhibits
showed the great industrial progress which had been made since
the foundation of the empire in 1870. The United States made
a fine display, and fairly divided the honours with Germany. Re-
markable progress was manifested in the exhibits of Canada and
Hungary. France maintained her superiority in all the objects
in which good taste was the first consideration, but the more
utilitarian exhibits were more remarkable for their number than
EXHUMATION EXILE
their quality, except those connected with electrical work and
display, automobiles and iron-work. The number of exhibitors
in the industrial section from the British empire, including India
and the colonies, was 1250, who obtained 1647 awards, as many
persons exhibited in several classes. There were, in addition,
465 awards for " collaborateurs," that is, assistants, engineers,
foremen, craftsmen and workmen who had co-operated in the
production of the exhibits. In the British Fine Arts section
there were 429 exhibits by 282 exhibitors and 175 awards.
In later years, important international exhibitions have been
held at Glasgow, and at Buffalo, New York, in 1901, at St Louis
(commemorating the Louisiana purchase) in 1904, at Li6ge in
1905, at Milan in 1906, at Dublin in 1907, and in London(Franco-
British), 1908. In the artistic taste and magnificence of their
buildings and the interest of their exhibits these took their cue
from the great Paris Exhibition, and even in some cases went
beyond it, notably at Buffalo (q.v.), St Louis (q.v.) and London.
And it might well be thought that the evolution of this type of
public show had reached its limits. (G. C. L.)
EXHUMATION (from Med. Lat. exhumare; ex, out of, and
humus, ground), the act of digging up and removing an object
from the ground. The word is particularly applied to the
removal of a dead body from its place of burial. For the offence
of exhuming a body without legal authority, and the process of
obtaining such authority, see BURIAL AND BURIAL ACTS.
EXILARCH, in Jewish history, "Chief or Prince of the
Captivity." The Jews of Babylonia, after the fall of the first
temple, were termed by Jeremiah and Ezekiel the people of the
" Exile." Hence the head of the Babylonian Jews was the
exilarch (in Aramaic Resh Galulha). The office was hereditary
and carried with it considerable power. Some traditions regarded
the last king of Davidic descent (Jehoiachin) as the first exilarch,
and all the later holders of the dignity claimed to be scions of the
royal house of Judah. Under the Arsacids and Sassanids the
office continued. In the 6th century an attempt was made to
secure by force political autonomy for the Jews, but the exilarch
who led the movement (Mar Zu(ra) was executed. For some time
thereafter the office was in abeyance, but under Arabic rule there
was a considerable revival of its dignity. From the middle of
the 7th till the nth centuries the exilarchs were all descendants
of Bostanai, through whom " the splendour of the office was
renewed and its political position made secure " (Bacher). The
last exilarch of importance was David, son of Zakkai, whose
contest with Seadiah (q.v.) had momentous consequences.
Hezekiah (c. 1040) was the last Babylonian exilarch, though
the title left its traces in later ages. Benjamin of Tudela
(Itinerary, p. 61) names an exilarch Daniel b. Hisdai in the i2th
century. Petahiah (Travels, p. 17) records that this Daniel's
nephew succeeded to the office jointly with a R. Samuel. The
latter, according to Petahiah, had a learned daughter who
" gave instruction, through a window, remaining in the house
while the disciples were below, unable to see her."
Our chief knowledge of the position and function of the
exilarch concerns the period beginning with the Arabic rule in
Persia. In the age succeeding the Mahommedan conquest the
exilarch was noted for the stately retinue that accompanied him,
the luxurious banquets given at his abode, and the courtly
etiquette that prevailed there. A brilliant account has come
down of the ceremonies at the installation of a new exilarch.
Homage was paid to him by the rabbinical heads of the colleges
(each of whom was called Gaon, q.v.) ; rich gifts were presented;
he visited the synagogue in state, where a costly canopy had
been erected over his seat. The exilarch then delivered a dis-
course, and in the benediction or doxology (Qaddish) his name
was inserted. Thereafter he never left his house except in a
carriage of state and in the company of a large retinue. He
would frequently have audiences of the king, by whom he was
graciously received. He derived a revenue from taxes which he
was empowered to exact. The exilarch could excommunicate,
and no doubt had considerable jurisdiction over the Jews. A
spirited description of the glories of the exilarch is given in
Disraeli's novel Alroy.
See Neubauer, Mediaeval Jewish Chronicles, \\. 68 seq. ; Zacuto,
Yuhasin ; Graetz, Geschichte, vols. iv.-vi. ; Benjamin of Tudela,
Itinerary, ed. Adler, pp. 39 seq.; Bacher, Jewish Encyclopaedia,
vol. v. 288. (I. A.)
EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is
derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to
leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now
generally considered wrong), banishment from one's native
country by the compulsion of authority. In a general sense
exile is applied to prolonged absence from one's country either
through force of circumstances or when undergone voluntarily.
Among the Greeks, in the Homeric age, banishment ($11717) was
sometimes inflicted as a punishment by the authorities for
crimes affecting the general interests, but is chiefly known in
connexion with cases of homicide. With these the state had
nothing to do; the punishment of the murderer was the duty
and privilege of the relatives of the murdered man. Unless the
relatives could be induced to accept a money payment by way
of compensation (irowq, weregeld; see especially Homer, Iliad,
xviii. 497), in which case the murderer was allowed to remain in
the country, his only means of escaping punishment was flight
to a foreign land. If, during his self-imposed exile, the relatives
expressed their willingness to accept the indemnity, he was at
liberty to return and resume his position in society.
In later times banishment is (i) a legal punishment for
particular offences; (2) voluntary.
1. Banishment for life with confiscation of property was
inflicted upon those who destroyed or uprooted the sacred olives
at Athens; upon those who remained neutral during a sedition
(by a law of Solon, which subsequently fell into abeyance) ; upon
those who gave refuge to or received on board ship a man who
had fled to avoid punishment; upon those who wounded with
intent to kill and those who prompted them to such an act (it is
uncertain whether in this case exile was for life or temporary);
upon any one who wilfully murdered an alien; for impiety.
Certain political crimes were also similarly punished treason,
laconism, sycophancy (see SYCOPHANT), attempts to subvert
existing decrees. For the peculiar form of banishment called
OSTRACISM, see separate article.
In cases of voluntary homicide the punishment was death;
but (except in cases of parricide) the murderer could leave the
country unmolested after the first day of the trial. He was
bound to remain outside Attica, and when on foreign soil was
not allowed to appear at the public games, to enter the temples
or take part in sacrifices; but provided that he adhered to the
prescribed regulations, he was accorded a certain amount of
protection. Even when a general amnesty was proclaimed,
he was not allowed to return; if he did so, he might at once be
put to death.
Temporary exile (the period of which is uncertain) without
confiscation, was the punishment for involuntary homicide. As
soon as the relatives of the deceased became reconciled to the
man who had slain him, the latter was permitted to return;
further, since banishment was only temporary, it is reasonable to
suppose that the law insisted upon such reconciliation.
2. Citizens sometimes voluntarily left the country for other
reasons (debt, inability to pay a fine). Since extradition was
only demanded in cases of high treason or other serious offences
against the state, the fugitive was not interfered with. He was
at liberty to return after a certain time had elapsed.
Little is known about exile as it affected Sparta and other
Greek towns, but it is probable that the same conditions pre-
vailed as at Athens.
At Rome, in early times, exile was not a punishment, but rather
a means of escaping punishment. Before judgment had been
finally pronounced it was open to any Roman citizen condemned
to death to escape the penalty by voluntary exile (solum vertere
exsilii causa). To prevent his return, he was interdicted from
the use of fire and water; if he broke the interdict and returned,
any one had the right to put him to death. The aquae et ignis
(to which et tecti "shelter" is sometimes added) interdictio is
variously explained as exclusion from the necessaries of life,
EXILI EXMOUTH
from the symbols of civic communion, or from " the marks of
a pure society, which the criminal would defile by his further
use of them." Subsequently (probably at the time of the
Gracchi) it became a recognized legal penalty, practically
equivalent to " exile," taking the place of capital punishment.
The criminal was permitted to withdraw from the city after
sentence was pronounced; but in order that this withdrawal
might as far as possible bear the character of a punishment, his
departure was sanctioned by a decree of the people which
declared his exile permanent. Authorities are not agreed
whether this exile by interdiction entailed loss of civitas; accord-
ing to some this did not ensue until (as in earlier times) the
criminal had assumed the citizenship of the state in which he
had taken refuge and thereby lost his rights as a citizen of Rome,
while others hold that it was not until the time of Tiberius
(A.D. 23) that capilis deminutio media became the direct con-
sequence of trial and conviction. Interdictio was the punishment
for treason, murder, arson and other serious offences which came
under the cognizance of the quaestiones perpetuae (permanent
judicial commissions for certain offences); confiscation of
property was only inflicted in extreme cases.
Under the Empire interdictio gradually fell into disuse and a
new form of banishment, introduced by Augustus, called depor-
tatio, generally in insulam, took its place. For some time the two
probably existed side by side. Deportatio consisted in trans-
portation for life to an island (or some place prescribed on the
mainland, not of Italy), accompanied by loss of civitas and all
civil rights, and confiscation of property. The most dreaded
places of exile were the islands of Gyarus, Sardinia, an oasis in the
desert (quasi in insulam) of Libya; Crete, Cyprus and Rhodes
were considered more tolerable. Large bodies of persons were
also transported in this manner; thus Tiberius sent 4000
freedmen to Sardinia for Jewish or Egyptian superstitious
practices. Deportatio was originally inflicted upon political
criminals, but in course of time became more particularly a
means of removing those whose wealth and popularity rendered
them objects of suspicion. It was also a punishment for the
following offences: adultery, murder, poisoning, forgery, em-
bezzlement, sacrilege and certain cases of immorality.
Relegatio was a milder form of deporlalio. It either excluded
the person banished from one specified district only, with
permission to choose a residence elsewhere, or the place of exile
was fixed. Relegatio could be either temporary or for life, but
it did not in either case carry with it loss of civitas or property,
.nor was the exile under military surveillance, as in the case of
deportatio. Thus, Ovid, when in exile at Tomi, says (Tristia,
v.,i-i): " he (i.e. the emperor) has not deprived me of life, nor of
wealth, nor of the rights of a citizen . . .he has simply ordered
me to leave my home." He calls himself relegatus, not exsul.
In later writers the word exsilium is used in the sense of all its
three forms aquae el ignis interdictio, deportatio and relegatio.
In England the first enactment legalizing banishment dates
from the reign of Elizabeth (39 Eliz. c. 4), which gave power
to banish from the realm "such rogues as are dangerous to the
inferior people." A statute of Charles II. (18 Car. II. c. 3) gave
power to execute or to transport to America for life the moss-
troopers of Cumberland and Northumberland. Banishment or
transportation for criminal offences was regulated by an act of
1824 (5 Geo. IV. s. 84) and finally abolished by the Penal Servi-
tude Acts 1853 and 1857 (see further DEPORTATION). The word
exile has sometimes, though wrongly, been applied to the sending
away from a country of those who are not natives of it, but who
may be temporary or even permanent residents in it (see ALIEN;
EXPATRIATION; EXPULSION).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. J. Thonissen, Le Droit penal de la republique
athenienne (Brussels, 1875); G. F. Schomann, Griechische Alter-
tiimer (4th ed., 1897), p. 46; T. Mommsen, Romisches Strafrecht
(1899), pp. 68, 964, and Romisches Slaatsrecht (1887), iii. p. 48;
L. M. Hartmann, De exilio apttd Romanes (Berlin, 1887); F. von
Holtzendorff-Vietmansdorf, Die Deportatipnsstrafe im romischen
Alterthum (Leipzig, 1859); articles in Smith's Diet, of Greek and
Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890) and Daremberg and Saglio's Diet,
des antiquites (C. Lecrivain and G. Humbert).
EXILI, an Italian chemist and poisoner in the I7th century.
His real name was probably Nicolo Egidi or Eggidio. Few
authentic details of his life exist. Tradition, however, credits him
with having been originally the salaried poisoner at Rome of
Olympia Maidalchina, the mistress of Pope Innocent X. Subse-
quently he became a gentleman in waiting to Queen Christina
of Sweden, whose taste for chemistry may have influenced this
appointment. In 1663 his presence in France aroused the
suspicions of the French government, and he was imprisoned in
the Bastille. Here he is said to have made the acquaintance
of Godin de Sainte-Croix, the lover of the marquise de Brin-
villiers (q.v.). After three months' imprisonment, powerful
influences secured Exili's release, and he left France for England.
In 1681 he was again in Italy, where he married the countess
Fantaguzzi, second cousin of Duke Francis of Modena.
EXMOOR FOREST, a high moorland in Somersetshire and
Devonshire, England. The uplands of this district are bounded
by the low alluvial plain of Sedgemoor on the east, by the lower
basin of the Exe on the south, by the basin of the Taw (in part)
on the west, and by the Bristol Channel on the north. The area
thus defined, however, includes not only Exmoor but the Brendon
and Quantock Hills east of it. Excluding these, the total area in
the district lying at an elevation exceeding 1000 ft. is about
120 sq. m. The geological formation is Devonian. The ancient
forest had an area of about 20,000 acres, and was enclosed in
1815. Large tracts are still uncultivated; and the wild red
deer and native Exmoor pony are characteristic of the district.
The highest point is Dunkery Beacon in the east (1707 ft.), but
Span Head in the south-west is 1618 ft., and a height of 1500 ft.
is exceeded at several points. The Exe, Barle, Lyn and other
streams, traversing deep picturesque valleys except in their
uppermost courses, are in favour with trout fishermen. The few
villages, such as Exford, Withypool and Simonsbath, with
Lynton and Lynmouth on the coast, afford centres for tourists
and sportsmen. Exmoor is noted for its stag hunting. The
district has a further fame through Richard Blackmore's novel,
Lorna Doone.
EXMOUTH, EDWARD PELLEW, IST VISCOUNT (1757-1833),
English admiral, was descended from a family which came
originally from Normandy, but had for many centuries been
settled in the west of Cornwall. He was born at Dover, on the
ipth of April 1757. At the age of thirteen he entered the navy,
and even then his smartness and activity, his feats of daring, and
his spirit of resolute independence awakened remark, and pointed
him out as one specially fitted to distinguish himself in his pro-
fession. He had, however, no opportunity of active service till
1776, when, at the battle of Lake Champlain, his gallantry,
promptitude and skill, not only saved the "Carleton" whose
command had devolved upon him during the progress of the
battle from imminent danger, but enabled her to take a
prominent part in sinking two of the enemy's ships. For his
services on this occasion he obtained a lieutenant's commission,
and the command of the schooner in which he had so bravely
done his duty. The following year, in command of a brigade of
seamen, he shared in the hardships and perils of the American
campaign of General Burgoyne. In 1782, in command of the
" Pelican," he attacked three French privateers inside the
lie de Batz, and compelled them to run themselves on shore
a feat for which he was rewarded by the rank of post-captain.
On the outbreak of the French War in 1793, he was appointed to
the " Nymphe," a frigate of 36 guns; and, notwithstanding
that for the sake of expedition she was manned chiefly by
Cornish miners, he captured, after a desperate conflict, the
French frigate " La Cleopatre," a vessel of equal strength. For
this act he obtained the honour of knighthood. In 1794 he
received the command of the " Arethusa " (38), and in a fight
with the French frigate squadron off the lie de Batz he com-
pelled the " Pomona " (44) to surrender. The same year the
western squadron was increased and its command divided, the
second squadron being given to Sir Edward Pellew in the " In-
defatigable " (44). While in command of this squadron he, on
several occasions, performed acts of great personal daring;
EXMOUTH EXODUS, BOOK OF
73
and for his bravery in boarding the wrecked transport " Button,"
and his promptitude and resolution in adopting measures so as
to save the lives of all on board, he was in 1 796 created a baronet.
In 1798 he joined the channel fleet, and in command of the
" Impetueux " (74) took part in several actions with great
distinction. In 1802 Sir Edward Pellew was elected member
of parliament for Dunstable, and during the time that he sat in
the Commons he was a strenuous supporter of Pitt. In 1804
he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and appointed commander-
in-chief in India, where, by his vigilance and rapidity of move-
ment, he entirely cleared the seas of French cruisers, and secured
complete protection to English commerce. He returned to
England in 1809, and in 1810 was appointed commander-in-chief
in the North Sea, and in 18 1 1 commander-in-chief in the Mediter-
ranean. In 1814 he was created Baron Exmouth of Canonteign,
and in the following year was made K.C.B., and a little later
G.C.B. When the dey of Algiers, in 1816, violated the treaty for
the abolition of slavery, Exmouth was directed to attack the
town. Accordingly, on the 26th of August, he engaged theAlgcrine
battery and fleet, and after a severe action of nine hours'duration,
he set on fire the arsenal and every vessel of the enemy's fleet, and
shattered the sea defences into ruins. At the close of the action
the dey apologized for his conduct, and agreed to a renewal of
the treaty, at the same time delivering up over three thousand
persons of various nationalities who had been Algerine slaves.
For this splendid victory Exmouth was advanced to the dignity
of viscount. Shortly before his death, which took place on the
23rd of January 1833, he was made vice-admiral.
He had married Susan (d. 1837), daughter of James Frowde
of Knoyle, Wiltshire, who bore him four sons and two daughters.
His eldest son, Pownoll Bastard Pellew (1786-1833), became
2nd Viscount Exmouth, and his descendant, Edward Addington
Hargreaves Pellew (b. 1890), became the 5th viscount in 1899.
Exmouth's second son, Sir Fleetwood Broughton Reynolds
Pellew (1789-1861), was like his father an admiral. The third
son was George Pellew (1793-1866), author and divine, who
married Frances (d. 1870), daughter of the prime minister,
Lord Sidmouth, and wrote his father-in-law's life (The Life and
Correspondence of Henry Addington, ist Viscount Sidmouth, 1847).
Exmouth had a brother, Sir Israel Pellew (1758-1832), also
an admiral, who was present at. the battle of Trafalgar.
A Life of the 1st viscount, by Edward Osier, was published in
1835-
EXMOUTH, a market-town, seaport and watering-place in
the Honiton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England,
at the mouth of the river Exe, 105 m. S.E. by S. of Exeter by
the London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 10,485. In the i8th century it consisted of a primitive
fishing village at the base of Beacon Hill, a height commanding
fine views over the estuary and the English Channel. After its
more modern terraces were built up the hillside, Exmouth became
the first seaside resort in Devon. Its excellent bathing and the
beauty of its coast and moorland scenery attract many visitors
in summer, while it is frequented in winter by sufferers from
pulmonary disease. The climate is unusually mild, as a range of
hills shelters the town on the east. A promenade runs along the
sea wall; there are golf links and public gardens, and the port
is a favourite yachting centre, a regatta being held annually.
Near the town is a natural harbour called the Bight. The local
industries include fishing, brick-making and the manufacture of
Honiton lace. Exmouth was early a place of importance, and
in 1347 contributed 10 vessels to the fleet sent to attack Calais.
It once possessed a fort or " castelet," designed to command
the estuary of the Exe. This fort, which was garrisoned for the
king during the Civil War, was blockaded and captured by
Colonel Shapcoate in 1646.
EXODUS, BOOK OF, in the Bible, a book of the Old Testa-
ment which derives its name, through the Greek, from the event
which forms the most prominent feature of the history it
narrates, viz. the deliverance of Israel from Egypt. Strictly
speaking, however, this title is applicable to the first half only,
the historical portion of the book, and takes no account of those
chapters which describe the giving of the Law on Mt. Sinai, nor
of those which deal with the Tabernacle and its furniture. By
the Jews it is usually styled after its opening words "to?" d?yn
(We'eleh Shemotk) or, more briefly, ntap (Shemolh).
In its present form the book sets forth (a) the oppression of
the Israelites in Egypt (ch. i.), (b) the birth and education of
Moses, and his flight to the land of Midian (ch. ii.), (c) the theo-
phany at Mt. Horeb (the Burning Bush), and the subsequent
commission of Moses and Aaron (iii. i-iv. 17), (d) the return of
Moses to Egypt, and his appeal to Pharaoh which results in the
further oppression of Israel (iv. i8-vii. 7), (e) the plagues of
Egypt (vii. 8-xi. 10), (/) the institution of the Passover and of
the Feast of Unleavened Cakes, the last plague, and Israel's
departure from Egypt (xii. i-xiii. 16), (g) the crossing of the
Red Sea and the discomfiture of the Egyptians, the Song of
Triumph, the sending of the manna and other incidents of the
journeying through the wilderness (xiii. i7~xviii. 27), (h) the
giving of the Law, including the Decalogue and the so-called
Book of the Covenant, on Sinai-Horeb (xix.-xxiv.), (i) directions
for the building of the Tabernacle arid for the consecration of
the priests (xxv.-xxxi.), (j) the sin of the Golden Calf, and
another earlier version of the first legislation (xxxii.-xxxiv.),
() the construction of the Tabernacle and its erection (xxxv.-xl.) .
The book of Exodus, however, like the other books of the Hexa-
teuch, is a composite work which has passed, so to speak, through
many editions; hence the order of events given above cannot
lay claim to any higher authority than that of the latest editor.
Moreover, the documents from which the book has been compiled
belong to different periods in the history of Israel, and each of
them, admittedly, reflects the standpoint of the age in which it
was written. Hence it follows that the contents of the book are
not of equal historical value; and though the claim of a passage
to be considered historical is not necessarily determined by the
age of the source from which it is derived, yet, in view of the
known practice of Hebrew writers, greater weight naturally
attaches to the earlier documents in those cases in which the
sources are at variance with one another. Any attempt, there-
fore, at restoring the actual course of history must be preceded
by an inquiry into the source of the various contents of the book.
The sources from which the book of Exodus has been compiled
are the same as those which form the basis of the book of Genesis,
while the method of composition is very similar. Here, too, the
strongly marked characteristics of P, or the Priestly Document,
as opposed to JE, enable us to determine the extent of that
document with comparative ease; but the absence, in some
cases, of conclusive criteria prevents any final judgment as to
the exact limits of the two strands which have been united in
the composite JE. The latter statement applies especially to
the legislative portions of the book: in the historical sections
the separation of the two sources gives rise to fewer difficulties.
It does not, however, lie within the scope of the present article
to examine the various sources underlying the narrative with
any minuteness, but rather to sum up those results of modern
criticism which have been generally accepted by Old Testament
scholars. To this end it will be convenient to treat the subject-
matter of the book under three main heads: (a) the historical
portion (ch. i.-xviii.), (b) the sections dealing with the giving of
the Law (xix.-xxiv., xxxii.-xxxiv.). and (c) the construction of
the Tabernacle and its furniture (xxv.-xxxi., xxxv.-xl.).
(a) Israel in Egypt and the Exodus (ch. i.-xviii.). (i) i. l-vii. 13.
The analysis of these chapters shows that the history, in the main,
has been derived from the two sources J and E, chiefly the former,
and that a later editor has included certain passages from P, besides
introducing a slight alteration of the original order and other re-
dactional changes. The combined narrative of JE sets forth the
rise of a new king in Egypt, who endeavoured to check the growing
strength of the children of Israel ; it thus prepares the way for the
birth of Moses, his early life in Egypt, his flight to Midian and
marriage with Zipporah, the theophany at Mt. Horeb, and his divine
commission to deliver Israel from Egypt.
At the very outset the two sources betray their divergent origin
and point of view. According to J (i. 6, 8-12, 206) the Israelites
dwell apart in the province of Goshen, and their numbers become
so great as to call for severe measures of repression, the method
employed being that of forced labour. E, on the other hand (i. 15-2011,
74
EXODUS, BOOK OF
21, 22), represents them as living among the Egyptians, and so
few in number that two midwives satisfy their requirements. It is
to this latter source that we owe the account of the birth of Moses
and of his education at the court of Pharaoh (ii. i-io). On reaching
manhood Moses openly displays his sympathy with his brethren by
slaying an Egyptian, and has, in consequence, to flee to Midian,
where he marries Zipporah, the daughter of the priest of Midian
(ii. 11-22). In this section the editor has undoubtedly made use of
the parallel narrative of J, though it is impossible to determine the
exact point at which J's account is introduced: certainly ii. 156-22
belong to that source. 1 The narrative of the call of Moses is by no
means uniform, and shows obvious traces of twofold origin (J iii.
2-40, 5, 7, 8, 16-18; iv. 1-12 (13-16), 29-31; E iii. I, 46, 6, 9-14,
21, 22; iv. 17, 18, 206, 27, 28). These two sources present striking
points of difference, which reappear in the subsequent narrative.
According to E, Moses with Aaron is to demand from Pharaoh the
release of Israel, which will be effected in spite of his opposition ;
in assurance thereof the promise is given that they shall serve God
upon this mountain; moreover, the people on their departure are
to borrow raiment and jewels from their Egyptian neighbours.
According to J, on the other hand, the spokesmen are to be Moses
and the elders; and their request is for a temporary departure only,
viz. "three days' journey into the wilderness"; their departure
from Egypt is a hurried one. Yet another difficulty, which dis-
appears as soon as the composite character of the narrative is recog-
nized, is that of the signs. In J three signs are given for the purpose
of reassuring Moses, only one of which is wrought with the rod (iv.
1-9), but in iv. 17 (E) the reference is clearly to entirely different
signs, probably the plagues of Egypt, which according to E were
invariably wrought by " the rod of God." Further, it is question-
able if the passage iv. 13-16 really forms part of the original narrative
of J, and is not rather to be ascribed to the redactor of JE. The
name of Aaron has certainly been introduced by a later hand in J's
account of the plague of frogs (viii. 12), and the only passage in J
in which Aaron is represented as taking an active part is iv. 29-31,
where the mention of his name causes no little difficulty. 2 In E,
on the other hand, Aaron is sent by God to meet Moses at Mt.
Horeb, after the latter had taken leave of Jethro, and, later on,
accompanies him into the presence of Pharaoh. The succeeding
narrative (v. I-vi. l) is mainly taken from J, though E's account
of the first interview with Pharaoh has been partially retained in
y. i, 2, 4. Moses and the elders ask leave to go three days' journey
into the wilderness to sacrifice to Yahweh, a request which is met by
an increase of the burdensome work of brick-making: henceforward
the Israelites have to provide their own straw. The people complain
bitterly to Moses, who appeals to Yahweh and is assured by him
of the future deliverance of Israel " by a strong hand."
With the exception of the genealogical list (i. 1-5) and the brief
notices of the increase of Israel (i. 7) and of its oppression at the
hands of the Egyptians (i. 13, 14; ii. 236-25), the narrative so far
exhibits no traces of P 3 . But in vi. 2-yii. 13 we are confronted
with a narrative which carries us back to ii. 236-25 and gives practic-
ally a parallel account to that of JE in ch. iii.-y. Thus the revelation
of the divine name, vi. 2 f., finds its counterpart in iii. lof., the message
to be delivered to Israel (vi. 6 f .) is very similar to that of ch. iii. 16 f .,
while the demand which is to be addressed to Pharaoh is identical
1 The fact that the father-in-law of Moses is called Reuel in v. 18,
as contrasted with the name Jethro, which occurs in iii. I f. and in
all subsequent passages from E, cannot be taken as conclusive on
this point, since critics are agreed that " Reuel " in this verse is a
later addition: had it been original we should have expected the
name to be given at v. 16 rather than at v. 18. But, if no argument
can be based on the discrepancy between the two names, we may at
least assume that the namelessness of the priest in . 16 f. points to
a different source for those verses from that of iii. I f. Elsewhere J
speaks of " Hobab, the son of Reuel the Midianite, Moses' father-in-
law " (Num. x. 29) ; the addition, " the priest of Midian," only occurs
in the (secondary) passages iii. i, xviii. i (E). Probably RJE
omitted the name in ii. 16 and added " the priest of Midian " in
iii. I, xviii I, from harmonizing motives. Further, mi. !5 B -22
speak of one son being born to Moses at this period, a statement
which is borne out by iv. 20, 25 (" sons " in iv. 20 is obviously a
correction), whereas ch. xviii. (E) mentions two sons.
The original order of events in J seems to have been as follows:
after the -death of Pharaoh (ii. 230; the Septuagint repeats this
notice before iv. 19) Moses returns to Egypt with his wife and son
(iv. 19, 20) in obedience to Yahweh's command. On the way he is
seized with a sudden illness, which Zipporah attributes to the fact
that he has not been circumcised and seeks to avert by circumcising
her son (iv. 24-26). The scene of the theophany, therefore, according
to J, is to be placed on the way from Midian to Goshen. Probably
the displacement of iv. 19, 20, 24-26 is due to the editor of JE, who
was thus enabled to combine the two narratives of the theophany.
* Cf. iv. 30; Aaron had received no command to do the signs,
and the words " and he did the signs " are most naturally referred
to Moses.
3 The expansion 'in iii. 8c, 15, 176; iv. 22, 23, are probably the
work of a Deuteronomistic redactor.
with that which had been already refused in ch. v. No allusion,
however, is made by Moses to this previous demand; he merely
urges the same objection as that put forward in iv. lof. With the
resumption 4 of the story in vi. 28 f. Moses reiterates his objection,
and is told that Aaron shall be his " prophet " and speak for him,
and shall also perform the sign of the rod (cf. iv. 2-4). The sign,
however, has no effect on Pharaoh (vii. 13), and we thus reach the
same point in the narrative as at vi. i. Apart from the literary
characteristics which clearly differentiate this narrative from the
preceding accounts of J and E. the following points of variation are
worthy of consideration: (i) The people refuse to listen to Moses;
(2) Aaron is appointed to be Moses' spokesman, not with the people,
but with Pharaoh; (3) one sign is given (not three) and performed
before Pharaoh; (4) the rod is turned into a reptile (tannin), not a
serpent (nahash).
(2) vii. 14-xi. 10. The First Plagues of Egypt. In this section the
analysis again reveals three main sources, which are clearly marked
off from one another both by their linguistic features and by their
difference of representation. The principal source is J, from which
are derived six plagues, viz. killing of the fish in the river (vii. 14,
16, 170, 18, 2la, 24, 25), frogs (viii. 1-4, 8-150), insects (viii. 20-32),
murrain (ix. 1-7), hail (ix. 13-18, 236, 246, 256-34), locusts (x. 10,
3-1 1, 136, 146, 150, c-19, 24-26, 28, 29), the threat to slay all the
first-born (xi. 4-8). The most striking characteristic of this narrative
is that the plagues are represented as mainly due to natural causes
and follow a natural sequence. Thus Yahweh smites the river so
that the fish die and render the water undrinkable. This is suc-
ceeded by a plague of frogs. The swarms of flies and insects, which
next appear, are the natural outcome of the decaying masses of
frogs, and these, in turn, would form a natural medium for the
spread of cattle disease. Destructive hailstorms, again, though rare,
are not unknown in Egypt, while the locusts are definitely stated
to have been brought by a strong east wind. Other distinctive
features of J's narrative are: (i) Moses alone is bidden to interview
Pharaoh (vii. 14 f. ; viii. I f., 20 f. ; ix. I f., 13 f. ; x. I f.); (2) on
each occasion he makes a formal demand; (3) on Pharaoh's refusal
the plague is announced, and takes place at a fixed time without any
human intervention; (4) when the plague is sent, Pharaoh sends for
Moses and entreats his intercession, promising in most cases to
accede in part to his request; when the plague is removed, however,
the promise is left unfulfilled, the standing phrase being " and
Pharaoh's heart was heavy (laa), " or " and Pharaoh made heavy
(vasn) his heart " ; (5) the plagues do not affect the children of Israel
in Goshen. E's account (water turned into blood, vii. 15, 176, 206,
23; hail, ix. 22, 230, 240, 250, 35; locusts, x. 12, 130, 140, 156)
is more fragmentary, having been doubtless superseded in most cases
by the fuller and more graphic narrative of J, but the plague of
darkness (x. 20-23, 2 7) is found only in this source. As contrasted
with J the narrative emphasizes the miraculous character of the
plagues. They are brought about by " the rod of God," which
Moses wields, the effect being instantaneous and all-embracing.
The Israelites are represented as living among the Egyptians, and
enjoy no immunity from the plagues, except that of darkness.
Their departure from Egypt is deliberate; the people have time to
borrow raiment and jewels from their neighbours. E regularly
uses the phrase. " and Pharaoh's heart was strong (pin)," or "and
Yahweh made strong (p'tn) Pharaoh's heart " and " he would not
let the children of Israel (or, them) go." In the priestly narrative
(P) the plagues assume the form of a trial of skill between Aaron,
who acts at Moses' command, and the Egyptian magicians, and thus
connect with vii. 8-13. The magicians succeed in turning the Nile
water into blood (vii. 19, 200, 216, 22), and in bringing up frogs
(viii. 5-7), but they fail to bring forth lice (viii. 156-19), and are
themselves smitten with boils (ix. 8-12): the two last-named plagues
have no parallel either in J or E. Throughout the P sections
Aaron is associated with Moses, and the regular command given to
the latter is "Say unto Aaron": no demand is ever made to
Pharaoh, and the description of the plague is quite short. The
formula employed by P is " and Pharaoh's heart was strong (pin),"
or, " and Pharaoh made strong (?''n) his heart," as in E, but it is
distinguished from E's phrase by the addition of " and he hearkened
not unto them as Yahweh had spoken."
(3) xii. i-xiii. 16. The Last Plague, the Deliverance from Egypt,
the Institution of the Passover and of the Feast of Unleavened Cakes,
the Consecration of the First-born. This section presents the usual
phenomena of a composite narrative, viz. repetitions and inconsist-
encies. Thus J's regulations for the Passover (xii. 21-23, 276) seem
at first sight simply to repeat the commands given to Moses and
Aaron in xii. 1-13 (P), but in reality they are a parallel and divergent
account. In TO. 1-13 the choice of the lamb and the manner in
which it is to be eaten constitute the essential feature, the smearing
with the blood being quite secondary; in TO. 21 f. the latter point
is all-important, and no regulations are given for the paschal meal
(which, possibly, formed no part of J's original account). Similarly
the institution of the Feast of Mazzoth, or Unleavened Cakes (xiii.
3-ioJ), does not form the sequel to the regulations laid down in xii.
4 The genealogy of Moses and Aaron (w. 14-27) appears to be a
later addition.
EXODUS, BOOK OF
75
14-20 (P), but is independent of them: it omits all reference to
the " holy convocations " and to the abstinence from labour, and is
obviously simpler and more primitive. J's account, again, makes
important exceptions (xiii. 11-13) to the severe enactment of P with
reference to the first-born (xiii. i). The description of the smiting
of the first-born of Egypt is derived from J (xii. 29-34, 37-39)- who
clearly sees in the Feast of Mazzoth a perpetual reminder of the
haste with which the Israelites fled from Egypt; the editor of JE,
however, has included some extracts from E (xii. 31, 35, 36), which
point to a more deliberate departure. The section has been worked
over by a Deuteronomistic editor, whose hand can be clearly traced
in the additions xii. 24-270 ; xiii. 36, 5, 8, 9, 14-16.
(4) xiii. 17 xv. 21. The Crossing of the Red Sea. According to J
the children of Israel departed from Egypt under the guidance of
Yahweh, who leads them by day in a pillar of cloud and by night in a
pillar of fire (xiii. 21, 22). On hearing of their flight Pharaoh at
once starts in pursuit. The Israelites, terrified by the approach of
the Egyptians, upbraid Moses, who promises them deliverance by
the hand of Yahweh (xiv. 5, 6, 76, loa, 11-14, 196)- Yahweh then
causes a strong east wind to blow all that night, which drives back
the waters from the shallows, and so renders it possible for the host
of Israel to cross over. The Egyptians follow, but the progress of
their chariots is hindered by the soft sand, and in the morning they
are caught by the returning waters (xiv. 2ib, 24, 25, 276, 286, 30).
The story, however, has been combined with the somewhat different
account of E, which doubtless covered the same ground, and also
with that of P. According to the former, Elohim did not permit the
Israelites to take the shorter route to Canaan by the .Mediterranean
coast, for fear of the Philistines, but led them southwards to the
Red Sea, whither they were pursued by the Egyptians (xiii. 17-19).
The remainder of E's account has only been preserved in a frag-
mentary form (xiv. "jaa, 106, 150, 190, 2Oa), from which it may be
gathered that Moses divided the waters by stretching out his rod,
thus presupposing that the crossing took place by day, and that
the dark cloud which divided the two hosts was miraculously caused
by the angel of God. P also represents the sea as divided by means
of Moses' rod, but heightens the effect by describing the crossing as
taking place between walls of water (xiii. 20; xiv. 1-4, 8, 9, 156,
166-18, 2ia, c, 22, 23, 26, 270, 280, 29).
J's version of the Song of Moses probably does not extend beyond
xv. I, and has its counterpart in the very similar song of Miriam (E),
in w. 20, 21. The rest of the song (w. 2-18) is probably the work
of a later writer; for these verses set forth not only the deliverance
from Egypt, but also the entrance of Israel into Canaan (w. 13-17),
and further presuppose the existence of the temple (w. 136, 176).
These phenomena have been explained as due to later expansion,
but the poem has all the appearance of being a unity, and the
language, style and rhythm all point to a later age. Verse 19 is
probably the work of the redactor (R p ) who inserted the song.
(5) xv. 22-xviii. 27. Incidents in the Wilderness. The narrative
of the first journeying in the wilderness (xv. 22-xvii. 7) presents a
series of difficulties which probably owe their origin to the editorial
activity of R p , who appears to have transferred to the beginning
of the wanderings a number of incidents which rightly belong to the
end. The concluding verses of ch. xv. contain J's account of the
sweetening of the waters of Marah, with which has been incorporated
a fragment of E's story of Massah (xv. 256) and a Deuteronomic
expansion in'fl. 26. Then follows (ch. xvi.) P's version of the sending
of the manna and quails. In its present form, this narrative con-
tains a number of conflicting elements, which can only be the result
of editorial activity. Thus w. 6, 7 must originally have preceded
TO. ii, 12, though the redactor has attempted to evade the difficulty
by inserting v. 8. Again, the account of the quails, which is obviously
incomplete, is undoubtedly derived from Num. xi.; but the latter
account, which admittedly belongs to JE, places the incident at
the end of the wanderings. Closer examination also of P's narrative
of the manna shows that its true position is after the departure
from Mt. Sinai; cf. the expressions used in w. g, 10, 33, 34, implying
the existence of the ark and the tabernacle. P's account of the
manna, however, can hardly have stood originally in close juxta-
position with his account of the quails (cf. Num. xi. 6), but the two
narratives were probably combined by R p before they were trans-
ferred to their present position. The same redactor doubtless added
v. 8 (and possibly w. 17, 18) by way of explanation, and w. 5 and
22-30, which imply that the law of the Sabbath was already known,
and introduce a fresh element into the story. A plausible ex-
planation of R p 's action is supplied by the theory that an earlier
account of the giving of the manna already existed at this point of
the narrative. We know from Deuteronomy viii. 2 f., 16 that JE
contained an account of the manna, which included the explanation
of Ex. xvi. 15, and also emphasized, as the motive for the gift,
Yahweh's desire "to prove thee (i.e. test thy disposition) . . .
whether thou wouldst keep his commandments, or no." Fragments
of this early story of Massah (testing) were incorporated by R p
in his story of the manna and the quails, viz. xv. 256; xvi. 4, 15,
i6a, 196-21. These verses must be assigned to E, for in xvii. 3, 2C
(wherefore do ye tempt the Lord ?), 70 (to Massah), c (because they
tempted . . ., &c.), we find yet another version (J) of the same
incident, according to which the people tempted (tested) Yahweh.
It was owing to the combination of this latter account with E's
further description of the striving of the people for water at Meribah
that the double name Massah-Meribah arose, xvii. 16-7 (ia belongs
to P), though Deut. xxxiii. 8 makes it clear that Massah and Meribah
were separate localities (cf. Deut. ix. 22, 2 f., 16, where Massah
occurs alone) : P's version of striving at Meribah, in which traces of
J's account have been preserved, is given at Num. xx. 1-13.
xvii. 8-16. The Battle with Amalek at Rephidim. This incident is
derived from E, but is clearly out of place in its present context.
Its close connexion with the end of the wanderings is shown by (a)
the description of Moses as an infirm old man; (b) the r61e played
by Joshua in contrast with xxiv. 13, xxxiii. II, where he is intro-
duced as a young man and Moses' minister; and (c) the references
elsewhere to the home of the Amalekites: according to Num. xiii.
29, xiv. 25, xliii. 45, they dwelt in the S. or S.W. of Judah near
Kadesh (cf. I Sam. xv. 6f., 30; Gen. xiv. 7; xxxvi. 12).
Ch. xviii. The visit of Jethro to Moses and the appointment of judges.
This story, like the preceding one, is mainly derived from E and is
also out of place. Allusions in the chapter itself point unmistakably
to a time just before the departure from Sinai-Horeb, and this date
is confirmed both by Deut. i. 9-16 and by the parallel account of J
in Num. x. 29-32. The narrative, however, displays signs of com-
pilation, and it is not improbable that R' B has incorporated in w.
7- 1 1 part of J's account of the visit of Moses' father-in-law (cf. the
use of Yahweh).
(b) Ch. xix.-xxiv., xxxii., xxxiv. The contents of these chapters,
which, owing to their contents, form the most important section in
the book of Exodus, may be briefly analysed as follows. In ch. xix.
we have a twofold description of the theophany on Mt. Sinai (or
Horeb), followed by the Decalogue in xx. 1-17. Alongside of this
code we find another, dealing in part with the civil and social (xxi.
2-xxii. 17), in part with the religious life of Israel, the so-called
Book of the Covenant, xx. 22-xxiii. 19. Ch. xxiv. contains a com-
posite narrative of the ratification of the covenant. In chs. xxxii.
and xxxiii. we have again two narratives of the sin of the people
and of Moses' intercession, while in ch. xxxiv. we are confronted
with yet another early code, which is practically identical with the
religious enactments of xx. 22-26; xxii. 29, 30; xxiii. 10-19.
With but few exceptions the provenance of the individual sections
may be said to have been finally determined by the labours of the
critics, but even a cursory examination of their contents makes it
evident that the sequence of events, which they now present, cannot
be original, but is rather the outcome of a long process of revision,
during which the text has suffered considerably from alterations,
omissions, dislocations and additions. Yet owing to the method cf
composition employed by Hebrew editors, or revisers, it is possible
jn this case, as in others, not only to determine the source of each
individual passage, but also to trace with considerable confidence
the various stages in the process by which it reached its final form
and position. It must, however, be admitted that the evidence
at our disposal is, in some cases, capable of more than one interpre-
tation. Hence a final conclusion can hardly be expected, but with
certain modifications in detail the following solution of the problem
may be accepted as representing the point of view of recent criticism.
Ch. xix. contains two parallel accounts of the theophany on
Horeb-Sinai, from E and J respectively, which differ materially
from one another. According to the former, Moses is instructed by
God (Elohim) to sanctify the people against the third day (w. 90,
10, na). This is done and the people are brought by Moses to the
foot of the mountain (Horeb), where they hear the divine voice
(14-17, 19). A noticeable feature of this narrative, of which xx.
18-21 forms a natural continuation, is the fact that the theophany
is addressed to the people, who are too frightened to remain near
the mountain itself. In J, on the other hand, it is the priests who
are sanctified, and great care must be taken to prevent the people
from " breaking through to gaze " (20-22). In this account the
mountain is called " Sinai " throughout, and " Yahweh " appears
instead of " Elohim " (lift, 18, 20 f.). Moreover, Moses and Aaron
and the priests are summoned to the top of the mount (in v. 246
render " thou and Aaron with thee, and the priests: but let not the
people," &c.). Vv. 36-8, which have been expanded by a Deutero-
nomic editor, have been transferred from their original context after
xx. 21 ; the introductory verses I, 20 form part of P's itinerary.
Of the succeeding legislation in xx.-xxiii., xxxii .-xxxiv., un-
doubtedly the earlier sections are xx. 22-26; xxii. 29, 30; xxiii.
10-19, and xxxiv. 10-26, which contain regulations with regard to
worship and religious festivals, and form the basis of the covenant
made by Yahweh with Israel on Sinai-Horeb, as recorded by E and J
respectively. The narrative which introduces the covenant laws
of J -has been preserved partly in its present context, ch. xxxiv.,
partly in xxiv. i, 2, 9-11; the narrative of E, on the other hand,
has in part disappeared owing to the interpolation of later material,
in part has been retained in xxiv. 3-8. J's narrative xxiv. i f.,
9-1 1 clearly forms the continuation of xix. 20 f., 116, 13, 25, but the
introductory words of v. I, " and unto Moses he said," point to some
omission. Originally, no doubt, it included the recital of the divine
instructions to the people in accordance with xix. 21 f., 116-13,
the statement that Yahweh came down on the third day, and that a
long blast was blown on the trumpet (or ram's horn [^3 S , as opposed
to lev E]). From xxiv. I f. we learn that Moses and Aaron, Nadab
and Abihu, and seventy of the elders were summoned to the top
7 6
EXODUS, BOOK OF
of the mountain, but that Moses alone was permitted to approach
Yahweh. Then followed the theophany, and, as the text stands,
the sacrificial meal (g-n). 1 The conclusion of J's narrative is given
in ch. xxxiv., 2 which describes how Moses hewed two tables of stone
at Yahweh's command, and went up to the top of the mountain,
where he received the words of the covenant and wrote them on the
tables. As it stands, however, this chapter represents the legislation
which it contains as a renewal of a former covenant, also written
on tables of stone, which had been broken (ib, 40). But the docu-
ment from which the chapter, as a whole, is derived, is certainly J,
while the previous references to tables of stone and to Moses' breaking
them belong to the parallel narrative of E. Moreover, the covenant
here set forth (v. 10 f.) is clearly a new one, and contains no hint
of any previous legislation, nor of any breach of it by the people.
In view of these facts we are forced to conclude that 16 (" like unto
the first . . . brakest "), 40 (" and he hewed . . . the first ") and
v. 28 (" the ten words ") formed no part of the original narrative, 3
but were inserted by a later Deuteronomic redactor. In the view
of this editor the Decalogue alone formed the basis of the covenant
at Sinai- Horeb, and in order to retain J's version, he represented it
as a renewal of the tables of stone which Moses had broken. 4
The legislation contained in xxxiv. 10-26, which may be described
as the oldest legal code of the Hexateuch, is almost entirely religious.
It prohibits the making of molten images (v. 17), the use of leaven
in sacrifices (250), the retention of the sacrifice until the morning
(256),' and the seething of a kid in its mother's milk (266); and
enjoins the observance of the thiee annual feasts and the Sabbath
(i8a, 21-23), an d the dedication of the first-born (19, 20, derived
from xiii. 11-13) and of the first-fruits (260).
The parallel collection of E is preserved in xx. 24-26, xxiii. 10-19,
to which we should probably add xxii. 29-31 (for which xxiii. 190
was afterwards substituted). The two collections resemble one
another so closely, both in form and extent, that they can only be
regarded as two versions of the same code. E has, however, pre-
served certain additional regulations with regard to the building of
altars (xx. 24-26) and the observance of the seventh year (xxiii.
10, n), and omits the prohibition of molten images (xx. 22, 23,
appear to be the work of a redactor); xxiii. 20-33, the promises
attached to the observance of the covenant, probably formed no
part of the original code, but were added by the Deuteronomic
redactor; cf. especially w. 23-250, 27, 28, 316-33. The narrative of
E relative to the delivery of these laws has disappeared, 6 but xxiv.
3-8 (which manifestly nave no connexion with their immediate
context) clearly point back to some such narrative. These verses
describe how Moses wrote all the words of the Lord in a book and
recited them to the people (v. 7) as the basis of a covenant, which
was solemnly ratified by the sprinkling of the blood of the accompany-
ing sacrifices.
In the existing text the covenant laws of E (xx. 24-26, xxii. 29-31,
xxiii. 10-19) are combined with a mass of civil and other legislation;
hence the title " Book of the Covenant " (referred to above, xxiv. 7)
has usually been applied to the whole section, xx. 22-xxiii. 33. But
this section includes three distinct elements: (a) the " words "
(o'-mn) found in xx. 24-26, xxii. 29-31, xxiii. i-io; (b) the "judg-
ments " (D'OWD-I), xxi. 2-xxii. 17; and (c) a group of moral and
ethical enactments, xxii. 18-28, xxiii. 1-9; and an examination of
their contents makes it evident that, though the last two groups are
unmistakably derived from E, they cannot have formed part of the
original " Book of the Covenant"; for the "judgments," which
are expressed in a hypothetical form, consist of a number of legal
decisions on points of civil law. The cases dealt with fall into -five
divisions: (i) The rights of slaves, xxi. 2-1 1 ; (2) capital offences,
xxi. 12-16 (v. 17 has probably been added later) ; (3) injuries inflicted
by man or beast, xxi. 18-32; (4) losses incurred by culpable
negligence or theft, xxi. 33-xxii. 6; (5) cases arising out of deposits,
loans, seduction, xxii. 7-17. It is obvious, from their very nature,
that these legal precedents could not have been included in the
covenant which the people (xxiv. 3) promised to observe, and it is
1 Unless we follow Riedel and read simply " and worshipped "
(vnnr-i) instead of " and drank " (wwn), treating " and ate "
(I^KI) as a later addition ; cf. HDB, extra vol. p. 631 note.
1 Vv. 6-9 are out of place here : they belong to the story of Moses'
intercession in ch. xxxiii.
* This view is confirmed by (a) a comparison of v. ib (" and I will
write") with w. 27, 28; according to the latter, Moses wrote the
words of the covenant; and (b) the tardy mention of Moses in 46;
the name would naturally be given at the beginning of the verse.
4 Others suppose that the present position of ch. xxxiv. is due, in
the first instance, to RJE, but in view of the other Deuteronomic
expansions in w. 106-16, 23, 24, it is more probable that J's version
was discarded by RJE in favour of E's, and was afterwards restored
by RD.
5 Reading " the sacrifice of my feasts " for " the sacrifice of the
feast of the Passover."
6 Unless, with Bacon, we are to regard xxiv. 12-14, J 86 as original.
More probably a later editor has worked up old material of E (of
which there are unmistakable traces) in order to include the whole
of xx.-xxiii. in the covenant: xxiv. 15-180 are an addition from P.
now generally admitted that the words " and the judgments "
(which are missing in c. I 6) have been inserted in xxiv. 30 by the
redactor to whom the present position of the " judgments " is due. 7
The^ majority of critics, therefore, adopt Kuenen's conjecture that
the " judgments " were originally delivered by Moses on the borders
of Moab, and that when D's revised version of Ex. xxi. -xxiii. was
combined with IE, the older code was placed alongside of E's other
legislation at Horeb. The third group of laws (xxii. 18-28, xxiii.
1-9) appears to have been added somewhat later than the bulk of
xxi.-xxiii. Some of the regulations are couched in hypothetical form,
but their contents are of a different character to the " judgments,"
e.g. xxii. 25 f., xxiii. 4 f. ; others, again, are of a similar nature, but
differ in form, e.g. xxii. 18 f. Lastly, xxii. 20-24, xxiii. 1-3 set forth
a number of moral injunctions affecting the individual, which cannot
have found place in a civil code. At the same time, these additions
must for the most part be prior to D, since many of them are included in
Deut. xii.-xxvi., though there are traces of Deuteronomic revision.
Now it is obvious that the results obtained by the foregoing
analysis of J and E have an important bearing on the history of the
remaining section of E's legislation, viz. the Decalogue (q.v.), Ex.
xx. 1-17 ( = Deut. v. 6-2 1 ). At present the "Ten Words" stand
in the forefront of E's collection of laws, and it is evident that they
were already found in that position by the author of Deuteronomy,
who treated them as the sole basis of the covenant at Horeb. The
evidence, however, afforded (a) by the parallel version of Deutero-
nomy and (b) by the literary analysis of J and E not only fails
to support this tradition, but excites the gravest suspicions as to
the originality both of the form and of the position in which the
Decalogue now appears. For when compared with Ex. xx. 1-17
the parallel version of Deut. v. 6 ff. is found to exhibit a number
of variations, and, in particular, assigns an entirely different reason
for the observance of the Sabbath. But these variations are
practically limited to the explanatory comments attached to the
2nd, 4th, 5th and loth commandments; and the majority of critics
are now agreed that these comments were added at a later date,
and that all the commandments, like the ist and the 6th to the
9th, were originally expressed in the form of a single short sentence.
This view is confirmed by the fact that the additions, or comments,
bear, for the most part, a close resemblance to the style of D. They
can scarcely, however, have been transferred from Deuteronomy to
Exodus (or vice versa), owing to the variations between the two
versions: we must rather regard them as the work of a Deuteronomic
redactor. But the expansion and revision of the Decalogue were
not limited to the Deuteronomic school. Literary traces pfj and E
in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and ipth commandments point to earlier activity
on the part of RJ E , while the addition of v. n, which bases the
observance of the Sabbath on P 's narrative of the Creation (Gen. ii.
1-3), can only be ascribed to a priestly writer: its absence from
Deut. v. 6 ff. is otherwise inexplicable. Thus the Decalogue, as
given in Exodus, would seem to have passed through at least three
stages before it assumed its present form. But even in its original
form it could hardly have formed part of E's Horeb legislation;
for (a) both J and E have preserved a different collection of laws
(or " words ) inscribed by Moses, which are definitely set forth
as the basis of the covenant at Sinai-Horeb (Ex. xxxiv. 10, xxiv.
3 f.), and (b) the further legislation of E in ch. xx.-xxiii. affords
close parallels to all the commandments (except the 7th and the
loth), and a comparison of the two leaves no doubt as to which is
the more primitive. Hence we can only conclude that the Decalogue,
in its original short form, came into existence during the period after
the completion of E, but before the promulgation of Deuteronomy.
Its present position is, doubtless, to be ascribed to a redactor who
was influenced by the same conception as the author of Deuteronomy.
This redactor, however, did not limit the Horeb covenant to the
Decalogue, but retained E's legislation alongside of it. The insertion
of the Decalogue, or rather the point of view which prompted its
insertion, naturally involved certain consequential changes of the
existing text. The most important of these, viz. the harmonistic
additions to ch. xxxiv., by means of which J's version of the covenant
was represented as a renewal of the Decalogue, has already been dis-
cussed; other passages which show traces of similar revision are
xxiv. 12-150, 1 86, and xxxiv. 1-6.
The confusion introduced into the legislation by later additions,
with the consequent displacement of earlier material, has not been
without effect on the narratives belonging to the different sources.
Hence the sequence of events after the completion of the covenant
on Sinai-Horeb is not always easy to trace, though indications are
not wanting in both J and E of the probable course of the history.
The two main incidents that precede the departure of the children
of Israel from the mountain (Num. x. 29 ff.) are (l) the sin of the
people, and (2) the intercession of Moses, of both of which a double
account has been preserved.
7 The present text of xxiv. 12 also has probably been transposed
in accordance with the view that the " judgment " formed part of
the covenant, cf. Deut. v. 31. Originally the latter part of the verse
must have run, " That I may give thee the tables of stone which I
have written, and may teach thee the law and the commandment. "
For further details see Bacon, Triple Tradition of Exodus, pp.
ill f., 132 f.
EXODUS
77
(1) The Sin of the People. According to J (xxxii. 25-29) the
people, during the absence of Moses, " break loose," i.e. mutiny.
Their behaviour excites the anger of Moses on his return, and in
response to his appeal the sons of Levi arm themselves and slay a
large number of the people : as a reward for their services they are
bidden to consecrate themselves to Yahweh. The fragmentary form
of the narrative we miss especially a fuller account of the " breaking
loose " is doubtless due to the latter editor, who substituted the
story of the golden calf (xxxii. 1-6, 15-24, 35), according to which the
sin of the people consisted in direct violation of the 2nd command-
ment. At the instigation of the people Aaron makes a molten calf
out of the golden ornaments brought from Egypt ; Moses and Joshua,
on their return to the camp, find the people holding festival in honour
of the occasion; Moses in his anger breaks the tables of the covenant
which he is carrying: he then demolishes the golden calf, and ad-
ministers a severe rebuke to Aaron. The punishment of the people
is briefly recorded in v. 35. This latter narrative, which is obviously
inconsistent with the story of J, shows unmistakable traces of E.
In its present form, however, it can hardly be original, but must
have been revised in accordance with the later Deuteronomic
conception which represented the sin committed by the people as
a breach of the 2nd commandment. Possibly ro. 7-14 are also to be
treated as a Deuteronomic expansion (cf. Deut. ix. 12-14). Though
they show clear traces of J, it is extremely difficult to fit them
into that narrative in view of Moses' action in w. 25-29 and of his
intercession in ch. xxxiii. ; in any case, w. 8 and 13 must be regarded
as redactional.
(2) Moses' Intercession. The time for departure from the Sacred
Mount had now arrived, and Moses is accordingly bidden to lead
the people to the promised land. Yahweh himself refuses to accom-
pany Israel owing to their disobedience, but in response to Moses'
passionate appeal finally consents to let his presence go with them.
The account of Moses' intercession has been preserved in J, though
the narrative has undergone considerable dislocation. The true
sequence of the narrative appears to be as follows: Moses is com-
manded to lead the people to Canaan (xxxiii. 1-3); he pleads that
he is unequal to the task (Num. xi. loc, n, 12, 14, 15), and, presum-
ably, asks for assistance, which is promised (omitted). Moses then
asks for a fuller knowledge of Yahweh and his ways (xxxiii. 12, 13) :
this request also is granted (v. 17), and he is emboldened to pray that
he may see the glory of Yahweh; Yahweh replies that his prayer
can only be granted in part, for " man shall not see me and live ";
a partial revelation is then vouchsafed to Moses (xxxiii. 18-23,
xxxiv. 6-8) : finally, Moses beseeches Yahweh to go in the midst
of his people, and is assured that Yahweh's presence shall accompany
them (xxxiv. 9, xxxiii. 14-16). The passage from Numbers xi.,
which is here included, is obviously out of place in its present context
(the story of the quails), and supplies in part the necessary ante-
cedent to Ex. xxxiii. 12, 13; the passage is now separated from
Ex. xxxiii. by Ex. xxxiv. (J), which has been wrongly transferred to
the close of the Horeb-Sinai incidents (see above), and by the priestly
legislation of Ex. xxxv. xl., Leviticus and Num. i. x. ; but originally
it must have stood in close connexion with that chapter. A similar
displacement has taken place with regard to Ex. xxxiv. 6-9, which
clearly forms the sequel to xxxiii. 17-23. The latter passage, how-
ever, can hardly represent the conclusion of the interview, which
is found more naturally in xxxiii. I^.-i6. E's account of Moses'
intercession seems to have been retained, in part, in xxxii. 30-34,
but the passage has probably been revised by a later hand; in any
case its position before instead of after the dismissal would seem to
be redactional.
It is a pjausible conjecture that the original narratives of J and E
also contained directions for the construction of an ark, 1 as a sub-
stitute for the personal presence of Yahweh, and also for the erection
of a " tent of meeting " outside the camp, and that these commands
were omitted by R^ in favour of the more elaborate instructions
given in ch. xxv.-xxix. (P). The subsequent narrative of J (Num.
x - 33-36, xiv. 44) implies an account of the making of the ark, while
the remarkable description in Ex. xxxiii. 7-11 (E) of Moses' practice
in regard to the " tent of meeting " points no less clearly to some
earlier statement as to the making of this tent.
The history of Exodus in its original form doubtless concluded
with the visit of Moses' father-in-law and the appointment of judges
(ch. xviii.), the departure from the mountain and the battle with
Amalek (xvii. 8-16).
(c) The Construction of the Tabernacle and its Furniture (ch. xxv.-
xxxi., xxxv. xl.). It has long been recognized that the elaborate
description of the Tabernacle and its furniture, and the accompanying
directions for the dress and consecration of the priests, contained in
ch. xxv.-xxxi., have no claim to be regarded as an historical present-
ment of the Mosaic Tabernacle and its service. The language,
style and contents of this section point unmistakably to the hand of
P; and it is now generally admitted that these chapters form
part of an ideal representation of the post-exilic ritual system,
which has been transferred to the Mosaic age. According to this
1 According to Deut. x. I f., which is in the main a verbal excerpt
from Ex. xxxiv. I f., Yahweh ordered Moses to make an ark of acacia
wood before he ascended the mountain.
representation, Moses, on the seventh day after the conclusion of
the covenant, was summoned to the top of the mountain, and there
received instructions with regard to (a) the furniture of the sanctuary,
viz. the ark, the table and the lamp-stand (ch. xxv.) ; (6) the Tabernacle
(ch. xxvi.) ; (c) the court of the Tabernacle and the altar of burnt-
offering (ch. xxvii.) ; (d) the dress of the priests (ch. xxviii.) ; (e) the
consecration of Aaron and his sons (xxix. 1-37); and (/) the daily
burnt-offering (xxix. 38-42) : the section ends with a formal con-
clusion (xxix. 43-46). The two following chapters contain further
instructions relative to the altar of incense (xxx. i-io), the payment
of the half-shekel (11-16), the brazen laver (17-21), the anointing oil
(22-33), the incense (34-38), the appointment of Bezaleel and Oholiab
(xxxi. i-n) and the observance of the Sabbath (12-17). It ' s hardly
doubtful, however, that these two chapters formed no part of P's
original legislation, but were added by a later hand. 2 For (i) the
altar of incense is here mentioned for the first time, and was appar-
ently unknown to the author of ch. xxv.-xxix. Had he known of its
existence, he could hardly have failed to include it with the rest of
the Tabernacle furniture in ch. xxvi., and must have mentioned it at
xxvi. 34 f., where the relative positions of the contents of the Taber-
nacle are defined : further, the ritual of the Day of Atonement (Lev.
xvi. referred to in xxx. 10) ignores this altar, and mentions only one
altar (cf. " the altar," xxvii. i), viz. that of burnt-offering; (2) the
command as to the half-shekel presupposes the census of Num. i.,
and appears to have been unknown in the time of Nehemiah (Neh.
x. 32) (Heb. 33) ; (3) the instructions as to the brazen laver would
naturally be expected alongside of those for the altar of burnt-
offering in ch. xxvii. ; (4) the following section relating to the anoint-
ing oil presupposes the altar of incense (v. 28), and further extends
the ceremony of anointing to Aaron's sons, though, elsewhere, the
ceremony is confined to Aaron (xxix. 7, Lev. viii. 12), cf. the title
"anointed priest" applied to the high priest (Lev. iv. 3, &c.);
(5) the directions for compounding the incense connect naturally
with xxx. i-io, while (6) the appointment of Bezaleel and Oholiah
cannot be separated from the rest of ch. xxx. xxxi. The concluding
section on the Sabbath (xxxi. 12-17) shows marks of resemblance to
H (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.), especially in w. 12-140, which appear to have
been expanded, very possibly by the editor who inserted the passage.
The continuation of P's narrative is given in xxxiv. 29-35, which
describe Moses' return from the mount. The subsequent chapters
(xxxv.-xl.), however, can hardly belong to the original stratum of P,
if only because they presuppose ch. xxx., xxxi., and were probably
added at a later stage than the latter chapters. They narrate how
the commands of ch. xxv. xxxi. were carried out, and practically
repeat the earlier chapters verbatim, merely the tenses being changed,
the most noticeable omissions being xxvii. 20 f. (oil for the lamps),
xxviii. 30 (Urim and Thummim), xxix. 1-37 (the consecration of the
priests, which recurs in Lev. viii.) and xxix. 38-42 (the daily burnt-
offering). Apart from the omissions the most striking difference
between the two sections is the variation in order, the different
sections of ch. xxv.-xxxi. being here set forth in their natural sequence.
The secondary character of these concluding chapters receives con-
siderable confirmation from a comparison of the Septuagint text.
For this version exhibits numerous cases of variation, both as regards
order and contents, from the Hebrew text ; moreover the translation,
more particularly of many technical terms, differs from that of ch.
xxv. xxxi., and seems to be the work of different translators. Hence
it is by no means improbable that the final recension of these chapters
had not been completed when the Alexandrine version was made.
AUTHORITIES. In addition to the various English and German
commentaries on Exodus included under the head of the Pentateuch,
the following English works are especially worthy of mention:
S. R. Driver, Introd. to the Literature of the O.T., and " Exodus " in
the Camb. Bible; B. W. Bacon, The Triple Tradition of the Exodus
(Hartford, U.S.A., 1894), ?"d A. H. McNeile, The Book of Exodus
(Westminster Commentaries) (1908) ; also the articles on " Exodus "
by G. Harford-Battersby (Hastings, Diet. Bib. vol. i.) and by G. F.
Moore, Ency. Biblica, vol. ii. (J. F. ST.)
EXODUS, THE, the name given to the journey (Gr. lo$os) of
the Israelites from Egypt into Palestine, under the leadership
of Moses and Aaron, as described in the books of the Bible from
Exodus to Joshua. These books contain the great national epic
of Judaism relating the deliverance of the people from bondage
in Egypt, the overthrow of the pursuing Pharaoh and his army,
the divinely guided wanderings through the wilderness and the
final entry into the promised land. Careful criticism of the
narratives 3 has resulted in the separation of later accretions
from the earliest records, and the tracing of the elaboration of
older traditions under the influence of developing religious and
social institutions. In the story of the Exodus there have been
incorporated codes of laws and institutions which were to be
observed by the descendants of the Israelites in their future
1 To the same hand are to be ascribed also xxvii. 6, 20, 21;
xxviii. 41 ; xxix. 21, 38-41.
* See the articles on the books in question.
EXODUS
home, and these, really of later origin, have thus been thrown
back to the earlier period in order to give them the stamp of
authority. So, although a certain amount of the narrative
could date from the days of Moses, the Exodus story has been
made the vehicle for the aims and ideals of subsequent ages,
and has been adapted from time to time to the requirements
of later stages of thought. The work of criticism has brought
to light important examples of fluctuating tradition, singular
lacunae in some places and unusual wealth of tradition in others,
and has demonstrated that much of that which had long been
felt to be impossible and incredible was due to writers of the
post-exilic age many centuries after the presumed date of the
events.
The book of Genesis 'closes with the migration of Jacob's
family into Egypt to escape the famine in Canaan. Jacob died
and was buried in Canaan by his sons, who, however, returned
again to the pastures which the Egyptian king had granted
them in Goshen. Their brother Joseph on his death-bed promised
that God would bring them to the land promised to their fore-
fathers and solemnly adjured them to carry up his bones (Gen. I.).
In the book of Exodus the family has become a people. 1 The
Pharaoh is hostile, and Yahweh, the Israelite deity, is moved
to send a deliverer; on the events that followed see EXODUS,
BOOK or; MOSES. It has been thought that dynastic changes
occasioned the change in Egyptian policy (e.g. the expulsion of
the Hyksos), but if the Israelites built Rameses and Pithom
(Ex. i. n), cities which, as excavation has shown, belong to the
time of Rameses II. (i3th century B.C.), earlier dates are in-
admissible. On these grounds the Exodus may have taken
place under one of his successors, and since Mineptah or
Merneptah (son of Rameses) , in relating his successes in Palestine,
boasts that Ysiraal is desolated, it would seem that the Israelites
had already returned. On the other hand, it has been suggested
that when Jacob and his family entered Egypt, some Israelite
tribes had remained behind and that it is to these that Mineptah 's
inscription refers. The problem is complicated by the fact that,
from the Egyptian evidence, not only was there at this time
no remarkable emigration of oppressed Hebrews, but Bedouin
tribes were then receiving permission to enter Egypt and to
feed their flocks upon Egyptian soil. It might be assumed that
the Israelites (or at least those who had not remained behind
in Palestine) effected their departure at a somewhat later date,
and in the time of Mineptah's successor, Seti II., there is an
Egyptian report of the pursuit of some fugitive slaves over the
eastern frontier. The value of all such evidence will naturally
depend largely upon the estimate formed of the biblical narra-
tives, but it is necessary to observe that these have not yet
found Egyptian testimony to support them. Although the
information which has been brought to bear upon Egyptian life
and customs substantiates the general accuracy of the local
colouring in some of the biblical narratives, the latter contain
several inherent improbabilities, and whatever future research
may yield, no definite trace of Egyptian influence has so far
been found in Israelite institutions.
No allusions to Israelites in Egypt have yet been found on the
monuments; against the view that the Aperiu (or Apury) of the
inscriptions were Hebrews, see S. R. Driver in D. G. Hogarth,
Authority and Archaeology, pp. 56 sqq.; H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib. col.
1310. The plagues of Egypt have been shown to be those to which
the land is naturally subject (R. Thomson, Plagues of Egypt), but
the description of the relations of Moses and Aaron to the court
raises many difficult questions (H. P. Smith, O.T. Hist. pp. 57-60).
Those who reject Ex. i. 1 1 and hold that 480 years elapsed between
the Exodus and the foundation of the temple (i Kings vi. I, see
BIBLE: Chronology) place the former about the time of Tethmosis
(Thothmes) IIJ., and suppose that the hostile Habiri (Khabiri) who
1 There is a lacuna between the oldest traditions in Genesis and
those in Exodus: the latter beginning simply " and there arose a
new king over Egypt which knew not Joseph. ' The interval between
Jacob's arrival in Egypt and the Exodus is given varyingly as 400
or 430 years (Gen. xv. 13, Ex. xii. 40 seq., Acts vii. 6); but the
Samaritan and Septuagint versions allow only 2 1 5 years (Ex. loc. cit. ),
and a period of only four generations is presupposed in Gen. xv. 1 6
(cf. the length of the genealogies between the contemporaries of
Joseph and those of Moses in Ex. vi. 16-20).
troubled Palestine in the isth century are no other than Hebrews
(the equation is philologically sound), i.e. the invading Israelites. 2
But although the evidence of the Amarna tablets might thus support
the biblical tradition in its barest outlines, the view in question, if
correct, would necessitate the rejection of a great mass of the biblical
narratives as a whole.
In the absence of external evidence the study of the Exodus
of the Israelites must be based upon the Israelite records, and
divergent or contradictory views must be carefully noticed.
Regarded simply as a journey from Egypt into Palestine it is the
most probable of occurrences: the difficulty arises from the
actual narratives. The first stage is the escape from the land of
Goshen (q.v.), the district allotted to the family of Jacob (Gen.
xlvi. 28-34, xlvii. i, 4, 6). 3 As to the route taken across the
Red Sea (Yam Suph) scholars are no^ agreed (see W. M. Mtiller,
Ency. Bib. col. 1436 sqq.); it depends upon the view held
regarding the second stage of the journey, the road to the
mountain of Sinai or Horeb and thence to Kadesh. The last-
mentioned place is identified with Ain Kadis, about 50 m. south
of Beersheba; but the identification of the mountain is uncertain,
and it is possible that tradition confused two distinct places.
According to one favourite view, the journey was taken across
the Sinaitic peninsula to Midian, the home of Jethro. Others
plead strongly for the traditional site Jebel Musa or Serbal in
the south of the peninsula (see J. R. Harris, Diet. Bible, iv.
pp. 536 sqq.; H. Winckler, Ency. Bib. col. 4641). The latter
view implies that the oppressed Israelites left Egypt for one
of its dependencies, and both theories find only conjectural
identifications in the various stations recorded in Num. xxxiii.
But this list of forty names, corresponding to the years of
wandering, is from a post-exilic source, and may be based
merely upon a knowledge of caravan-routes; even if it be of
older origin, it is of secondary value since it represents a tradition
differing notably from that in the earlier narratives themselves,
and these on inspection confirm Judg. xi. 16 seq., where the
Israelites proceed immediately to Kadesh.
Ex. xvi.-xviii. presuppose a settled encampment and a law-
giving, and thus belong to a stage after Sinai had been reached (Ex.
xix. sqq.). They are closely related, as regards subject matter, &c.,
to the narratives in Num. x. 2g-xi., xx. 1-13 (Sinai to Kadesh),
and the initial step is the recognition that the latter is their original
context (see G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 1443 [v.]). Further,
internal peculiarities associating events now at Sinai-Horeb with
those at Kadesh support the view that Kadesh was their true scene,
and it is to be noticed that in Ex. xv. 22 seq. the Israelites already
reach the wilderness of Shur and accomplish the three days' journey
which had been their original aim (cf. Ex. iii. 18, v. 3, viii. 27).
The wilderness of Shur (Gen. xvi. 7, xx. I ; I Sam. xv. 7, xxvii. 8)
is the natural scene of conflicts with Amalekites (Ex. xvii. 8 sqq.),
and its sanctuary of Kadesh or En Mishpat (" well of judgment,"
Gen. xiv. 7) was doubtless associated with traditions of the giving
of statutes and ordinances. The detour to Sinai-Horeb appears to
belong to a later stage of the tradition, and is connected with the
introduction of laws and institutions of relatively later form. It is
foreshadowed by the injunction to avoid the direct way into Palestine
(see Ex. xiii. 17-10), since on reaching Kadesh the Israelites would
be within reach of hostile tribes, and the conflicts which it was pro-
posed to avoid actually ensued. 4 The forty years of wandering in
the wilderness is characteristic of the Deuteronomic and post-exilic
narratives; in the earlier sources the fruitful oasis of Kadesh is the
centre, and even after the tradition of a detour to Sinai-Horeb was
developed, only a brief period is spent at the holy mountain.
From Kadesh spies were sent into Palestine, and when the
people were dismayed at their tidings and incurred the wrath
of Yahweh, the penalty of the forty years' delay was pronounced
2 See, e.g., J. Orr, Problem of the O.T. pp. 422 sqq. ; Ed. Meyer, Die
Israeliten, pp. 222 sqq. Some, too, find in the Amarna tablets
the historicafbackground for Joseph's high position at the Egyptian
court (see Cheyne, Ency. Bib. art. " Joseph ").
For the varying traditions regarding the number of the people
and their residence (whether settled apart, cf., e.g., Gen. xlvi. 34,
Ex. viii. 22, ix. 26, x. 23, or in the midst of the Egyptians) see the
recent commentaries.
4 See further J. Wellhausen, Prolegomena, pp. 342 sqq.; G. F.
Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 1443; S. A. Cook, Jew. Quart. Rev. (1906),
pp. 741 sqq. (1907), p. 122, and art. MOSES. Ex. xiii. 17-19 forbids
the compromise which would place Sinai-Horeb in the neighbour-
hood of Kadesh (A. E. Haynes, Pal. Explor. Fund, Quart. Statem.
(1896), pp. 175 sqq.; C. F. Kent [see Lit. below], p. 381).
EXOGAMY
79
(Num. xiii. seq.). Originally Caleb alone was exempt and for
his faith received a blessing; later tradition adds Joshua and
in Deut. i. 37 seq. alludes to some unknown offence of Moses.
According to Num. xxi. 1-3 the Israelites (a generalizing ampli-
fication) captured Hormah, on the way to Beersheba, and
subsequently the dan Caleb and the Kenites (the clan of Moses'
father-in-law) are found in Judah (Judg. i. 16). Although the
traditions regard their efforts as part of a common movement
(from Gilgal, see below), it is more probable that these (notably
Caleb) escaped the punishment which befell the rest of the
Israelites, and made their way direct from Kadesh into the
south of Palestine. 1 On the other band, according to the pre-
vailing tradition, the attempt to break northwards was frustrated
by a defeat at Hormah (Num. xiv. 40-45), an endeavour to pass
Edom failed, and the people turned back to the Yam Suph (here
at the head of the Gulf of Akabah) and proceeded up to the
east of Edom and Moab. Conflicting views are represented (on
which see MOAB), but at length Shitcim was reached and pre-
parations were made to cross the Jordan into the promised land.
This having been effected, Gilgal became the base for a series of
operations in which the united tribes took part. But again the
representations disagree, and to the overwhelming campaigns
depicted in the book of Joshua most critics prefer the account
of the more gradual process as related in the opening chapter of
the book of Judges (see Jews : History, 8) .
Thus, whatever evidence may be supplied by archaeological
research, the problem of the Exodus must always be studied in
the light of the biblical narratives. That the religious life of
Israel as portrayed therein dates from this remote period cannot
be maintained against the results of excavation or against the
later history, nor can we picture a united people in the desert
when subsequent vicissitudes represent the union as the work of
many years, and show that it lasted for a short time only under
David and Solomon. During the centuries in which the narratives
were taking shape many profound changes occurred to affect
the traditions. Developments associated with the Deuteronomic
reform and the reorganization of Judaism in post-exilic days
can be unmistakably recognized, and it would be unsafe to
assume that other vicissitudes have not also left their mark.
Allowance must be made for the shifting of boundaries or of
spheres of influence (Egypt, Edom, Moab), for the incorporation
of tribes and of their own tribal traditions, and in particular
for other movements (e.g. from Arabia). 2 If certain clans
moved direct from Kadesh into Judah, it is improbable that
others made the lengthy detour from Kadesh by the Gulf of
Akabah, but this may well be an attempt to fuse the traditions
of two distinct migrations. Among the Joseph-tribes (Ephraim
and Manasseh), the most important of Israelite divisions, the
traditions of an ancestor who had lived and died in Egypt
would be a cherished possession, but although most writers
agree that not all the tribes were in Egypt, it is impossible to
determine their number with any certainty. At certain
periods, intercourse with Egypt was especially intimate, and
there is much in favour of the view that the name Mizraim
(Egypt) extended beyond the borders of Egypt proper. Refer-
ence has already been made to other cases of geographical
vagueness, and one must recognize that in a body of traditions
such as this there was room for the inclusion of the most diverse
elements which it is almost hopeless to separate, in view of the
scantiness of relevant evidence from other sources, and the
literary intricacy of the extant narratives. That many different
beliefs have influenced the tradition is apparent from what has
been said above, and is especially noticeable from a study of the
general features. Thus, although the Israelites possessed cattle
(Ex. xvii. 3, xix. 13, xxiv. 5, xxxii. 6, xxxiv. 3; Num. xx. 19),
allusion is made to their lack of meat in order to magnify the
wonders of the journey, and among divinely sent aids to guide
1 So B. Stade, Steuernagel, Guthe, G. F. Moore, H. P. Smith,
C. F. Kent, &c. See CALEB; JERAHMEEL; JUDAH; KENITES;
LEVITES; and JEWS: History, 5, 20 (end).
1 An instructive parallel to the last-mentioned is afforded by
Dissard's account of the migration of Arab tribes into Palestine in
the i8th century A.D. (Revue biblique, July 1905).
and direct the people upon the march not only does Moses
require the assistance of a human helper (Jethro or Hobab),
but the angel, the ark, the pillar of cloud and of fire and the
mysterious hornet are also provided.
In addition to the references already given, see J. W. Colenso,
Pentateuch and Book of Joshua (on internal difficulties) ; A. Jeremias,
Alle Test, im Lichte d. alt. Orients* (pp. 402 sqq., on later references
in Manetho, &c., with which cf. also R. H. Charles, Jubilees, p.
245 seq.); art. "Exodus" in Ency. Bib.; Ed. Meyer, Israeliten
(passim); Bonhoff, Theolog. Stud. u. Krit. (1907), pp. 159-217;
the histories of Israel and commentaries on the book of Exodus.
Among the numerous special works, mention may be made of
G. Ebers, Durch Gosen zum Sinai; E. H. Palmer, Desert of the
Exodus; O. A. Toff teen, The Historic Exodus; fuller information is
given in L. B. Paton, Hist, of Syria and Palestine, p. 34 (also ch. viii.) ;
and C. F. Kent, Beginnings of Heb. Hist. p. 355 seq. (S. A. C.)
EXOGAMY (Gr. eo), outside; and yapos, marriage), the term
proposed by J. F. McLennan for the custom compelling marriage
" out of the tribe " (or rather " out of the totem ") ; its converse
is endogamy (q.v.). McLennan would find an explanation of
exogamy in the prevalence of female infanticide, which, " render-
ing women scarce, led at once to polyandry within the tribe,
and the capturing of women from without." Infanticide of
girls is, and no doubt ever has been, a very common practice
among savages, and for obvious reasons. Among tribes in a
primitive stage of social organization girl-children must always
have been a hindrance and a source of weakness. They had to be
fed and yet they could not take part in the hunt for food, and they
offered a temptation to neighbouring tribes. Infanticide, how-
ever, is not proved to have been so universal as McLennan
suggests, and it is more probable that the reason of exogamy is
really to be found in that primitive social system which made
the " captured " woman the only wife in the modern sense of
the term. In the beginnings of human society children were
related only to their mother; and the women of a tribe were
common property. Thus no man might appropriate any female
or attempt to maintain proprietary rights over her. With women
of other tribes it would be different, and a warrior who captured
a woman would doubtless pass unchallenged in his claim to
possess her absolutely. Infanticide, the evil physical effects of
" in-and-in " breeding, the natural strength of the impulse to
possess on the man's part, and the greater feeling of security
and a tendency to family life and affections on the woman's,
would combine to make exogamy increase and marriages within
the tribe decrease. A natural impulse would in a few generations
tend to become a law or a custom, the violation of which would be
looked on with horror. Physical capture, too, as soon as in-
creasing civilization and tribal intercommunication removed the
necessity for violence, became symbolic of the more permanent
and individual relations of the sexes. An additional explanation
of the prevalence of exogamy may ' be found in the natural
tendency of exogamous tribes to increase in numbers and
strength at the expense of those communities which moved
towards decadence by in-breeding. Thus tradition would
harden into a prejudice, strong as a principle of religion, and
exogamy would become the inviolable custom it is found to be
among many races. In Australia, Sir G. Grey writes: " One
of the most remarkable facts connected with the natives is that
they are divided into certain great families, all the members of
which bear the same name . . . these family names are common
over a great portion of the continent and a man cannot marry
a woman of his own family name." In eastern Africa, Sir R.
Burton says: " The Somal will not marry one of the same, or
even of a consanguineous family," and the Bakalahari have the
same rule. Paul B . du Chaillu found exogamy the rule and blood
marriages regarded as an abomination throughout western
Equatorial Africa. In India the Khasias, Juangs, Waralis,
Oraons, Hos and other tribes are strictly exogamous. The
Kalmucks are divided into hordes, and no man may marry a
woman of the same horde. Circassians and Samoyedes have
similar rules. The Ostiaks regard endogamy (marriage within
the clan) as a crime, as do the Yakuts of Siberia. Among
the Indians of America severe rules prescribing exogamy prevail.
The Tsimsheean Indians of British Columbia are divided into
8o
EXORCISM EXPERT
tribes and totems, or " crests which are common to all the tribes,"
says one writer. " The crests are the whale, the porpoise, the
eagle, the coon, the wolf and the frog. . . . The relationship
existing between persons of the same crest is nearer than that
between members of the same tribe. . . . Members of the same
tribe may marry, but those of the same crest are not allowed to
under any circumstances; that is, a whale may not marry a
whale, but a whale may marry a frog, &c." The Thlinkeets,
the Mayas of Yucatan and the Indians of Guiana are exogamous,
observing a custom which is thus seen to exist throughout Africa,
in Siberia, China, India, Polynesia and the Americas.
AUTHORITIES. J. F. McLennan, Primitive Marriage (1865), and
Studies in Anc. Hist. (1896); Lord Avebury, Origin of Civilization
(1902); Westermarck, History of Human Marriage (1894); A. Lang,
Social Origins (1903); L. H. Morgan, Ancient Society (1877); J. G.
Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy (1910); see also TOTEM.
EXORCISM (Gr. eopwfew', to conjure out), the expulsion
of evil spirits from persons or places by incantations, magical
rites or other means. As a corollary of the animistic theory of
diseases and of belief in Possession (q.v.), we find widely spread
customs whose object is to get rid of tne evil influen :es. These
customs may take the form of a general expulsion of evils,
either once a year or at irregular intervals; the evils, which are
often regarded as spirits, sometimes as the souls of the dead,
may be expelled, according to primitive philosophy, either
immediately by spells, purifications or some form of coercion;
or they may be put on the back of a scapegoat or other material
vehicle. Among the means of compelling the evil spirits are
assaults with warlike weapons or sticks, the noise of musical
instruments or of the human voice, the use of masks, the invoca-
tion of more powerful good spirits, &c. ; both fire and water are
used to drive them out, and the use of iron is a common means
of holding them at bay.
The term exorcism is applied more especially to the freeing
of an individual from a possessing or disease-causing spirit;
the means adopted are frequently the same as those mentioned
above; in the East Indies the sufferer sometimes dances round
a small ship, into which the spirit passes and is then set adrift.
The patient may be beaten or means may be employed whose
efficiency depends largely on their suggestive nature. Among
the Dakota Indians the medicine-man chants hi-le-li-lah! at the
bed of the sick man and accompanies his chant with the rattle;
he then sucks at the affected part till the possessing spirit is
supposed to come out and take its flight, when men fire guns at it
from the door of the tent. The Zulus believe that they can get rid
of the souls of the dead, which cause diseases, by sacrifices of
cattle, or by expostulating with the spirits; so too the shaman or
magician in other parts of the world offers the possessing spirit
objects or animals.
The professional exorcist was known among the Jews; in
Greece the art was practised by women, and it is recorded that
the mothers of Epicurus and Aeschines belonged to this class;
both were bitterly reproached, the one by the Stoics, the other
by Demosthenes, with having taken part in the practices in
question. The prominence of exorcism in the early ages of the
Christian church appears from its frequent mention in the
writings of the fathers, and by the 3rd century there was an order
of exorcists (see EXORCIST). The ancient rite of exorcism in
connexion with baptism is still retained in the Roman ritual, as
is also a form of service for the exorcising of possessed persons.
The exorcist signs the possessed person with the figure of the
cross, desires him to kneel, and sprinkles him with holy water;
after which the exorcist asks the devil his name, and abjures him
by the holy mysteries of the Christian religion not to afflict the
person possessed any more. Then, laying his right hand on the
demoniac's head, he repeats the form of exorcism as follows:
"I exorcise thee, unclean spirit, in the name of Jesus Christ;
tremble, O Satan, thou enemy of the faith, thou foe of mankind,
who hast brought death into the world, who hast deprived men
of life, and hast rebelled against justice, thou seducer of mankind,
thou root of evil, thou source of avarice, discord and envy."
Houses and other places supposed to be haunted by unclean
spirits are likewise to be exorcised with similar rites, and in general
exorcism has a place in all the ceremonies for consecrating and
blessing persons or things (see BENEDICTION).
See Tylor, Primitive Culture; Skeat, Malay Magic, p. 427 seq. ;
Frazer, Golden Bough, vol. iii. 189; Krafft, Ausfiihrliche Historic von
Exorcismus; Koldeweg, Der Exorcismus im Herzogthum Braun-
schweig ; Brecher, Das Transcendentale, Magie, etc. im.Talmud, j
-..-,. 'Z^.'J^-L A/:_ A . ' _l ' /T~\ ._ *_!__. \ I
Thompson, Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia.
EXORCIST (Lat. exorcista, Gr. e&jp/dffTTjs), in the Roman
Catholic church, the third grade in the minor orders of the clergy,
between those of acolyte and reader. The office, which involves
the right of ceremonially exorcising devils (see EXORCISM), is
actually no more than a preliminary stage of the priesthood.
The earliest record of the special ordination of exorcists is the
7th canon of the council of Carthage (A.D. 256). " When they
are ordained," it runs, " they receive from the hand of the
bishop a little book in which the exorcisms are written, receiving
power to lay hands on the energumeni, whether baptized or cate-
chumens." Whatever its present position, the office of exorcist
was, until comparatively recent times, by no means considered
a sinecure. " The exorcist a terror to demons " (Paulinus,
Epist. 24) survived the Reformation among Protestants, with
the belief, expressed by Firmilianus in his epistle to St Cyprian,
that " through the exorcists, by the voice of man and the power
of God, the devil may be whipped, and burnt and tortured."
EXOTIC (Gr. wruc6s, foreign, from e, outside), of
foreign origin, or belonging to another country. The term is
now used in the restricted sense of something not indigenous
or native, and is mostly applied to plants introduced from
foreign countries, which have not become acclimatized. Figura-
tively, " exotic " is used to convey the sense of something rare,
delicate or extravagant.
EXPATRIATION (from Late Lat. expalriare, to exile, and
patria, native land), a term used in a general sense for the banish-
ment of a person from his own country. In international
law expatriation is the renunciation or change of allegiance to
one's native or adopted country. It may take place either by a
voluntary act or by operation of law. Some countries, as France
and England, disclaim their subjects if they become naturalized
in another country, others, again, passively permit expatriation
whether a new nationality has been acquired or not; others,
as Germany, make expatriation the consequence of continued
absence from their territory. (See ALIEN; ALLEGIANCE;
NATURALIZATION.)
EXPERT (Lat. experlus, from experiri, to try), strictly,
skilled, or one who has special knowledge; as used in law, an
expert is a person, selected by a court, or adduced by a party
to a cause, to give his opinion on some point in issue with which
he is peculiarly conversant. In Roman law questions of dis-
puted handwriting were referred to experts; and in France,
whenever the court considers that a report by experts is necessary,
it is ordered by a judgment clearly setting forth the objects of
the expertise (Code Proc. Civ. art. 302). Three experts are then
to be appointed, unless the parties agree upon one only (art.
303). The experts are required to take an oath (art. 305), but
in practice this requirement is frequently dispensed with. They
may be challenged on the same grounds as witnesses (art. 310).
The necessary documentary and other evidence is laid before
them (art. 317), and they make a single report to the court, even
if they express different opinions: in that case the grounds only
of the different opinions are to be stated, and not the personal
opinion of each of the experts (art. 318). If the court is not
satisfied with the report, new experts may be appointed (art.
322); the judges are not bound to adopt the opinion of the
experts (art. 323). " This procedure in regard to experts is
common to both the civil and commercial courts, but it is much
more frequently resorted to in the commercial court than in
the civil court, and the investigation is usually conducted by
special experts officially attached to each of these courts "
(Bodington, French Law of Evidence, London, 1904, p. 102).
EXPLOSIVES
81
A similar system is to be found in force in many other European
countries; see e.g. Codes of Civil Procedure of Holland, arts.
222 et seq.; Belgium, arts. 302 et seq.; Italy, arts. 252 et seq.;
as well as in those colonies where French law has been followed
(Codes of Civil Procedure of Quebec, arts. 392 et seq.; St Lucia,
arts. 286 et seq.). In Mauritius the articles of the French law,
summarized above, are still nominally in force; but in practice
each side calls its own expert evidence, as in England.
There is some evidence that in England the courts were in early
times in the habit of *. ummoning to their assistance, apparently
as assessors, persons specially qualified to advise upon any
scientific or technical question that required to be determined.
Thus " in an appeal of maihem (i.e. wounding) . . . the court
did not know how to adjudge because the wound was new, and
then the defendant took issue and prayed the court that the
maihem might be examined, on which a writ was sent to the
sheriff to cause to come medicos chirurgieos de melioribus London,
ad informandum dominum regent et curiam de his quae eis ex parte
domini regis injungerentur (Year Book, 21 Hen. VII. pi. 30,
p. 33). The practice of calling in expert assistance in judicial
inquiries was not confined to medico-legal cases. " If matters
arise," said Justice Saunders in Buckley v. Rice Thomas (1554,
Plowden, 124 a), " which concern other faculties, we commonly
apply for the aid of that science or faculty which it concerns."
English procedure, however, being litigious, and not, like
continental European procedure, inquisitorial, in its character,
the expert soon became, and still is, simply a witness to speak
to matters of opinion.
There is a considerable body of law in England as to expert
evidence. Only a few points can be touched upon here, (i)
An expert is permitted to refresh his memory in regard to any
fact by referring to anything written by himself or under his
direction at the time when the fact occurred or at a time when
it was fresh in his memory. This is also law generally in the
United States (see e.g. New York Civil Code, s. 1843). In
Scotland, medical and other scientific reports are lodged in
process before the trial, and the witness reads them as part of his
evidence and is liable to be examined or cross-examined on their
contents. (2) In strictness, an expert will not be allowed, in
cases of alleged insanity, to say that a litigating or incriminated
party is insane or the reverse, and so to usurp the prerogative
of the court or jury. But he may be asked whether certain facts
or symptoms, assuming them to be proved, are or are not indicative
of insanity. But in practice this rule is relaxed both in England
and in Scotland, and (where it exists) to a still greater extent in
America. (3) Foreign law can only be proved in English
courts and the same rule applies in Scotland (a) by obtaining
an opinion on the subject from a superior court of the country
whose laws are in dispute under the Foreign Law Ascertainment
Act 1 86 1 or the British Law Ascertainment Act 1859, or (6) by
the evidence of a lawyer of the country whose law is in question,
or who has studied it in that country, or of an official whose
position requires, and therefore presumes, a sufficient knowledge
of that law. (4) The weight of authority both in England and in
America supports the view that an expert is not bound to give
evidence as to matters of opinion unless upon an undertaking
by the party calling him to pay a reasonable remuneration for
his evidence.
Statutory provision has been made in England for the summon-
ing of expert assistance by the legal tribunals in various cases.
In the county courts the judge may, if he thinks fit, on the
application of either party, call in as assessor one or more persons
of skill and experience as to the matters in dispute (County
Courts Act 1888, s. 103), and special provision is made for
calling in an assessor in employers' liability cases (act of 1880,
s. 6) and admiralty matters (see County Courts Admiralty
Jurisdiction Acts of 1868 and 1869). In the High Court and
court of appeal one or more specially qualified assessors may be
called in to assist in the hearing of any cause or matter except a
criminal proceeding by the crown (Judicature Acts 1873, s. 56),
and a like power is given to both these courts and the judicial
committee of the privy council in patent cases (Patents, &c., Act
1883, s. 28). Maritime causes, whether original or on appeal from
county courts, are usually taken in the presence of Elder Brethren
of the Trinity House, who advise the judge without having any
right to control or any responsibility for his decision (see the
" Beryl," 1884, 9 P.D. i), and on appeal in maritime causes
nautical assessories are usually called in by the court of appeal,
and may be called in by the House of Lords (Judicature Act
1891, s. 3); a like provision is made as to maritime causes
in Scottish courts (Nautical Assessors [Scotland] Act 1894).
The judicial committee of the privy council, besides its power
to call in assessors in patent cases, is authorized to call them
in in ecclesiastical causes (Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, s. 14).
In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Taylor, Law of
Evidence (9th ed., London, 1895); J. D. Lawson, Law of Expert and
Opinion Evidence (1900).
EXPLOSIVES, a general term for substances which by certain
treatment " explode," i.e. decompose or change in a violent
manner so as to generate force. From the manner and degree of
violence of the decomposition they are classified into " pro-
pellants " and " detonators," but this classification is not capable
of sharp delimitation. In some cases the same substance may be
employed for either purpose under altered external conditions;
but there are some substances which could not possibly be em-
ployed as propellants, and others which can scarcely be induced
to explode in the manner known as " detonation." A propellant
may be considered as a substance that on explosion produces
such a disturbance that neighbouring substances are thrown
to some distance; a detonator or disrupter may produce an
extremely violent disturbance within a limited area without
projecting substances to any great distance. Time is an im-
portant, perhaps the most important, factor in this action. A
propellant generally acts by burning in a more or less rapid and
regular manner, producing from a comparatively small volume
a large volume of gases; during this action heat is also developed,
which, being expended mostly on the gaseous products, causes
a further expansion. The noise accompanying an explosion is
due to an air wave, and is markedly different in the case of
a detonator from a real propellant. Some cases of ordinary
combustion can be accelerated into explosions by increasing the
area of contact between the combustible and the oxygen supplier,
for instance, ordinary gas or dust explosions. Neither tempera-
ture nor quantity of heat energy necessarily gives an explosive
action. Some metals, e.g. aluminium and magnesium, will,
in oxidizing, produce a great thermal effect, but unless there be
some gaseous products no real explosive action.
Explosives may be mechanical mixtures of substances capable
of chemical interaction with the production of large volumes of
gases, or definite chemical compounds of a pecuh'ar class known
as " endothermic," the decomposition of which is also attended
with the evolution of gases in large quantity.
All chemical compounds are either " endothermic " or " exo-
thermic." In endothermic compounds energy, in some form, has
been taken up in the act of formation of the compound. Some of
this energy has become potential, or rather the compound formed
has been raised to a higher potential. This case occurs when two
elements can be united only under some compulsion such as a very
high temperature, by the aid of an electric current, or spark, or as a
secondary product whilst some other reactions are proceeding.
For example, oxygen and nitrogen combine only under the influence
of an electric spark, and carbon and calcium in the electric furnace.
The formation of chlorates by the action of chlorine on boiling potash
is a good instance of a complex compound (potassium chlorate),
being formed in small quantity as a secondary product whilst a
large quantity of primary and simpler products (potassium chloride
and water) is forming. In chlorate formation the greater part of the
reaction represents a running down of energy and formation of
exothermic compounds, with only a small yield of an endothermic
substance. Another idea of the meaning of endothermic is obtained
from acetylene. When 26 parts by weight of this substance ^are
burnt, the heat produced will warm up 310,450 parts of water i C.
Acetylene consists of 24 parts of carbon and 2 of hydrogen by weight.
The 24 parts of carbon will, if in the form of pure charcoal, heat
192,000 parts of water i, and the 2 parts of hydrogen will heat
68,000 parts of water i, the total heat production being 260,000
heat units. Thus 26 grams of acetylene give an excess of 50,450
units over the amount given by the constituents. This excess of
EXPLOSIVES
heat energy * is due to some form of potential energy in the com-
pound which becomes actual heat energy at the moment of dis-
solution of the chemical union. The manner in which a substance
is endothermic is of importance as regards the practical employment
of explosives. Some particular endothermic state or form results
from the mode of formation and the consequent internal structure
of the molecule. Physical structure alone can be the cause of a
relative endothermic state, as in the glass bulbs known as Rupert's
drops. &c., or even in chilled steel. Rupert's drops fly in pieces
on being scratched or cut to a certain depth. The cause is un-
doubtedly to be ascribed to the molecular state of the glass brought
about by chilling from the melted state. The molecules have not
had time to separate or arrange themselves in easy positions. In
steel when melted the carbide of iron is no doubt diffused equally
throughout the liquid. When cooled slowly some carbide separates
out more or less, and the steel is soft or annealed. When chilled
the carbides are retained in solid solution. The volume of chilled
glass or steel differs slightly from that in the annealed state.
Superfused substances are probably in a similar state of physical
potential or strain. Many metallic salts, and organic compounds
especially, will exhibit this state when completely melted and then
allowed to cool in a clean atmosphere. On touching with a little
of the same substance in a solid state the liquids will begin to
crystallize, at the same time becoming heated almost up to their
melting-points. The metal gallium shows this excellently well,
keeping liquid for years until touched with the solid metal, when
there is a considerable rise of temperature as solidification takes
place.
All carbon compounds, excepting carbon dioxide, and many if
not all compounds of nitrogen, are endothermic. Most of the ex-
plosives in common use contain nitrogen in some form.
Exothermic compounds are in a certain sense the reverse of
endothermic; they are relatively inert and react but slowly or not
at all, unless energy be expended upon them from outside. Water,
carbon dioxide and most of the common minerals belong to this
class.
The explosives actually employed at the present time include
mixtures, such as gunpowders and some chlorate compositions,
the ingredients of which separately may be non-explosive;
compounds used singly, as guncotton, nitroglycerin (in the form
of dynamite), picric acid (as lyddite or melinite), trinitrotoluene,
nitrocresols, mercury fulminate, &c.; combinations of some
explosive compounds, such as cordite and the smokeless pro-
pellants in general use for military purposes; and, finally,
blasting and detonating or igniting compositions, some of
which contain inert diluting materials as well as one or more
high explosives. Many igniting compositions are examples
of the last type, consisting of a high explosive diluted with a
neutral substance, and frequently containing in addition a
composition which is inflamed by the explosion of the diluted
high explosive, the flame in turn igniting the actual propellant.
Explosive Mixtures. The explosive mixture longest known
is undoubtedly gunpowder (q.v.) in some form that is, a mixture
of charcoal with sulphur and nitre, the last being the oxygen
provider. Besides the nitrates of metals and ammonium nitrate,
there is a limited number of other substances capable of serving
in a sufficiently energetic manner as oxygen providers. A few
chlorates, perchlorates, permanganates and chromates almost
complete the list. Of these the sodium, potassium and barium
chlorates are best known and have been actually tried, in
admixture with some combustible substances, as practical ex-
plosives. Most other metallic chlorates are barred from prac-
tical employment owing to instability, deliquescence or other
property.
Of the chlorates those of potassium and sodium are the most
stable, and mixtures of either of these salts with sulphur or
sulphides, phosphorus, charcoal, sugar, starch, finely-ground
cellulose, coal or almost any kind of organic, i.e. carbon, com-
pound, in certain proportions, yield an explosive mixture.
In many cases these mixtures are not only fired or exploded by
heating to a certain temperature, but also by quite moderate
friction or percussion. Consequently there is much danger in
manufacture and storage, and however these mixtures have
been made up, they are quite out of the question as propellants on
account of their great tendency to explode in the manner of a
detonator. In addition they are not smokeless, and leave a
1 Not necessarily heat energy entirely. A number of substances
acetylides and some nitrogen compounds, such as nitrogen chloride
decompose with extreme violence, but little heat is produced.
considerable residue which in a gun would produce serious
fouling.
Mixtures of chlorates with aromatic compounds such as the
nitro- or dinitro-benzenes or even naphthalene make very
powerful blasting agents. The violent action of a chlorate
mixture is due first to the rapid evolution of oxygen, and also
to the fact that a chlorate can be detonated when alone. A
drop of sulphuric acid will start the combustion of a chlorate
mixture. In admixture with sulphur, sulphides and especially
phosphorus, chlorates give extremely sensitive compositions,
some of which form the basis of friction tube and firing mixtures.
Potassium and sodium perchlorates and permanganates
make similar but slightly less sensitive explosive mixtures with
the above-mentioned substances. Finely divided metals such as
aluminium or magnesium give also with permanganates, chlorates
or perchlorates sensitive and powerful explosives. Bichromates,
although containing much available oxygen, form but feeble
explosive mixtures, but some compounds of chromic acid with
diazo compounds and some acetylides are extremely powerful
as well as sensitive. Ammonium bichromate is a self-com-
bustible after the type of ammonium nitrate, but scarcely an
explosive.
Explosive Compounds. Nearly all the explosive compounds
in actual use either for blasting purposes or as propellants are
nitrogen compounds, and are obtained more or less directly from
nitric acid. Most of the propellants at present employed consist
essentially of nitrates of some organic compound, and may be
viewed theoretically as nitric acid, the hydrogen of which has
been replaced by a carbon complex; such compounds are
expressed by M-O-NO 2 , which indicates that the carbon group
is in some manner united by means of oxygen to the nitrogen
group. Guncotton and nitroglycerin are of this class. Another
large class of explosives is formed by a more direct attachment
of nitrogen to the carbon complex, as represented by M-NO 2 .
A number of explosives of the detonating type are of this class.
They contain the same proportions of oxygen and nitrogen as
nitrites, but are not nitrites. They have been termed nitro-
derivatives for distinction. One of the simplest and longest-
known members of this group is nitrobenzene, CsHsNOj, which
is employed to some extent as an explosive, being one ingredient
in rack-a-rock and other blasting compositions. The dinitro-
benzenes, C 6 H 4 (NO 2 ) 2 , made from it are solids which are some-
what extensively employed as constituents of some sporting
powders, and in admixture with ammonium nitrate form a blast-
ing powder of a " flameless " variety which is comparatively
safe in dusty or "gassy" coal seams.
Picric acid or trinitrophenol, C 6 H 2 -OH-(N0 2 ) 3 is employed
as a high explosive for shell, &c. It requires, however, either to
be enclosed and heated, or to be started by a powerful detonator
to develop its full effect. Its compounds with metals, such as
the potassium salt, C 6 H 2 -OK-(NO 2 ) 3 , are when dry very easily
detonated by friction or percussion and always on heating,
whereas picric acid itself will burn very quietly when set fire
to under ordinary conditions. Trinitrotoluene, C 6 H 2 -CH 3 -(NO 2 ) 3 ,
is a high explosive resembling picric acid in the manner of its ex-
plosion (to which in fact it is a rival), but differs therefrom in not
forming salts with metals. The nitronaphthols, Ci H 6 -OH-N0 2 ,
and higher nitration products may be counted in the list. Their
salts with metals behave much like the picrates.
All these nitro compounds can be reduced by the action of
nascent hydrogen to substances called amines (<?.!>.), which are
not always explosive in themselves, but in some cases can form
nitrates of a self-combustible nature. Aminoacetic acid, for
instance, will form a nitrate which burns rapidly but quietly, and
might be employed as an explosive. By the action of nitrous acid
at low temperatures on aromatic amines, e.g. aniline, CeHjNH^,
diazo compounds are produced. These are all highly explosive,
and when in a dry state are for the most part also extremely
sensitive to friction, percussion or heat. As many of these diazo
compounds contain no oxygen their explosive nature must be
ascribed to the peculiar state of union of the nitrogen. This
state is attempted to be shown by the formulae such as, for
EXPLOSIVES
instance, CH 5 -N:N'X, which may be some compound of diazo-
benzene. Probably the most vigorous high explosive at present
known is the substance called hydrazoic acid or azoimide (q.v.).
It forms salts with metals such as AgN 3 , which explode in a
peculiar manner. The ammonium compound, NH 4 N3, may
become a practical explosive of great value.
Mercuric fulminate, HgC2N2O2, is one of the most useful
high explosives known. It is formed by the action of a solution
of mercurous nitrate, containing some nitrous acid, on alcohol.
It is a white crystalline substance almost insoluble in cold water
and requiring 130 times its weight of boiling water for solution.
It may be heated to 180 C. before exploding, and the explosion
so brought about is much milder than that produced by per-
cussion. It forms the principal ingredient in cap compositions,
in many fuses and in detonators. In many of these compositions
the fulminate is diluted by mixture with certain quantities of
inert powders so that its sensitiveness to friction or percussion
is just so much lowered, or slowed down, that it will fire another
mixture capable of burning with a hot flame. For detonating
dynamite, guncotton, &c., it is generally employed without
admixture of a diluent.
Smokeless Propellants. Gunpowders and all other explosive
mixtures or compounds containing metallic salts must form
smoke on combustion. The solids produced by the resolution
of the compounds are in an extremely finely-divided state, and on
being ejected into the atmosphere become more or less attached
to water vapour, which is so precipitated, and consequently adds
to the smoke. The simplest examples of propellants of the smoke-
less class are compressed gases. Compressed air was the pro-
pellant for the Zalinski dynamite gun. Liquefied carbon dioxide
has also been proposed and used to a slight extent with the same
idea. It is scarcely practical, however, because when a quantity
of a gas liquefied by pressure passes back again into the gaseous
state, there is a great absorption of heat, and any remaining
liquid, and the containing vessel, are considerably cooled. Steam
guns were tried in the American Civil War in 1864; but a steam
gun is not smokeless, for the steam escaping from the long tube
or gun immediately condenses on expansion, forming white mist
or smoke.
At the earliest stage of the development of guncotton the
advantage of its smokeless combustion was fully appreciated
(see GUNCOTTON). That it did not at once take its position
as the smokeless propellant, was simply due to its physical
state a fibrous porous mass which burnt too quickly or even
detonated under the pressure required in fire-arms of any kind.
In the early eighties of the igth century it was found that several
substances would partly dissolve or at least gelatinize guncotton,
and the moment when guncotton proper was obtained as a
colloid or jelly was the real start in the matter of smokeless
propellants.
Guncotton is converted into a gelatinous form by several
substances, such as esters, e.g. ethyl acetate or benzoate, acetone
and other ketones, and many benzene compounds, most of which
are volatile liquids. On contact with the guncotton a jelly is
formed which stiffens as the evaporation of the gelatinizing
agent proceeds, and finally hardens when the evaporation is
complete. Whilst in a stiff pasty state it may be cut, moulded
or pressed into any desired shape without any danger of ignition.
In fact guncotton in the colloid state may be hammered on an
anvil, and, as a rule, only the portion struck will detonate or fire.
Guncotton alone makes a very hard and somewhat brittle mass
after treatment with the gelatinizing agent and complete drying,
and small quantities of camphor, vaseline, castor oil and other
substances are incorporated with the gelatinous guncotton to
moderate this hard and brittle state.
All the smokeless powders, of which gelatinized guncottons
or nitrated celluloses are the base, are moulded into some con-
veniently shaped grain, e.g. tubes, cords, rods, disks or tablets,
so that the rate of burning may be controlled as desired. The
Vieille powder, invented in 1887 and adopted in France for a
magazine rifle, consisted of gelatinized guncotton with a little
picric acid. Later a mixture of two varieties of guncotton
gelatinized together was used. In addition to guncottons other
explosive or non-explosive substances are contained in some of
these powders. Guncotton alone in the colloid state burns very
slowly if in moderate-sized pieces, and when subdivided or made
into thin rods or strips it is still very mild as an explosive, partly
from a chemical reason, viz. there is not sufficient oxygen in it
to burn the carbon to dioxide. Many mixtures are consequently
in use, and many more have been proposed, which contain some
metallic salt capable of supplying oxygen, such as barium or
ammonium nitrate, &c., the idea being to accelerate the rate of
burning of the guncotton and if possible avoid the production
of smoke.
The discovery by A. Nobel that nitroglycerin could be incor-
porated with collodion cotton to form blasting gelatin (see
DYNAMITE) led more or less directly to the invention of ballistite,
which differs from blasting gelatin only in the relative amounts of
collodion, or soluble nitrated cotton, and nitroglycerin. Ballis-
tite was adopted by the Italian government in 1890 as a military
powder. Very many substances and mixtures have been
proposed for smokeless powder, but the two substances, gun-
cotton and nitroglycerin, have for the most part kept the field
against all other combinations, and for several reasons. Nitro-
glycerin contains a slight excess of oxygen over that necessary to
convert the whole of the carbon into carbon dioxide; it burns
in a more energetic manner than guneotton; the two can be
incorporated together in any proportion whilst the guncotton
is in the gelatinous state; also all the liquids which gelatinize
guncotton dissolve nitroglycerin, and, as these gelatinizing
liquids evaporate, the nitroglycerin is left entangled in the gun-
cotton jelly, and then shares more or less its colloidal character.
In burning the nitroglycerin is protected from detonation by the
gelatinous state of the guncotton, but still adds to the rate of
burning and produces a higher temperature.
Desirable Qualities. Smokelessness is one only of the desirable
properties of a propellant. All the present so-called smokeless
powders produce a little fume or haze, mainly due to the conden-
sation of the steam which forms one of the combustion products.
There is often also a little vapour from the substances, such as oils,
mineral jelly, vaseline or other hydrocarbon added for lubrication or
to render the finished material pliable, &c. The gases produced
should neither be very poisonous nor exert a corrosive action on
metals, &c. The powder itself should have good keeping qualities,
that is, not be liable to chemical changes within ordinary ranges of
temperature or in different climates when stored for a few years.
In these powders slight chemical changes are generally followed by
noticeable ballistic changes. All the smokeless powders of the
present day produce some oxide of nitrogen, traces of which hang
about the gun after firing and change rapidly into nitrous and nitric
acids. Nitrous acid is particularly objectionable in connexion with
metals, as it acts as a carrier of oxygen. The fouling from modern
smokeless powders is a slight deposit of acid grease, and the remedy
consists in washing out the bore of the piece with an alkaline liquid.
The castor oil, mineral jelly or camphor, and similar substances
added to smokeless powders are supposed to act as lubricants to
some extent. They are not as effective in this respect as mineral
salts, and the rifling of both small-arms and ordnance using smokeless
powders is severely gripped by the metal of the projectile. The
alkaline fouling produced by the black and brown powders acted
as a preventive of rusting to some extent, as well as a lubricant in
the bore.
Danger in Manufacture. In the case of the old gunpowders,
the most dangerous manufacturing operation was incorporation.
With the modern colloid propellants the most dangerous operations
are the chemical processes in the preparation of nitroglycerin, the
drying of guncotton, &c. After once the gelatinizing solvent has
been added, all the mechanical operations can be conducted, practi-
cally, with perfect safety. This statement appears to be correct for
all kinds of nitrated cellulose powders, whether mixed with nitro-
glycerin or other substances. Should they become ignited, which is
possible by a rise of temperature (to say 180) or contact with a
flame, the mixture burns quickly, but does not detonate.
As a rule naval and military smokeless powders are shaped into
flakes, cubes, cords or cylinders, with or without longitudinal perfora-
tions. All the modifications in shape and size are intended to regulate
the rate of burning. Sporting powders are often coloured for trade
distinction. Some powders are blackleaded by glazing with pure
graphite, as is done with black powders. One object of this glazing
is to prevent the grains or pieces becoming joined by pressure;
for rods or pieces of some smokeless powders might possibly unite
under considerable pressure, producing larger pieces and thus
altering the rate of burning. Most smokeless powders are fairly
EXPRESS
insensitive to shock. All these gelatinized powders are a little less
easily ignited than black powders. A slightly different cap com-
position is required for small-arm cartridges, and cannon cartridges
generally require a small primer or starter of powdered black gun-
powder.
It is desired that a propellant shall produce the maximum velocity
with the minimum pressure. The pressure should start gently so
that the inertia of the projectile is overcome without any undue
local strain on the breech near the powder chamber, and more
especially that as more and more space is given to the gases by the
movement of the projectile up the gun to the muzzle, gas should be
produced with sufficient rapidity to keep the pressure nearly uniform
or slightly increasing along the bore. The leading idea for im-
provements in relation to propellants is to obtain the greatest possible
pressure regularly developed, and at the same time the lowest
temperatures. (W. R. E. H.)
Law. In 1860 an act was passed in England " to amend the
law concerning the making, keeping and carriage of gunpowder
and compositions of an explosive nature, and concerning the
manufacture and use of fireworks" (23 & 24 Viet. c. 139),
whereby previous acts on the same subject were repealed, anol
minute and stringent regulations introduced. Amending acts
were passed in 1861 and 1862. In 1875 was passed the Ex-
plosives Act (38 & 39 Viet. c. 17), which repealed the former
acts, and dealt with the whole subject in a more comprehensive
manner. This act, containing 122 sections, and applying to
Scotland and Ireland, as well as to England, constitutes, with
various orders in council 'and home office orders, a complete code.
The act of 1875 was based on the report of a committee of the
House of Commons, public opinion having been greatly excited
on the subject by a terrible explosion on the Regent's Canal in
1874. Explosives are thus defined: (i) Gunpowder, nitro-
glycerin, dynamite, gun-cotton, blasting powders, fulminate of
mercury or of other metals, coloured fires, and every other
substance, whether similar to those above-mentioned or not,
used or manufactured with a view to produce a practical effect
by explosion or a pyrotechnic effect, and including (2) fog-signals,
fireworks, fuses, rockets, percussion caps, detonators, cartridges,
ammunition of all descriptions, and every adaptation or prepara-
tion of an explosive as above defined. Part i. deals with gun-
powder, providing that it shall be manufactured only at factories
lawfully existing or licensed under the act; that it shall be kept
(except for private use) only in existing or new magazines or
stores, or in registered premises, licensed under the act. Private
persons may keep gunpowder for their own use to the amount of
thirty pounds. The act also prescribes rules for the proper keep-
ing of gunpowder on registered premises. Part ii. deals with
nitro-giycerin and other explosives; part iii. with inspection,
accidents, search, &c. ; part iv. contains various supplementary
provisions. By order in council the term " explosive " may be
extended to any substance which appears to be specially dangerous
to life or property by reason of its explosive properties, or to
any process liable to explosion in the manufacture thereof, and
the provisions of the act then extend to such substance just as
if it were included in the term " explosive " in the act. The act
lays down minute and stringent regulations for the sale of gun-
powder, restricting the sale thereof in public thoroughfares or
places, or to any child apparently under the age of thirteen;
requiring the sale of gunpowder to be in closed packages labelled;
it also lays down general rules for conveyance, &c. The act also
gives power by order in council to define, from time to time, the
composition, quality and character of any explosive, and to
classify explosives, and such orders in council are frequently
made including new substances; those in force will be found in
the Statutory Rules and Orders, tit. " explosive substance." The
Merchant Shipping Act 1894 imposes restrictions on the carriage
of dangerous goods in a British or foreign vessel, " dangerous
goods " meaning aquafortis, vitriol, naphtha, benzine, gunpowder,
lucifer matches, nitro-glycerin, petroleum and any explosive
within the meaning of the Explosives Act 1875. The act is
administered by the home office, and an annual report is pub-
lished containing the proceedings of the inspectors of explosives
and an account of the working of the act. Each annual report
gives a list of explosives at the time authorized for manufacture
or importation, and appendices containing information as to
accidents, experiments, .&c.
Practically every European country has legislated on the lines
of the English act of 1875, Austria taking the lead, in 1877, with
an explosives ordinance almost identical with the English act.
The United States and the various English colonies also have
explosives acts regulating the manufacture, storage and importa-
tion of explosives. (See also PETROLEUM.) (T. A. I.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. M. Berthelot, Sur la force des matieres explosives
(Paris, 1883); P. F. Chalon, Les Explostfs modernes (Paris, 1886);
W. H. Wardell, Handbook of Gunpowder and Guncotton (London,
1888); T. P. Cundill, A Dictionary of Explosives (London, 1889 and
1897) ; M. Eissler, A Handbook of Modern Explosives (London, 1896,
new ed. 1903); J. A. Longridge, Smokeless Powder and its Influence
on Gun Construction (London, 1890); C. Napier Hake and W.
Macnab, Explosives and their Power (London, 1892); G. Coralys,
Les Explosifs (Paris, 1893); A. Ponteaux, La Poudre sans fumee
et les poudres anciennes (Paris, 1893); F. Salvati, Vocabolario di
polveri ed explosivi (Rome, 1893); C. Guttmann, The Manufacture
of Explosives (London, 1895 and later) ; S. J. von Romocki, Geschichte
der Sprengstoffchemie, der Sprengtechnik und des Torpedowesens bis
zum Beginn der neusten Zeit (Berlin, 1895); Geschichte der Explosiv-
stoffe, die rauchschwachen Pulver (Berlin, 1896); P. G. Sanford,
Nitro-explosives (London, 1896); L. Gody, Traite theorique et
pratique des matures explosives (Namur, 1896); R. Wille, Der
Plastomerite (Berlin, 1898); E. Sarrau, Introduction a la theorie
des explosifs (1893); Theorie des explosifs (1896); O. Guttmann,
Manufacture of Explosives (London, 1895); E. M. Weaver, Notes on
Military Explosives (New York, 1906) ; M. Eissler, The Modern High
Explosives (New York, 1906) ; Treatise on Service Explosives,
published by order of the secretary of state for war (London, 1907).
Most of the literature on modern explosives, e.g. dynamite, &c..
is to be found in papers contributed to scientific journals and societies.
An index to those which have appeared in the Journal of the Society
of Chemical Industry is to be found in the decennial index (1908)
compiled by F. W. Renant.
EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the
Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing
objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words), a
word signifying that which is clearly and definitely set forth or
represented, explicit, and thus used of a meaning, a law, a con-
tract and the like, being specially contrasted with " implied."
Thus in law, malice, for which there is actual evidence, as apart
from that which may be inferred from the acts of the person
charged, is known as " express." The word is most frequently
used with the idea of something done with a definite purpose;
the term " express train," now meaning one that travels at a
high speed over long distances with few intermediate stoppages,
was, in the early days of railways, applied to what is now usually
called a " special," i.e. a train not running according to the
ordinary time-tables of the railway company, but for some
specific purpose, or engaged by a private person. About 1845
this term became used for a train running to a particular place
without stopping. Similarly in the British postal service,
express delivery is a special and immediate delivery of a letter,
parcel, &c., by an express messenger at a particular increased
rate. The system was adopted in 1891.
In the United States of America, express companies for the
rapid transmission of parcels and luggage and light goods gener-
ally perform the function of the post office or the railways in
the United Kingdom and the continent of Europe. Not only
do they deliver goods, but by the cash on delivery system (see
CASH) the express companies act as agents both for the purchaser
and seller of goods. They also serve as a most efficient agency
for the transmission of money, the express money order being
much more easily convertible than the postal money orders, as
the latter can only be redeemed at offices in large and important
towns. The system dates back to 1839, when one William
Frederick Harnden (1813-1845), a conductor on the Boston and
Worcester railway, undertook on his own account the carrying
of small parcels and the performance of small commissions.
Obliged to leave the company's service or abandon his enterprise,
he started an " express " service between Boston and New
York, carrying parcels, executing commissions and collecting
drafts and bills. Alvin Adams followed in 1840, also between
Boston and New York. From 1840 to 1845 the system was
adopted by many others between the more important towns
EXPROPRIATION EXTENSION
5
throughout the States. The attempt to carry letters also was
stopped by the government as interfering v/ith the post office.
In 1854 began the amalgamation of many of the companies.
Thus under the name of the Adams Express Company the
services started by Harnden and Adams were consolidated. The
lines connecting the west and east by Albany, Buffalo and the
lakes were consolidated in the American Express Company,
under the direction of William G. Fargo (<?..), Henry Wells and
Johnston Livingston, while another company, Wells, Fargo &
Co., operated on the Pacific coast. The celebrated " Pony
Express " was started in 1860 between San Francisco and St
Joseph, Missouri, the time scheduled being eight days. The
service was carried on by relays of horses, with stations
25 m. apart. The charge made for the service was $2.50 per
$ oz. The completion of the Pacific Telegraph Company line
in 1 86 1 was followed by the discontinuance of the regular
service.
The name " express " is applied to a rifle having high velocity,
flat trajectory and long fixed-sight ranges; and an "express-
bullet " is a light bullet with a heavy charge of powder used in
such a rifle (see RIFLE).
EXPROPRIATION, the taking away or depriving of property
(Late Lat. expropriare, to take away, proprium, i. e. that which
is one's own) . The term is particularly applied to the compulsory
acquisition of private property by the state or other public
authority.
EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere), the act of driving
out, or of removing a person from the membership of a body
or the holding of an office, or of depriving him of the right of
attending a meeting, &c. In the United Kingdom the House
of Commons can by resolution expel a member. Such resolution
cannot be questioned by any court of law. But expulsion is
only resorted to in cases where members are guilty of offences
rendering them unfit for a seat in the House, such as being in
open rebellion, being guilty of forgery, perjury, fraud or breach
of trust, misappropriation of public money, corruption, conduct
unbecoming the character of an officer and a gentleman, &c. It
is customary to order the member, if absent, to attend in his
place, before an order is made for his expulsion (see May, Parlia-
mentary Practice, 1906, p. 56 seq.). Municipal corporations or
other local government bodies have no express power to expel
a member, except in such cases where the law declares the
member to have vacated his seat, or where power is given by
statute to declare the member's seat vacant. In the cases of
officers and servants of the crown, tenure varies with the nature
of the office. Some officials hold their offices ad vilam out
culpam or dum bene se gesserunt, others can be dismissed at any
time and without reason assigned and without compensation.
In the case of membership of a voluntary association (club, &c.)
the right of expulsion depends upon the rules, and must be
exercised in good faith. Courts of justice have jurisdiction to
prevent the improper expulsion of the member of a voluntary
association where that member has a right of property in the
association. In the case of meetings, where the meeting is one
of a public body, any person not a member of the body is
entitled to be present only on sufferance, and may be expelled
on a resolution of the body. In the case of ordinary public
meetings those who convene the meeting stand in the position
of licensors to those attending and may revoke the licence and
expel any person who creates disorder or makes himself otherwise
objectionable.
Expulsion of Aliens. Under the Naturalization Act of 1870,
the last of the civil disqualifications affecting aliens in England
was removed. The political disqualifications which remained
only applied to electoral rights. In the very exceptional cases
in which it was retained in the statute book, expulsion was
considered to have fallen into desuetude, but it has been revived
by the Aliens Act of 1905 (5 Edw. VII. c. 13). Under this
act powers are given to the secretary of state to make an order
requiring an alien to leave the United Kingdom within a time
fixed by the order and thereafter to remain outside the United
Kingdom, subject to certain conditions, provided it is certified
to him that the alien has been convicted of any felony or mis-
demeanour or other offence for which the court has power to
impose imprisonment without the option of a fine, &c., or that
he has been sentenced in a foreign country with which there is
an extradition treaty, for a crime not being an offence of a
political character. There are also provisions applicable within
one year after the alien has entered the United Kingdom in the
case of pauper aliens. Precautions are taken to prevent, as
far as possible, any abuse of the power of expulsion. Under the
French law of expulsion (December 3, 1849) there are no such
precautions, the minister of the interior having an absolute
discretion to order any foreigner as a measure of public policy
to leave French territory and in fact to have him taken immedi-
ately to the frontier.
EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch), in general,
the action of straining or stretching out. It is usually employed
metaphorically (cf. the phrase an "extension of time," a period
allowed in excess of what has been agreed upon). It is used
as a technical term in logic to describe the total number of
objects to which a given term may be applied; thus the meaning
of the term " King " in " extension " means the kings of England,
Italy, Spain, &c. (cf. DENOTATION), while in " intension " it
means the attributes which taken together make up the idea of
kinghood (see CONNOTATION). In psychology the literal sense
of extension is retained, i.e. " spread-outness." The perception
of space by the senses of sight and touch, as opposed to semi-
spatial perceptions by smell and hearing, is that of " continuous
expanse composed of positions separated and connected by
distances" (Stout); to this the term "extension" is applied.
The perception of separate objects involves position and distance,
but these taken together are not extension, which necessarily
implies continuity. To move one's finger along the keys of a
piano gives both the position and the distance of the keys;
to move it along the frame gives the idea of extension. By
expanding this idea we obtain the conception of all space as
an extended whole. To this perception are necessary both form
and material. It should be observed the actual quality of a
stimulus (rough, smooth, dry, &c.) has nothing to do with the
spatial perception as such, which is concerned purely with what
is known as " local signature." The elementary undifferentiated
sensation excited by the stimuli exerted by a continuous whole
is known as its " extensive quantity " or " extensity." The
term has to do not with the kind of object which excites the
sensation, but simply with the vague massiveness of the latter.
As such it is distinguishable in thought from extension, though
it is not easy to say whether and if so how far the quantitative
aspect of space can exist apart from spatial order. Extensity
as an element in the complex of extension must be carefully
distinguished from intensity. Mere increase of pressure implies
increase of intensity of sensation; to increase the extensity
the area, so to speak, of the exciting stimulus must be increased.
Thus the extensity (also called " voluminousness," or " massive-
ness ") of the sensation produced by a roll of thunder is greater
than that produced by a whistle or the bark of a dog. It should
be observed that this application of the idea of extensity to
sensation in general, rather than to the matter which is the
exciting stimulus, is only an analogy, an attempt to explain
a common psychic phenomenon by terminology which is in-
trinsically suitable to the physical. As a natural consequence
the term represents different shades of meaning in different
treatises, verging sometimes towards the physical, sometimes
towards the psychic, meaning.
In connexion with extension elaborate psycho-physical
experiments have been devised, e.g. with the object of comparing
the accuracy of tactual and visual perception and discovering
what are the least differences which each can observe. At a
distance two lights appear as one, just as two stars distinguishable
through a telescope are one to the naked eye (see VISION):
again if the points of a compass are brought close together
and pressed lightly on the skin the sensation, though vague and
diffused, is a single one.
See PSYCHOLOGY and works there quoted ; also SPACE AND TIME.
86 EXTENUATING CIRCUMSTANCES EXTERRITORIALITY
EXTENUATING CIRCUMSTANCES. This expression is used
in law with reference to crimes, to describe cases in which,
though an offence has been committed without legal justification
or excuse, its gravity, from the point of view of punishment or
moral opprobrium, is mitigated or reduced by reason of the facts
leading up to or attending the commission of the offence. Ac-
cording to English procedure, the jury has no power to determine
the punishment to be awarded for an offence. The sentence,
with certain exceptions in capital cases, is within the sole discre-
tion of the judge, subject to the statutory prescriptions as to the
kind and maximum of punishment. It is common practice for
juries to add to their verdict, guilty or not guilty, a rider recom-
mending the accused to mercy on the ground of grave provocation
received, or other circumstances which in their view should
mitigate the penalty. This form of rider is often added on a
verdict of guilty of wilful murder, a crime as to which the judge
has no discretion as to punishment, but the recommendation
is sent to the Home Office for consideration in advising as to
exercise of the prerogative of mercy. Quite independently of
any recommendation by the jury, the judge is entitled to take
into account matters proved during the trial, or laid before him
after verdict, as a guide to him in determining the quantum
of punishment.
Under the French law (Code d'inslruction criminette, art. 345),
it is the sole right and the duty of a jury in a criminal case to
pronounce whether or not the commission of the offence was
attended by extenuating circumstances (cir Constances atlenuantes) .
They are not bound to say anything about the matter; but
the whole or the majority may qualify the verdict by finding
extenuation, and if they do, the powers of the court to impose
the maximum punishment are taken away and the sentence to be
pronounced is reduced in accordance with the scale laid down
in art. 463 of the Code penal. The most important result of this
rule is to enable a jury to prevent the infliction of capital punish-
ment for murder. In cases of what is termed " crime passionel,"
French juries, when they do not acquit, almost invariably find
extenuation; and a like verdict has become common even in the
case of cold-blooded and sordid murders, owing to objections
to capital punishment.
EXTERRITORIALITY, a term of international law, used to
denominate certain immunities from the application of the rule
that every person is subject for all acts done within the boundaries
of a state to its local laws. It is also employed to describe the
quasi-extraterritorial position, to borrow the phrase of Grotius,
of the dwelling-place of an accredited diplomatic agent, and of
the public ships of one state while in the waters of another.
Latterly its sense has been extended to all cases in which states
refrain from enforcing their laws within their territorial juris-
diction. The cases recognized by the law of nations relate to:
(i) the persons and belongings of foreign sovereigns, whether
incognito or not; (2) the persons and belongings of ambassadors,
ministers plenipotentiary, and other accredited diplomatic
agents and their suites (but not consuls, except in some non-
Christian countries, in which they sometimes have a diplomatic
character); (3) public ships in foreign waters. Exterritoriality
has also been granted by treaty to the subjects and citizens
of contracting Christian states resident within the territory
of certain non-Christian states. Lastly, it is held that when
armies or regiments are allowed by a foreign state to cross
its territory, they necessarily have exterritorial rights. " The
ground upon which the immunity of sovereign rulers from
process in our courts," said Mr Justice Wills in the case of
Mighell v. Sultan of Johore, 1894, "is recognized by our law, is
that it would be absolutely inconsistent with the status of an
independent sovereign that he should be subject to the process of
a foreign tribunal," unless he deliberately submits to its juris-
diction. It has, however, been held where the foreign sovereign
was also a British subject (Duke of Brunswick v. King of Hanover,
1844), that he is amenable to the jurisdiction of the English
Courts in respect of transactions done by him in his capacity
as a subject. A " foreign sovereign " may be taken to include
the president of a republic, and even a potentate whose inde-
pendence is not complete. Thus in the case, cited above, of
Mighell v. Sultan of Johore, the sultan was ascertained to have
abandoned all right to contract with foreign states, and to
have placed his territory under British protection. The court
held that he was, nevertheless, a foreign sovereign in so far as
immunity from British jurisdiction was concerned. The im-
munity of a foreign diplomatic agent, as the direct representative
of a foreign sovereign (or state), is based on the same grounds
as that of the sovereign authority itself. The international
practice in the case of Great Britain was confirmed by an act
of parliament of the reign of Queen Anne, which is still in force.
The preamble to this act states that " turbulent and disorderly
persons in a most outrageous manner had insulted the person
of the then ambassador of his Czarish Majesty, emperor of Great
Russia," by arresting and detaining him in custody for several
hours, " in contempt to the protection granted by Her Majesty,
contrary to the law of nations, and in prejudice of the rights
and privileges which ambassadors and other public ministers,
authorized and received as such, have at all times been thereby
possessed of, and ought to be kept sacred and inviolable." This
preamble has been repeatedly held by our courts to be declaratory
of the English common law. The act provides that all suits,
writs, processes, against any accredited ambassador or public
minister or his domestic servant, and all proceedings and judg-
ments had thereupon, are " utterly null and void," and that
any person violating these provisions shall be punished for a
breach of the public peace. Thus a foreign diplomatic agent
cannot, like the sovereign he represents, waive his immunity
by submitting to the British jurisdiction. The diplomatic im-
munity necessarily covers the residence of the diplomatic agent,
which some writers describe as assimilated to territory of the
state represented by the agent; but there is no consideration
which can justify any extension of the immunity beyond the
needs of the diplomatic mission resident within it. It is different
with public ships in foreign waters. In their case the ex-
territoriality attaches to the vessel. Beyond its bulwarks
captain and crew are subject to the ordinary jurisdiction of the
state upon whose territory they happen to be. By a foreign public
ship is now understood any ship in the service of a foreign state.
It was even held in the case of the " Parlement Beige " (1880),
a packet belonging to the Belgian government, that the character
of the vessel as a public ship was not affected by its carrying
passengers and merchandise for hire. In a more recent case an
action brought by the owners of a Greek vessel against a vessel
belonging to the state of Rumania was dismissed, though the
agents of the Rumanian government had entered an appearance
unconditionally and had obtained the release of the vessel on
bail, on the ground that the Rumanian government had not
authorized acceptance of the British jurisdiction (The " Jassy,"
1906, 75 L.J.P. 93).
Writers frequently describe the exterritoriality of both em-
bassies and ships as absolute. There is, however, this differ-
ence, that the exterritoriality of the latter not being, like that
of embassies, a derived one, there seems to be no ground for
limitation of it. It was, nevertheless, laid down by the arbitrators
in the " Alabama " case (Cockburn dissenting), that the privilege
of exterritoriality accorded to vessels had not been admitted
into the law of nations as an absolute right, but solely as a
proceeding founded on the principle of courtesy and mutual
deference between different nations, and that it could therefore
"never be appealed to for the protection of acts done in violation
of neutrality."
The exterritorial settlements in the Far East, the privileges
of Christians under the arrangements made with the Ottoman
Porte, and other exceptions from local jurisdictions, are subject
to the conditions laid down in the treaties by which they have
been created. There are also cases in which British communities
have grown up in barbarous countries without the consent
of any local authority. All these are regulated by orders in
council, issued now in virtue of the Foreign Jurisdiction Act
1890, an act enabling the crown to exercise any jurisdiction it
may have " within a foreign country " in as ample a manner
EXTORTION EXTRADITION
as if it had been acquired " by cession or conquest of territory."
A very exceptional case of exterritoriality is that granted to the
pope under a special Italian enactment. (T. BA.)
EXTORTION (Lat. exlorsio, from extorquere, to twist out, to
lake away by force), in English law the term applied to the
exaction by public officers of money or money's worth not due
at all, or in excess of what is due, or before it is due. Such
exaction, unless made in good faith (i.e. in honest mistake as
to the sum properly payable), is a misdemeanour by the common
law and is punishable by fine and (or) imprisonment. Besides
the punishment above stated, an action for twice the value of
the thing extorted lies against officers of the king (1275, 3 Edw. I.
c. 46). There are numerous provisions for the punishment of
particular officers who make illegal exactions or take illegal
fees: e.g. sheriffs and their officers (Sheriffs Act 1887), county
court bailiffs (County Courts Act 1888), clerks of courts of
justice, and gaolers who exact fees from prisoners. A gaoler
is also punishable for detaining the corpse of a prisoner as
security for debt. The term " public officer " is not limited to
offices under the crown; and there are old precedents of criminal
proceedings for extortion against churchwardens, and against
millers and ferrymen who demand tolls in excess of what is
customary under their franchise.
The term extortion is also applied to the exaction of money
or money's worth by menaces of personal violence or by
threats to accuse of crime or to publish defamatory matter
about another person. These offences fall partly under the head
of robbery and partly under blackmail, or what in French is
termed chantage.
See Russell on Crimes (6th ed., vol. i. p. 423; vol. iii. p. 348).
EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out), in pharmacy,
the name given to preparations formed by evaporating or con-
centrating solutions of active principles; tinctures are solutions
which have not been subjected to any evaporation. " Liquid
extracts " are those of a syrupy consistency, and are generally
prepared by treating the drug with the solvent (water, alcohol,
&c.) and concentrating the solution until it attains the desired
consistency. " Ordinary extracts " are thick, tenacious and
sometimes even dry preparations ; they are obtained by evaporat-
ing solutions as obtained above, or the juices expressed from
the plants.
Extraction, in chemical technology, is a process for separating
one substance from another by taking advantage of the varying
solubility of the components in some chosen solvent. The term
" lixiviation " is used when water is the solvent. In laboratory
practice all the common solvents are employed. With small quan-
tities it may suffice to shake the substance with the solvent, the
mixture being heated if necessary, filter and distil or otherwise
remove the solvent from the distillate. For larger quantities
continuous extraction is advisable. This may be carried out
in many forms of apparatus; one of the most convenient is
the Soxhlet extractor, in which the extract siphons into the
flask containing the solvent, and so maintains the quantity of
available solvent practically constant. Continuous extraction
is generally the practice in technology. One of the most im-
portant applications is in the fat and gelatine industries.
EXTRADITION (Lat. ex, out, and traditio, handing over),
the surrender of an alleged criminal for trial by a foreign state
where he has taken refuge, to the state against which the alleged
offence has been committed. When a person who has committed
an offence in one country escapes to another, what is the duty
of the latter with regard to him? Should the country of refuge
try him in its own courts according to its own laws, or deliver
him up to the country whose laws he has broken? To the
general question international law gives no certain answer.
Some jurists, Grotius among them, incline to hold that a state
is bound to give up fugitive criminals, but the majority appear
to deny the obligation as a matter of right, and prefer to put
it on the ground of comity. And the universal practice of nations
is to surrender criminals only in consequence of some special
treaty with the country which demands them.
There are two practical difficulties about extradition which
have probably prevented the growth of any uniform rule on the
subject. One is the variation in the definitions of crime adopted
by different countries. The second is the possibility of the
process of extradition being employed to get hold of a person
who is wanted by his country, not really for a criminal, but for
a political offence. In modern states, and more particularly
in England, offences of a political character have always been
carefully excluded from the operation of the law of extradition.
i. UNITED KINGDOM. The Extradition Acts 1870-1873
(33 & 34 Viet. cc. 62, and 36 & 37 Viet. c. 60) and the Fugitive
Offenders Act 1881 (44 & 45 Viet. c. 69) deal with different
branches of the same subject, the recovery and surrender of
fugitive criminals. The Extradition Acts apply in the case of
countries with which Great Britain has extradition treaties.
The Fugitive Offenders Act applies (i) as between the United
Kingdom and any British possession, (2) as between any two
British possessions, and (3) as between the United Kingdom
or a British possession and certain foreign countries, such as
Turkey and China, in which the crown exercises foreign juris-
diction.
Conditions of Surrender. In spite of some earlier authorities
it has long been settled that in English law there is no power to
surrender fugitive criminals to a foreign country without express
statutory authority. Such authority is now given by the
Extradition Acts 1870-1873, but only in the case of the offences
therein specified, and with regard to countries with which an
arrangement has been entered into, and to which the acts have
been applied by order in council. The acts are further to be
applied, subject to such " conditions, exceptions and qualifica-
tions as may be deemed expedient " (s. 2); and these conditions,
&c., are invariably to be found in the extradition treaty which
is set out in the order in council applying the Extradition Acts
to a particular country. To support a demand for extradition
from Great Britain it is therefore necessary to show that the
offence is one of those enumerated in the Extradition Acts, and
also in the particular treaty, and that the acts charged amount
to the offence according to the laws both of Great Britain and of
the state demanding the surrender.
Surrender of Subjects. A further question arises where a state
is called on to surrender one of its own subjects. Some of the
treaties, such as those with France and Germany, stipulate
that neither contracting party shall surrender its own subjects,
and in such cases a British subject cannot be surrendered by
his own country. The treaties with Spain, Switzerland and
Luxemburg provide for the surrender by Great Britain of her
own subjects, but there is no reciprocity. Other treaties, such
as those with Austria, Belgium, Russia and the Netherlands,
give each party the option of surrendering or refusing to surrender
its own subjects in each particular case. Under such treaties
British subjects are surrendered unless the secretary of state
intervenes to forbid it. Lastly, some treaties, such as that with
the United States, contain no restriction of this kind, and the
subjects of each power are freely surrendered to the other.
Surrender by Great Britain is also subject to the following
restrictions contained in s. 3 of the Extradition Act 1870:
(i) that the offence is not of a political character, and the requisi-
tion has not been made with a view to try and punish for an
offence of a political character; (2) that the prisoner shall not
be liable to be tried for any but the specified extradition offences;
(3) that he shall not be surrendered until he has been tried and
served his sentence for offences committed in Great Britain;
and (4) that he shall not be actually given up until fifteen days
after his committal for extradition, so as to allow of an applica-
tion to the courts.
Political Offences. The question as to what constitutes a
political offence is one of some nicety. It was discussed in In
re Caslioni (1890, i Q.B. 149), where it was held, following the
opinion of Mr Justice Stephen in his History of the Criminal Law,
that to give an offence a political character it must be " incidental
to and form part of political disturbances." Extradition was
accordingly refused for homicide committed in the course of an
armed rising against the constituted authorities. In the more
88
EXTRADITION
recent case of In re Meunier (1894, 2 Q.B. 415), an Anarchist
was charged with causing two explosions in Paris one at the
Caf6 Very resulting in the death of two persons, and the other
at certain barracks. It was not contended that the outrage
at the cafe was a political crime, but it was argued that the
explosion at the barracks came within the description. The
court, however, held that to constitute a political offence there
must be two or more parties in the state, each seeking to impose
a government of its own choice on the other, which was not the
case with regard to Anarchist crimes. The party of anarchy
was the enemy of all governments, and its effects were directed
primarily against the general body of citizens. The test applied
in the earlier case is perhaps the more satisfactory of the two.
With regard to the provision that surrender shall not be
granted if the requisition has in fact been made with a view to
try and punish for an offence of a political character, it was
decided in the case of Arton (1896, i Q.B. 108) that a mere sug-
gestion, that after his surrender for a non-political crime, the
prisoner would be interrogated on political matters (his alleged
complicity in the Panama scandal), and punished for his refusal
to answer, was not enough to bring him within the provision.
The court also held that it had no jurisdiction to entertain a
suggestion that the request of the French government for his
extradition was not made in good faith and in the interests of
justice.
Extradition Offences. The following is a list of crimes in
respect of which extradition may be provided for under the
Extradition Acts 1870-1873, and the Slave Trade Act 1873.
Extradition Act 1870: (i) Murder; (2) Attempt to murder;
(3) Conspiracy to murder; (4) Manslaughter; (5) Counter-
feiting and altering money, uttering counterfeit or altered money;
(6) Forgery, counterfeiting, and altering and uttering what is
forged or counterfeited or altered; (7) Embezzlement and
larceny; (8) Obtaining money or goods by false pretences;
(9) Crimes by bankrupts against bankruptcy law; (10) Fraud
by a bailee, banker, agent, factor, trustee or director, or member
or public officer of any company made criminal by any law for the
tiije being in force; (n) Rape; (12) Abduction; (13) Child-
stealing; (14) Burglary and housebreaking; (15) Arson; (16)
Robbery with violence; (17) Threats by letter or otherwise with
intent to extort; (18) Crimes committed at sea: (a) Piracy by
the law of nations; (b) Sinking or destroying a vessel at sea, or
attempting or conspiring to do so; (c) Assault on a ship on the
high seas, with intent to destroy life or to do grievous bodily harm ;
(d) Revolt, or conspiring to revolt, by two or more persons on board
a ship on the high seas against the authority of the master;
(19) Bribery. Extradition Act 1873: (20) Kidnapping and false
imprisonment; (21) Perjury and subornation of perjury. This
act also extends to indictable offences under 24 & 25 Viet,
cc. 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, and amending and substituted acts.
Among such offences included in various extradition treaties
are the following: (22) Obtaining valuable securities by false
pretences; (23) Receiving any money, valuable security or
other property, knowing the same to have been stolen or unlaw-
fully obtained; (24) Falsification of accounts (see In re Arton,
1896, i Q.B. 509); (25) Malicious injury to property, if such
offence be indictable; (26) Knowingly making, without lawful
authority, any instrument, tool or engine adapted and intended
for the counterfeiting of coin of the realm; (27) Abandoning
children; exposing or unlawfully detaining them; (28) Any
malicious act done with intent to endanger the safety of any
person in a railway train; (29) Wounding or inflicting grievous
bodily harm; (30) Assault occasioning actual bodily harm;
(31) Assaulting a magistrate or peace or public officer; (32)
Indecent assault; (33) Unlawful carnal knowledge, or any
attempt to have unlawful carnal knowledge, of a girl under age;
(34) Bigamy; (35) Administering drugs or using instruments
with intent to procure the miscarriage of women; (36) Any
indictable offence under the laws for the time being in force in
relation to bankruptcy. Slave Trade Act 1873 (36 & 37 Viet,
c. 88, s. 27): (37) Dealing in slaves in such manner as to
constitute a criminal offence against the laws of both states.
The United Kingdom has extradition treaties with practically
all civilized foreign countries; and though it is not practicable
to state which of the statutory extradition offences are included
in each, it may be said generally that crimes i to 17 inclusive
are covered in all, though Rumania has reserved the right to
refuse, and Portugal does refuse, to surrender for a crime punish-
able with death.
The act of 1873 provides for the surrender of accessories
before and after the fact to extradition crimes, and most of the
treaties contain a clause by which extradition is to be granted
for participation in any of the crimes specified in the treaty,
provided that such participation is punishable by the laws of
both countries. Several of the treaties also contain clauses
providing for optional surrender in respect of any crime not
expressly mentioned for which extradition can be granted by
the laws of both countries.
It is further to be noted that the restrictions on surrender
in the Extradition Acts apply only to surrenders by Great Britain.
Foreign countries may surrender fugitives to Great Britain
without any treaty, if they are willing to do so and their law
allows of it, and such surrenders have not infrequently been
made. But when surrendered for an extradition crime, the
prisoner cannot be tried in England for any other crime com-
mitted before such surrender, until he has been restored, or has
had an opportunity of returning, to the foreign state from which
he was extradited.
Procedure. To obtain from a foreign country the extradition of
a fugitive from the United Kingdom, it is necessary to procure
a warrant for his arrest, and to send it, or a certified copy, to the
home secretary together with such further evidence as is required
by the treaty with the country in question. In most cases
an information or deposition containing evidence which would
justify a committal for trial in Great Britain will be required.
The home secretary will then communicate through the foreign
secretary and the proper diplomatic channels with the foreign
authorities, and in case of urgency will ask them by telegraph for
a provisional arrest. For the arrest in the United Kingdom of
fugitive criminals whose extradition is requested by a foreign
state, two procedures are provided in ss. 7 and 8 of the act of
1870: (i) On a diplomatic requisition supported by the warrant
of arrest and documentary evidence, the home secretary, if he
thinks the crime is not of a political character, will order the
chief magistrate at Bow Street to proceed; and such magistrate
will then issue a warrant of arrest on such evidence as would be
required if the offence had been committed in the United King-
dom. (2) More summarily, any magistrate or justice of the peace
may issue a provisional warrant of arrest on evidence which
would support such a warrant if the crime had been committed
within his jurisdiction. In practice a sworn information is re-
quired, but this may be based on a telegram from the foreign
authorities. The magistrate or justice must then report the
issue of the warrant to the home secretary, who may cancel it
and discharge the prisoner. When arrested on the provisional
warrant, the prisoner will be brought up before a magistrate
and remanded to Bow Street, and will then be further remanded
until the magistrate at Bow Street is notified that a formal
requisition for surrender has been made; and unless such
requisition is made in reasonable time the prisoner is entitled
to be discharged. The examination of the prisoner prior to his
committal for extradition ordinarily takes place at Bow Street.
The magistrate is required to hear evidence that the alleged
offence is of a political character or is not an extradition crime.
If satisfied in these respects, and if the foreign warrant of arrest
is duly authenticated, and evidence is given which according
to English law would justify a committal for trial, if the prisoner
has not yet been tried, or would prove a conviction if he has
already been convicted, the magistrate will commit him for
extradition. Under the Extradition Act 1893 the home secretary,
if of opinion that removal to Bow Street would be dangerous to
the prisoner's life, or prejudicial to his health, may order the case
to be taken by a magistrate at the place where the prisoner was
apprehended, or then is, and the magistrate may order the
EXTRADOS EXTREME UNCTION
89
prisoner to be detained in such place. After committal for extra-
dition, every prisoner has fifteen days in which to apply for
habeas corpus, and after such period, or at the close of the habeas
corpus proceedings if they are unsuccessful, the home secretary
issues his warrant for surrender, and the prisoner is handed over
to the officers of the foreign government.
The Extradition Acts apply to the British colonies, the
governor being substituted for the secretary of state. Their
operation may, however, be suspended by order in council, as
in the case of Canada, where the colony has passed an Extradition
Act of its own (see Statutory Rules and Orders).
Fugitive Offenders Act. There are no extradition treaties
with certain countries in which the crown exercises foreign juris-
diction, such as Cyprus, Turkey, Egypt, China, Japan, Corea,
Zanzibar, Morocco, Siam, Persia, Somali, &c. In these countries
the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 (44 & 45 Viet. c. 69) has been
applied, pursuant to s. 36 of that statute, and the measures for
obtaining surrender of a fugitive criminal are the same as in a
British colony. The act, however, only applies to persons over
whom the crown has jurisdiction in these territories, and generally
is expressly restricted to British subjects.
Under this act a fugitive from one part of the king's dominions
to another, or to a country where the crown exercises foreign
jurisdiction, may be brought back by a procedure analogous to
extradition, but applicable only to treason, piracy and offences
punishable with twelve months' imprisonment with hard labour
or more. The original warrant of arrest must be endorsed by one
of several authorities where the offenders happen to be, in
practice by the home secretary in the United Kingdom and by
the governor in a colony. Pending the arrival of the original
warrant a provisional arrest may be made, as under the Ex-
tradition Acts. The fugitive must then be brought up for
examination before a local magistrate, who, if the endorsed
warrant is duly authenticated, and evidence is produced " which,
according to the law administered by the magistrate, raises a
strong or probable presumption that the offender committed the
offence, and that the act applies to it," may commit him for re-
turn. An interval of fifteen days is allowed for habeas corpus pro-
ceedings, and (s. 10) the court has a large discretion to discharge
the prisoner, or impose terms, if it thinks the case frivolous, or
that the return would be unjust or oppressive, or too severe
a punishment. The next step is for the home secretary in the
United Kingdom, and the governor in a colony, to issue a
warrant for the return of the prisoner. He must be removed
within a month, in the absence of reasonable cause to the con-
trary. If not prosecuted within six months after arrival, or if
acquitted, he is entitled to be sent back free of cost.
In the case of fugitive offenders from one part of the United
Kingdom to another, it is enough to get the warrant of arrest
backed by a magistrate having jurisdiction in that part of
the United Kingdom where the offender happens to be. A
warrant issued by a metropolitan police magistrate may be
executed, without backing, by a metropolitan police officer any-
where, and there are certain other exceptions, but as a rule a
warrant cannot be executed without being backed by a local
magistrate. (J. E. P. W.)
2. UNITED STATES. Foreign extradition is purely an affair of
the United States, and not for the individual states themselves.
Upon a demand upon the United States for extradition, there is
a preliminary examination before a commissioner or judge before
there can be a surrender to the foreign government (Revised
Statutes, Title LXVI.; 22 Statutes at Large, 213). It is enough
to show probable guilt (Ornelas v. Ruiz, 161 United States
Reports, 502). An extradition treaty covers crimes previously
committed. If a Power, with which the United States have
such a treaty, surrenders a fugitive charged* with a crime not
included in the treaty, he may be tried in the United States for
such crime. Inter-state extradition is regulated by act of Con-
gress under the Constitution of the United States (Article IV. s.
2; United States Revised Statutes, s. 5278). A surrender may
be demanded of one properly charged with an act which con-
stitutes a crime under the laws of the demanding state, although
it be no crime in the other state. A party improperly surrendered
may be released by writ of habeas corpus, either from a state or
United States court (Robb v. Conolly, in U.S. Reports, 624). On
his return to the state from which he fled, he is subject to prosecu-
tion for any crime, though on a foreign extradition the law is other-
wise (Lascelles v. Georgia, 148 U.S. Reports, 537). (S. E. B.).
See Sir E. Clarke, Treatise upon the Law of Extradition (4th ed.,
1904) ; Biron and Chalmers, Law and Practice of Extradition (1903).
EXTRADOS (extra, outside, Fr. dos, back), the architectural
term for the outer boundary of the voussoirs of an arch (q.v.).
EXTREME UNCTION, a sacrament of the Roman Catholic
Church. In James v. 14 it is ordained that, if any believer is
sick, he shall call for the elders of the church; and they shall
pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord;
and the prayer of faith shall save him that is sick, and the Lord
shall raise him up; and if he have committed sins, it shall be
forgiven him.
Origen reprobated medical art on the ground that the pre-
scription here cited is enough; modern faith-healers and Peculiar
People have followed in his wake. The Catholic Church has more
wisely left physicians in possession, and elevated the anointing
of the sick into a sacrament to be used only in cases of mortal
sickness, and even then not to the exclusion of the healing art.
It has been general since the 9th century. The council of
Florence A.D. 1439 thus defined it:
" The fifth sacrament is extreme unction. Its matter is olive
oil, blessed by a bishop. It shall not be given except to a sick person
whose death is apprehended. He shall be anointed in the following
places: the eyes, ears, nostrils', mouth, hands, feet, reins. The
form of the sacrament is this: Through this anointing of thee and
through its most pious mercy, 'be forgiven all thy sins of sight, &c.
. . . and so in respect of the other organs. A priest can administer
this sacrament. But its effect is to make whole the mind, and,
so far as it is expedient, the body as well."
This sacrament supplements that of penance (viz. remission
of post-baptismal sin) in the sense that any guilt unconfessed or
left over after normal penances imposed by confessors is purged
thereby. It was discussed in the i2th century whether this
sacrament is indelible like baptism, or whether it can be repeated;
and the latter view, that of Peter Lombard, prevailed.
It was a popular opinion in the middle ages that extreme
unction extinguishes all ties and links with this world, so that he
who has received it must, if he recovers, renounce the eating of
flesh and matrimonial relations. A few peasants of Lombardy
still believe that one who has received extreme unction ought to
be left to die, and that sick people may be starved to death
through the withholding of food on superstitious grounds. Such
opinions, combated by bishops and councils, were due to the
influence of the consolamenlum of the Cathars (q.v.). In both
sacraments the death-bed baptism of an earlier age seems to
survive, and they both fulfil a deep-seated need of the human
spirit.
Some Gnostics sprinkled the heads of the dying with oil and
water to render them invisible to the powers of darkness; but in
the East generally, where the need to compete with the Cathar
sacrament of Consolatio was less acutely felt, extreme unction
is unknown. The Latinizing Armenians adopted it from Rome
in the crusading epoch. At an earlier date, however, it was usual
to anoint the dead."
In the Roman Church the bishop blesses the oil of the sick
used in extreme unctions on Holy Thursday at the Chrismal
Mass, 1 using the following prayer of the sacramentaries of
Gelasius and Hadrian:
" Send forth, we pray Thee, O Lord, Thy holy spirit, the Paraclete
from Heaven, into this fatness of oil, which Thou hast deigned to
produce from the green wood for refreshment of mind and body;
and through Thy holy benediction may it be for all that anoint, taste,
touch, a protection of mind and body, of soul and spirit, unto the
easing away of all pain, all weakness, all sickness of mind and body ;
wherefore Thou hast anointed priest, kings and prophets and martyrs
with thy chrism, perfected by Thee, O Lord, blessed and abiding in
our bowels in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ."
See L. Duchesne, Origines du Culte Chretien (Paris, 1898).
(F. C. C.)
1 The oil left over from the year before is burnt.
9 o
EYBESCHUTZ EYCK, VAN
EYBESCHtfTZ, JONATHAN (1690-1764), German rabbi,
was from 1750 rabbi in Altona. He was a man of erudition,
but he owed his fame chiefly to his personality. Few men of the
period so profoundly impressed their mark on Jewish life. He
became specially notorious because of a curious controversy
that arose concerning the amulets which Eybeschiitz was sus-
pected of issuing. These amulets recognized the Messianic
claims of Sabbatai Sebi (q.v.), and a famous rabbinic con-
temporary of Eybeschiitz, Jacob Emden, boldly accused him
of heresy. The controversy was a momentous incident in the
Jewish life of the period, and though there is insufficient evidence
against Eybeschtitz, Emden may be credited with having
crushed the lingering belief in Sabbatai current even in some
orthodox circles. (I. A.)
EYCK, VAN, the name of a family of Flemish painters in whose
works the rise and mature development of art in western Flanders
are represented. Though bred in the valley of the Meuse, they
finally established their professional domicile in Ghent and in
Bruges; and there, by skill and inventive genius, they changed
the traditional habits of the earlier schools, remodelled the
primitive forms of Flemish design, and introduced a complete
revolution into the technical methods of execution familiar to
their countrymen.
i. HUBERT (Huybrecht) VAN EYCK (? 1366-1426) was the
oldest and most remarkable of this race of artists. The date
of his birth and the records of his progress are lost amidst the
ruins of the earlier civilization of the valley of the Meuse. He
was born about 1366, at Maeseyck, under the shelter or protection
of a Benedictine convent, in which art and letters had been
cultivated from the beginning of the 8th century. But after a
long series of wars when the country became insecure, and the
schools which had flourished in the towns decayed he wandered
to Flanders, and there for the first time gained a name. As court
painter to the hereditary prince of Burgundy, and as client to
one of the richest of the Ghent patricians, Hubert is celebrated.
Here, in middle age, between 1410 and 1420, he signalized
himself as the inventor of a new method of painting. Here he
lived in the pay of Philip of Charolais till 1421. Here he painted
pictures for the corporation, whose chief magistrates honoured
him with a state visit in 1424. His principal masterpiece,
the " Worship of the Lamb," commissioned by Jodocus Vijdts,
lord of Pamele, is the noblest creation of the Flemish school, a
piece of which we possess all the parts dispersed from St Bavon
in Ghent to the galleries of Brussels and Berlin, one upon which
Hubert laboured till he died, leaving it to be completed by his
brother. Almost unique as an illustration of contemporary
feeling for Christian art, this great composition can only be
matched by the " Fount of Salvation," in the museum of Madrid.
It represents, on numerous panels, Christ on the judgment seat,
with the Virgin and St John the Baptist at His sides, hearing
the songs of the angels, and contemplated by Adam and Eve,
and, beneath him, the Lamb shedding His blood in the presence
of angels, apostles, prophets, martyrs, knights and hermits.
On the outer sides of the panels are the Virgin and the angel
annunciate, the sibyls and prophets who foretold the coming
of the Lord, and the donors in prayer at the feet of the Baptist and
Evangelist. After this great work was finished it was placed,
in 1432, on an altar in St Bavon of Ghent, with an inscription
on the framework describing Hubert as " maior quo nemo
repertus," and setting forth, in colours as imperishable as the
picture itself, that Hubert began and John afterwards brought
it to perfection. John van Eyck certainly wished to guard
against an error which ill-informed posterity showed itself
but too prone to foster, the error that he alone had composed
and carried out an altarpiece executed jointly by Hubert and
himself. His contemporaries may be credited with full- know-
ledge of the truth in this respect, and the facts were equally
well known to the duke of Burgundy or the chiefs of the corpora-
tion of Bruges, who visited the painter's house in state in 1432,
and the members of the chamber of rhetoric at Ghent, who
reproduced the Agnus Dei as a tableau vivant in 1456. Yet
a later generation of Flemings forgot the claims of Hubert,
and gave the honours that were his due to his brother John
exclusively.
The solemn grandeur of church art in the isth century never
found, out of Italy, a nobler exponent than Hubert van Eyck.
His representation of Christ as the judge, between the Virgin and
St John, affords a fine display of realistic truth, combined with
pure drawing and gorgeous colour, and a happy union of earnest-
ness and simplicity with the deepest religious feeling. In contrast
with earlier productions of the Flemish school, it shows a singular
depth of tone and great richness of detail. Finished with sur-
prising skill, it is executed with the new oil medium, of which
Hubert shared the invention with his brother, but of which no
rival artists at the time possessed the secret, a medium which
consists of subtle mixtures of oil and varnish applied to the
moistening of pigments after a fashion, only kept secret for a
time from gildsmen of neighbouring cities, but unrevealed to
the Italians till near the close of the 1 5th century. When Hubert
died on the i8th of September 1426 he was buried in the chapel
on the altar of which his masterpiece was placed. According
to a tradition as old as the i6th century, his arm was preserved
as a relic in a casket above the portal of St Bavon of Ghent.
During a life of much apparent activity and surprising successes
he taught the elements of his art to his brother John, who sur-
vived him.
2. JOHN (Jan) VAN EYCK (? 1385-1440). The date of his
birth is not more accurately known than that of his elder brother,
but he was born much later than Hubert, who took charge of
him and made him his " disciple." Under this tuition John
learnt to draw and paint, and mastered the properties of colours
from Pliny. Later on, Hubert admitted him into partnership,
and both were made court painters to Philip of Charolais. After
the breaking up of the prince's household in 1421, John became
his own master, left the workshop of Hubert, and took an
engagement as painter to John of Bavaria, at that time resident
at the Hague as count of Holland. From the Hague he returned
in 1424 to take service with Philip, now duke of Burgundy, at a
salary of 100 livres per annum, and from that time till his death
John van Eyck remained the faithful servant of his prince,
who never treated him otherwise than graciously. He was
frequently employed in missions of trust; and following the
fortunes of a chief who was always in the saddle, he appears for
a time to have been in ceaseless motion, receiving extra pay foi
secret services at Leiden, drawing his salary at Bruges, yet
settled in a fixed abode at Lille. In 1428 he joined the embassy
sent by Philip the Good to Lisbon to beg the hand of Isabella
of Portugal. His portrait of the bride fixed the duke's choice.
After his return he settled finally at Bruges, where he married,
and his wife bore him a daughter, known in after years as a nun
in the convent of Maeseyck. At the christening of this child
the duke was sponsor, and this was but one of many distinctions
by which Philip the Good rewarded his painter's merits. Numer-
ous altarpieces and portraits now give proof of van Eyck's
extensive practice. As finished works of art and models of
conscientious labour they are all worthy of the name they
bear, though not of equal excellence, none being better than
those which were completed about 1432. Of an earlier period,
a " Consecration of Thomas a Becket " has been preserved, and
may now be seen at Chatsworth, bearing the date of 1421; no
doubt this picture would give a fair representation of van Eyck's
talents at the moment when he started as an independent
master, but that time and accidents of omission and commission
have altered its state to such an extent that no conclusive opinion
can be formed respecting it. The panels of the " Worship oi
the Lamb " were completed nine years later. They show that
John van Eyck was quite able to work in the spirit of his brother.
He had not only Ihe lines of Hubert's compositions to guide
him, he had also those parts to look at and to study which
Hubert had finished. He continued the work with almost
as much vigour as his master. His own experience had been
increased by travel, and he had seen the finest varieties of
landscape in Portugal and the Spanish provinces. This enabled
him to transfer to his pictures the charming scenery of lands
EYE
9 1
more sunny than those of Flanders, and this he did with accuracy
and not without poetic feeling. We may ascribe much of the
success which attended his efforts to complete the altarpiece
of Ghent to the cleverness with which he reproduced the varied
aspect of changing scenery, reminiscent here of the orange
groves of Cintra, there of the bluffs and crags of his native
valley. In all these backgrounds, though we miss the scientific
rules of perspective with which the van Eycks were not familiar,
we find such delicate perceptions of gradations in tone, such
atmosphere, yet such minuteness and perfection of finish, that our
admiration never flags. Nor is the colour less brilliant or the
touch less firm than in Hubert's panels. John only differs from
his brother in being less masculine and less sternly religious.
He excels in two splendid likenesses of Jodocus Vijdts and his
wife Catherine Burluuts. The same vigorous style and coloured
key of harmony characterizes the small " Virgin and Child " of
1432 at Ince, and the " Madonna," probably of the same date,
at the Louvre, executed for Rollin, chancellor of Burgundy.
Contemporary with these, the male portraits in the National
Gallery, and the " Man with the Pinks," in the BerlinMuseum
(1432-1434), show no relaxation of power; but later creations
display no further progress, unless we accept as progress a more
searching delicacy of finish, counterbalanced by an excessive
softness of rounding in flesh contours. An unfaltering minute-
ness of hand and great tenderness of treatment may be found,
combined with angularity of drapery and some awkwardness
of attitude in the full length portrait couple (John Arnolfini and
his wife) at the National Gallery (1434), in which a rare insight
into the detail of animal nature is revealed in a study of a terrier
dog. A " Madonna with Saints," at Dresden, equally soft and
minute, charms us by the mastery with which an architectural
background is put in. The bold and energetic striving of earlier
days, the strong bright tone, are not equalled by the soft blending
and tender tints of the later ones. Sometimes a crude ruddi-
ness in flesh strikes us as a growing defect, an instance of which
is the picture in the museum of Bruges, in which Canon van der
Paelen is represented kneeling before the Virgin under the
protection of St George (1434). From first to last van Eyck
retains his ability in portraiture. Firje specimens are the two
male likenesses in the gallery of Vienna|(j,436), and a female, the
master's wife, in the gallery of Bruges (1439). His death in
1440/41 at Bruges is authentically recorded. He was buried
in St Donat. Like many great aj^ists he formed but few pupils.
Hubert's disciple, Jodocus of Ghent, hardly does honour to his
master's teaching, and only acquires importance after he has
thrown off some of the peculiarities of Flemish teaching. Petrus
Cristus, who was taught by John, remains immeasurably behind
him in everything that Bftlates to art. But if the personal
influence of the van Eycks was small, that of their works was
immense, and it is not too much to say that their example,
taken in conjunction with that of van der Weyden, determined
the current and practice of painting throughout the whole of
Europe north of the Alps for nearly a century.
See also Waagen, Hubert and Johann van Eyck (1822); Voll>
Werke des Jan van Eyck (1900) ; L. Kammerer on the two families in
Knackfuss's Kunstter-Monographien (1898). (J. A. C.)
EYE, a market-town and municipal borough in the Eye
parliamentary division of Suffolk; England; 945 m. N.E. from
London by the Great Eastern railway, the terminus of a branch
from the Ipswich-Norwich line. Pop. (i9 QI ) 2004. The church
of St Peter and St Paul is mainly of Perpendicular flint work,
with Early English portions and a fine Perpendicular rood
screen. It was formerly attached to a Benedictine priory.
Slight fragments of a Norman castle crown a mound of probably
earlier construction. There are a town hall, corn exchange,
and grammar school founded in 1566. Brewing is the chief
industry. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and
1 2 councillors. Area, 4410 acres.
Eye (Heya, Aye) was once surrounded by a stream, from
which it is said to have derived its name. Leland says it was
situated in a marsh and had formerly been accessible by river
vessels from Cromer, though the river was then only navigable
to Burston, 12 m. from Eye. From the discovery of numerous
bones and Roman urns and coins it has been thought that the
place was once the cemetery of a Roman camp. William I.
gave the lordship of Eye to Robert Malet, a Norman, who built a
castle and a Benedictine monastery which was at first subordinate
to the abbey of Bernay in Normandy. Eye is a borough by
prescription. In 1205 King John granted to the townsmen a
charter freeing them from various tolls and customs and from
the jurisdiction of the shire and hundred courts. Later charters
were granted by Elizabeth in 1558 and 1574, by James I. in
1604, and by William III. in 1697. In 1574 the borough was
newly incorporated under two bailiffs, ten chief and twenty-four
inferior burgesses, and an annual fair on Whit-Monday and a
market on Saturday were granted. Two members were returned
to each parliament from 1571 till 1832, when the Reform Act
reduced the membership to one. By the Redistribution Act of
1885 the representation was merged in the Eye division of the
county. The making of pillow-lace was formerly carried on
extensively, but practically ceased with the introduction of
machinery.
EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European
root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (?..).
ANATOMY. The eye consists of the eyeball, which is the true
organ of sight, as well as of certain muscles which move it, and
of the lachrymal apparatus which keeps the front of it in a
moist condition. The eyeball is contained in the front of the
orbit and is a sphere of about an inch (24 mm.) in diameter.
From the front of this a segment of a lesser sphere projects
slightly and forms the cornea (fig. i, co). There are three coats
CO,
Sc,
ch,
PC,
R Sc
FIG. i. Diagrammatic Section through the Eyeball.
L, Lens.
V, Vitreous body
Conjunctiva.
Cornea.
Sclerotic.
Choroid.
Ciliary processes.
me, Ciliary muscle.
O, Optic nerve.
R, Retina.
/, Iris. [humour.
aq, Anterior chamber of aqueous
Z, Zonule of Zinn, the ciliary
process being removed to
show it.
p, Canal of Petit.
m. Yellow spot.
The dotted line behind the
cornea represents its pos-
terior epithelium.
to the eyeball, an external (protective), a middle (vascular), and
an internal (sensory). There are also three refracting media, the
aqueous humour, the lens and the vitreous humour or body.
The protective coat consists of the sclerotic in the posterior
five-sixths and the cornea in the anterior sixth. The sclerotic
(fig. i, Sc) is a firm fibrous coat, forming the " white of the eye,"
which posteriorly is pierced by the optic nerve and blends with
the sheath of that nerve, while anteriorly it is continued into the
cornea at the corneo-scleral junction. At this point a small canal,
known as the canal of Schlemm, runs round the margin of the
cornea in the substance of the sclerotic (see fig. i). Between
the sclerotic and the subjacent choroid coat is a lymph space
traversed by some loose pigmented connective tissue, the
EYE
[ANATOMY
lamina fusca. The cornea is quite continuous with the sclerotic
but has a greater convexity. Under the microscope it is seen to
consist of five layers. Most anteriorly there is a lay er of stratified
epithelium, then an anterior elastic layer, then the substantia
propria of the cornea which is fibrous with spaces in which the
stellate corneal corpuscles lie, while behind this is the posterior
elastic layer and then a delicate layer of endothelium. The
transparency of the cornea is due to the fact that all these
structures have the same refractive index.
The middle or vascular coat of the eye consists of the choroid,
the ciliary processes and the iris. The choroid (fig. i, ch) does not
come quite as far forward as the corneo-scleral junction; it is
composed of numerous blood-vessels and pigment cells bound
together by connective tissue and, superficially, is lined by a
delicate layer of pigmented connective tissue called the lamina
suprachoroidea in contact with the already-mentioned peri-
choroidal lymph space. - On the deep surface of the choroid is
a structureless basal lamina.
The ciliary processes are some seventy triangular ridges,
radially arranged, with their apices pointing backward (fig. i, pc),
while their bases are level with the corneo-scleral junction.
They are as vascular as the rest of the choroid, and contain in their
interior the ciliary muscle, which consists of radiating and circular
fibres. The radiating fibres (fig. i, me) rise, close to the canal of
Schlemm, from the margin of the posterior elastic lamina of the
cornea, and pass backward and outward into the ciliary processes
and anterior part of the choroid, which they pull forward when
they contract. The circular fibres lie just internal to these and
are few or .wanting in short-sighted people.
The iris (fig. i, 7) is the coloured diaphragm of the eye, the
centre of which is pierced to form the pupil; it is composed of a
connective tissue stroma containing blood-vessels, pigment cells
and muscle fibres. In front of it is a reflection of the same layer
of endothelium which lines the back of the cornea, while behind
both it and the ciliary processes is a double layer of epithelium,
deeply pigmented, which really belongs to the retina. The pig-
ment in the substance of the iris is variously coloured in different
individuals, and is often deposited after birth, so that, in newly-
born European children, the colour of the eyes is often slate-blue
owing to the black pigment at the back of the iris showing
through. White, yellow or reddish-brown pigment is deposited
later in the substance of the iris, causing the appearance, with
the black pigment behind, of grey, hazel or brown eyes. In
blue-eyed people very little interstitial pigment is formed, while
in Albinos the posterior pigment is also absent and the blood-
vessels give the pink coloration. The muscle fibres of the iris
are described as circular and radiating, though it is still uncertain
whether the latter are really muscular rather than elastic. On
to the front of the iris, at its margin, the posterior layer of the
posterior elastic lamina is continued as a series of ridges called
the ligamentum pectinatum iridis, while between these ridges are
depressions known as the spaces of Fontana.
The inner or sensory layer of the wall of the eyeball is the
retina; it is a delicate transparent membrane which becomes
thinner as the front of the eye is approached. A short distance
behind the ciliary processes the nervous part of it stops and
forms a scalloped border called the ora serrata, but the pigmented
layer is continued on behind the ciliary processes and iris, as
has been mentioned, and is known as the pars ciliaris retinae
and pars iridica retinae. Under the microscope the posterior
part of the retina is seen to consist of eight layers. In its passage
from the lens and vitreous the light reaches these layers in the
following order: (i) Layer of nerve fibres; (2) Layer of ganglion
cells; (3) Inner molecular layer; (4) Inner nuclear layer; (5)
Outer molecular layer; (6) Outer nuclear layer; (7) Layer of
rods and cones; (8) Pigmented layer.
The layer of nerve fibres (fig. 2, 2) is composed of the axis-cylinders
only of the fibres of the optic nerve which pierce the sclerotic, choroid
and all the succeeding layers of the retina to radiate over its surface.
The ganglionic layer (fig. 2, j) consists of a single stratum of large
ganglion cells, each of which is continuous with a fibre of the preced-
ing layer which forms its axon. Each also gives off a number of finer
processes (dendrites) which arborize in the next layer.
The inner molecular layer (fig. 2, 4) is formed by the interlacement
of the dendrites of the last layer with those of the cells of the inner
nuclear layer which comes next.
The inner nuclear layer (fig. 2, 5) contains three different kinds
of cells, but the most important and numerous are large bipolar
cells, which send one process into the inner molecular layer, as has
just been mentioned, and the other into the outer molecular layer,
where they arborize with the ends of the rod and cone fibres.
The outer molecular layer (fig. 2, 6) is very narrow and is formed
by the arborizations just described. The outer nuclear layer (fig.
2, 7), like the inner, consists of oval cells, which are of two kinds.
The rod granules are transversely striped, and are connected ex-
ternally with the rods, while internally processes pass into the outer
molecular layer to end in a knob around which the arborizations
of the inner nuclear cells lie. The cone granules are situated more
externally, and are in close contact with the cones; internally their
processes form a foot-plate in the outer molecular layer from which
arborizations extend.
The layer of rods and cones (fig. 2, p) contains these structures,
the rods being more numerous than the cones. The rods are spindle-
shaped bodies, of which the inner segment is thicker than the outer.
The cones are thicker and shorter than the rods, and resemble Indian
clubs, the handles of which are directed outward and are transversely
striped. In the outer part of the rods the visual purple or rhodopsin
is found.
The pigmented layer consists of a single layer of hexagonal cells
containing pigment, which is capable or moving towards the rods
and cones when the eye is exposed to light and away from them in
the dark.
Supporting the delicate nervous structures of the retina are
a series of connective tissue rods known as the fibres of Miiller
(fig. 2, Ct); these run through the thickness of the retina at
FIG. 2. Diagrammatic section through the retina to show tht,
several layers, which are numbered as in the text. Ct, The radial
fibres of the supporting connective tissue.
right angles to its surface, and are joined together on the inner
side of the layer of nerve fibres to form the inner limiting mem-
brane. More externally, at the bases of the rods and cones, they
unite again to form the outer limiting membrane.
When the retina is looked at with the naked eye from in front
two small marks are seen on it. One of these is an oval depression
about 3 mm. across, which, owing to the presence of pigment, is
of a yellow colour and is known as the yellow spot (macula
lutea); it is situated directly in the antero-posterior axis of the
eyeball, and at its margin the nerve fibre layer is thinned and the
ganglionic layer thickened. At its centre, however, both these
layers are wanting, and in the layer of rods and cones only the
cones are present. This central part is called the fovea centralis
and is the point of acutest vision. The second mark is situated
a little below and to the inner side of the yellow spot; it is a
circular disk with raised margins and a depressed centre and is
called the optic disk; in structure it is a complete contrast to the
yellow spot, for all the layers except that of the nerve fibres are
wanting, and consequently, as light cannot be appreciated here,
it is known as the " blind spot." It marks the point of entry of
the optic nerve, and at its centre the retinal artery appears and
divides into branches. An appreciation of the condition of the
optic disk is one of the chief objects of the ophthalmoscope.
The crystalline lens (fig. i, /-) with its ligament separates the
aqueous from the vitreous chamber of the eye; it is a biconvex
lens the posterior surface of which is more curved than the an-
terior. Radiating from the anterior and posterior poles are three
faint lines forming a Y, the posterior Y being erect and the
anterior inverted. Running from these figures are a series of
lamellae, like the layers of an onion, each of which is made up of
a number of fibrils called the lens fibres. On the anterior surface
of the lens is a layer of epithelial cells, which, towards the margin
or equator, gradually elongate into lens fibres. The whole lens
is enclosed in an elastic structureless membrane, and, like the
EMBRYOLOGY]
EYE
93
cornea, its transparency is due to the fact that all its constituents
have the same refractive index.
The ligament of the lens is the thickened anterior part of the
hyaloid membrane which surrounds the vitreous body; it is
closely connected to the iris at the era serrata, and then splits
into two layers , of which the anterior is the thicker and blends
with the anterior part of the elastic capsule of the lens, so that,
when its attachment to the ora serrata is drawn forward by the
ciliary muscle, the lens, by its own elasticity, increases its con-
vexity. Between the anterior and posterior splitting of the
hyaloid membrane is a circular lymph space surrounding the
margin of the lens known as the canal of Petit (fig. i, p).
The aqueous humour (fig. i, aq) is contained between the lens
and its ligament posteriorly and the cornea anteriorly. It is
practically a very weak solution of common salt (chloride of
sodium 1-4%). The space containing it is imperfectly divided
into a large anterior and a small posterior chamber by a per-
forated diaphragm the iris.
The vitreous body or humour is a jelly which fills all the
contents of the eyeball behind the lens. It is surrounded by the
hyaloid membrane, already noticed, and anteriorly is concave
for the reception of the lens.
From the centre of the optic disk to the posterior pole of the
lens a lymph canal formed by a tube of the hyaloid membrane
stretches through the centre of the vitreous body; this is the
canal of Stilling, which in the embryo transmitted the hyaloid
artery to the lens. The composition of the vitreous is practically
the same as that of the aqueous humour.
The arteries of the eyeball are all derived from the ophthalmic
branch of the internal carotid, and consist of the retinal which
'enters the optic nerve far back in the orbit, the two long ciliaries,
which run forward in the choroid and join the anterior ciliaries,
from muscular branches of the ophthalmic, in the circulus iridis
major round the margin of the iris, and the six to twelve short
ciliaries which pierce the sclerotic round the optic nerve and
supply the choroid and ciliary processes.
The veins of the eyeball emerge as four or five trunks rather
behind the equator; these are called from their appearance
venae vorticosae, and open into the superior ophthalmic vein. In
addition to these there is a retinal vein which accompanies its
artery.
Accessory Structures of the Eye. The eyelids are composed of
the following structures from in front backward: (i) Skin; (2)
Superficial fascia; (3) Orbicularis palpebrarum muscle; (4)
Tarsal plates of fibrous tissue attached to the orbital margin by
the superior and inferior palpebral ligaments, and, at the junction
of the eyelids, by the external and internal tarsal ligaments of
which the latter is also known as the tendo oculi; (5) Meibomian
glands, which are large modified sebaceous glands lubricating the
edges of the lids and preventing them adhering, and Glands of
Moll, large sweat glands which, when inflamed, cause a " sty ";
(6) the conjunctiva, a layer of mucous membrane which lines the
back of the eyelids and is reflected on to the front of the globe,
the reflection forming the fornix: on the front of the cornea the
conjunctiva is continuous with the layer of epithelial cells already
mentioned.
The lachrymal gland is found in the upper and outer part of
the front of the orbit. It is about the size of an almond and
has an upper (orbital) and a lower (palpebral) part. Its six to
twelve ducts open on to the superior fornix of the conjunctiva.
The lachrymal canals (canaliculi) (see fig. 3, 2 and 3) are
superior and inferior, and open by minute orifices (puncta) on to
the free margins of the two eyelids near their inner point of
junction. They collect the tears, secreted by the lachrymal
gland, which thus pass right across the front of the eyeball, con-
tinually moistening the conjunctiva. The two ducts are bent
round a small pink tubercle called the caruncula lachrymalis
(fig. 3, 4) at the inner angle of the eyelids, and open into the
lachrymal sac (fig. 3, 6), which lies in a groove in the lachrymal
bone. The sac is continued down into the nasal duct (fig. 3, 6),
which is about J inch long and opens into the inferior meatus of
the nose, its opening being guarded by a valve.
The orbit contains seven muscles, six of which rise close to the
optic foramen. The levator palpebrae superioris is the highest,
and passes forward to the superior tarsal plate and fornix of the
conjunctiva. The superior and inferior recti are inserted into the
upper and lower sur-
faces of the eyeball re-
spectively; they make
the eye look inward as
well as up or down.
The external and in-
ternal recti are inserted
into the sides of the
eyeball and make it
look outward or in-
ward. The superior
oblique runs forward
to a pulley in the inner
and front part of the
roof of the orbit, round
which it turns to be
inserted into the outer FIG. 3. Lachrymal Canals and Duct,
and back part of the j, Orbicular muscle. 5, Lachrymal sac.
eyeball. It turns the 2, Lachrymal canal. 6, Lachrymal duct,
glance downward and 3, Punctum. 7, Angular artery,
outward. The inferior 4, Caruncula.
oblique rises from the inner and front part of the floor of the
orbit, and is also inserted into the outer and back part of the
eyeball. It directs the glance upward and outward. Of all
these muscles the superior oblique is supplied by the fourth
cranial nerve, the external rectus by the sixth and the rest by the
third.
The posterior part of the eyeball and the anterior parts of the
muscles are enveloped in a lymph space, known as the capsule
of Tenon, which assists their movements.
EMBRYOLOGY. As is pointed out in the article BBAIN, the
optic vesicles grow out from the fore-brain, and the part nearest
the brain becomes constricted and elongated to form the optic
stalk (see figs. 4 and 5, /3). At the same time the ectoderm
covering the side of the head thickens and becomes invaginated
to form the lens vesicle (see figs. 4 and 5, 5), which later loses its
connexion with the surface and approaches the optic vesicle,
causing that structure to become cupped for its reception, so
that what was the optic vesicle becomes the optic cup and consists
of an external and an internal layer of cells (fig. 6 j3 and 5). Of
these the outer cells become the retinal pigment, while the
inner form the other layers of the retina. The invagination of
the optic cup extends, as the choroidal fissure (not shown in the
FIG. 4. FIG. 5.
Diagram of Developing Diagram of Developing
Eye (ist stage). Eye (2nd stage),
a, Forebrain. 0, Optic cup.
f), Optic vesicle. 5, Invagination of lens.
y, Superficial ectoderm. Other letters as in
5, Thickening for lens. fig. 4.
diagrams), along the lower and back part of the optic stalk, and
into this slit sinks some of the surrounding mesoderm to form
the vitreous body and the hyaloid arteries, one of which persists. 1
When this has happened the fissure closes up. The anterior
epithelium of the lens vesicle remains, but from the posterior
the lens fibres are developed and these gradually fill up the
cavity. The superficial layer of head ectoderm, from which the
lens has been invaginated and separated, becomes the anterior
1 Some embryologists regard the vitreous body as formed from
the ectoderm (see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i., 1908).
94
EYE
[COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
Other letters as in
figs. 4 and 5.
FIG. 7.
8, Vitreous.
, Aqueous.
e, Eyelids.
epithelium of the cornea (fig. 6, ), and between it and the lens
the mesoderm sinks in to form the cornea, iris and anterior
chamber of the eye, while surrounding the optic cup the meso-
derm forms the sclerotic and choroid
coats (fig. 7, i? and f ). Up to the seventh
month the pupil is closed by the mem-
brana pupillaris, derived from the cap-
sule of the lens which is part of the
mesodermal ingrowth through the
choroidal fissure already mentioned.
The hyaloid artery remains, as a pro-
longation of the retinal artery to the
p IG 6 lens, until just before birth, but after
Diagram of 'Developing that its sheath forms the canal of
Eye (3rd stage). Stilling. Most of the fibres of the
8, Solid lens. optic nerve are centripetal and begin
> ^["^LfJ^ 6 ^"?,.' as the axons of the ganglionic cells of
the retina; a few, however, are centri-
fugal and come from the nerve cells in
the brain.
The eyelids are developed as ecto-
dermal folds, which blend with one
another about the third month and
separate again before birth in Man
(fig. 7, <c). The lachrymal sac and
duct are formed from solid ectoder-
mal thickenings which later become
Dlag EyT t^SeT -nalized.
The mesodermal It will thus be seen that the optic
tissues are dotted, nerve and retina are formed from the
f, Choroid and Iris. brain ectoderm; the lens, anterior epi-
2' vlSSSi nea ' thelium of the cornea, skin of the eyelids,
conjunctiva and lachrymal apparatus
from the superficial ectoderm; while the
sclerotic, choroid, vitreous and aqueous
humours as well as the iris and cornea are derived from the
mesoderm.
See Human Embryology, by C. S. Minot (New York); Quain's
Anatomy, vol. i. (1908); " Entwickelung des Auges der Wirbel-
tiere," by A. Froriep, in Handbuch der vergleichenden und experi-
mentellen Entwickelungslehre der Wirbeltiere (O. Hertwig, Jena,
1905)-
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. The Acrania, as represented by
Amphioxus (the lancelet), have a patch of pigment in the fore
part of the brain which is regarded as the remains of a degenerated
eye. In the Cyclostomata the hag (Myxine) and larval lamprey
(Ammocoetes) have ill-developed eyes lying beneath the skin and
devoid of lens, iris, cornea and sclerotic as well as eye muscles.
In the adult lamprey (Petromyzon) these structures are developed
at the metamorphosis, and the skin becomes transparent, render-
ing sight possible. Ocular muscles are developed, but, unlike
most vertebrates, the inferior rectus is supplied by the sixth
nerve while all the others are supplied by the third. In all
vertebrates the retina consists of a layer of senso-neural cells,
the rods and cones, separated from the light by the other layers
which together represent the optic ganglia of the invertebrates;
in the latter animals, however, the senso-neural cells are nearer
the light than the ganglia.
In fishes the eyeball is flattened in front, but the flat cornea
is compensated by a spherical lens, which, unlike that of other
vertebrates, is adapted for near vision when at rest. The iris
in some bony fishes (Teleostei) is not contractile. In the
Teleostei, too, there is a process of the choroid which projects
into the vitreous chamber and runs forward to the lens; it is
known as the processus falciformis, and, besides nourishing the
lens, is concerned in accommodation. This specialized group
of fishes is also remarkable for the possession of a so-called
choroid gland, which is really a rete mirabile (see ARTERIES)
between the choroid and sclerotic. The sclerotic in fishes is
usually chondrified and sometimes calcified or ossified. In the
retina the rods and cones are about equal in number, and the
cones are very large. In the cartilaginous fishes (Elasmobranchs)
there is a silvery layer, called the tapetum lucidum, on the retinal
surface of the choroid.
In the Amphibia the cornea is more convex than in the fish,
but the lens is circular and the sclerotic often chondrified. There
is no processus falcifcrmis or tapetum lucidum, but the class
is interesting in that it shows the first rudiments of the ciliary
muscle, although accommodation is brought about by shifting
the lens. In the retina the rods outnumber the cones and these
latter are smaller than in any other animals. In some Amphibians
coloured oil globules are found in connexion with the cones,
and sometimes two cones are joined, forming double or twin
nes.
In Reptilia the eye is spherical and its anterior part is often
protected by bony plates in the sclerotic (Lacertiliaand Chelonia).
The ciliary muscle is striated, and in most reptiles accommodation
is effected by relaxing the ciliary ligament as in higher vertebrates,
though in the snakes (Ophidia) the lens is shifted as it is in the
lower forms. Many lizards have a vascular projection of the
choroid into the vitreous, foreshadowing the pecten of birds
and homologous with the processus falciformis of fishes. In
the retina the rods are scarce or absent.
In birds the eye is tubular, especially in nocturnal and raptorial
forms: this is due to a lengthening of the ciliary region, which is
always protected by bony plates in the sclerotic. The pecten,
already mentioned in lizards, is a pleated vascular projection
from the optic disk towards the lens which in some cases it reaches.
In Apteryx this structure disappears. In the retina the cones
outnumber the rods, but are not as numerous as in the reptiles.
The ciliary muscle is of the striped variety.
In the Mammalia the eye is largely enclosed in the orbit, and
bony plates in the sclerotic are only found in the monotremes.
The cornea is convex except in aquatic mammals, in which it is
flattened. The lens is biconvex in diurnal mammals, but in
nocturnal and aquatic it is spherical. There is no pecten, but
the numerous hyaloid arteries which are found in the embryo
represent it. The iris usually has a circular pupil, but in some
ungulates and kangaroos it is a transverse slit. In the Cetacea
this transverse opening is kidney-shaped, the hilum of the kidney
being above. In many carnivores, especially nocturnal ones,
the slit is vertical, and this form of opening seems adapted to a
feeble light, for it is found in the owl, among birds. The tapetum
lucidum is found in Ungulata, Cetacea and Carnivora. The
ciliary muscle is unstriped. In the retina the rods are more
numerous than the cones, while the macula lutea only appears
in the Primates in connexion with binocular vision.
Among the accessory structures of the eye the retractor bulbi
muscle is found in amphibians, reptiles, birds and many mam-
mals; its nerve supply shows that it is probably a derivative of
the external or posterior rectus. The nictitating membrane
or third eyelid is well-developed in amphibians, reptiles, birds
and some few sharks; it is less marked in mammals, and in
Man is only represented by the little plica semilunaris. When
functional it is drawn across the eye by special muscles derived
from the retractor bulbi, called the bursalis and pyramidalis.
In connexion with the nictitating membrane the Harderian
gland is developed, while the lachrymal gland secretes fluid
for the other eyelids to spread over the conjunctiva. These
two glands are specialized parts of a row of glands which in the
Urodela (tailed amphibians) are situated along the lower eyelid;
the outer or posterior part of this row becomes the lachrymal
gland, which in higher vertebrates shifts from the lower to the
upper eyelid, while the inner or anterior part becomes the
Harderian gland. Below the amphibians glands are not necessary,
as the water keeps the eye moist.
The lachrymal duct first appears in the tailed amphibians;
in snakes and gecko lizards, however, it opens into the mouth.
For literature up to 1900 see R. Wiedersheim's Vergleichende
Anatomie der Wirbeltiere (Jena, 1902). Later literature is noticed
in the catalogue of the Physiological Series of the R. College of
Surgeons of England Museum, vol. iii. (London, 1906). (F. G. P.)
EYE DISEASES. The specially important diseases of the eye
are those which temporarily or permanently interfere with
DISEASES]
EYE
95
sight. In considering the pathology of the eye it may be re-
membered that (i) it is a double organ, while (2) either eye
may have its own trouble.
i. The two eyes act together, under normal conditions, for
all practical purposes exactly as if there were but one eye placed
in the middle of the face. All impressions made upon either
retina, to the one side of a vertical line through the centre, the
fovea centralis, before giving rise to conscious perception cause
a stimulation of the same area in the brain. Impressions
formed simultaneously, for instance, on the right side of the
right retina and on corresponding areas of the right side of the
left retina, are conveyed to the same spots in the right occipital
lobe of the brain. Pathological processes, therefore, which are
localized in the right or left occipital lobes, or along any part of
the course of the fibres which pass from the right or left optic
tracts to these " visual centres," cause defects in function of
the right or left halves of the two retinae. Hemianopia, or half-
blindness, arising from these pathological changes, is of very
varying degrees of severity, according to the nature and extent of
the particular lesion. The blind areas in the two fields of vision,
corresponding to the outward projection of the paralysed retinal
areas, are always symmetrical both in shape and degree. The
central lesion may for instance be very sftiall, but at the same
time destructive to the nerve tissue. This will be revealed as
a sector-shaped or insular symmetrical complete blindness in
the fields of vision to the opposite side. Or a large central area,
or an area comprising many or all of the nerve fibres which pass
to the visual centre on one side, may be involved in a lesion
which causes impairment of function, but no actual destruction
of the nerve tissue. There is thus caused a symmetrical weaken-
ing of vision (amblyopia) in the opposite fields. In such cases
the colour vision is so much more evidently affected than the
sense of form that the condition has been called hemiachroma-
topsia or half-colour blindness. Hemianopia may be caused
by haemorrhage, by embolism, by tumour growth which either
directly involves the visual nerve elements or affects them by
compression and by inflammation. Transitory hemianopia
is rare and is no doubt most frequently of toxic origin.
The two eyes also act as if they were one in accommodating.
It is impossible for the two eyes to accommodate simultaneously
to different extents, so that where there is, as occasionally
happens, a difference in focus between them, this difference
remains the same for all distances for which they are adapted.
In such cases, therefore, both eyes cannot ever be accurately
adapted at the same time, though either may be alone. It
often happens as a consequence that the one eye is used to receive
the sharpest images of distant, and the other of near objects.
Any pathological change which leads to an interference in the
accommodating power of one eye alone must have its origin in a
lesion which lies peripherally to the nucleus of the third cranial
nerve. Such a lesion is usually one of the third nerve itself.
Consequently, a unilateral accommodation paresis is almost
invariably associated with pareses of some of the oculo-motor
muscles. A bilateral accommodation paresis is not uncommon.
It is due to a nuclear or more central cerebral disturbance.
Unlike a hemianopia, which is mostly permanent, a double
accommodation paresis is frequently transitory. It is often a
post-diphtheritic condition, appearing alone or associated with
other paresis.
Both eyes are also normally intimately associated in their
movements. They move in response to a stimulus or a com-
bination of stimuli, emanating from different centres of the
brain, but one which is always equally distributed to the corre-
sponding muscles in both eyes, so that the two lines of fixation
meet at the succession of points on which attention is directed.
The movements are thus associated in the same direction, to
the right or left, upwards or downwards, &c. In addition,
owing to the space which separates the two eyes, convergent
movements, caused by stimuli equally distributed between the
two internal recti, are required for the fixation of nearer and
nearer-lying objects. These movements would not be necessary
in the case of a single eye. It would merely have to accommodate.
The converging movements of the double eye occur in association
with accommodation, and thus a close connexion becomes
established between the stimuli to accommodation and con-
vergence. All combinations of convergent and associated
movements are constantly taking place normally, just as if a
single centrally-placed eye were moved in all directions and
altered its accommodation according to the distance, in any
direction, of the object which is fixed.
Associated and convergent movements may be interfered
with pathologically in different ways. Cerebral lesions may
lead to their impairment or complete abolition, or they may
give rise to involuntary spasmodic action, as the result of
paralysing or irritating the centres from which the various
co-ordinated impulses are controlled or emanate. Lesions which
do not involve the centres may prevent the response to associated
impulses in one eye alone by interfering with the functional
activity of one or more of the nerves along which the stimuli
are conveyed. Paralysis of oculo-motor nerves is thus a common
cause of defects of association in the movements of the double
eye. The great advantage of simultaneous binocular vision
viz. the appreciation of depth, or stereoscopic vision is thus
lost for some, or it may be all directions of fixation. Instead
of seeing singly with two eyes, there is then double-vision
(diplopia). This persists so long as the defect of association
continues, or so long as the habit of mentally suppressing the
image of the faultily-directed eye is not acquired.
In the absence of any nerve lesions, central or other, interfering
with their associated movements, the eyes continue throughout
life to respond equally to the stimuli which cause these move-
ments, even when, owing to a visual defect of the one eye,
binocular vision has become impossible. It is otherwise, however,
with the proper co-ordination of convergent movements. These
are primarily regulated by the unconscious desire for binocular
vision, and more or less firmly associated with accommodation.
When one eye becomes blind, or when binocular vision for other
reasons is lost, the impulse is gradually, as it were, unlearnt.
This is the cause of divergent concomitant squinJ. Under some-
what similar conditions a degree of convergence, which is in
excess of the requirements of fixation, may be acquired from
different causes. This gives rise to convergent concomitant
squint.
For Astigmatism, &c., see the article VISION.
2. Taking each eye as a single organ, we find it to be subject
to many diseases. In some cases both eyes may be affected in
the same way, e.g. where the local disease is a manifestation of
some general disturbance. Apart from the fibrous coat of the
eye, the sclera, which is little prone to disease, and the external
muscles and other adnexa, the eye may be looked upon as
composed of two elements, (a) the dioptric media, and (fr) the
parts more or less directly connected with perception. Patho-
logical conditions affecting either of these elements may interfere
with sight.
The dioptric media, or the transparent portions which are con-
cerned in the transmission of light to, and the formation of images
upon, the retina, are the following: the cornea, the aqueous
humour, the crystalline lens and the vitreous humour. Loss of
transparency in any cf these media leads to blurring of the retinal
images of external objects. In addition to loss of transparency
the cornea may have its curvature altered by pathological pro-
cesses. This necessarily causes imperfection of sight. The
crystalline lens, on the other hand, may be dislocated, and thus
cause image distortion.
The Cornea. The transparency of the cornea is mainly lost
by imflammation (kcratitis), which causes either an infiltration of
its tissues with leucocytes, or a more focal, more destructive
ulcerative process.
Inflammation of the cornea may be primary or secondary,
i.e. the inflammatory changes met with in the corneal tissue
may be directly connected with one or more foci of inflammation
in the cornea itself or the focus or foci may be in some other part
of the eye. Only the very superficial forms of primary keratitis,
those confined to the epithelial layer, leave no permanent change :
9 6
EYE
[DISEASES
there is otherwise always a loss of tissue resulting from the
inflammation and this loss is made up for by more or less densely
intransparent connective tissue (nebula, leucoma). These accord-
ing to their site and extent cause greater or less visual disturb-
ance. Primary keratitis may be ulcerative or non-ulcerative,
superficial or deep, diffuse or circumscribed, vascularized or
non-vascularized. It may be complicated by deeper inflamma-
tions of the eye such as iritis and cyclitis. In some cases the
anterior chamber is invaded by pus (hypopyon). The healing
of a corneal ulcer is characterized by the disappearance of pain
where this has been a symptom and by the rounding off of its
sharp margins as epithelium spreads over them from the surround-
ing healthy parts. Ulcers tend to extend either in depth or
superficially, rarely in both manners at the same time. A deep
ulcer leads to perforation with more or less serious consequences
according to the extent of the perforation. Often an eye bears
permanent traces of a perforation in adhesion of the iris to the
back of a corneal scar or in changes in the lens capsule (cap-
sular cataract). In other cases the ulcerated cornea may yield
to pressure from within, which causes it to bulge forwards
(staphyloma) .
The principal causes of primary keratitis are traumata and
infection from the conjunctiva. Traumata are most serious when
the body causing the wound is not aseptic or when micro-
organisms from some other source, often the conjunctiva and
tear-sac, effect a lodgment before healing of the wound has
sufficiently advanced. In infected cases a complication with
iritis is not uncommon owing to the penetration of toxines into
the anterior chamber.
Inflammations of the cornea are the most important diseases
of the eye, because they are among the most frequent, because
of the value of the cornea to vision and because much good can
often be done by judicious treatment and much harm result
from wrong interference and neglect. The treatment of primary
keratitis must vary according to the cause. Generally speaking
the aim should be to render the ulcerated portions as aseptic
as possible without using applications which are apt to cause
a great deal of irritation and thus interfere with healing. On
this account it is important to be able to recognize when healing
is taking place, for as soon as this is the case, rest, along with
frequent irrigation of the conjunctiva with sterilized water at
the body temperature, and occasionally mild antiseptic irrigation
of the nasal mucous membrane is all that is required. It is a
common and dangerous mistake to over treat.
Of local antiseptics which are of use may be mentioned the
actual cautery, chlorine water, freshly prepared silver nitrate or
protargol, and the yellow oxide of mercury. These different
agents are of course not all equally applicable in any given
case; it depends upon the severity as well as upon the
nature of the inflammation which is the most suitable. For
instance, the actual cautery is employed only in the case of the
deeper septic or malignant ulcers, in which the destruction of
tissue is already considerable and tending to spread further.
Again the yellow oxide of mercury should only be used in the
more superficial, strumous forms of inflammation. Many other
substances are also in use, but need not here be referred to.
Secondary keratitis takes the form of an interstitial deposit of
leucocytes between the layers of the cornea as well as often of
vascularization, sometimes intense, from the deeper network
of vessels (anterior ciliary) surrounding the cornea. The duration
of a secondary keratitis is usually prolonged, often lasting many
months. More or less complete restoration of transparency is the
rule, however, eventually.
No local treatment is called for except the shading of the eyes
and in most cases the use of a mydriatic to prevent synechiae
when the iris is involved. Often it is advisable to do something
for the general health. In young people there is probably nothing
better than cod-liver oil and syrup of the iodide of iron. In-
herited syphilis, tuberculous and other inflammations are the
causes of secondary keratitis.
N euro-paralytic Keratitis. When the fifth nerve is paralysed
there is a tendency for the cornea to become inflamed. Different
forms of inflammation may then occur which all, besides anaes-
thesia, show a marked slowness in healing. The main cause of
neuro-paralytic keratitis lies in the greater vulnerability of
the cornea. The prognosis is necessarily bad. The treatment
consists in as far as possible protecting the eye from external
influences, by keeping it tied up, and by frequently irrigating
with antiseptic lotions.
Certain non-inflammatory and degenerative changes are met
with in the cornea. Of these may be mentioned keratoconus
or conical cornea, in which, owing to some disturbance of vitality,
the nature of which has not been discovered, the normal curvature
of the cornea becomes altered to something more of a hyberboloid
of revolution, with consequent impairment of vision: arcus
senilis, a whitish opacity due to fatty degeneration, extending
round the corneal margin, varying in thickness in different
subjects and usually only met with in old people: transverse
calcareous film, consisting of a finely punctiform opacity extend-
ing, in a tolerably uniformly wide band, occupying the zone of
the cornea which is left uncovered when the lids are half closed.
Tumours of the cornea are not common. Those chiefly met
with are dermoids, fibromata, sarcomata and epitheliomata.
Sderilis. Inflammation of the sclera is confined to its anterior
part which is covered by conjunctiva. Scleritis may occur in
circumscribed patches or may be diffused in the shape of a belt
round the cornea. The former is usually more superficial and
uncomplicated, the latter deeper and complicated with corneal
infiltration, irido-cyclitis and anterior choroiditis. Superficial
scleritis or, as it is often called, episcleritis, is a long-continued
disease which is associated with very varying degrees of dis-
comfort. The chronic nature of the affection depends mainly
upon the tendency that the inflammation has to recur in successive
patches at different parts of the sclera. Often only one eye at a
time is affected. Each patch lasts for a month or two and is
succeeded by another after an interval of varying duration.
Months or years may elapse between the attacks. The cicatricial
site of a previous patch is rarely again attacked. The scleral
infiltration causes a firm swelling, often sensitive to touch, over
which the conjunctiva is freely movable. The overlying con-
junctiva is always injected. The infiltration itself at the height
of the process is densely vascularized. Seen through the con-
junctiva its vessels have a darker, more purplish hue than the
superficial ones. The swelling caused by the infiltration gradu-
ally subsides, leaving a cicatrix to which the overlying conjunctiva
becomes adherent. The cicatrix has a slaty porcellanous-
looking colour. Superficial scleritis occurs in both sexes with
about equal frequency. No definite cause for the inflammation
is known. The treatment 'on the whole is unsatisfactory.
Burning down the nodules with the actual cautery, and sub-
sequently a visit to such baths as Harrogatc, Buxton, Homburg
and Wiesbaden, may be recommended.
Deep scleritis with its attendant complications is altogether
a more serious disease. Etiologically it is equally obscure.
Both eyes are almost always attacked. It more generally occurs
in young people, mostly in young women. Deep scleritis is
more persistent and less subject to periods of intermission than
episcleritis. The deeper and more wide-spread inflammatory
infiltrations of the sclera lead eventually to weakening of that
coat, and cause it to yield to the intra-ocular pressure. Vision
suffers from extension of the infiltration to the cornea, or from
iritis with its attendant synechiae, or from anterior choroiditis,
and sometimes also from secondary glaucoma. The treatment
is on the whole unsatisfactory. Iridectomy, especially if done
early in the process, may be of use.
The Aqueous Humour. Intransparencyof the aqueous humour
is always due to some exudation. This comes either from the
iris or the ciliary processes, and may be blood, pus or fibrin.
An exudation in this situation tends naturally to gravitate to
the most dependent part, and, in the case of blood or pus, is
known as hyphaema or hypopyon.
The Crystalline Lens Cataract. Intransparency of the crys-
talline lens is technically known as cataract. Cataract may be
idiopathic and uncomplicated, or traumatic, or secondary to
DISEASES]
EYE
97
disease in the deeper parts of the eye. The modified epithelial
structure of which the lens is composed is always being added to
throughout life. The older portions of the lens are consequently
the more central. They are harder and less elastic. This
arrangement seems to predispose to difficulties of nutrition.
In many people, in the absence altogether of general or local
disease, the transparency of the lens is lost owing to degeneration
of the incompletely-nourished fibres. This idiopathic cataract
mostly occurs in old people; hence the term senile cataract.
So-called senile cataract is not, however, necessarily associated
with any general senile changes. An idiopathic uncomplicated
cataract is also met with as a congenital defect due to faulty
development of the crystalline lens. A particular and not
uncommon form of this kind of cataract, which may also develop
during infancy, is lamellar or zonular cataract. This is a partial
and stationary form of cataract in which, while the greater part
of the lens retains its transparency, some of the lamellae are
intransparent. Traumatic cataract occurs in two ways: by
laceration or rupture of the lens capsule, or by nutritional changes
consequent upon injuries to the deeper structures of the eye.
The transparency of the lens is dependent upon the integrity
of its capsule. Penetrating wounds of the eye involving the
capsule, or rupture of the capsule from severe blows on the eye
without perforation of its coats, are followed by rapidly develop-
ing cataract. Severe non-penetrating injuries, which do not
cause rupture of the capsule, are sometimes followed, after a
time, by slowly-progressing cataract. Secondary cataract is
due to abnormalities in the nutrient matter supplied to the lens
owing to disease of the ciliary body, choroid or retina. In some
diseases, as diabetes, the altered general nutrition tells in the
same way on the crystalline lens. Cataract is then rapidly
formed. All cases of cataract in diabetes are not, however,
necessarily true diabetic cataracts in the above sense. Disloca-
tions of the lens are traumatic or congenital. In old-standing
disease of the eye the suspensory ligament may yield in part,
and thus lead to lens dislocation. The lens is practically always
cataractous before this takes place.
The Vitreous Humour. The vitreous humour loses its trans-
parency owing to exudation from the inflamed ciliary body or
choroid. The exudation may be fibrinous or purulent; the
latter only as a result of injuries by which foreign bodies or
septic matter are introduced into the eye or in metastatic
choroiditis. Blood may also be effused into the vitreous from
rupture of retinal, ciliary or choroidal vessels. The pathological
significance of the various effusions into the vitreous depends
greatly upon the cause. In many cases effusion and absorption
are constantly taking place simultaneously. The extent of
possible clearing depends greatly upon the preponderance of
the latter process.
Diseases of the Iris and Ciliary Body. Inflammation of the
iris, iritis, arises from different causes. The various idiopathic
forms have relations to constitutional disturbances such as
rheumatism, gout, albuminuria, tuberculosis, fevers, syphilis,
gonorrhoea and others, or they may come from cold alone.
Traumatic and infected cases are attributable to accidents,
the presence of foreign bodies, operations, &c. In addition,
iritis may be secondary to keratitis, scleritis or choroiditis.
The beginning of an attack of inflammation of the iris is char-
acterized by alterations in its colour due to hyperaemia and by
circumcorneal injection. Later on, exudation takes place into
the substance of the iris, causing thickening and also a loss of
gloss of its surface. According to the nature and severity of
the exudation there may be deposits formed on the back of the
cornea, attachments between the iris and lens capsule (synechiae),
or even gelatinous-looking coagulations or pus in the anterior
chamber.
The subjective symptoms to which the inflammation may
give rise are dread of light (photophobia), pain, generally most
severe at night and often very great, also more or less impairment
of sight. Along with the pain and photophobia there is lacryma-
tion. An acute attack of iritis usually lasts about six weeks.
Some cases become chronic and last much longer. Others are
x. 4
chronic from the first, and in one clinical type of iritis, in which
the ciliary body is also at the same time affected, viz. iritis
serosa, there is usually comparatively little injection of the eye
or pain, so that the patient's attention may only be directed to
the eye owing to the gradual impairment of sight which results.
In some cases, and more particularly in men, there is a tendency
to the recurrence at longer or shorter intervals of attacks of
iritis (recurrent iritis). In these cases, as well as in all cases of
plastic iritis which have not been properly treated, serious
consequences to sight are apt to follow from the binding down
of the iris to the lens capsule and the occlusion of the pupil by
exudation.
Inflammation of the ciliary body, cyclitis, is frequently asso-
ciated with iritis. This association is probable in all cases where
there are deposits on the posterior surface of the cornea. It is
certain where there are changes in the intra-ocular tension.
Often in cyclitis there is a very marked diminution in tension.
Cyclitis is also present when the degree of visual disturbance
is greater than can be accounted for by the visible changes in
the pupil and anterior chamber. The exudation may, as in
iritis, be serous, plastic or purulent. It passes from the two
free surfaces of the ciliary body into the posterior aqueous, and
into the vitreous, chambers. This produces, what is a constant
sign of cyclitis, more or less intransparency of the vitreous
humour. Where there has been excessive exudation into the
vitreous, subsequent shrinking and liquefaction take place,
leading to detachment of the retina and consequent blindness.
The treatment of iritis necessarily differs to some extent
according to the cause. The general treatment applicable to
all cases need only be here considered. What should be aimed
at, at the time of the inflammation, is to put the eye as far as
possible at rest, to prevent the formation of synechiae and
alleviate the pain. An attempt should be made to get the pupil
thoroughly dilated with atropine. The dilatation should be kept
up as long as any circumcorneal injection lasts. If a case of
iritis be left to itself or treated without the use of a mydriatic,
posterior synechiae almost invariably form. Some fibrinous
exudation may even organize into a membrane stretching
across, and more or less completely occluding, the pupil.
Synechiae, though not of themselves causing impairment of
vision, increase the risk that the eye runs from subsequent
attacks of iritis. It should however be remembered that as
the main call for a mydriatic is to prevent synechiae, the raison
d'etre for its use no longer exists when, having been begun too
late, the pupil cannot properly be dilated by it. Under these
conditions it may even do harm. The eyes should also be kept
shaded from the light by the use of a shade or neutral-tinted
glasses. During an attack any use of the eyes for reading or
sewing or work of any kind calling for accommodation must be
prohibited. This applies equally to the case of inflammation
in one eye alone and in both.
Pain is best relieved by hot fomentations, cocain, and in
many cases the internal use of salicin or phenacetin. The
treatment sometimes required for cases of old iritis is iridectomy.
The operation is called for in two different classes of cases.
In the first place, to improve vision where the pupil is small, and
to a great extent occluded, though the condition has not so far
led to serious nutritive changes; and in the second place, with
the object as well of preventing the complete destruction of
vision which either the existing condition or the danger of
recurrence of the inflammation has threatened. Iridectomy
for iritis should be performed when the inflammation has
entirely subsided. The portion of iris excised should be large.
The operation is urgently called for where the condition of iris
bombans exists.
Iris tumours, either simple or malignant, are of rare occurrence.
A frequent result of a severe blow on the eye is a separation
of a portion of the iris from its peripheral attachment (iridodi-
alysis). Of congenital anomalies the most commonly met with
are coloboma and more or less persistence of the foetal pupillary
membrane. The most serious form of irido-cyclitis is that which
may follow penetrating wounds of the eye. Under certain
5
9 8
EYE
[DISEASES
conditions this leads to a similar inflammation in the other eye.
This so-called sympathetic ophlhalmitis is of a malignant type,
causing destruction of the sympathizing eye.
The Retina. Choroidal inflammations are generally patchy,
various foci of inflammation being scattered over the choroid.
These patches may in course of time become more or less con-
fluent. The effect upon vision depends upon the extent to which
the external or percipient elements of the retina become involved.
It is especially serious when the more central portions of the
retina are thus affected (choroido-retinitis centralis).
A peculiar and grave pathological condition of the eye is what
is known as glaucoma. A characteristic of this condition is
increase of the intra-ocular tension, which has a deleterious
effect on the optic nerve end and its ramifications in the retina.
The cause of the rise of tension is partly congestive, partly
mechanical. The effect of glaucoma, when untreated, is to cause
ever-increasing loss of sight, although the time occupied by the
process before it leads to complete blindness varies within such
extraordinary wide limits as from a few hours to many years.
The uveal tract may be the site of sarcoma.
The retina is subject to inflammation, to detachment from the
choroid, to haemorrhages from the blood-vessels and to tumour.
Retinal inflammation may primarily affect either the nerve
elements or the connective tissue framework. The former is
usually associated with some general disease such as albuminuria
or diabetes and is bilateral. The tissue changes are oedema, the
formation of exudative patches, and haemorrhage. Where the
connective tissue elements are primarily affected, the condition
is a slow one, similar to sclerosis of the central nervous system.
The gradual blindness which this causes is due to compression
of the retinal nerve elements by the connective tissue hyperplasia,
which is always associated with characteristic changes in the
disposition of the retinal pigment. This retinal sclerosis is
consequently generally known as retinitis pigmentosa, a disease
to which there is a hereditary predisposition. Besides occurring
during inflammation, haemorrhages into the retina are met with
in phlebitis of the central retinal vein, which is almost invariably
unilateral, and in certain conditions of the blood, as pernicious
anaemia, when they are always bilateral.
The optic nerve is subject to inflammation (optic neuritis)
and atrophy. Double optic neuritis, affecting, however, only
the intra-ocular ends of the nerves, is an almost constant
accompaniment of brain tumour. Unilateral neuritis has a
different causation, depending upon an inflammation, mainly
perineuritic, of the nerve in the orbit. It is analogous to
peripheral inflammation of other nerves, such as the third,
fourth, sixth and seventh cranial nerves.
Diseases of the Conjunctiva. These are the most frequent
diseases of the eye with which the surgeon has to deal. They
generally lead to more or less interference with the functional
activity of the eye and often indeed to great impairment of vision
owing to the tendency which there is for the cornea to become
implicated.
Many different micro-organisms are of pathogenetic importance
in connexion with the conjunctiva. Microbes exist in the normal
conjunctival sac. These are mostly harmless, though it is usual
to find at any rate a small proportion of others which are known
to be pyogenetic. This fact is of great importance in connexion
both with problems of etiology and the practical question of
operations on the eye.
Hyperaemia. When the conjunctiva becomes hyperaemic
its colour is heightened and its transparency lessened. Some-
times too it becomes thickened and its surface altered in appear-
ance. The often marked heightening of colour is due to the very
superficial position of the dilated vessels. This is specially the
case with that part of the membrane which forms the transition
fold between the palpebral and the. ocular conjunctiva. Con-
sequently it is there that the redness is most marked, while it is
seen to diminish towards the cornea. An important diagnostic
mark is thus furnished between purely conjunctival hyperaemia
and what is called circumcorneal congestion, which is always
an indication of more deep-seated vascular dilatation. It also
differs materially from a scleral injection, in which there is a
visible dilatation of the superficial scleral vessels.
When a conjunctival hyperaemia has existed for some time
the papillae become swollen, and small blebs form on the surface
of the membrane: sometimes too, lymph follicles begin to show.
The enlargement and compression of adjacent papillae give
rise to a velvety appearance of the surface.
Hyperaemia of the conjunctiva where not followed by in-
flammation causes more or less lacrymation but no alteration
in the character of its secretion. The hyperaemia may he acute
and transitory or chronic. Much depends upon the cause as well
as upon the persistence of the irritation which sets it up.
Traumata, the presence of foreign bodies in the conjunctival
sac, or the irritations of superficial chalky infarcts in the
Meibomian ducts, cause more or less severe transitory congestion.
Continued subjection to irritating particles such as flour, stones,
dust, &c., causes a more continued hyperaemia which is often
circumscribed and less pronounced. Bad air in schools, barracks,
workhouses, &c., also causes a chronic hyperaemia in which it is
common to find a follicular hyperplasia. Long exposure to too
intense light, astigmatism and other 'ocular defects which cause
asthenopia lead also to chronic hyperaemia. Anaemic individuals
are often subject to discomfort from hyperaemia of this nature.
The treatment of conjunctival hyperaemia consists first in
the removal of the cause when it can be discovered. Often
this is difficult. In addition the application of hot sterilized
water is useful and soothing.
Conjunctivitis. When the conjunctiva is actually inflamed
the congested membrane is brought into a condition of heightened
secreting action. The secretions become more copious and more
or less altered in character. A sufficiently practical though by
no means sharply defined clinical division of cases of conjuncti-
vitis is arrived at by taking into consideration the character of
the secretion from the inflamed membrane and the visible tissue
alterations which the membrane undergoes. The common
varieties of conjunctivitis which may thus be distinguished are the
following: (a) Catarrhal conjunctivitis, (/?) Purulent conjuncti-
vitis, (7) Phlyctenular conjunctivitis, (5) Granular conjunctivitis
and (e) Diphtheritic conjunctivitis.
However desirable a truly etiological classification might
appear to be, it is doubtful whether such could satisfactorily
be made. So much is certain at all events, that not only can
identically the same clinical appearance result from the actions
of quite different pathogenetic organisms, but that various
concomitant circumstances may lead to very different clinical
signs being set up by one and the same microbe. As regards
contagion there is no doubt that the secretion in the case of a
true conjunctivitis (i.e. not merely a hyperaemia) is always more
or less contagious. The degree of virulence varies not only in
different cases, but the effect of contagion from the same source
may be different in different individuals. Healthy conjunctivae
may thus react differently, not only as regards the degree of
severity, but even according to different clinical types, when
infected by secretion from the same source. There are no doubt
different reasons for this, such as the stage at which the inflamma-
tion has arrived in the eye from which the secretion is derived,
differences in the surroundings and in the susceptibility of the
infected individuals, the presence of dormant microbes of a
virulent type in the healthy conjunctiva which has been infected,
&c. Many points in this connexion are very difficult to investi-
gate and much remains to be elucidated. Contagion usually
takes place directly and not through the air. Often in this
way one eye is first affected and may in some cases, when
sufficient care is afterwards taken, be the only one to suffer.
The treatment in all severer forms of conjunctivitis should be
undertaken with the primary object in view of preventing any
implication of the cornea.
Catarrhal conjunctivitis, which is characterized by an increased
mucoid secretion accompanying the hyperaemia, is usually
bilateral and may be either acute or chronic. Acute conjuncti-
vitis lasts as a rule only for a week or two: the chronic type
may persist', with or without occasional exacerbations, for
DISEASES]
EYE
99
years. The subjective symptoms vary in intensity with the
severity of the inflammation. There is always more or less
troublesome " burning " in the eyes with a tired heavy feeling
in the lids. This is aggravated by reading, which is most dis-
tressing in a close or smoky atmosphere and by artificial light.
In acute cases, indeed, reading is altogether impossible. In all
cases of catarrhal conjunctivitis the symptoms are also more
marked if the eyes have been tied up, even though this may
produce a temporary relief.
A curious variety of acute catarrhal conjunctivitis, in which
the hyp'eraemia and lacrymation are the predominant features,
is the so-called hay-fever. In this condition the mucous mem-
brane of the nose and throat are similarly affected, and there
is at the same time more or less constitutional disturbance.
Hay-fever is due to irritation from the pollen of many plants, but
principally from that of the different grasses. Some people are
so susceptible to it that they invariably suffer every year during
the early summer months. Here it is difficult to remove the
cause, but many cases can be cured and almost all are alleviated
be means of a special antitoxin applied locally.
Other ectogenetic causes of catarrhal conjunctivitis which
have been studied are mostly microbic. Of these the most
common are the Morax-Axenfeld and the Koch-Weeks con-
junctivitis.
The Morax-Axenfeld bacillus sets up a conjunctivitis which
affects individuals of all ages and conditions and which is con-
tagious. The inflammation is usually chronic, at most subacute.
It is often sufficiently characteristic to be recognized without a
microscopical examination of the secretions. In typical cases
the lid margin, palpebral conjunctiva, and it may be a patch
of ocular conjunctiva at the outer or inner angle are alone
hyperaemic: the secretion is not copious and is mostly found
as a greyish coagulum lying at the inner lid-margin. The
subjective symptoms are usually slight. Complications with
other varieties of catarrhal conjunctivitis are not uncommon.
This mild form of conjunctivitis generally lasts for many months,
subject to more or less complete disappearance followed by
recurrences. It can be rapidly cured by the use of an oxide of
zinc ointment, which should be continued for some time after
the appearances have altogether passed off.
The conjunctivitis caused by the Koch-Weeks microbe is
still more common. It is a more acute type, affects mostly
children, and is very contagious and often epidemic. Here the
hyperaemia involves both the ocular and the palpebral con-
junctiva, and usually there is considerable swelling of the lids
and a copious secretion. Both eyes are always affected.
Occasionally the engorged conjunctival vessels give way, caus-
ing numerous small extravasations (ecchymoses). Complications
with phlyctenulae (vide infra) are common in children. The
acute symptoms last for a week or ten days, after which the
course is more chronic. Treatment with nitrate of silver in
solution is generally satisfactory. Other less frequent microbic
causes of catarrhal conjunctivitis yield to the same treatment.
A form of epidemic muco-purulent conjunctivitis is not un-
common, in which the swelling of the conjunctival folds and lids
is much more marked and the secretions copious. It is less
amenable to treatment and also apt to be complicated by
corneal ulceration. The microbe which gives rise to this con-
dition has not been definitely established. This inflammation is
also known as school ophthalmia. This is extremely contagious,
so that isolation of cases becomes necessary. The treatment
with weak solutions of sub-acetate of lead during the acute
stage, provided there be no corneal complication, and sub-
sequently with a weak solution of tannic acid, may be recom-
mended.
Purulent Conjunctivitis. Some of the severer forms of
catarrhal conjunctivitis are accompanied not only by a good
deal of swelling of both conjunctiva and lids but also by a
decidedly muco-purulent secretion. Nevertheless there is a
sufficiently sharply-defined clinical difference between the
catarrhal and purulent types of inflammation. In purulent
conjunctivitis the oedema of the lids is always marked, often
excessive, the hyperaemia of the whole conjunctiva is intense:
the membrane is also infiltrated and swollen (chemosis), the
papillae enlarged and the secretion almost wholly purulent.
Although this variety of conjunctivitis is principally due to
infection by gonococci, other microbes, which more frequently
set up a catarrhal type, may lead to the purulent form.
All forms are contagious, and transference of the secretion
to other eyes usually sets up the same type of severe inflamma-
tion. The way in which infection mostly takes place is by
direct transference by means of the hands, towels, &c., of
secretions containing gonococci either from the eye or from
some other mucous membrane. The poison may also sometimes
be carried by flies. The dried secretion loses its virulence.
In new-born children (ophthalmia neonatorum) infection
takes place from the maternal passages during birth. Not-
withstanding the great changes which occur during the progress
of a purulent conjunctivitis, there is on recovery a complete
restitutio ad integrum so far as the conjunctiva is concerned.
Owing to the tendency to severe ulceration of the cornea, more
or less serious destructions of that membrane, and consequently
more or less interference with sight, may result before the
inflammation has passed off. This is a special danger in the
case of adults. For this reason when only one eye is affected
the first point to be attended to in the treatment is to secure the
second eye from contagion by efficient occlusion. The appliance
known as Buller's shield, a watch-glass strapped down by plaster,
is the best for this purpose. It not only admits of the patient
seeing with the sound eye, but allows the other to remain under
direct observation. The treatment otherwise consists in frequent
removal of the secretions from the affected eye, and the use
of nitrate of silver solution as a bactericide applied directly
to the conjunctival surface; sometimes it is necessary to cut
away the chemotic conjunctiva immediately surrounding the
cornea. When the cornea has become affected efforts may be
made with the thermo-cautery or otherwise to limit the area of
destruction and thus admit of something being done to improve
the vision after all inflammation has subsided. The greatest
cleanliness as well as proper antiseptic precautions should of
course be observed by every one in any way connected with the
treatment of such cases.
Phlyctenular conjunctivitis is an acute inflammation of the
ocular conjunctiva, in which little blebs or phlyctenules form,
more particularly in the vicinity of the corneal margin, as well as
on the epithelial continuation of the conjunctiva which covers
the cornea. The inflammation is characterized by being dis-
tributed in little circumscribed foci and not diffused as in all
other forms of conjunctivitis. In it the conjunctival secretion
is not altered, unless there should exist at the same time a com-
plication with some other form of conjunctivitis. This condition
is most frequent in children, particularly such as are ill-nourished
or are recovering from some illness, e.g. measles. The suscepti-
bility occurs in fact mainly where there exists what used to be
called a " strumous " diathesis. In many cases, therefore, there
is some kind of tubercular basis for the manifestations. This
basis has to do with the susceptibility only, at all events to begin
with. The local changes are not tuberculous; their exact origin
has not been clearly established. They are in all probability
produced by staphylococci.
Many children suffering from phlyctenular conjunctivitis get
after a short time an eczematous excoriation of the skin of the
nostrils. This excoriated, scabby area contains crowds of
staphylococci which find a nidus here, where the copious tear-
flow down the nostrils has excoriated and irritated the skin.
Lacrymation is indeed a very common concomitant of phlyc-
tenular conjunctivitis. Another frequently distressing symptom
is a pronounced dread of light (photophobia), which often leads
to convulsive and very persistent closing of the lids (blepharo-
spasm). Indeed the relief of the photophobia is often the most
important point to be considered in the treatment of phlyc-
tenular conjunctivitis. The photophobia may be very severe
when the local changes are slight. The eyes should be shaded
but not bandaged. Cocain may be freely used. The best
IOO
EYEMOUTH EYLAU
local application is the yellow oxide of mercury used as an
ointment.
Phlyctenular conjunctivitis, and the corneal complications
with which it is so often associated, constitute a large proportion
(from i to J) of all eye affections with which the surgeon has to
deal.
Granular Conjunctivitis. This disease, which also goes by the
name of trachoma, is characterized by an inflammatory infiltra-
tion of the adenoid tissue of the conjunctiva. The inflammation
is accompanied by the formation of so-called granules, and at the
same time by a hyperplasia of the papillae. The changes further
lead in the course of time to cicatricial transformations, so that
a gradual and progressive atrophy of the conjunctiva results.
The disease takes its origin most frequently in the conjunc-
tival fold of the upper lid, but eventually as a rule involves
the cornea and the deeper tissues of the lid, particularly the
tarsus.
The etiology of trachoma is unknown. Though a perfectly
distinctive affection when fully established, the differential
diagnosis from other forms of conjunctivitis, particularly those
associated with much follicular enlargement or which have begun
as purulent inflammation, may be difficult. Trachoma is mostly
chronic. When occurring in an acute form it is more amenable
to treatment and less likely to end in cicatricial changes. Fully
half the cases of trachoma which occur are complicated by
pannus, which is the name given to the affection when it has
spread to the cornea. Pannus is a superficial vascularized in-
filtration of the cornea. The veiling which it produces causes
more or less defect of sight.
Various methods of treatment are in use for trachoma. Ex-
pression by means of roller-forceps or repeated grattage are
amongst the more effective means of surgical treatment, while
local applications of copper sulphate or of alum are certainly
useful in suitable cases.
Diphtheritic conjunctivitis is characterized by an infiltration
into the conjunctival tissues which, owing to great coagulability,
rapidly interferes with the nutrition of the invaded area and
thus leads to necrosis of the diphtheritic membrane. Con-
junctival diphtheria may or may not be associated with
diphtheria of the throat. It is essentially a disease of early
childhood, not more than 10% of all cases occurring after
the age of four. The cornea is exposed to great risk, more
particularly during the first few days, and may be lost by
necrosis. Subsequent ulceration is not uncommon, but may
often be arrested before complete destruction has taken place.
The disease is generally confined to one eye, and complicated by
swelling of the preauricular glands of that side. It may prove
fatal. In true conjunctival diphtheria the 'exciting cause is the
Klebs-Loffler bacillus. The inflammation occurs in very varying
degrees of severity. The secretion is at first thin and scant,
afterwards purulent and more copious. In severe cases there is
great chemosis with much tense swelling of the lids, which are
often of an ashy-grey colour. A streptococcus infection pro-
duces somewhat similar and often quite as disastrous results.
The treatment must be both general with antitoxin and local
with antiseptics. Of rarer forms of conjunctivitis may be
mentioned Parinaud's conjunctivitis and the so-called spring
catarrh.
Non-inflammatory Conjunctival Ajfections. These are of less
importance than conjunctivitis, either on account of their com-
parative infrequency or because of their harmlessness. The
following conditions may be shortly referred to.
Amyloid degeneration, in which waxy-looking masses grow
from the palpebral conjunctiva of both lids, often attaining very
considerable dimensions. The condition is not uncommon in
China and elsewhere in the East.
Essential Shrinking of the Conjunctiva. This is the result of
pemphigus, in which the disease has attacked the conjunctiva
and led to its atrophy.
Pterygium is a hypertrophic thickening of the conjunctiva of
triangular shape firmly attached by its apex to the superficial
layers of the cornea. It is a common condition in warm climates
owing to exposure to sun and dust, and often calls for operative
interference.
Tumours of the Conjunctiva. These may be malignant or
benign, also syphilitic and tubercular. (G. A. BE.)
EYEMOUTH, a police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1901) 2436. It is situated at the mouth of the Eye, 75 m.
N.N.W. of Berwick-on-Tweed by the North British railway via
Burnmouth. Its public buildings are the town hall, library
and masonic hall. The main industry is the fishing and allied
trades. The harbour was enlarged in 1887, and the bay is easily
accessible and affords good anchorage. Owing to the rugged
character of the coast and its numerous ravines and caves the
whole district was once infested with smugglers. The promon-
tory of St Abb's Head is 3 m. to the N.W.
EYLAU (Preussisch- Eylau), a town of Germany, in east
Prussia, on the Pasmar, 23 m. S. by E. of Konigsberg by rail on
the line Pillau-Prostken. It has an Evangelical church, a teachers'
seminary, a hospital, foundries and saw mills. Pop. 3200.
Eylau was founded in 1336 by Arnolf von Eilenstein, a knight
of the Teutonic Order. It is famous as the scene of a battle
between the army of Napoleon and the Russians and Prussians
commanded by General Bennigsen, fought on the 8th of February
1807.
The battle was preceded by a severe general engagement on
the 7th. The head of Napoleon's column (cavalry and infantry) ,
advancing from the south-west, found itself opposed at the outlet
of the Griinhofchen defile by a strong Russian rearguard which
held the (frozen) lakes on either side of the Eylau road, and
attacked at once, dislodging the enemy after a sharp conflict.
The French turned both wings of the enemy, and Bagration,
who commanded the Russian rearguard, retired through Eylau
to the main army, which was now arrayed for battle east of
Eylau. Barclay de Tolly made a strenuous resistance in Eylau
itself, and in the churchyard, and these localities changed hands
several times before remaining finally in possession of the French.
It is very doubtful whether Napoleon actually ordered this
attack upon Eylau, and it is suggested that the French soldiers
were encouraged to a premature assault by the hope of obtaining
quarters in the village. There is, however, no reason to suppose
that this attack was prejudicial to Napoleon's chance of
success, for his own army was intended to pin the enemy in front,
while the outlying " masses of manoeuvre " closed upon his
flanks and rear (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). In this case the
vigour of the " general advanced guard " was superfluous, for
Bennigsen stood to fight of his own free will.
The foremost line of the French bivouacs extended from
Rothenen to Freiheit, but a large proportion of the army spent
the night in quarters farther back. The Russian army on the
other hand spent the night bivouacked in order of battle, the
right at Schloditten and the left at Serpallen. The cold was
extreme, 2 F. being registered in the early morning, and food
was scarce in both armies. The ground was covered at the time
of battle with deep snow, and all the lakes and marshes were
frozen, so that troops of all arms could pass everywhere, so far
as the snow permitted. Two of Napoleon's corps (Davout and
Ney) were still absent, and Ney did not receive his orders until
the morning of the 8th. His task was to descend upon the
Russian right, and also to prevent a Prussian corps under
Lestocq from coming on to the battlefield. Davout's corps
advancing from the south-east on Mollwitten was destined for
the attack of Bennigsen's left wing about Serpallen and Klein
Sausgarten. In the meantime Napoleon with his forces at and
about Eylau made the preparations for the frontal attack.
His infantry extended from the windmill, through Eylau, to
Rothenen, and the artillery was deployed along the whole front;
behind each infantry corps and on the wings stood the cavalry.
The Guard was in second line south of Eylau, and an army
reserve stood near the Waschkeiten lake. Bennigsen's army
was drawn up in line from Schloditten to Klein Sausgarten, the
front likewise covered by guns, in which arm he was numerically
much superior. A detachment occupied Serpallen.
The battle opened in a dense snowstorm. About 8 A.M.
EYRA EYRE, E. J.
101
Bennigsen's guns opened fire on Eylau, and after a fierce but
undecided artillery fight the French delivered an infantry
attack from Eylau. This was repulsed with heavy losses, and the
Russians advanced towards the windmill in force. Thereupon
Napoleon ordered his centre, the VII. corps of Augereau,to move
forward from the church against the Russian front, the division
of St Hilaire on Augereau's right participating in the attack.
If we conceive of this first stage of the battle as the action of
the " general advanced guard," Augereau must be held to have
overdone his part. The VII. corps advanced in dense masses,
but in the fierce snowstorm lost its direction. St Hilaire attacked
directly and unsupported; Augereau's corps was still less
fortunate. Crossing obliquely the front of the Russian line, as
if making for Schloditten, it came under a feu d'enfer and was
practically annihilated. In the confusion the Russian cavalry
charged with the utmost fury downhill and with the wind behind
them. Three thousand men only out of about fourteen thousand
appeared at the evening parade of the corps. The rest were
killed, wounded, prisoners or dispersed. The marshal and every
senior officer was amongst the killed and wounded, and one
regiment, the I4thof the Line, cut off in the midst of the Russians
and refusing to surrender, fell almost to a man. The Russian
<i
Scale, 1:100,000
Emery Wlke< K.
iMiles
counterstroke penetrated into Eylau itself and Napoleon himself
was in serious danger. With the utmost coolness, however, he
judged the pace of the Russian advance and ordered up a
battalion of the Guard at the exact moment required. In the
streets of Eylau the Guard had the Russians at their mercy,
and few escaped. Still the situation for the French was desperate
and the battle had to be maintained at all costs. Napoleon now
sent forward the cavalry along the whole line. In the centre
the charge was led by Murat and Bessieres, and the Russian
horsemen were swept off the field. The Cuirassiers under
D'Hautpoult charged through the Russian guns, broke through
the first line of infantry and then through the second, penetrating
to the woods of Anklappen.
The shock of a second wave of cavalry broke the lines again,
and though in the final retirement the exhausted troopers lost
terribly, they had achieved their object. The wreck of Augereau's
and other divisions had been reformed, the Guard brought up
into first line, and, above all, Davout's leading troops had oc-
cupied Serpallen. Thence, with his left in touch with Napoleon's
right (St Hilaire), and his right extending gradually towards
Klein Sausgarten, the marshal pressed steadily upon the Russian
left, rolling it up before him, until his right had reached
Kutschitten and his centre Anklappen. By that time the
troops under Napoleon's immediate command, pivoting their left
on Eylau church, had wheeled gradually inward until the general
line extended from the church to Kutschitten. The Russian
army was being driven westward, when the advance of Lestocq
gave them fresh steadiness. The Prussian corps had been
fighting a continuous flank-guard action against Marshal Ney
to the north-west of Althof, and Lestocq had finally succeeded
in disengaging his main body, Ney being held up at Althof by
a small rearguard, while the Prussians, gathering as they went the
fugitives of the Russian army, hastened to oppose Davout.
The impetus of these fresh troops led by Lestocq and his staff-
officer Scharnhorst was such as to check even the famous
divisions of Davout's corps which had won the battle of Auerstadt
single-handed. The French were now gradually forced back
until their right was again at Sausgarten and their centre on
the Kreege Berg.
Both sides were now utterly exhausted, for the Prussians
also had been marching and fighting all day against Ney. The
battle died away at nightfall, Ney's corps being unable effectively
to intervene owing to the steadiness of the Prussian detachment
left to oppose him, and the extreme difficulty of the roads.
A severe conflict between the Russian extreme right and Ney's
corps which at last appeared on the field at Schloditten ended
the battle. Bennigsen retreated during the night through Schmo-
ditten, Lestocq through Kutschitten. The numbers engaged
in the first stage of the battle may be taken as Napoleon, 50,000,
Bennigsen, 67,000, to which later were added on the one side
Ney and Davout, 29,000, on the other Lestocq, 7000. The losses
were roughly, 15,000 men to the French, 18,000 to the Allies, or
21 and 27% respectively of the troops actually engaged. The
French lost 5 eagles and 7 other colours, the Russians 16 colours
and 24 guns.
EYRA (Felis eyra), a South American wild cat, of weasel-like
build, and uniform coloration, varying in different individuals
from reddish-yellow to chestnut. It is found in Brazil, Guiana
and Paraguay, and extends its range to the Rio del Norte, but
is rare north of the isthmus of Panama. Little is known of its
habits in a wild state, beyond the fact that it is a forest -dweller,
active in movement and fierce in disposition. Several have
been exhibited in the London Zoological Gardens, and some have
grown gentle in captivity. Don Felix de Azara wrote of one
which he kept on a chain that it was " as gentle and playful as
any kitten could be." The name is sometimes applied to the
jaguarondi.
EYRE, EDWARD JOHN (1815-1901), British colonial governor,
the son of a Yorkshire clergyman, was born on the 5th of August
1815. He was intended for the army, but delays having arisen
in producing a commission, he went out to New South Wales,
where he engaged in the difficult but very necessary undertaking
of transporting stock westward to the new colony of South
Australia, then in great distress, and where he became magistrate
and protector of the aborigines, whose interests he warmly
advocated. Already experienced as an Australian traveller,
he undertook the most extensive and difficult journeys in the
desert country north and west of Adelaide, and after encountering
the greatest hardships, proved the possibility of land communica-
tion between South and West Australia. In 1845 he returned
to England and published the narrative of his travels. In 1846
he was appointed lieutenant-governor of New Zealand, where he
served under Sir George Grey. After successively governing St
Vincent and Antigua, he was in 1862 appointed acting-governor
of Jamaica and in 1864 governor. In October 1865 a negro
insurrection broke out and was repressed with laudable vigour,
but the unquestionable severity and alleged illegality of Eyre's
subsequent proceedings raised a storm at home which induced
the government to suspend him and to despatch a special
commission of investigation, the effect of whose inquiries,
declared by his successor, Sir John Peter Grant, to have been
" admirably conducted," was that he should not be reinstated
in his office. The government, nevertheless, saw nothing in
Eyre's conduct to justify legal proceedings; indictments pre-
ferred by amateur prosecutors at home against him and military
officers who had acted under his direction, resulted in failure,
and he retired upon the pension of a colonial governor. As an
102
EYRE, SIR J. EZEKIEL
explorer Eyre must be classed in the highest rank, but opinions
are always likely to differ as to his action in the Jamaica rebellion.
He died on the 3oth of November 1901.
EYRE, SIR JAMES (1734-1799), English judge, was the son of
the Rev. Thomas Eyre, of Wells, Somerset. He was educated at
Winchester College and at St John's College, Oxford, which,
however, he left without taking a degree. He was called to the
bar at Gray's Inn in 1755, and commenced practice in the lord
mayor's and sheriffs' courts, having become by purchase one of
the four counsel to the corporation of London. He was appointed
recorder of London in 1763. He was counsel for the plaintiff in
the case of Wilkes v. Wood, and made a brilliant speech in condem-
nation of the execution of general search warrants. His refusal to
voice the remonstrances of the corporation against the exclusion
of Wilkes from parliament earned him the recognition of the
ministry, and he was appointed a judge of the exchequer in 1772.
From June 1792 to January 1793 he was chief commissioner of
the great seal. In 1793 he was made chief justice of the common
pleas, and presided over the trials of Home Tooke, Thomas
Crosfield and others, with great ability and impartiality. He
died on the ist of July 1799 and was buried at Ruscombe,
Berkshire.
See Howell, State Trials, xix. (1154-1155); Foss, Lives of the
Judges.
EYRIE, the alternative English form of the words Aerie or
Aery, the lofty nest of a bird of prey, especially of an eagle,
hence any lofty place of abode; the term is also used of the
brood of the bird. The word derives from the Fr. aire, of the
same meaning, which comes from the Lat. area, an open space,
but was early connected with aerius, high in the air, airy, a
confusion that has affected the spelling of the word. The
forms " eyrie " or " eyry " date from a i7th century attempt
to derive the word from the Teutonic ey, an egg.
EZEKIEL C>Kpm', "God strengthens" or "God is strong";
Sept. 'lefe/aijX; Vulg. Ezechiel), son of Buzi, one of the most
vigorous and impressive of the older Israelite thinkers. He
was a priest of the Jerusalem temple, probably a member of
the dominant house of Zadok, and doubtless had the literary
training of the cultivated priesthood of the time, including
acquaintance with the national historical, legal and ritual
traditions and with the contemporary history and customs
of neighbouring peoples. In the year 597 (being then, prob-
ably, not far from thirty years of age) he was carried off
to Babylonia by Nebuchadrezzar with King Jehoiachin and
a large body of nobles, military men and artisans, and there, it
would seem, he spent the rest of his life. His prophecies are
dated from this year (" our captivity," xl. i), except in i. I,
where the meaning of the date " thirtieth year " is obscure;
it cannot refer to his age (which would be otherwise expressed
in Hebrew), or to the reform of Josiah, 621 (which is not else-
where employed as an epoch); possibly the reference is to the
era of Nabopolassar (626 according to the Canon of Ptolemy),
if chronological inexactness be supposed (34 or 33 years instead
of 30), a supposition not at all improbable. That the word
" thirtieth " is old, appears from the fact that a scribe has added
a gloss (w. 2, 3) to bring this statement into accord with the
usual way of reckoning in the book: the "thirtieth" year,
he explains, is the fifth year of the captivity of Jehoiachin. The
exiles dwelt at Tell-abib (" Hill of the flood "), one of the mounds
or ruins made by the great floods that devastated the country, 1
near the " river " Chebar (Kebar), probably a large canal not
far south of the city of Babylon. Here they had their own
lands, and some form of local government by elders, and appear
to have been prosperous and contented; probably the only
demand made on them by the Babylonian government was the
payment of taxes.
Ezekiel was married (xxiv. 18), had his own house, and com-
ported himself quietly as a Babylonian subject. But he was a
profoundly interested observer of affairs at home and among
1 The Assyrian term abubu is used of the great primeval deluge
(in the Gilgamesh epic), and also of the local floods common in the
country.
the exiles: as patriot and ethical teacher he deplored alike the
political blindness of the Jerusalem government (King Zedekiah
revolted in 588) and the immorality and religious superficiality
and apostasy of the people. He, like Jeremiah, was friendly to
Nebuchadrezzar, regarding him as Yahweh's instrument for the
chastisement of the nation. Convinced that opposition to
Babylonian rule was suicidal, and interpreting historical events,
in the manner of the times, as indications of the temper of the
deity, he held that the imminent political destruction of the
nation was proof of Yahweh's anger with the people on account
of their moral and religious depravity; Jerusalem was hope-
lessly corrupt and must be destroyed (xxiv.). On the other
hand, he was equally convinced that, as his predecessors had
taught (Hos. xi. 8, 9; Isa. vii. 3 al.), Yahweh's love for his people
would not suffer them to perish utterly a remnant would be
saved, and this remnant he naturally found in the exiles in
Babylonia, a little band plucked from the burning and kept safe
in a foreign land till the wrath should have passed (xi. 14 ff.).
This conception of the exiles as the kernel of the restored nation
he further set forth in the great vision of ch. i., in which Yahweh
is represented as leaving Jerusalem and coming to take up his
abode among them in Babylonia for a time, intending, however,
to return to his own city (xliii. 7).
This, then, was Ezekiel's political creed destruction of Jeru-
salem and its inhabitants, restoration of the exiles, and mean-
time submission to Babylon. His arraignment of the Judeans is
violent, almost malignant (vi . x vi. al. ) . The well-meaning but weak
king Zedekiah he denounces with bitter scorn as a perjured traitor
(xvii) . He does not discuss the possibility of successful resistance
to the Chaldeans; he simply assumes that the attempt is foolish
and wicked, and, like other prophets, he identifies his political
programme with the will of God. Probably his judgment of the
situation was correct; yet, in view of Sennacherib's failure at
Jerusalem in 701 and of the admitted strength of the city, the
hope of the Jewish nobles could not be considered wholly un-
founded, and in any case their patriotism (like that of the national
party in the Roman siege) was not unworthy of admiration. The
prophet's predictions of disaster continued, according to the
record, up to the investment of the city by the Chaldean army in
588 (i.-xxiv.); after the fall of the city (586) his tone changed to
one of consolation (xxxiii.-xxxix.) the destruction of the wicked
mass accomplished, he turned to the task of reconstruction. He
describes the safe and happy establishment of the people in their
own land, and gives a sketch of a new constitution, of which the
main point is the absolute control of public religion by the priest-
hood (xl.-xlviii.).
The discourses of the first period (i.-xxiv.) do not confine them-
selves to political affairs, but contain much interesting ethical and
religious -material. The picture given of Jerusalemite morals is
an appalling one. Society is described as honeycombed with
crimes and vices; prophets, priests, princes and the people
generally are said to practise unblushingly extortion, oppression,
murder, falsehood, adultery (xxii.). This description is doubtless
exaggerated. It may be assumed that the social corruption in
Jerusalem was such as is usually found in wealthy communities,
made bolder in this case, perhaps, by the political unrest and the
weakness of the royal government under Zedekiah. No such
charges are brought by the prophet against the exiles, in whose
simple life, indeed, there was little or no opportunity for flagrant
violation of law. Ezekiel's own moral code is that of the prophets,
which insists on the practice of the fundamental civic virtues.
He puts ritual offences, however, in the same category with
offences against the moral law, and he does not distinguish
between immorality and practices that are survivals of old
recognized customs: in ch. xxii. he mentions "eating with the
blood" 2 along with murder, and failure to observe ritual regula-
tions along with oppression of the fatherless and the widow; the
old customary law permitted marriage with a half-sister (father's
daughter), with a daughter-in-law, and with a father's wife (Gen.
xx. 12, xxxviii. 26; 2 Sam. xvi. 21, 22), but the more refined
2 So we must read (as Robertson Smith has pointed out) in xxii. 9
and xviii. 6, instead of "eating on the mountains."
EZEKIEL
103
feeling of the later time frowned on the custom, and Ezekiel
treats it as adultery. 1 However, notwithstanding the insistence
on ritual, natural in a priest, his moral standard is high; follow-
ing the prescription of Ex. xxii. 21 [20] he regards oppression of
resident aliens (a class that had not then received full civil rights)
as a crime (xxii. 7), and in his new constitution (xlvii. 22, 23)
gives them equal rights with the homeborn. His strongest
denunciation is directed against the religious practices of the
time in Judea the worship of the Canaanite local deities (the
Baals), the Phoenician Tammuz, and the sun and other Baby-
lonian and Assyrian gods (vi., viii., xvi., xxiii.); he maintained
vigorously the prophetic struggle for the sole worship of Yahweh.
Probably he believed in the existence of other gods, though he
does not express himself clearly on this point; in any case he
held that the worship of other deities was destructive to Israel.
His conception of Yahweh shows a mingling of the high and the
low. On the one hand, he regards him as supreme in power,
controlling the destinies of Babylonia and Egypt as well as those
of Israel, and as inflexibly just in dealing with ordinary offences
against morality. But he conceives of him, on the other hand,
as limited locally and morally as having his special abode in
the Jerusalem temple, or elsewhere in the midst of the Israelite
people, and as dealing with other nations solely in the interests
of Israel. The bitter invectives against Ammon, Moab, Edom,
Philistia, Tyre, Sidon and Egypt, put into Yahweh's mouth, are
based wholly on the fact that these peoples are regarded as
hostile and hurtful to Israel; Babylonia, though nowise superior
to Egypt morally, is favoured and applauded because it is
believed to be the instrument for securing ultimately the pros-
perity of Yahweh's people. The administration of the affairs of
the world by the God of Israel is represented, in a word, as
determined not by ethical considerations but by personal prefer-
ences. There is no hint in Ezekiel's writings of the grandiose
conception of Isa. xl.-lv., that Israel's mission is to give the
knowledge of religious truth to the other nations of the world;
he goes so far as to say that Yahweh's object in restoring the
fortunes of Israel is to establish his reputation among the nations
as a powerful deity (xxxvi. 20-23, xxxvii. 28, xxxix. 23). " The
prophet regards Yahweh's administrative control as immediate:
he introduces no angels or other subordinate supernatural
agents the cherubs and the " men " of ix. 2 and xl. 3 are merely
imaginative symbols or representations of divine activity. His
high conception of God's transcendence, it may be supposed, led
him to ignore intermediary agencies, which are common in the
popular literature, and later, under the influence of this same
conception of transcendence, are freely employed.
The relations between the writings of Ezekiel and those of
Jeremiah is not clear. They have so much in common that they
must have drawn from the same current bodies of thought, or
there must have been borrowing in one direction or the other.
In one point, however, the attitude toward the ritual the two
men differ radically. The finer mind of the nation, represented
mainly by the prophets from Amos onward, had denounced
unsparingly the superficial non-moral popular cult. The
struggle between ethical religion and the current worship became
acute toward the end of the 7th century. There were two
possible solutions of the difficulty. The ritual books of our
Pentateuch were not then in existence, and the sacrificial cult
might be treated with contempt as not authoritative. This is
the course taken by Jeremiah, who says boldly that God requires
only obedience (Jer. vii. 21 ff.). On the other hand the better
party among the priests, believing the ritual to be necessary,
might undertake to moralize it; of such a movement, begun
by Deuteronomy, Ezekiel is the most eminent representative.
Priest and prophet, he sought to unify the national religious
consciousness by preserving the sacrificial cult, discarding its
abuses and vitalizing it ethically. The event showed that he
judged the situation rightly the religious scheme announced
by him, though not accepted in all its details, became the
dominant policy of the later time, and he has been justly called
'The stricter marriage law is formulated in Lev. xviii. 8-15,
XX. II ff.
" the father of Judaism." He speaks as a legislator, citing
no authority; but he formulates, doubtless, the ideas, and
perhaps the practices of the Jerusalem priesthood. His ritual
code (xliii.-xlvi.), which in elaborateness stands midway between
that of Deuteronomy and that of the middle books of the Penta-
teuch (resembling most nearly the code of Lev. xvii.-xxvi.)
shows good judgment. Its most noteworthy features are two.
Certain priests of idolatrous Judean shrines (distinguished by
him as " Levites ") he deprives of priestly functions, degrading
them to the rank of temple menials; and he takes from the
civil ruler all authority over public religion, permitting him
merely to furnish material for sacrifices. He is, however, much
more than a ritual reformer. He is the first to express clearly the
conception of a sacred nation, isolated by its religion from all
others, the guardian of divine law and the abode of divine
majesty. This kingdom of God he conceives of as moral:
Yahweh is to put his own spirit into the people, 2 creating in
them a disposition to obey his commandments, which are moral
as well as ritual (xxxvi. 26, 27). The conception of a sacred
nation controlled the whole succeeding Jewish development;
if it was narrow in its exclusive regard for Israel, its intensity
saved the Jewish religion to the world.
Text and Authorship. The Hebrew text of the book of Ezekiel
is not in good condition it is full of scribal inaccuracies and
additions. Many of the errors may be corrected with the aid
of the Septuagint (e.g. the 430 39O-j-4o-of iv. 5, 6 is to be
changed to 190), and none of them affect the general thought.
The substantial genuineness of the discourses is now accepted by
the great body of critics. The Talmudic tradition (Baba Battira
146) that the men of the Great Synagogue " wrote " Ezekiel,
may refer to editorial work by later scholars. 3 There is no
validity in the objections of Zunz (Gottesdienstl. Vortr.) that
the specific prediction concerning Zedekiah (xii. 12 f.) is non-
Prophetic, and that the drawing-up of a new constitution soon
after the destruction of the city and the mention of Noah,
Daniel, Job and Persia are improbable. The prediction in
question was doubtless added by Ezekiel after the event; the
code belongs precisely in his time, and the constitution was natural
for a priest; Noah, Daniel and Job are old legendary Hebrew
figures; and it is not probable that the prophet's " Paras " is
our " Persia." Havet's contention (in La Modernite des pro-
phetes) that Gog represents the Parthians (40 B.C.) has little or
nothing in its support. There are additions made post eventum,
as in the case mentioned above and in xxix. 17-20, and the
description of the commerce of Tyre (xxvii. 96-250), which
interrupts the comparison of the city to a ship, looks like an
insertion whether by the prophet or by some other; but there is
no good reason to doubt that the book is substantially the work
of Ezekiel. Ezekiel's style is generally impetuous and vigorous,
somewhat smoother in the consolatory discourses (xxxiv.,
xxxvi., xxxvii.); he produces a great effect by the cumulation
of details, and is a master of invective; he is fond of symbolic
pictures, proverbs and allegories; his " visions " are elaborate
literary productions, his prophecies show less spontaneity than
those of any preceding prophet (he receives his revelations in
the form of a book, ii. 9), and in their present shape were hardly
pronounced in public a fact that seems to be hinted at in the
statement that he was " dumb " till the fall of Jerusalem (iii.26,
xxxiii. 22); in private interviews the people did not take him
seriously (xxxiii. 30-33). His book was accepted early as part
of the sacred literature: Ben-Sira (c. 180 B.C.) mentions him
along with Isaiah and Jeremiah (Ecclus. xlix. 8); he is not
quoted directly in the New Testament, but his imagery is
employed largely in the Apocalypse and elsewhere. His diver-
gencies from the Pentateuchal code gave rise to serious doubts,
but, after prolonged study, the discrepancies were explained,
and the book was finally canonized (Shab. 136). According to
* Yahweh's spirit, thought of as Yahweh's vital principle, as
man's spirit is man's vital principle, is to be breathed into them, as,
in Gen. ii. 7, Yahweh breathes his own breath into the lifeless body.
The spirit in the Old Testament is a refined material thing that may
come or be poured out on men.
3 The " Great Synagogue " is semi-mythical.
104.
EZRA EZRA,
Jerome (Preface to Comm. on Ezek.) the Jewish youth were
forbidden to read the mysterious first chapter (called the markaba,
the " chariot ") and the concluding section (xl.-xlviii.) till they
reached the age of thirty years.
The book divides itself naturally into three parts: the arraignment
of Jerusalem (i.-xxiv.) ; denunciation of foreign enemies (xxv.-
xxxii.); consolatory construction of the future (xxxiii.-xlviii.).
The opening " vision " (i.), an elaborate symbolic picture, is of the
nature of a general preface, and was composed probably late in the
prophet's life. Out of the north (the Babylonian sacred mountain)
comes a bright cloud, wherein appear four Creatures (formed on the
model of Babylonian composite figures), each with four faces (man,
lion, bull, eagle) and attended by a wheel; the wheels are full of
eyes, and move straight forward, impelled by the spirit dwelling
in the Creatures (the spirit of Yahweh). Supported on their heads
is something like a crystalline firmament, above which is a form like
a sapphire throne (cf. Ex. xxiv. 10), and on the throne a man-like
form (Yahweh) surrounded by a rainbow brightness. The Wheels
symbolize divine omniscience and control, and the whole vision
represents the coming of Yahweh to take up his abode among the
exiles. The prophet then receives his call (ii., iii.) in the shape of a
roll of a book, which he is required to eat (an indication of the
literary form now taken by prophecy). He is informed that the
people to whom he is sent are rebellious and stiff-necked (this indi-
cates his opinion of the people, and gives the keynote of the following
discourses); he is appointed watchman to warn men when they
sin, and is to be held responsible for the consequences if he fail in
this duty. To this high conception of a preacher's function the
prophet was faithful throughout his career. Next follow minatory
discourses (iv.-vii.) predicting the siege and capture of Jerusalem
perhaps revised after the event. There are several symbolic acts
descriptive of the siege. One of these (iv. 4 ff.) gives the duration
of the national punishment in loose chronological reckoning: 40
years (a round number) for Tudah, and 150 more (according to the
corrected text) for Israel, the starting-point, probably, being the
year 722, the date of the capture of Samaria ; the procedure described
in v. 8 is not to be understood literally. In vi. the idolatry of the
nation is pictured in darkest colours. Next follows (viii.-xi.) a
detailed description, in the form of a vision, of the sin of Jerusalem :
within the temple-area elders and others are worshipping beast-
forms, Tammuz and the sun (probably actual cults of the time) ; l
men approach to defile the temple and slay the inhabitants of the
city (ix.). In ch. x. the imagery of ch. i. reappears, and the Creatures
are identified with the cherubs of Solomon s temple. This appears
to be an independent form of the vision, which has been brought
into connexion with that of i. by a harmonizing editor. There
follow a symbolic prediction of the exile (xii.) and a denunciation
of non-moral prophets and prophetesses (xiii.) though Yahweh
deceive a prophet, yet he and those who consult him will be punished ;
and so corrupt is the nation that the presence of a few eminently
good men will not save it (xiv.). 2 After a comparison of Israel
to a worthless wild vine (xv.) come two allegories, one portraying
idolatrous Jerusalem as the unfaithful spouse of Yahweh (xvi.),
the other describing the fate of Zedekiah (xvii.). The fine insistence
on individual moral responsibility in xviii. (cf. Deut. xxiv. 16, Jer.
xxxi. 29 f.), while it is a protest against a superficial current view,
is not to be understood as a denial of all moral relations between
successive generations. This latter question had not presented
itself to the prophet's mind ; his object was simply to correct the
opinion of the people that their present misfortunes were due not
to their own faults but to those of their predecessors. A more
sympathetic attitude appears in two elegies (xix.), one on the kings
Jehoahaz and Jehoiachin, the other on the nation. These are
followed by a scathing sketch of Israel's religious career (xx. 1-26),
in which, contrary to the view of earlier prophets, it is declared that
the nation had always been disobedient. From this point to the
end of xxiv. there is a mingling of threat and promise. 3 The allegory
of xxiii. is similar to that of xvi., except that in the latter Samaria
is relatively treated with favour, while in the former it (Aholah) is
involved in the same condemnation as that of Jerusalem. At this
point is introduced (xxv.-xxxii.) the series of discourses directed
against foreign nations. The description of the king of Tyre (xxviii.
11-19) as dwelling in Eden, the garden of God, the sacred mountain,
under the protection of the cherub, bears a curious resemblance to
the narrative in Gen. ii., iii., of which, however, it seems to be in-
dependent, using different Babylonian material ; the text is corrupt.
The section dealing with Egypt is one of remarkable imaginative
power and rhetorical vigour: the king of Egypt is compared to a
magnificent cedar of Lebanon (in xxxi. 3 read: " there was a cedar
in Lebanon ") and to the dragon of the Nile, and the picture of his
1 In viii. 17 the unintelligible expression " they put the branch
to their nose " is the rendering of a corrupt Hebrew text ; a probable
emendation is: " they are sending a stench to my nostrils. '
2 The legendary figure of Daniel (xiv. 14) is later taken by the
author of the book of Daniel as his hero.
* For a reconstruction of the poem in xxi. IO, ii, see the English
Ezekiel in Haupt's Sacred Books.
3RD BOOK OF
descent into Sheol is intensely tragic. Whether these discourses
were all uttered between the investment of Jerusalem and its fall,
or were here inserted by Ezekiel or by a scribe, it is not possible to
say. In xxxiii. the function of the prophet as watchman is described
at length (expansion of the description in iii.) and the news of the
capture of the city is received. The following chapters (xxxiv.-
xxxix.) are devoted to reconstruction: Edom, the detested enemy
of Israel, is to be crushed; the nation, politically raised from the
dead, with North and South united (xxxvii.), is to be established
under a Davidide king; a final assault, made by Gog, is to be suc-
cessfully met, 4 and then the people are to dwell in their own land in
peace for ever ; this Gog section is regarded by some as the beginning
of Jewish apocalyptic writing. In the last section (xl.-xlviii.), put
as a vision, the temple is to be rebuilt, in dimensions and arrange-
ments a reproduction of the temple of Solomon (cf. i Kings vi., vii.),
the sacrifices and festivals and the functions of priests and prince
are prescribed, a stream issuing from under the temple is to vivify
the Dead Sea and fertilize the land (this is meant literally), the land
is divided into parallel strips and assigned to the tribes. The
prophet's thought is summed up in the name of the city : Yahweh
Shammah, " Yahweh is there," God dwelling for ever in the midst
of his people.
LITERATURE. For the older works see the Introductions of J. G.
Carpzov (1757) and C. H. H. Wright (1890). For legends: Pseud. -
Epiphan., De mi. prophet. ; Benjamin of Tudela, Itin. ; Hamburger,
Realencycl.; Jew. Encycl. On the Hebrew text; C. H. Cornill,
Ezechiel (1886) (very valuable for text and ancient versions) ;
H. Graetz, Emendationes (1893); C. H. Toy, "Text of Ezek."
(1899) in Haupt's Sacred Books of the Old Test. Commentaries:
F. Hitzig (1847); H. Ewald (1868); E. Reuss (French ed., 1876;
Germ, ed., 1892); Currey (1876) in Speaker's Comm.; R. Smend
(revision of Hitzig) (1880) in Kurzgefasst. exeget. Handbuch; A. B.
Davidson (1882) in Cambr. Bible for Schools; J. Skinner (1895) in
Expos. Bible; A. Bertholet (1897) in Marti's Kurz. Hand-Comm.;
C. H. Toy (1899) in Haupt's Sacr. Bks. (Eng. ed.) ; R. Kraetzschmar
(1900) in W. Nowack's Handkommentar. See also Duhm, Theol. d.
Propheten (1875); A. Kuenen. Prophets and Prophecy (1877);
Gautier, La Mission du prophete Ezechiel (1891) ; Montefiore, Hibbert
Lectures (1892) ; A. Bertholet, Der Verfassungsentwurf des Hesekiel
(1896); articles in Herzog-Hauck, Realencykl.; Hastings, Bibl.
Diet.; Cheyne, Encycl. Bibl., Jew. Encycl.; F. Bleek, Introd. (Eng.
tr., 1875), and Bleek- Wellhausen (Germ.) (1878); Wildeboer,
Letterkunde d. Oud. Verbonds (1893), and Germ, transl., Lift. d. Alt.
Test.; Perrot and Chipiez, Hist, de I'art, &c., in which, however, the
restoration of Ezekiel's temple (by Chipiez) is probably untrust-
worthy. (C. H. T.*)
EZRA (from a Hebrew word meaning " help "), in the Bible,
the famous scribe and priest at the time of the return of the
Jews in the reign of the Persian king Artaxerxes I. (458 B.C.).
His book and that of Nehemiah form one work (see EZRA AND
NEHEMIAH, BOOKS or), apart from which we have little trust-
worthy evidence as to his life. Even in the beginning of the
2nd century B.C., when Ben Sira praises notable figures of the
exilic and post-exilic age (Zerubbabel, Jeshua and Nehemiah),
Ezra is passed over (Ecclesiasticus xlix. 11-13), and he is not
mentioned in a still later and somewhat fanciful description of
Nehemiah's work (2 Mace. i. 18-36). Already well known as a
scribe, Ezra's labours were magnified by subsequent tradition.
He was regarded as the father of the scribes and the founder of
the Great Synagogue. According to the apocryphal fourth
book of Ezra (or 2 Esdras xiv.) he restored the law which had
been lost, and rewrote all the sacred records (which had been
destroyed) in addition to no fewer than seventy apocryphal
works. The former theory recurs elsewhere in Jewish tradition,
and may be associated with the representation in Ezra- Nehemiah
which connects him with the law. But the story of his many
literary efforts, like the more modern conjecture that he closed
the canon of the Old Testament, rests upon no ancient basis.
See BIBLE, sect. Old Testament (Canon and Criticism); JEWS
(history, 21 seq.). The apocryphal books, called I and 2 Esdras
(the Greek form of the name) in the English Bible, are dealt with
below as EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF, and EZRA, FOURTH BOOK OF,
while the canonical book of Ezra is dealt with under EZRA AND
NEHEMIAH.
EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF [i Esdras]. The titles of the various
books of the Ezra literature are very confusing. The Greek,
the Old Latin, the Syriac, and the English Bible from 1560
4 Gog probably represents a Scythian horde (though such an
invasion never took place) certainly not Alexander the Great, who
would have been called "king of Greece," and would have been
regarded not as an enemy but as a friend.
EZRA, SRD BOOK OF
105
onwards designate this book as i Esdras, the canonical books
Ezra and Nehemiah being 2 Esdras in the Greek. In the Vulgate,
however, our author was, through the action of Jerome, degraded
into the third place and called 3 Esdras, whereas the canonical
books Ezra and Nehemiah (see EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF,
below) were called i and 2 Esdras, and the Apocalypse of Ezra
4 Esdras. Thus the nomenclature of our book follows, and
possibly wrongly, the usage of the Vulgate. 1 In the Ethiopic
version a different usage prevails. The Apocalyspe is called
i Esdras, our author 2 Esdras, and Ezra and Nehemiah 3 Esdras,
or 3 and 4 Esdras. Throughout this article we shall use the best
attested designation of this book, i.e. i Esdras.
Contents. With the exception of one original section, namely,
that of Darius and the three young men, our author contains
essentially the same materials as the canonical Ezra and some
sections of 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah. To the various explana-
tions of this phenomenon we shall recur later. The book may
be divided as follows (the verse division is that of the Cambridge
LXX):
Chap. i. =2 Chron. xxxv. l-xxxvi. 21. Great passover of Jpsiah:
his death at Megiddo. His successors down to the destruction of
Jerusalem and the Captivity. (Verses i. 21-22 are not found else-
where, though the LXX of 2 Chron. xxxv. 20 exhibits a very
distant parallel.)
Chap. ii. i-i4 = Ezra i. The edict of Cyrus. Restoration of the
sacred vessels through Sanabassar to Jerusalem.
Chap. ii. 15-25 = Ezra iv. 6-24. First attempt to rebuild the
Temple: opposition of the Samaritans. Decree of Artaxerxes:
work abandoned till the second year of Darius.
Chap. iii. l-v. 6. This section is peculiar to our author. The
contest between the three pages waiting at the court of Darius and
the victory of the Jewish youth " Zerubbabel," to whom as a reward
Darius decrees the return of the Jews and the restoration of the
Temple and worship. Partial list of those who returned with
" Joachim, son of Zerubbabel."
Chap. v. 7-70 = Ezra ii.-iv. 5. List of exiles who returned with
Zerubbabel. Work on the Temple begun. Offer of the Samaritans'
co-operation rejected. Suspension of the work through their
intervention till the reign of Darius.
Chap. vi. I vii. 9 = Ezra v. I vi. 18. Work resumed in the second
year of Darius. Correspondence between Sisinnes and Darius with
reference to the building of the Temple. Darius' favourable decree.
Completion of the work by Zerubbabel.
Chap. vii. 10-15 =Ezra vi. 19-22. Celebration of the completion
of the Temple.
Chap. viii. l-ix. 36 = Ezra vii.-x. Return of the exiles under
Ezra. Mixed marriages forbidden.
Chap. ix. 37-55 = Nehemiah vii. 73-viii. 12. The reading of the
Law.
Thus, apart from iii. i-v. 3, which gives an account of the
pages' contest, the contents of the book are doublets of the
canonical Ezra and portions of 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah.
The beginning of the book seems imperfect, with its abrupt
opening "And Josiah held the passover": its conclusion is
mutilated, as it breaks off in the middle of a sentence. As
Thackeray suggests, it probably continued the history of the
feast of Tabernacles described in Neh. viii. a view that is
supported by Joseph. Ant. xi. 5. 5, " who describes that feast
using an Esdras word bravbpduais and . . . having hitherto
followed Esdras as his authority passes on to the Book of
Nehemiah."
Claims to Canonicity. It would seem that even greater value
was attached to i Esdras than to the Hebrew Ezra, (i) For
in the best MSS. (BA) it stands before 2 Esdras the verbal
translation of the Hebrew Ezra and Nehemiah. (2) It is used by
Josephus, who in fact does not seem aware of the existence
of 2 Esdras. (3) i Esdras is frequently quoted by the Greek
fathers Clem. Alex., Origen, Eusebius, and by the Latin
Tertullian, Cyprian, Augustine. The adverse judgment of the
church is due to Jerome, who, from his firm attachment to the
Hebrew Old Testament, declined to translate the "dreams "
of 3 and 4 Esdras. This judgment influenced alike the Council
1 '' At the Council of Trent (when the Septuagint Canon was
virtually accepted as authoritative), bv a most curious aberration,
Esdras iii. and iv. and the Epistle of Manasseh were alone excluded
from the canon and remitted to our appendix." Howorth, " Un-
conventional Views on the Text of the Bible," in the P.S.B.A.,
1901, p. 149.
of Trent and the Lutheran church in Germany; for Luther
also refused to translate Esdras and the Apocalypse of Ezra.
Origin and Relation to the Canonical Ezra. Various theories
have been given as to the relation of the book and the canonical
Ezra.
1 . Some scholars, as Keil, Bissell and formerly Schiirer, regarded
i Esdras as a free compilation fromthe Greek of 2 Esdras(2 Chron.
and Ezra-Nehemiah) . This theory has now given place to others
more accordant with the facts of the case.
2. Others, as Ewald, Hist, of Isr. v. 126-128, and Thackeray
in Hastings' Bible Dictionary, assume a lost Greek version of
Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah, from which were derived
i Esdras a free redaction of the former and 2 Esdras.
Thackeray claims that we have " a satisfactory explanation
of the coincidences in translation and deviation from the Hebrew
in i Esdras and 2 Esdras, if we suppose both are to some extent
dependent on a lost Greek original." But later in the same
article Thackeray is compelled to modify this view and admit
that i Esdras is not a mere redaction of a no longer extant
version of the canonical books, but shows not only an independent
knowledge of the Hebrew text but also of a Hebrew text superior
in not a few passages to the Massoretic text, where 2 Esdras
gives either an inaccurate version or a version reproducing the
secondary Massoretic text.
3. Others like Michaelis, Trendelenburg, Pohlmann, Herzfeld,
Fritzsche hold it to be a direct and independent translation of
the Hebrew. There is much to be said in favour of this view.
It presupposes in reality two independent recensions of the
Hebrew text, such as we cannot reasonably doubt existed at
one time of the Book of Daniel. Against this it has been urged
that the story of the three pages was written originally in Greek
(Ewald, Schiirer, Thackeray). The only grounds for this theory
are the easiness of the Greek style and the paronomasia in
iv. 62 aveaiv nai afaaiv. But the former is no real objection,
and the latter may be purely accidental. On the other hand
there are several undoubted Semiticisms. Thus we have two
instances of the split relative oB . . . aurov iii. 5; ou . . . for' avrtf
iv. 63 and the phrase pointed out by Fritzsche TO. diKaia iroitt
d?ro ir6.VTUv = ]D&!X'Dney. It must, however, be admitted that
there are fewer Hebraisms in this section of the book than in the
rest.
4. Sir H. H. Howorth in the treatises referred to at the close
of this article has shown cogent grounds for regarding i Esdras
as the original and genuine Septuagint translation, and 2 Esdras
as probably that of Theodotion. For this view he adduces
among others the following grounds: (i.) Its use by Josephus,
who apparently was not acquainted with 2 Esdras. (ii.) Its
precedence of 2 Esdras in the great uncials, (iii.) Its origin at a
time when Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah formed a single work,
(iv.) Its preservation of a better Hebrew text in many instances
than 2 Esdras. (v.) The fact that i Esdras and the Septuagint
of Daniel go back to one and the same translator, as Dr Gwynn
(Diet. Christ. Biog. iv. 977) has pointed out (cf. i Esdr. vi. 31,
and Dan. ii. 5).
This contention of Howorth has been accepted by Nestle,
Cheyne, Bertholet, Ginsburg and other scholars, though they
regard the question of an Aramaic original of chapters iii. i-v. 6
as doubtful. Howorth's further claim that he has established
the historical credibility of the book as a whole and its chrono-
logical accuracy as against the canonical Ezra has not as yet
met with acceptance; but his arguments have not been fairly
met and answered.
5. Volz (Encyc. Bibl. ii. 1490) thinks that the solution of the
problem is to be found in a different direction. The text is of
unequal value, and the inequalities are so great as to exclude
the supposition that the Greek version was produced aus einem
Guss. iii. i-v. 3 is an independent narrative written originally in
Greek and itself a composite production, the praise of truth
being an addition, vi. i-vii. 15, ii. 15-250 is a fragment of an
Aramaic narrative. Some in Josephus (Ant. xi. 4. 9) an account
of Samaritan intrigues is introduced immediately after i Esdras
vii. 15, it is natural to infer that something of the same kind
io6
EZRA, 4TH BOOK OF
has fallen out between vi. and ii. 15-25. The Aramaic text
behind i Esdras here is better than that behind the canonical
Ezra. Next, viii.-ix. is from the Ezra document ( = Ezra vii.-x.;
Neh. vii. 73, viii. i sqq.), though implying a different Hebrew text.
ii. 1-15; v. 7-73; vii. 2-4, 6-15 are from the Chronicles: likewise
i. is from 2 Chron. xxxv.-vi., 2 Esdras being at the same time
before the translator.
Date. The book must be placed between 300 B.C. and A.D. 100,
when it was used by Josephus. It is idle to attempt any nearer
limits until definite conclusions have been reached on the chief
problems of the book.
MSS. and Versions. The book is found in B and A. The
latter seems to have preserved the more ancient form of the
text, as it is generally that followed by Josephus. The Old
Latin in two recensions is published by Sabatier, Bibliorum
sacrorum Latinae versiones antiquae, iii. Another Latin transla-
tion is given in Lagarde (Septuag. Studien, ii., 1892). In Syriac
the text is found only in the Syro-Hexaplar of Paul of Telia
(A.D. 616). See Walton's Polyglott. There is also an Ethiopic
version edited by Dillmann (Bibl. Vet. Test. Aelh. v., 1894)
and an Armenian.
LITERATURE. Exegesis : Fritzsche, Exegel. Handb. zu den Apokr.
(1851); Zockler, Die Apokryphen,< 155-161 (1891); Bissell inLange-
Schaff's Comm. (1880); Lupton in Speaker's Comm. (1888); Ball,
notes to I Esdr. in the Variorum Apocrypha. Introduction and
critical Inquiries: Trendelenburg, " Apocr. Esra," in Eichhorn's
Allgem. Bibl. der bibl. Litt. i. 178-232 (1787); Pohlmann, " Uber
das Ansehen des apokr. dritten Buchs Esras," in Tubingen Theol.
Quartalschrift, 257-275 (1859); Sir H. Howorth, "Character and
Importance of I Esdras," in the Academy (1893), pp. 13, 60, 106,
174, 326, 524; and further studies entitled " Some Unconventional
Views on the Text of the Bible," in the Proceedings of the Society of
Biblical Archaeology, 1901, pp. 147-159; 306-330, 1902, June and
November. (R. H. C.)
EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or APOCALYPSE) OF. This is the
most profound and touching of the Jewish Apocalypses. It
stands in the relation of a sister work to the Apocalypse of
Baruch, but though the relation is so close, they have many
points of divergence. Thus, whereas the former represents the
ordinary Judaism of the ist century of the Christian era, the
teaching of 4 Ezra on the Law, Works, Justification, Original
Sin and Free Will approximates to the school of Shammai and
serves to explain the Pauline doctrines on those subjects; but
to this subject we shall return.
Original Language and Versions. In the Latin version our
book consists of sixteen chapters, of which, however, only
iii.-xiv. are found in the other versions. To iii.-xiv., accordingly,
the present notice is confined. After the example of most of the
Latin MSS. we designate the book 4 Ezra (see Bensly-James,
Fourth Book of Ezra, pp. xxiv-xxvii). In the First Arabic and
Ethiopic versions it is called i Ezra; in some Latin MSS. and in
the English Authorized Version it is 2 Ezra, and in the Armenian
3 Ezra. Chapters i.-ii. are sometimes called 3 Ezra, and xv.-xvi.
5 Ezra. All the versions go back to a Greek text. This is shown
by the late Greek apocalypse of Ezra (Tischendorf, Apocalypses
Apocryphae, 1866, pp. 24-33), the author of which was acquainted
with the Greek of 4 Ezra; also by quotations from it in Barn,
iv. 4; xii. 1=4 Ezra xii. 10 sqq., v. 5; Clem. Alex. Strom, iii. 16
(here first expressly cited) = 4 Ezra v. 35, &c. (see Bensly-James,
op. cit. pp. xxvii-xxxviii. The derivation of the Latin version
from the Greek is obvious when we consider its very numerous
Graecisms. Thus the genitive is found after the comparative
(v. 13) horum majora; xi. 29 duorum capitum majus, even the
genitive absolute as in x. 9, the double negative, de and ex with
the genitive. Peculiar genders can only be accounted for by the
influence of the original forms in Greek, as x. 23 signaculum
(<r<poyis) . . . tradita est; xi. 4 caput (w^aXi?) . . . sed el ipsa.
In vi. 25 we have the Greek attraction of the relative omnibus
islis quibus praedixi tibi. In his Messias Judaeorum (1869),
pp. 36-110, Hilgenfeld has given a reconstruction of the Greek
text. Till 1896 only Ewald believed that 4 Ezra was written
originally in Hebrew. In that year Wellhausen (Gott. Gel. Anz.
pp. 12-13) an d Charles (Apoc. Bar. p. Ixxii) pointed out that
a Hebrew original must be assumed on various grounds; and
this view the former established in his Skizzen u. Vorarbeiten,
vi. 234-240 (1899). Of the numerous grounds for this assumption
it will be necessary only to adduce such constructions as " de quo
me interrogas de eo," iv. 28, and xiii. 26, " qui per semet ipsum
liberabit " ( = ta-iyg)= " through whom he will deliver," or to
point to such a mistranslation as vii. 33, " longanimitas con-
gregabitur," where for " congregabitur " ( = ion 1 ) we require
" evanescet," which is another and the actual meaning of the
Hebrew verb in this passage. The same mistranslation is found
in the Vulgate in Hosea iv. 3. Gunkel has adopted this view
in his German translation of the book in Kautzsch's Apok. und
Pseud, des A. Testaments, ii. 332-333, and brought forward in
confirmation the following remarkable instance in viii. 23,
where though the Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic and Armenian
Versions read lestificalur, the Second Arabic version and the
Apostolic Constitutions have nevei els rov aiS>va, which are to be
explained as translations of (s^) "^ n "oj>. Another interesting
case is found in xiv. 3, where the Latin and all other versions
but Arabic 2 read super rubum and the Arabic 2 in monle Sinai.
Here there is a corruption of "w " bush " into 'J'D " Sinai."
Latin Version. All the older editions of this version, as those
of Fabricius, Sabatier, Volkmar, Hilgenfeld, Fritzsche, as well as
in the older editions of the Bible, are based ultimately on only
one MS., the Codex Sangermanensis (written A.D. 822), as Gilde-
meister proved in 1 865 from the fact that the large fragment between
verses 36 and 37 in chapter vii., which is omitted in all the above
editions, originated through the excision of a leaf in this MS. A
splendid edition of this version based on MSS. containing the missing
fragment, which have been subsequently discovered, has been pub-
lished by Bensly-James, op. cit. This edition has taken account
of all the important MSS. known, save one at Leon in Spain.
Syriac Version. This version, found in the Ambrosian Library
in Milan, was translated into Latin by Ceriani, Monumenta sacra
et prof ana, II. ii. pp. 99-124 (1866). Two years later this scholar
edited the Syriac text, op. cit. V. i. pp. 4-111, and in 1883 repro-
and correction.
Ethiopic Version. First edited and translated by Laurence,
Primi Ezrae libri versio Aethiopica (1820). Laurence's Latin
translation was corrected by Praetorius and reprinted in Hilgen-
feld's Messias Judaeorum. In 1894 Dillmann's text based on ten
MSS. was published V.T. Aeth. libri apocryphi, v. 153-193.
Arabic Versions. The First Arabic version was translated from a
MS. in the Bodleian Library into English by Ockley (in Whiston's
Primitive Christianity, vol. iv. 1711). This was done into Latin
and corrected by Steiner for Hilgenfeld's Mess. Jud. The Second
Arabic version, which is independent of the first, has been edited
from a Vatican MS. and translated into Latin by Gildemeister, 1877.
Armenian Version. First printed in the Armenian Bible (1805).
Translated into Latin by Petermann for Hilgenfeld's Mess. Jud.;
next with Armenian text and English translation by Issaverdens in
the Uncanonical Writings of the Old Testament, pp. 488 sqq. (Venice,
1901).
Georgian Version. According to F. C. Conybeare an accurate
Georgian version made from the Greek exists in an i ith-century MS.
at Jerusalem.
Relation of the above Versions. These versions stand in the order
of worth as follows: Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic. The remaining
versions are paraphrastic and less accurate, and are guilty of addi-
tions and omissions. All the versions, save the Second Arabic one,
go back to the same Greek version. The Second Arabic version
presupposes a second Greek version.
Modern Versions. -All the English versions are now antiquated,
except those in the Variorum Apocrypha and the Revised Version
of the Apocrypha, and even these are far from satisfactory. Simi-
larly, all the German versions are behindhand, except the excellent
version of Gunkel in Apok. u. Pseud, ii. 252-401, which, however,
needs occasional correction.
Contents. The book (iii.-xiv.) consists of seven visions or
parts, like the apocalypse of Baruch. They are : (i) iii. i-v. 19;
(2) v. 20-vi. 34; (3) vi. 35-ix. 25; (4) ix. 26-x. 60; (5) xi. i-xii.
51; (6) xiii.; (7) xiv. These deal with (i) religious problems
and speculations and (2) eschatological questions. The first
three are devoted to the discussion of religious problems affecting
in the main the individual. The presuppositions underlying
these are in many cases the same as those in the Pauline Epistles.
The next three visions are principally concerned with eschato-
logical problems which relate to the nation. The seventh vision
EZRA, 4TH BOOK OF
is a fragment of the Ezra Saga recounting the rewriting of the
Scriptures, which had been destroyed. This has no organic
connexion with what precedes.
First Vision, iii.-v. 19. " In the thirtieth year after the ruin
of the city I Salathiel (the same is Ezra) was in Babylon and lay
troubled upon ray bed." In a long prayer Ezra asks how the deso-
lation of Sion and the prosperity of Babylon can be in keeping with
the justice of God. The angel Uriel answers that God's ways are
unsearchable and past man's understanding. When Ezra asks
when the end will be and what are the signs of it, the angel answers
that the end is at hand and enumerates the signs of it.
Second Vision, v. H-VJ. 34. Phaltiel, chief of the people,
reproaches Ezra for forsaking his flock. Ezra fasts, and in his
prayer asks why God had given up his people into the hands of the
heathen. Uriel replies: " Lovest thou that people^ better than
He that made them?" Man cannot find out God's judgment.
The end is at hand ; its signs are recounted.
Third Vision, vi. 35-ix. 25. Ezra recounts the works of creation,
and asks why Israel does not possess the world since the world
was made for Israel. The answer is that the present state is a
necessary stage to the coming one. Then follows an account of
the Messianic age and the resurrection: the punishment of the
wicked and the blessings of the righteous. There can be no intar-
cession for the departed. Few will be saved only as it were a
grape out of a cluster or a plant out of a forest.
Fourth Vision, ix. 26^x. 60. Ezra eats of herbs in the held ol
Ardat, and sees in a vision a woman mourning for her only son.
Ezra reminds her of the greater desolation of Sion. Suddenly she
is transfigured and vanishes, and in her place appears a city. The
woman, Uriel explains, represents Sion.
Fifth Vision, xi. i-xii. 39. Vision of an eagle with three heads,
twelve wings and eight winglets, which is rebuked by a lion and
destroyed. The eagle is the fourth kingdom seen by Daniel, and
the lion is the Messiah.
Sixth Vision, xiii. Vision of a man (i.e. the Messiah) arising
from the sea, who destroys his enemies who assemble against him,
and gathers to him another multitude, i.e. the lost Ten Tribes.
Seventh Vision, xiv. Ezra is told of his approaching translation.
He asks for the restoration of the Law, and is enabled by God to
dictate in forty days ninety-four books (the twenty-four canonical
books of the Old Testament that were lost, and seventy secret books
for the wise among the people).
Ezra's translation is found in the Canon only in the Oriental
Versions. In the Latin it was omitted when xv.-xvi. were added.
Integrity. According to Gunkel (Apok. u. Pseud,, ii. 33S-35 2 )
the whole book is the work of one writer. Thus down to vii.
1 6 he deals with the problem of the origin of suffering in the
world, and from vii. 17 to ix. 25 with the question who is worthy
to share in the blessedness of the next world. As regards the
first problem the writer shows, in the first vision, that suffering
and death come from sin no less truly on the part of Israel
than of all men, for God created man to be immortal; that the
end is nigh, when wrongs will be righted; God's rule will then
be recognized. In the second he emphasizes the consolation to
be found in the coming time, and in the third he speaks solely of
the next world, and then addresses himself to the second problem.
The fourth, fifth and sixth visions are eschatological. In these
the writer turns aside from the religious problems of the first
three visions and concerns himself only with the future national
supremacy of Israel. Zion's glory will certainly be revealed
(vision four), Israel will destroy Rome (five) and the hostile
Gentiles (six). Then the book is brought to a close with the
legend of Ezra's restoration of the lost Old Testament Scriptures.
In the course of the above work there are many inconsistencies
and contradictions. These Gunkel explains by admitting that
the writer has drawn largely on tradition, both oral and written,
for his materials. Thus he concedes that eschatological materials
in v. 1-13, vi. 18-28, vii. 26 sqq., also ix. i sqq., are from this
source, and apparently from an originally independent work, as
Kabisch urges, but that it is no longer possible to separate the
borrowed elements from the text. Again, in the four last visions
he is obliged to make the same concession on a very large scale
Vision four is based on a current novel, which the author has
taken up and put into an allegorical form. Visions five and six
are drawn from oral or written tradition, and relate only to the
political expectations of Israel, and seven is a reproduction of a
legend, for the independent existence of which evidence is
furnished by the quotations in Bensly-James pp. xxxvii-xxxviii
107
Thus the chief champion of the unity of the book makes so
many concessions as to its dependence on previously existing
sources that, to the student of eschatology, there is little to
choose between his view and that of Kabisch. In fact, if the
rue meaning of the borrowed materials is to be discovered, the
sources must be disentangled. Hence the need of some such
analysis as that of Kabisch (Das vierte Buck Ezra, 1889): S = an
Apocalypse of Salathiel, c. A.D. 100, preserved in a fragmentary
condition, iii. 1-31, iv. 1-51, v. i3&-vi. 10, 3O-vii. 25, vii. 45-viii.
62, ix. i3-x. 57, xii. 40-48, xiv. 28-35. E = an Ezra Apocalypse,
c. 31 B.C., iv. 52-v. 130, vi. 13-28, vii. 26-44, viii. 63-ix. 12.
A = an Eagle Vision, c. A.D. 90, x. 6o-xii. 35. M = a Son-of-Man
Vision, xiii. E 2 = an Ezra fragment, c. A.D. 100, xiv. 1-170,
18-27, 36-47. All these, according to Kabisch, were edited by a
Zealot, c. 120, who supplied the connecting links and made
many small additions. In the main this analysis is excellent.
[f we assume that the editor was also the author of S, and that
such a vigorous stylist, as he shows himself to be, recast to some
extent the materials he borrowed, there remains but slight
difference between the views of Kabisch and Gunkel. Neither
view, however, is quite satisfactory, and the problem still awaits
solution. Other attempts, such as Ewald's (Gesch. d. Volkes
Israel 3 , vii. 69-83) and De Faye's (Apocalypses juries, 155-165),
make no contribution.
School of the Author. The author or final redactor of the book
was a pessimist, and herein his book stands in strong contrast
with the Apocalypse of Baruch. Thus to the question pro-
pounded in the New Testament "Are there few that be saved? "
he has no hesitation in answering, " There be many created, but
few that be saved " (viii. 3): " An evil heart hath grown up in
us which hath led us astray . . . and that not a few only but
wellnigh all that have been created " (vii. 48) . In the Apocalypse
of Baruch on the other hand it is definitely maintained that not
a few shall be saved (xxi. n). Moreover, the sufferings of the
wicked are so great in the next world it were better, according
to 4 Ezra (as also to the school of Shammai), that man had not
been born. " It is much better (for the beasts of the field) than
for us; for they expect not a judgment and know not of
torments " (vii. 66): yet " it would have been best not to have
given a body to Adam, or that being done, to have restrained
him from sin; for what profit is there that man should in the
present life live in heaviness and after death look for punishment"
(vii. 1 1 6, 117). In iv. 12 the nexus of life, sin and suffering just
referred to, is put still more strongly: " It were better we had
not been at all than that we should be born and sin and suffer." 1
The different attitude of these two writers towards this question
springs from their respective views on the question of free will.
The author of Baruch declares (iv. 15, 19): " For though Adam
sinned and brought untimely death upon all, yet of those who
were born from him each one of them prepared for his own soul
torment to come, and again each one of them has chosen for
himself glories to come . . . each one of us has been the Adam
of his own soul." Though the writer of Ezra would admit the
possibility of a few Israelites attaining to salvation through the
most strenuous endeavour, yet he holds that man is all but
predoomed through his original evil disposition or through the
fall of Adam (vii. 118). " O Adam, what hast thou done: for
though it was thou that sinned, the evil is not fallen on thee
alone, but upon all of us that come of thee."
Another contrast between the two books is that while Baruch
shows some mercy to the Gentiles (Ixxii. 4-6) in the Messianic
period, none according to 4 Ezra and the Shammaites (Toseph.
Sank. xiii. 2) will be extended to them, iii. 30, ix. 22 sq., xii. 34,
xiii. 37 sq.).
On the above grounds it is not unreasonable to conclude that
whereas the Apocalypse of Baruch owes its leading character-
istics to a pupil of HillePs school, 4 Ezra shows just as clearly
its derivation from that of Shammai. Kohler (Jewish Encyc.
1 In the Apocalypse of Baruch, x. 6, we find a similar expression :
" Blessed is he who was not born, or being born has died,
here death is said to be preferable to witnessing the present woe
Jerusalem.
io8
EZRA AND NEHEMIAH
v. 221) points out that the view of 4 Ezra that the Ten
Tribes will return was held by the Shammaites, whereas it was
denied by Aqiba. The Apocalypse of Baruch is silent on this
point.
Time and Place. The work was written towards the close of
the ist century (iii. i, 29), and somewhere in the east.
LITERATURE. In addition to the authorities mentioned above,
see Dillmann, Herzog's Real-Encyk." xii. 353 sqq.; Schiirer, Gescfi.
des iiid. Volkes 3 , iii. 246 sqq. ; and the articles on 4 Lsdras in
Hastings' Bible Dictionary undtheEncydopaediaBiblicaby Thackeray
and James respectively. '(" " *J
EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF, in the Old Testament.
The two canonical books entitled Ezra and Nehemiah in the
English Bibie 1 correspond to the i and 2 Esdras of the Vulgate,
to the 2 Esdras of the Septuagint, and to the Ezra and
Nehemiah of the Massoretic (Hebrew) text. Though for many
centuries they have thus been treated as separate compositions,
we have abundant evidence that they were anciently regarded as
forming but one book, and a careful examination proves that
together with the book of Chronicles they constitute one single
work. The two books may therefore be conveniently treated
together.
| i. Position and Date.Origen (Euseb, H.E.vi. 25), expressly
enumerating the twenty-two books of the old covenant as
acknowledged by the Jews and accepted by the Christian church,
names " the First and Second Ezra in one book "; Melito of
Sardis (Euseb. H.E. iv. 26) in like manner mentions the book
of Ezra only. So also the Talmud (in Baba balhrd, 14. 2), nor
can it be supposed that Josephus in his enumeration (c. A p.
i. 8) reckoned Nehemiah as apart from Ezra. That the Jews
themselves recognized no real separation is shown by the fact
that no Massoretic notes are found after Ezra x., but at the end
of Nehemiah the contents of both are reckoned together, and it
is stated that Neh. iii. 22 is the middle verse of the book. Their
position in the Hebrew Bible before the book of Chronicles
is, however, illogical. The introductory verses of Ezra i. are
identical with the conclusion of 2 Chron. xxxvi., whilst in the
version of i Esdras no less than two chapters (2 Chron. xxxv. sq.)
overlap. The cause of the separation is probably to be found
in the late reception of Chronicles into the Jewish canon. Further
proof of the unity of the three is to be found in the general simi-
larity of style and treatment. The same linguistic criteria recur,
and the interest in lists and genealogies, in priests and Levites,
and in the temple service point unmistakably to the presence
of the same hand (the so-called " chronicler ") in Chronicles-
Ezra-Nehemiah. See BIBLE (sect. Canon) ; CHRONICLES.
The period of history covered by the books of Ezra and
Nehemiah extends from the return of the exiles under Zerubbabel
in 537-536 B.C. to Nehemiah's second visit to Jerusalem in 432
B.C. In their present form, however, the books are considerably
later, and allusions to Nehemiah in the past (Neh. xii. 26, 47),
to the days of Jaddua (the grandson of Nehemiah's contem-
porary Joiada; ib. xii. n), to Darius (Nothus 423 B.C. or rather
Codomannus 336 B.C., ib. v. 22), and the use of the term " king
of Persia," as a distinctive title after the fall of that empire
(332 B.C.), are enough to show that, as a whole, they belong to
the same age as the book of Chronicles.
2. Contents. Their contents may be divided into four parts:
(a) The events preceding the mission of Ezra (i.-vi.). In the
first year of his reign Cyrus was inspired to grant a decree per-
mitting the Jews to return to build the temple in Jerusalem
(i.); a list of families is given (ii.). The altar of burnt-offering
was set up, and in the second year of the return the foundations
of the new temple were laid .with great solemnity (iii.). The
" adversaries of Judah and 'Benjamin " offered to assist but
were repulsed, and they raised such opposition to the progress
of the work that it ceased until the second year of Darius (521-
520 B.C.). Aroused by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah the
building was then resumed, and despite fresh attempts to
hinder the work it was completed, consecrated and dedicated
1 References to I Esdras in this article are to the book discussed
above as Ezra, THIRD BOOK OF.
in the sixth year of that king (vi.). The event was solemnized
by the celebration of the Passover (cf. 2 Chron. xxx., Hezekiah;
xxxv. Josiah).
(6) An interval of fifty-eight years is passed over in silence,
and the rest of the book of Ezra comprises his account of his
mission to Jerusalem (vii. -x.). Ezra, a scribe of repute, well
versed in the laws of Moses, returns with a band of exiles in
order to reorganize the religious community. A few months
after his arrival (seventh year of Artaxerxes, 458 B.C.) he insti-
tuted a great religious reform, viz. the prohibition of inter-
marriage with the heathen of the land (cf. already vi. 21).
In spite of some opposition (x. 15 obscurely worded) the reform
was accepted, and the foundations of a new community were
laid.
(c) Twelve years elapse before the return of Nehemiah, whose
description of his work is one of the most interesting pieces of
Old Testament narrative (Neh. i.-vi.). In the twentieth year of
Artaxerxes (445 B.C.), Nehemiah the royal cup-bearer at Shushan
(Susa, the royal winter palace) was visited by friends from Judah
and was overcome with grief at the tidings of the miserable con-
dition of Jerusalem and the pitiful state of the Judaean remnant
which had escaped the captivity. He obtained permission to
return, and on reaching the city made a secret survey of the ruins
and called upon the nobles and rulers to assist in repairing them.
Much opposition was caused by Sanballat the Horonite (i.e. of
the Moabite Horonaim or Beth-horon, about 15 m. N.W. of
Jerusalem), Tobiah the Ammonite, Geshem (or Gashmu) the
Arabian, and the Ashdodites, whose virulence increased as the
rebuilding of the walls continued. But notwithstanding attempts '
upon the city and upon the life of Nehemiah, and in spite of
intrigues among certain members of the Judaean section, in
fifty- two days the city walls were complete (Neh. vi. 15). The
hostility, however, did not cease, and measures were taken to
ensure the safety of the city (vi. i6-vii. 4). A valuable account
is given of Nehemiah's economical reforms, illustrating the
internal social conditions of the period and the general character
of the former governors who had been placed in charge (v., cf.
the laws codified in Lev. xxv. 35 sqq.).
(d) The remaining chapters carry on the story of the labours
of both Ezra and Nehemiah. The list of those who returned
under the decree of Cyrus is repeated (Neh. vii.), and leads up to
the reading of the Law by Ezra, a great national confession of
guilt, and a solemn undertaking to observe the new covenant, the
provisions of which are detailed (x. 28-39) After sundry lists of
the families dwelling in Jerusalem and its neighbourhood (xi. i
sqq., apparently a sequel to vii. 1-4),* and of various priests and
Levites, an account is given of the dedication of the walls (xii.
27-43), the arrangements for the Levitical organization (w. 44-
47), and a fresh separation from the heathen (Moabites and
Ammonites, xiii. 1-3; cf. Deut. xxiii. 3 seq.). The book concludes
with another extract from Nehemiah's memoirs dealing with
the events of a second visit, twelve years later (xiii. 4-31). On
this occasion he vindicated the sanctity of the temple by
expelling Tobiah, reorganized the supplies for the Levites, took
measures to uphold the observance of the Sabbath, and pro-
tested energetically against the foreign marriages. In the course
of his reforms he thrust out a son of Joiada (son of Eliashib,
the high-priest), who had married the daughter of Sanballat, an
incident which had an important result (see SAMARITANS).
That these books are the result of compilation (like the book
of Chronicles itself) is evident from the many abrupt changes;
the inclusion of certain documents written in an Aramaic dialect
(Ezr. iv. 8-vi. 18, vii. 12-26)'; the character of the name-lists;
the lengthy gaps in the history; the use made of two distinct
sources, attributed to Ezra and Nehemiah respectively, and
from the varying form in which the narratives are cast. The
2 With Neh. xi. 4-19 cf. I Chron. ix. 3-17; with the list xii. 1-7 cf.
w. 12-21 and x 3-9; and with xii. 10 sq. cf. i Chron. vi. 3-15 (to
which it forms the sequel). See further Smend, Listen d. Esra u.
Neh. (1881).
'Sometimes wrongly styled Chaldee (q.v.); see SEMITIC LAN-
GUAGES.
EZRA AND NEHEMIAH
109
chronicler's hand can usually be readily recognized. There
are relatively few traces of it in Nehemiah's memoirs and in
the Aramaic documents, but elsewhere the sources are largely
coloured, if not written from the standpoint of his age. Ex-
amples of artificial arrangement appear notably in Ezr. ii.-iii. i
compared with Neh. vii. 6-viii. i (first clause); in the present
position of Ezr. iv. 6-23; and in the dislocation of certain
portions of the two memoirs in Neh. viii.-xiii. (see below). It
should be noticed that the present order of the narratives involves
the theory that some catastrophe ensued after Ezr. x. and before
Neh. i.; that the walls had been destroyed and the gates burnt
down; that some external opposition (with which, however, Ezra
did not have to contend) had been successful; that the main
object of Ezra's mission was delayed for twelve years, and,
finally, that only through Nehemiah's energy was the work of
social and religious reorganization successful. These topics
raise serious historical problems (see JEWS: History, 21).
3. Criticism of Ezra i.-vi. The chronicler's account of the
destruction of Jerusalem, the seventy years' interval (2 Chron.
xxxvi. 20 sq.; cf. Jer. xxv. n, xxix. 10, also Is. xxiii. 17), and the
return of 42,360 of the exiles (Ezr. ii. 64 sqq.) represent a
special view of the history of the period. The totals, as also the
detailed figures, in Ezr., Neh. and i Esdr. v. vary considerably;
the number is extremely large (contrast Jer. lii. 30); it includes
the common people (contrast 2 Kings xxiv. 14, xxv. 12), and
ignores the fact that Judah was not depopulated, that the Jews
were carried off to other places besides Babylon and that many
remained behind in Babylon. According to this view, Judah
and Jerusalem were practically deserted until the return. The
list in Ezr. ii. is that of families which returned " every man unto
his city " under twelve leaders (including Nehemiah, Azariah
[cf. Ezra], Zerubbabel and Jeshua); it recurs with many varia-
tions in a different and apparently more original context in Neh.
vii., and in i Esdr. v. is ascribed to the time of Darius. The
families (to judge from the northwards extension of Judaean
territory) are probably those of the population in the later
Persian period, hardly those who returned to the precise homes
of their ancestors (see C. F. Kent, Israel's Hist, and Biogr.
Narratives, p. 379). The offerings which are for the temple-
service in Neh. vii. 70-72 (cf. i Chron. xxix. 6-8) are for the
building of the temple in Ezr. ii. 68-70; and since the walls are
not yet built, the topographical details in Neh. viii. i (see i Esdr.
v. 47) are adjusted, and the event of the seventh month is not the
reading of the Law amid the laments of the people (Neh. viii.;
see nil. 9-11) but the erection of the altar by Jeshua and Zerub-
babel under inauspicious circumstances (cf. Ezr. iii. 3 with i
Esdr. v. 50).
The chronologically misplaced account of the successful opposi-
tion in the time of Ahasuerus (i.e. Xerxes) and Artaxerxes (the
son and grandson of Darius respectively) breaks the account of
the temple under Cyrus and Darius, and is concerned with the
city walls (iv. 6-23)'; there is some obscurity in w. 7-9: Rehum
and Shimshai evidently take the lead, Tabeel may be an Aram-
aized equivalent of Tobiah. A recent return is implied (iv. 12)
and the record hints that a new decree may be made (. 21).
The account of the unsuccessful opposition to the temple in the
time of Darius (v. sq.; for another account see Jos. Ant. xi. 4, 9)
is independent of iv. 7-23, and throws another light upon the
decree of Cyrus (vi. 3-5, contrast i. 2-4). It implies that Shesh-
bazzar, who had been sent with the temple vessels in the time of
Cyrus, had laid the foundations and that the work had continued
without cessation (v. 16, contrast iv. 5, 24). The beginning of
the reply of Darius is wanting (vi. 6 sqq.), and the decree which
had been sought in Babylon is found at Ecbatana. Chap. vi. 15
1 Its real position in the history of this period is not certain.
Against the supposition that the names refer to Cambyses and
Pseudo-Smerdis who reigned after Cyrus and before Darius, see
H. E. Ryle, Camb. Bible, " Ezra and Neh.," p. 65 sq. Against the
view that Darius is D. ii. Nothus of 423-404 B.C., see G. A. Smith,
Minor Prophets, ii. 191 sqq. The ignorance of the compiler regarding
the sequence of the kings finds a parallel in that of the author of the
book of Daniel (q.v.) ; see C. C. Torrey, Amer. Journ. of Sent. Lang.
(1907), P- 178, n. i.
sqq. follow more naturally upon v. 1-2, but v. 14 with its difficult
reference to Artaxerxes now seems to presuppose the decree in
iv. 21 and looks forward to the time of Ezra or Nehemiah. As
regards this section (Ezr. i.-vi.) as a whole, there is little doubt
that i. iii. i-iv. 5, vi. 15-22 are from the chronicler, whose free
treatment of his material is seen in the use he has made of ch. ii.
Notwithstanding the unimpeachable evidence for the tolerant
attitude of Persian kings and governors towards the religion of
subject races, it is probable that the various decrees incorporated
in the book (cf. also i Esdr. iv. 42 sqq.) have been reshaped from
a Jewish standpoint. A noteworthy example appears in the
account of the unique powers entrusted to Ezra (vii. 11-26), the
introduction to whose memoirs, at all events, is quite in the style
of the chronicler.
4. Memoirs of Nehemiah and Ezra. The memoirs of Ezra
and Nehemiah do not appear to have been incorporated without
some adjustment. The lapse of time between Neh. i. i and ii. i
is noteworthy, and with the prayer in i. 5-11 cf. Ezr. ix. 6-15,
Dan. ix. 4 sqq. (also parallels in Deuteronomy); chap. i. in its
present form may be a compiler's introduction. The important
topographical list in ch. iii. is probably from another source;
the style is different, Nehemiah is absent, and the high-priest
is unusually prominent. 2 Chap, v., where Nehemiah reviews his
past conduct as governor, turns aside to economic reforms and
scarcely falls within the fifty-two days of the building of the
walls. The chapter is closely associated with the contents of
xiii. and breaks the account of the opposition. Anticipated
already in ii. 10, the hostility partly arises from the repudiation
of Samaritan religious claims (ii. 20; cf. Ezr. iv. 3) and is partly
political. It is difficult to follow its progrees clearly, and the
account ceases abruptly in vi. 17-19 with the notice of the
conspiracy of Tobiah and the nobles of Judah. The chronicler's
style can be recognized in vii.. 1-5 (in its present form), where
steps are taken to protect and to people Jerusalem; the older
sequel is now found in ch. xi. Whilst the account of the dedica-
tion of the walls is marked by the use of the pronoun " I "
(xii. 31, 38, 40), it is probably now due as a whole to the chronicler,
and when the more trustworthy memoirs of Nehemiah are
resumed (xiii. 4 sqq.) the episodes, although placed twelve
years later (ver. 6), are intimately connected with the preceding
reforms (cf. xii. 44-xiii. 3 with xiii. 10 sqq., 23 sqq.). 3 Nehemiah's
attitude towards intermarriage is markedly moderate in contrast
to the drastic measures of Ezra, whose mission and work the
simpler and perhaps earlier narratives of Nehemiah originally
ignored, and the relation between the two is complicated further
by the literary character of the memoir of Ezra.
To the last mentioned are prefixed (a) the scribe's genealogy,
which traces him back to Aaron and names as his immediate
ancestor, Seraiah, who had been slain 130 years previously
(Ezr. vii. 1-5), and (6) an independent account of the return
(OT. 6-10) with a reference to Ezra's renown, obviously not
from the hand of Ezra himself. Whatever the original prelude
to Ezra's thanksgiving may have been (vii. 27 seq.), we now
have the essentially Jewish account of the letter of Artaxerxes
with its unusual concessions. 4 The list of those who returned
amounts to the moderate total of 1496 males (viii., but 1690 in
i Esdr. viii. 30 sqq.). Ezra's mission was obviously concerned
with the Law and Temple service (vii. 6, 10, 14 sqq., 25; viii. 17,
2 4-30, 33 sq.), but four months elapse between his return in the
fifth month (vii. 9) and the preparations for the marriage reforms
in the ninth (x. 9), and there is a delay of twelve years before the
Law is read (Neh. viii.). The Septuagint version (i Esdr. ix.; cf.
Josephus, Antiq. xi. 5. 5 and some modern scholars) would place
2 See further H. G. Mitchell, Journ. of Bibl. Lit. (1903), pp. 88 sqq.
The chronological difficulties will be seen from xiii. 6 (" before
this "), which would imply that the dedication of the walls was on
the occasion of Nehemiah's later visit (see G. A. Smith, Expositor,
July 1906, p. 12). His previous departure is perhaps foreshadowed
in vii. 2.
4 See Ency. Bib. col. 1480. Papyri from a Jewish colony in
Elephantine (407 B.C.) clearly show the form which royal permits
could take, and what the Jews were prepared to give in return; the
points of resemblance are extremely interesting, but compared with
the biblical documents the papyri reveal some striking differences.
no
EZZO EZZOLIED
the latter after Ezr. x., but more probably this event (dated in
the seventh month) should precede the great undertaking in
Ezr. ix. 1 That the adjustment was attended with considerable
revision of the passages appears from a careful comparison of
Neh. viii. sq. with Ezr. ix. sq. With Ezra's confession (ix. 6 sqq.)
compare the prayer in Neh. ix. 5 sqq., which the Septuagint
ascribes to him. In Ezr. x. (written in the third person) the
number of those that had intermarried with the heathen is
relatively small considering the general trend of the preliminaries,
and the list bears a marked resemblance to that in ch. ii. It
ends abruptly and obscurely (x. 44; cf. i Esdr. ix. 36), and whilst
as a whole the memoirs of Ezra point to ideas later than those of
Nehemiah, the present close literary connexion between them
is seen in the isolated reference to Johanan the son of Eliashib
in Ezra x. 6, which seems to be connected with Neh. xiii. 7, and
(after W. R. Smith) in the suitability of ib. xiii. i, 2 between
Ezr. x. 9 and 10. The list of signatories in Neh. x. 1-27 should
be compared with the names in xii. and i Chron. xxiv. ; the true
connexion of ix. 38 is very obscure, and the relation to Ezr. ix.
seq. is complicated by the reference to the separation from the
heathen in Neh. ix. 2. The description of the covenant (Neh. x.
28 sqq., marked by the use of " we ") is closely connected with
xii. 43-xiii. 3 (from the same or an allied source), and anticipates
the parallel though somewhat preliminary measures detailed
in the more genuine memoirs (Neh. xiii. 4 sqq.)- Finally, the
specific allusion in xiii. 1-3 to Ammon and Moab is possibly
intended as an introduction to the references to Tobiah and
Sanballat respectively (w. 4 seq., 28).
5. Summary. The literary and historical criticism of Ezra-
Nehemiah is closely bound up with that of Chronicles, whose
characteristic features it shares. Although the three formed
a unit at one stage it may seem doubtful whether two so closely
related chapters as i Chron. ix. and Neh. xi. would have appeared
in one single work, while the repetition of Neh. vii. 6-viii. i in
Ezr. ii.-iii. i is less unnatural if they had originally appeared in
distinct sources. Thus other hands apart from the compiler of
Chronicles may have helped to shape the narratives, either
before their union with that book or after their separation. 2
The present intricacy is also due partly to specific historical
theories regarding the post-exilic period. Here the recension in
i Esdras especially merits attention for its text, literary structure
and for its variant traditions. 3 Its account of a return in the
time of Darius scarcely arose after Ezr. i.-iii. (Cyrus) ; the reverse
seems more probable, and the possibility of some confusion or
of an intentional adjustment to the earlier date is emphasized
by the relation between the popular feeling in Ezr. iii. 12 (Cyrus)
and Hag. ii. 3 (Darius), and between the grant by Cyrus in iii. 7
(it is not certain that he held Phoenicia) and the permit of
Darius in i Esdr. iv. 47-57 (see v. 48). To the latter context
belongs the list of names which reappears in Ezr. ii. (Cyrus).
But from the independent testimony of Haggai and Zechariah it
is doubtful whether the chronicler's account of the return under
Cyrus is at all trustworthy. The list in i Esdr. v., Ezr. ii.,
as already observed, appears to be in its more original context
in Neh. vii., i.e. in the time of Artaxerxes, and it is questionable
whether the earliest of the surviving detailed traditions in
Ezra-Nehemiah went back before this reign. It is precisely at
this age that there is evidence for a return, apparently other
than that of Ezra or Nehemiah (see Ezr. iv. 12), yet no account
seems to be preserved unless the records were used for the
history of earlier periods (cf. generally Ezr. iii. 12 sq. with Neh.
1 C. C. Torrey, Comp. and Hist. Value of Ezra-Nell. (Beihefte of
Zeit.f. alttest. Wissens., 1896), pp. 30-34; C. F. Kent, Israel's Hist,
and Biog. Narratives, pp. 32, 369. Since Neh. vii. 70-73 is closely
joined to viii., the suggested transposition would place its account
of the contributions to the temple in a more appropriate context
(cf. Ezr. viii. 24-30, 33 sq.).
2 For linguistic evidence reference should be made to J. Geissler,
Die litterartschen Beziehungen d. Esramemoiren (Chemnitz, 1899).
' See especially Sir Henry Howorth, Proc. of Society of Bibl. Arch.
(1901-1904), passim; C. C. Torrey, Ezra Studies (Chicago, 1910).
For the text, see A. Klostermann, Real-Ency. f. prot. Theol. v. 501
qq. ; H. Guthe in Haupt's Sacred Books of Old Testament (1899);
and S. A. Cook in R. H. Charles, Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha.
viii. 9-1 1 ; Ezr. iii. 7 with the special favour enlisted on behalf
of the Jews in vi. 7 sq., 13, vii. 21; Neh. ii. 7 sq.). But the
account of the events in the reign of Artaxerxes is extremely
perplexing. Since the building of the walls of Jerusalem
must have begun early in the fifth month (Neh. vi. 15), an
allowance of three days (ii. n) makes the date of Nehemiah's
arrival practically the anniversary of Ezra's return (Ezr. vii. 9,
viii. 32). Considering the close connexion between the work
of the two men this can hardly be accidental. The compiler,
however, clearly intends Neh. vi. 15 (25th of sixth month) to be
the prelude to the events in Neh. vii. 73, viii. (seventh month),
but the true sequence of Neh. vi. sqq. is uncertain, and the
possibility of artificiality is suggested by the unembelh'shed
statement of Josephus that the building of the walls occupied,
not fifty-two days, but two years four months (Ant. xi. 5. 8).
The present chronological order of Nehemiah's work is confused
(cf. 4, n. 3), and the obscure interval of twelve years in his work
corresponds very closely to that which now separates the records
of Ezra's labours. However, both the recovery of the compilers'
aims and attempted reconstructions are precluded from finality
by the scantiness of independent historical evidence. (See
further JEWS: History, 21 seq.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. S. R. Driver, Lit. of the O. T. (1909), pp. 540 sqq.
and the commentaries of H. E. Ryle (Camb. Bible, 1893), C. Siegfried
(1901), A. Bertholet (1902), and T. W. Davies (Cent. Bible, 1909).
Impetus to recent criticism of these books starts with Van Hoonacker
(Neh. et Esd. [1890]; see also Expos. Times [1897], pp. 351-354, and
M.-J. Lagrange, Rev. biblique, iii. 561-585 [1894], iv. 186-202 [1895])
and W. H. Kosters (Germ, ed., Wiederherstellung Israels, 1895).
The latter's important conclusions (for which see his article with
Cheyne's additions in Ency. Bib. col. 1473 sqq., 3380 sqq.) have been
adversely criticized, especially by J. Wellhausen (Nachrichten of the
Univ. of Gottingen, 1895, pp. 166-186), E. Meyer (Entstehung d.
Judentums, 1896), J. Nikel (Wiederherstellung d. jiid. Gemein.,
1900), and S. Jampel in Monatsschrift f. Gesch. u. Wissens. d.
Judentums, vols. xlvi.-xlvii. (1902-1903). The negative criticisms
of Kosters have, however, been strengthened by his replies (in the
Dutch Theolog. Tijdschriff), and by the discussions of C. C. Torrey
and C. F. Kent (op. cit) and of G. Jahn (Esra u. Neh. pp. i-Ixxviii ;
1909), and his general position appears to do more justice to the
biblical evidence as a whole. (S. A. C.)
EZZO, or EHRENFRIED (c. 954-1024), count palatine in Lor-
raine, was the son of a certain Hermann (d. c. 1000), also a count
palatine in Lorraine who had possessions in the neighbourhood
of Bonn. Having married Matilda (d. 1025), a daughter of the
emperor Otto II., Ezzo came to the front during the reign of his
brother-in-law, the emperor Otto III. (983-1002); his power was
increased owing to the liberal grant of lands in Thuringia and
Franconia which he received with his wife, and some time later
his position as count palatine was recognized as an hereditary
dignity. Otto's successor, the emperor Henry II., was less
friendly towards the powerful count palatine, though there was
no serious trouble between them until ion; but some disturb-
ances in Lorraine quickly compelled the emperor to come to terms,
and the assistance of Ezzo was purchased by a gift of lands.
Henceforward the relations between Henry and his vassal appear
to have been satisfactory. Very little is known about Ezzo's
later life, but we are told that he died at a great age at Saalfeld
on the 2 ist of March 1024. He left three sons, among them being
Hermann, who was archbishop of Cologne from 1036 to 1056,
and Otto, who was for a short time duke of Swabia; and seven
daughters, six of whom became abbesses. Ezzo founded a
monastery at Brauweiler near Cologne, the place where his
marriage had been celebrated. This was dedicated in 1028 by
Piligrim, archbishop of Cologne, and here both Ezzo and his wife
were buried.
EZZOLIED, or ANEGENGE, an old German poem, written by
Ezzo, a scholar of Bamberg. It was written about 1060, but not,
as one authority asserts, composed while the author was making
a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The subject of the poem is the life of
Christ. Very popular during the later middle ages, the Eazolied
had a great influence on the poetry of south Germany, and is
valuable as a monument of the poetical literature of the time.
The text is printed in the Denkmaler deutscher Poesie und Prosa
aus dem 8-12. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1892) of C. V. Mullenhoff and W.
Scherer.
F FABER, F. W.
in
FThis is the sixth letter of the English alphabet as it was
of the Latin. In the ordinary Greek alphabet the symbol
has disappeared, although it survived far into historical
times in many Greek dialects as F, the digamma, the
use of which in early times was inductively proved by Bentley,
when comparatively little was known of the local alphabets
and dialects of Greece. The so-called stigma r, which serves
for the numeral 6, is all that remains to represent it. This
symbol derives its name from its resemblance in medieval MSS.
to the abbreviation for <JT. The symbol occupying the same posi-
tion in the Phoenician alphabet was Vau (^- ^j- 1 ), which seems
to be represented by the Greek T, the Latin V, at the end of
the early alphabet. Many authorities therefore contend that
F is only a modification of the preceding symbol E and has
nothing to do with the symbol Vau. In some early Latin
inscriptions F is represented by I', as E is by II. It must be
admitted that the resemblance between the sixth symbol of
the Phoenician alphabet and the corresponding symbol of the
European alphabet is not striking. But the position of the
limbs of symbols in early alphabets often varies surprisingly.
In Greek, besides F we find for /in Pamphylia (the only Greek
district in Asia which possesses the symbol) ^, and in Boeotia,
Thessaly, Tarentum, Cumae and on Chalcidian vases of Italy the
form E, though except at Cumae and on the vases the form F
exists contemporaneously with E or even earlier. At the little
townof Falerii (Civita Castellana), whose alphabet is undoubtedly
of the same origin as the Latin, F takes the form 1\ Though
uncertain, therefore, it seems not impossible that the original
symbol of the Phoenician alphabet, which was a consonant like
the English w, may have been differentiated in Greek into two
symbols, one indicating the consonant value w and retaining
the position of the Phoenician consonant Vau, the other having
the vowel value u, which ultimately most dialects changed to
a modified sound like French u or German ii. Be this as it may,
the value of the symbol F in Greek was w, a bilabial voiced
sound, not the labio-dental unvoiced sound which we call /.
When the Romans adopted the Greek alphabet they took over
the symbols with their Greek values. But Greek had no sound
corresponding to the Latin /, for <j> was pronounced p-h, like the
final sound of lip in ordinary English or the initial sound of pig
in Irish English. Consequently in the very old inscription
on a gold fibula found at Praeneste and published in 1887 (see
ALPHABET) the Latin / is represented by FB. Later, as Latin
did not use F for the consonant written as v in vis, &c., H was
dropped and F received a new special value in Latin as repre-
sentative of the unvoiced labio-dental spirant. In the Oscan
and Umbrian dialects, whose alphabet was borrowed from
Etruscan, a special form appears for /, viz. 8, the old form E
being kept for the other consonant v (i.e. English w). The
8 has generally been asserted to be developed out of the second
element in the combination FB, its upper and lower halves
being first converted into lozenges, $, which naturally changed
to 8 when inscribed without lifting the writing or incising im-
plement. Recent discoveries, however, make this doubtful
(see ALPHABET). ( p - Gi.)
FABBRONI, ANGELO (1732-1803), Italian [biographer, was
born at Marradi in Tuscany on the 25th of September 1732.
After studying at Faenza he entered the Roman college founded
for the education of young Tuscans. On the conclusion of his
studies he continued his stay in Rome, and having been introduced
to the celebrated Jansenist Bottari, received from him the canonry
of Santa Teresa in Trastevere. Some time after this he was
chosen to preach a discourse in the pontifical chapel before
Benedict XIV. and made such a favourable impression that the
pontiff settled on him an annuity, with the possession of which
Fabbroni was able to devote his whole time to study. He wa
ntimatewith Leopold I., grand-duke of Tuscany, but the Jesuits
disliked him on account of his Jansenist views. Besides his
other literary labours he began at Pisa in 1771 a literary journal,
which he continued till 1796. About 1772 he made a journey to
Paris, where he formed the acquaintance of Condorcet, Diderot,
d'Alembert, Rousseau and most of the other eminent Frenchmen
of the day. He also spent four months in London. He died at
3 isa on the 22nd of September 1803.
The following are his principal works: Vitae Italorum doctrina
excellentium qui saeculis XVII. et XVIII. floruerunt (20 vols.,
'isa, 1778-1799, 1804-1805), the last two vols., published post-
luraously, contain a life of the author; Laurentii Medicei Magnifici
Vita (2 vols., Pisa, 1784), a work which served as a basis for H.
Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo dei Medici; Leonis X. pontificis maximi
Vita (Pisa, 1797) ; and Elogi di Dante Alighieri, di Angela Poliziano,
di Lodovico Ariosto, e di Torq. Tasso (Parma, 1800).
FABER, the name of a family of German lead-pencil manu-
facturers. Their business was founded in 1760 at Stein, near
Nuremberg, by Kaspar Faber (d. 1 7 84) . It was then inherited by
lis son Anton Wilhelm (d. 1819). Georg Leonhard Faber suc-
ceeded in 1810 (d. 1839), and the business passed to Johann Lothar
von Faber (1817-1896), the great-grandson of the founder. At
the time of his assuming control about twenty hands were em-
ployed, under old-fashioned conditions, and owing to the inven-
tion of the French crayons Conies of Nicolas Jacques Conte (q.v.)
competition had reduced the entire Nuremberg industry to a low
ebb (see PENCIL) . Johann introduced improvements in machinery
and methods, brought his factory to the highest state of efficiency,
and it became a model for all the other German and Austrian manu-
facturers. He established branches in New York, Paris, London
and Berlin, and agencies in Vienna, St Petersburg and Hamburg,
and made his greatest coup in 1856, when he contracted for the
exclusive control of the graphite obtained from the East Siberian
mines. Faber had also branched out into the manufacture of
water-colour and oil paints, inks, slates and slate-pencils, and
engineers' and architects' drawing instruments, and built
additional factories to house his various industries at New York
and at Noisy-le-Sec, near Paris, and had his own cedar mills
in Florida. For his services to German industry he received a
patent of nobility and an appointment as councillor of state.
After the death of his widow (1903) the business was inherited
by his grand-daughter Countess Otilie von Faber-Castell and her
husband, Count Alexander.
FABER, BASIL (i52o-c. 1576), Lutheran schoolmaster and
theologian, was born at Sorau, in lower Lusatia, in 1520. In
1538 he entered the university of Wittenberg, studying as
pauper gratis under Melanchthon. Choosing the schoolmaster's
profession, he became successively rector of the schools at
Nordhausen, Tennstadt (1555), Magdeburg (1557) and Quedlin-
burg (1560). From this last post he was removed in December
1570 as a Crypto-Calvinist. In 1571 he was appointed to the
Raths-gymnasium at Erfurt, not as rector, but as director
(Vorsteher). In this situation he remained till his death in 1575
or 1576. His translation of the first twenty-five chapters of
Luther's commentary on Genesis was published in 1557; in other
ways he promoted the spread of Lutheran views. He was a
contributor to the first four of the Magdeburg Centuries. He is
best known by his Thesaurus eruditionis scholasticae (1571;
last edition, improved by J. H. Leich, 1749, folio, 2 vols.); this
was followed by his Libellus de disciplina scholastica (1572).
See Wagenmann and G.Muller in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie
(1898). (A. Go.*)
FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-1863), British hymn
writer and theologian, was born on the 28th of June 1814 at
Calverley, Yorkshire, of which place his grandfather, Thomas
Faber, was vicar. He attended the grammar school of Bishop
Auckland for a short time, but a large portion of his boyhood
was spent in Westmorland. He afterwards went to Harrow
112
FABER, JACOBUS FABERT
and to Balliol College, Oxford. In 1835 he obtained a scholar-
ship at University College; and in 1836 he gained the Newdigate
prize for a poem on " The Knights of St John," which elicited
special praise from Keble. Among his college friends were Dean
Stanley and Roundell Palmer, ist earl of Selborne. In January
1837 he was elected fellow of University College. Meanwhile he
had given up the Calvinistic views of his youth, and had become
an enthusiastic follower of John Henry Newman. In 1841 a
travelling tutorship took him to the continent; and on his
return a book appeared called Sights and Thoughts in Foreign
Churches and among Foreign Peoples (London, 1842), with a
dedication to his friend the poet Wordsworth. He accepted the
rectory of Elton in Huntingdonshire, but soon after went again
to the continent, in order to study the methods of the Roman
Catholic Church; and after a prolonged mental struggle he
joined the Roman Catholic communion in November 1845. He
founded a religious community at Birmingham, called Wilfridians,
which was ultimately merged in the oratory of St Philip Neri,
with John Henry Newman as Superior. In 1849 a branch of the
oratory subsequently independent was established in London,
first in King William Street, and afterwards at Brompton, over
which Faber presided till his death on the 26th of September
1863. In spite of his weak health, an almost incredible amount of
work was crowded into those years. He published a number of
theological works, and edited the Oratorian Lives of the Saints.
He was an eloquent preacher, and a man of great charm of
character. It is mainly as a hymn-writer, however, that Faber
is remembered. Among his best-known hymns are: " The
Greatness of God," " The Will of God," " The Eternal Father,"
" The God of my Childhood, " " Jesus is God," " The Pilgrims
of the Night," " The Land beyond the Sea," " Sweet Saviour,
bless us ere we go," " I was wandering and weary," and " The
Shadow of the Rock." The hymns are largely used in Protestant
collections. In addition to many pamphlets and translations,
Faber published the following works: All for Jesus; The
Precious Blood; Bethlehem; The Blessed Sacrament; The
Creator and the Creature; Growth of Holiness; Spiritual Con-
ferences; The Foot of the Cross (8 vols., London, 1853-1860).
See his Life and Letters, by Father J. E. Bowden (London, 1869),
and A Brief Sketch of the Early Life of the late F. W. Faber, D.D., by
his brother the Rev. F. A. Faber (London, 1869).
FABER, FABRI or FABRY (surnamed STAPULENSIS), JACOBUS
[Jacques Lefevre d'fitaples] (c. 1455-6. 1536), a pioneer of the
Protestant movement in France, was born of humble parents at
Etaples, in Pas de Calais, Picardy, about 1455. He appears to
have been possessed of considerable means. He had already been
ordained priest when he entered the university of Paris for higher
education. Hermonymus of Sparta was his master in Greek.
He visited Italy before 1486, for he heard the lectures of Argyro-
pulus, who died in that year; he formed a friendship with
Paulus Aemilius of Verona. In 1492 he again travelled in Italy,
studying in Florence, Rome and Venice, making himself familiar
with the writings of Aristotle, though greatly influenced by the
Platonic philosophy. Returning to Paris, he became professor in
the college of Cardinal Lemoine. Among his famous pupils were
F. W. Vatable and Farel; his connexion with the latter drew him
to the Calvinistic side of the movement of reform. At this time he
began the publication, with critical apparatus, of Boetius (De
Arithmetica) , and Aristotle's Physics (1492), Ethics (1497), Meta-
physics (1501) and Politics (1506). In 1507 he took up his
residence in the Benedictine Abbey of St Germain des Pres, near
Paris; this was due to his connexion with the family of Brifonnet
(one of whom was the superior), especially with William Bri-
fonnet, cardinal bishop of St Malo (Meaux). He now began to
give himself to Biblical studies, the first-fruit of which was his
Quintuplex Psalterium: Gallicum, Romanum, Hebraicum, Vetus,
Conciliatum (1509); the Conciliatum was his own version. This
was followed by S. Pauli Epistolae xiv. ex vulgala editione, adjecta
intelligenlia ex Graeco cum commenlariis (1512), a work of great
independence and judgment. His De Maria Magdalena et
triduo Christi disceptatio (1517) provoked violent controversy
and was condemned by the Sorbonne (1521). He had left Paris
during the whole of 1 520, and, removing to Meaux, was appointed
(May i, 1523) vicar-general to Bishop Briconnet, and published
his French version of the New Testament (1523). This (con-
temporary with Luther's German version) has been the basis of
all subsequent translations into French. From this, in the same
year, he extracted the versions of the Gospels and Epistles " a
1'usage du diocese de Meaux." The prefaces and notes to both
these expressed the view that Holy Scripture is the only rule of
doctrine, and that justification is by faith alone. He incurred
much hostility, but was protected by Francis I. and the princess
Margaret. Francis being in captivity after the battle of Pavia
(February 25, 1525), Faber was condemned and his works sup-
pressed by commission of the parlement; these measures were
quashed on the return of Francis some months later. He issued
Le Psautier de David (1525), and was appointed royal librarian at
Blois (1526); his version of the Pentateuch appeared two years
later. His complete version of the Bible (1530), on the basis of
Jerome, took the same place as his version of the New Testament.
Margaret (now queen of Navarre) led him to take refuge (1531) at
Nerac from persecution. He is said to have been visited (1533)
by Calvin on his flight from France. He died in 1536 or 1537.
See C. H. Graf, Essai sur la vie et les ecrits (1842); G. Bonet-
Maury, in A. Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopddie (1898). (A. Go.*)
FABER (or LEFEVRE), JOHANN (1478-1541), German theo-
logian, styled from the title of one of his works " Malleus
Haereticorum," son of one Heigerlin, a smith (faber), was born
at Leutkirch, in Swabia, in 1478. His early life is obscure; the
tradition that he joined the Dominicans is untenable. He studied
theology and canon law at Tubingen and at Freiburg im Breisgau,
where he matriculated on the 26th of July 1509, and graduated
M.A. and doctor of canon law. He was soon appointed vicar
of Lindau and Leutkirch, and shortly afterwards canon of Basel.
In 1518 Hugo von Landenberg, bishop of Constance, made him
one of his vicars-general, and Pope Leo X. appointed him papal
protonotary. He was an advocate of reforms, in sympathy with
Erasmus, and corresponded (1519-1520) with Zwingli. While
he defended Luther against Eck, he was as little inclined to adopt
the position of Luther as of Carlstadt. His journey to Rome
in the autumn of 1521 had the result of estranging him from the
views of the Protestant leaders. He published Opus adversus
nova quaedam dogmata Lutheri (1522), and appeared as a disputant
against Zwingli at Zurich (1523). Then followed his Malleus in
haeresin Lutheranam (1524). Among his efforts to stem the tide
of Protestant innovation was the establishment of a training-
house for the maintenance and instruction of popular preachers,
drawn from the lower ranks, to compete with the orators of reform.
In 1526 he became court preacher to the emperor Ferdinand, and
in 1527 and 1528 was sent by him as envoy to Spain and England.
He approved the death by burning of Balthasar Hubmeier, the
Baptist, at Vienna on the loth of March 1528. In 1531 he was
consecrated bishop of Vienna, and combined with this (till 1538)
the administration of the diocese of Neustadt. He died at Vienna
on the 2ist of May 1541. His works were collected in three
volumes, 1537, 1539 and 1541.
See C. E. Kettner, Diss. de J. Fabri Vita Scriptisgue (1737);
Wagenmann and Egli in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1898).
(A. Go.*)
FABERT, ABRAHAM DE (1599-1660), marshal of France,
was the son of Abraham Fabert, seigneur de Moulins (d. 1638),
a famous printer who rendered great services, civil and military,
to Henry IV. At the age of fourteen he entered the Gardes
franqaises, and in 1618 received a commission in the Piedmont
regiment, becoming major in 1627. He distinguished himself
repeatedly in the constant wars of the period, notably in La
Rochelle and at the siege of Exilles in 1630. His bravery and
engineering skill were again displayed in the sieges of Avesnes and
Maubeuge in 1637, and in 1642 Louis XIII. made him governor
of the recently-acquired fortress of Sedan. In 1651 he became
lieutenant-general, and in 1654 at the siege of Stenay he intro-
duced new methods of siegecraft which anticipated in a measure
the great improvements of Vauban. In 1658 Fabert was made
a marshal of France, being the first commoner to attain that rank.
He died at Sedan on the I7th of May 1660.
FABIAN FABIUS
See Histoire du marechal de Fabert (Amsterdam, 1697) ; P. Barre,
Vie de Fabert (Paris, 1752); A. Feillet, Le Premier Marechal de
France plebeien (Paris, 1869) ; Bourelly, Le Marechal Fabert (Paris,
1880).
FABIAN [FABIANUS], SAINT (d. 250), pope and martyr, was
chosen pope, or bishop of Rome, in January 236 in succession to
Anteros. Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. vi. 29) relates how the Christians,
having assembled in Rome to elect a new bishop, saw a dove
alight upon the head of Fabian, a stranger to the city, who was
thus marked out for this dignity, and was at once proclaimed
bishop, although there were several famous men among the
candidates for the vacant position. Fabian was martyred during
the persecution under the emperor Decius, his death taking place
on the 2oth of January 250, and was buried in the catacomb of
Calixtus, where a memorial has been found. He is said to have
baptized the emperor Philip and his son, to have done some build-
ing in the catacombs, to have improved the organization of the
church in Rome, to have appointed officials to register the deeds
of the martyrs, and to have founded several churches in France.
His deeds are thus described in the. Liber Pontificalis: "Hie
regiones dividit diaconibus et fecit vii subdiacones, qui vii
notariis imminerent, ut gestas martyrum integro fideliter col-
ligerent, et multas fabricas per cymiteria fieri praecepit."
Although there is very little authentic information about Fabian,
there is evidence that his episcopate was one of great importance
in the history of the early church. He was highly esteemed by
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage ; Novatian refers to his nobilissimae
memoriae, and he corresponded with Origen. One authority
refers to him as Flavian.
See the article on " Fabian " by A. Harnack in Herzog-Hauck's
Realencyklopadie, Band v. (Leipzig, 1898).
FABIUS, the name of a number of Roman soldiers and
statesmen. The Fabian gens was one of the oldest and most
distinguished patrician families of Rome. Its members claimed
descent from Hercules and a daughter of the Arcadian Evander.
From the earliest times it played a prominent part in Roman
history, and was one of the two gentes exclusively charged with
the management of the most ancient festival in Rome the
Lupercalia (Ovid, Fasti, ii. 375). The chief family names of the
Fabian gens or clan, in republican times, were Vibulanus, Am-
bustus, Maximus, Buteo, Pictor, Dorso, Labeo; with surnames
Verrucosus, Rullianus, Gurges. Aemilianus, Allobrogicus (all
of the Maximus branch). The most important members of the
family are the following:
1. MARCUS FABIUS AMBUSTUS, pontifex maximus in the year
of the capture of Rome by the Gauls (390). His three sons,
Quintus, Numerius and Caeso, although they had been sent as
ambassadors to the Gauls when they were besieging Clusium,
subsequently took part in hostilities (Livy v. 35). The Gauls
thereupon demanded their surrender, on the ground that they
had violated the law of nations; the Romans, by way of reply,
sleeted them consular tribunes in the following year. The result
was the march of the Gauls upon Rome, the battle of the Allia,
and the capture of the city (Livy vi. i).
2. Q. FABIUS MAXIMUS, surnamed Rullianus or Rullus,
master of the horse in the second Samnite War to L. Papirius
Cursor, by whom he was degraded for having fought the Samnites
contrary to orders (Livy viii. 30), in spite of the fact that he
gained a victory. In 315, when, dictator, he was defeated by the
Samnites at Lautulae (Livy ix. 23). In 310 he defeated the
Etruscans at the Vadimonian Lake. In 295, consul for the fifth
time, he defeated, at the great battle of Sentinum, the combined
forces of the Etrurians, Umbrians, Samnites and Gauls (see
ROME: History, II. "The Republic"). As censor (304) he
altered the arrangement of Appius Claudius Caecus, whereby the
freedmen were taken into all the tribes, and limited them to the
four city tribes. For this he is said to have received the title of
Maximus, as the deliverer of the comitia from the rule of the mob
(Livy ix. 46), but there is reason to think that this title was first
conferred on his grandson. It is probable that his achievements
are greatly exaggerated by historians favourable to the Fabian
house.
3. QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS, surnamed Verrucosus (from a
wart on his lip), Ovicula (" the lamb," from his mild disposition),
and Cunctator (" the delayer," from his cautious tactics in the
war against Hannibal), grandson of the preceding. He served his
first consulship in Liguria (233 B.C.), was censor (230) and consul
for the second time (228). In 218 he was sent to Carthage to
demand satisfaction for the attack on Saguntum (Livy xxi. 18).
According to the well-known story, he held up a fold of his toga
and offered the Carthaginians the choice between peace and war.
When they declared themselves indifferent, he let fall his toga
with the words, " Then take war." After the disastrous cam-
paign on the Trebia, and the defeat on the banks of the Trasimene
Lake, Fabius was named dictator (Livy calls him pro-dictator,
since he was nominated, not by the consul, but by the people)
in 2 1 7, and began his tactics of " masterly inactivity." Manoeuv-
ring among the hills, where Hannibal's cavalry were useless, he
cut off his supplies, harassed him incessantly, and did everything
except fight. His steady adherence to his plan caused dissatisfac-
tion at Rome and in his own camp, and aroused the suspicion that
he was merely endeavouring to prolong his command. Minucius
Rufus, his master of the horse, seized the opportunity, during the
absence of Fabius at Rome, to make an attack upon the enemy
which proved successful. The people, more than ever convinced
that a forward movement was necessary, divided the command
between Minucius and Fabius (Livy xxii. 15. 24; Polybius iii. 88).
Minucius was led into an ambuscade by Hannibal, and his army
was only saved by the opportune arrival of Fabius. Minucius
confessed his mistake and henceforth submitted to the orders of
Fabius (Livy xxiii. 32) . At the end of the legal time of six months
Fabius resigned the dictatorship and the war was carried on by
the consuls. The result of the abandonment of Fabian tactics
was the disaster of Cannae (216). In 215 and 214 (as consul for
the third and fourth times) he was in charge of the operations
against Hannibal together with Claudius Marcellus (Livy xxiii.
39). He laid siege to Capua, which had gone over to Hannibal
after Cannae, and captured the important position of Casilinum ;
in his fifth consulship (209) he retook Tarentum, which had been
occupied by Hannibal for three years (Livy xxvii. 15; Polybius
xiii. 4; Plutarch, Fabius). He died in 203. Fabius was a
strenuous opponent of the new aggressive policy, and did all he
could to prevent the invasion of Africa by Scipio. He was
distinguished for calmness and prudence, while by no means
lacking in courage when it was required. In his later years,
however, he became morose, and showed jealousy of rising young
men, especially Scipio (Life by Plutarch; Livy xx.-xxx.; Poly-
bius iii. 87-106).
4. Q. FABIUS MAXIMUS AEMILIANUS, eldest son of L. Aemilius
Paullus, adopted by Fabius Cunctator. He served in the last
Macedonian War (168), and, as consul, defeated Viriathus in
Spain (Livy, Epit. 52). He was the pupil and patron of Polybius
(Polybius xviii., xxix. 6, xxxii. 8-10; Livy xliv. 35).
5. Q. FABIUS MAXIMUS ALLOBROGICUS, son of the above,
consul 121 in Gaul. He obtained his surname from his victory
over the Allobroges and Arverni in that year (Veil. Pat. ii. 10;
Eutropius iv. 22). As censor (108) he erected the first triumphal
arch.
6. Q. FABIUS VIBULANUS, with his brothers Caeso and Marcus,
filled the consulship for seven years in succession (48 5-479 B.C.).
In the last year there was a reaction against the family, in con-
sequence of Caeso espousing the cause of the plebeians. Thereupon
the Fabii to the number, it is said, of 306 patricians, with some
$000 dependents emigrated from Rome under the leadership of
Caeso, and settled on the banks of the Cremera, a few miles above
Rome. For two years the exiles continued to be the city's chief
defence against the Veientes, until at last they were surprised and
cut off. The only survivor of the gens was Quintus, the son of
Marcus, who apparently took no part in the battle. The story
that he had been left behind at Rome on account of his youth can-
not be true, as he was consul ten years afterwards. This Quintus
was consul in 467, 465 and 459, and a member of the second
decemvirate in 450, on the fall of which he went into voluntary
exile (Livy ii. 42, 48-50, iii. i, o, 41, 58, vi. i; Dion. Halic.
viii. 82-86, ix. 14-22; Ovid, Fasti, ii. 195).
FABIUS PICTOR FABLE
The Fabian name is met with as late as the and century A.D. A
complete list of the Fabii will be found in de Vit's Onomasticon;
see also W. N. du Rieu, Disputatio de Gente Fabia (1856), containing
an account of 57 members of the family.
FABIUS PICTOR, QUINTUS, the father of Roman history,
was born about 254 B.C. He was the grandson of Gaius Fabius,
who received the surname Piclor for his painting of the temple
of Salus (302). He took an active part in the subjugation of the
Gauls in the north of Italy (225), and after the battle of Cannae
(216) was employed by the Romans to proceed to Delphi in order
to consult the oracle of Apollo. He was the earliest prose writer
of Roman history. His materials consisted of the Annales
Maximi, Commentarii Consular -es, and similar records; the
chronicles of the great Roman families; and his own experiences
in the Second Punic War. He is also said to have made much use
of the Greek historian Diocles of Peparethus. His work, which
was written in Greek, began with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy,
and ended with the Hannibalic war. Although Polybius and
Dionysius of Halicarnassus frequently find fault with him, the
first uses him as his chief authority for the Second Punic War.
A Latin version of the work was in existence in the time of Cicero,
but it is doubtful whether it was by Fabius Pictor or by a later
writer with whom he was confused Q. Fabius Maximus Ser-
vilianus (consul 142); or there may have been two annalists of
the name of Fabius Pictor.
Fragments in H. Peter, Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta
(1883) ; see also ANNALISTS and LIVY, and Teuffel-Schwabe, History
of Roman Literature, 1 1 6.
FABLE (Fr. fable, Lat. fabula). With certain restrictions,
the necessity of which will be shown in the course of the article,
we may accept the definition of " fable " which Dr Johnson pro-
poses in his Life of Gay: " A fable or apologue seems to be, in its
genuine state, a narrative in which beings irrational, and some-
times inanimate (arbores loquuntur, non tantum ferae), are, for the
purpose of moral instruction, feigned to act and speak with human
interests and passions." The description of La Fontaine, the
greatest of fabulists, is a poetic rendering of Johnson's definition:
" Fables in sooth are not what they appear;
Our moralists are mice, and such small deer.
We yawn at sermons, but we gladly turn
To moral tales, and so amused we learn."
The fable is distinguished from the myth, which grows and is not
made, the spontaneous and unconscious product of primitive
fancy as it plays round some phenomenon of natural or historical
fact. The literary myth, such as, for instance, the legend of
Pandora in Hesiod or the tale of Er in the Republic of Plato, is
really an allegory, and differs from the fable in so far as it is
self-interpreting; the story and the moral are intermingled
throughout. Between the parable and the fable there is no clear
line of demarcation, and theologians like Trench have unwarrant-
ably narrowed their definition of a parable to fit those of the
New Testament. The soundest distinction is drawn by Neander.
In the fable human passions and actions are attributed to beasts;
in the parable the lower creation is employed only to illustrate
the higher life and never transgresses the laws of its kind. But
whether Jotham's apologue of the trees choosing a king, perhaps
the first recorded in literature, should be classed as a fable or a
parable is hardly worth disputing. Lastly, we may point out
the close affinity between the fable and the proverb. A proverb
is often a condensed or fossilized fable, and not a few fables are
amplified or elaborated proverbs.
The history of the fable goes back to the remotest antiquity,
and Aesop has even less claim to be reckoned the father of the
fable than has Homer to be entitled the father of poetry. The
fable has its origin in the universal impulse of men to express their
thoughts in concrete images, and is strictly parallel to the use of
metaphor in language. It is the most widely diffused if not the
most primitive form of literature. Though it has fallen from its
high place it still survives, as in J. Chandler Harris's Uncle Remus
and Rudyard Kipling's Jungle Book. The Arab of to-day will
invent a fable at every turn of the conversation as the readiest
form of argument, and in the Life of Coventry Patmore it is
told how an impromptu fable of his about the pious dormouse
found its way into Catholic books of devotion.
With the fable, as we know it, the moral is indispensable.
As La Fontaine puts it, an apologue is composed of two parts,
body and soul. The body is the story, the soul the morality.
But if we revert to the earliest type we shall find that this is no
longer the case. In the primitive beast-fable, which is the direct
progenitor of the Aesopian fable, the story is told simply for its
own sake, and is as innocent of any moral as the fairy tales of
Little Red Riding-Hood and Jack and the Beanstalk. Thus,
in a legend of the Flathead Indians, the Little Wolf found in
cloud-land his grandsires the Spiders with their grizzled hair and
long crooked nails, and they spun balls of thread to let him down
to earth; when he came down and found. his wife the Speckled
Duck, whom the Old Wolf had taken from him, she fled in con-
fusion, and this is why she lives and dives alone to this very day.
Such animal myths are as common in the New World as in the Old,
and abound from Finland and Kamtchatka to the Hottentots and
Australasians. From the story invented, as the one above
quoted, to account for some peculiarity of the animal world,
or told as a pure exercise of the imagination, just as a sailor spins
a yarn about the sea-serpent, to the moral apologue the transition
is easy; and that it has been effected by savages unaided by
the example of higher races seems sufficiently proved by the tales
quoted by E. B. Tylor (Primitive Culture, vol. i. p. 411). From
the beast-fables of savages we come next to the Oriental apologues,
which we still possess in their original form. The East, the land
of myth and legend, is the natural home of the fable, and Hindu-
stan was the birthplace, if not of the original of these tales, at
least of the oldest shape in which they still exist. The Pancha
Tantra (2nd century B.C.), or fables of the Brahma Vishnu
Sarman, have been translated from Sanskrit into almost every
language and adapted by most modern fabulists. The Kalilah
and Dimna (names of two jackals), or fables of Bidpai (or Pilpai),
passed from India to western Europe through the successive
stages of Pahlavi (ancient Persian), Arabic, Greek, Latin. By
the end of the i6th century there were Italian, French and English
versions. There is an excellent Arabic edition (Paris, 1816) with
an introduction by Sylvestre de Sacy. The Hitopadesa, or
" friendly instruction," is a modernized form of the same work,
and of it there are three translations into English by Dr Charles
Wilkins, Sir William Jones and Professor F. Johnson. The
Hitopadesa is a complete chaplet of fables loosely strung together,
but connected so as to form something of a continuous story,
with moral reflections freely interspersed, purporting to be written
for the instruction of some dissolute young princes. Thus, in the
first fable a flock of pigeons see the grains of rice which a fowler
has scattered, and are about to descend on them, when the king
of the pigeons warns them by telling the fable of a traveller who
being greedy of a bracelet was devoured by a tiger. They neglect
his warning and are caught in the net, but are afterwards delivered
by the king of the mice, who tells the story of the Deer, the Jackal
and the Crow, to show that no real friendship can exist between^
the strong and the weak, the beast of prey and his quarry, and so
on to the end of the volume. Another book of Eastern fables is
well worthy of notice, Buddhaghosha' s Parables, a commentary
on the Dhammapada or Buddha's Paths of Virtue. The original
is in Pali, but an English translation of the Burmese version
was made by Captain T. Rogers, R.E.
From Hindustan the Sanskrit fables passed to China, Tibet
and Persia; and they must have reached Greece at an early age,
for many of the fables which passed under the name of Aesop
are identical with those of the East. Aesop to us is little more
than a name, though, if we may trust a passing notice in Herodotus
(ii. 134), he must have lived in the 6th century B.C. Probably
his fables were never written down, though several are ascribed
to him by Xenophon, Aristotle, Plutarch and other Greek writers,
and Plato represents Socrates as beguiling his last days by
versifying such as he remembered. Aristophanes alludes to
them as merry tales, and Plato, while excluding the poets from
his ideal republic, admits Aesop as a moral teacher. Of the
various versions of Aesop's Fables, by far the most trustworthy
is that of Babrius or Babrias, a Greek probably of the 3rd
century A.D., who rendered them in choliambic verse. These,
FABLE
which were long known in fragments only, were recovered in a
MS. found by M. Minas in a monastery on Mount Athos in 1842,
now in the British Museum. 1 An inferior version of the same in
Latin iambics was made by Phaedrus, a slave of Thracian origin,
brought to Rome in the time of Augustus and manumitted by him.
Phaedrus professes to polish in senarian verse the rough-hewn
blocks from Aesop's quarry; but the numerous allusions to
contemporary events, as, for example, his hit at Sejanus in the
Frogs and the Sun, which brought upon the author disgrace and
imprisonment, show that many of them are original or free adapta-
tions. For some time scholars doubted as to the genuineness of
Phaedrus's fables, but their doubts have been lately dispelled
by a closer examination of the MSS. and by the discovery of two
verses of a fable on a tomb at Apulum in Dacia. Phaedrus's
style is simple, clear and brief, but dry and unpoetical; and,
as Lessing has pointed out, he often falls into absurdities when
he deserts his original. For instance, in Aesop the dog with the
meat in his mouth sees his reflection in the water as he passes
over a bridge; Phaedrus makes him see it as he swims across the
river.
To sum up the characteristics of the Aesopian fable, it is
artless, simple and transparent. It affects no graces of style, and
we hardly need the text with which each concludes, 6 nvdos SjjXoT
Sri, K.r.X. The moral inculcated is that of Proverbial Philosophy
and Poor Richard's A Imanacks. Aesop is no maker of phrases, but
an orator who wishes to gain some point or induce some course of
action. It is the Aesopian type that Aristotle has in view when
he treats of the fable as a branch of rhetoric, not of poetry.
The Latin race was given to moralizing, and the language lent
itself to crisp and pointed narrative, but they lacked the free
play of fancy, the childlike " make-believe," to produce a national
body of fables. With the doubtful exception of Phaedrus, we
possess nothing but solitary examples, such as the famous
apologue of Menenius Agrippa to the Plebs and the exquisite
Town Mouse and Country Mouse of Horace's Satires.
The fables of the rhetorician Aphthonius about A.D. 400 in
Greek prose, and those in Latin elegiac verse by Avianus, used
for centuries as a text-book in schools, form in the history of
the apologue a link between classical and medieval times. In a
Latin dress, sometimes in prose, sometimes in regular verse,
and sometimes in rhymed stanzas, the fable contributed, with
other kinds of narratives, to make up the huge mass of stories
which has been bequeathed to us by the monastic libraries.
These served more uses than one. They were at once easier and
safer reading than the classics. To the lazy monk they stood in
place of novels; to the more industrious and gifted they fur-
nished an exercise on a par with Latin verse composition in our
public schools; the more original transformed them inio fabliaux,
or embodied them in edifying stories, as in the Gesla Romanorum.
It is not in the Speculum Doctrinale of Vincent de Beauvais, a
Dominican of the I2th century, nor in the collection of his
contemporary Odo de Cerinton, an English Cistercian, nor in
Planudes of the I4th century, whose one distinction is to have
added to the fables a life of Aesop, that the direct lineage of La
Fontaine must be traced. It is the fabliaux that inspired some
of his best fables the Lion's Court, the Young Widow, the Coach
and the Fly.
As the supremacy of Latin declined and modern languages began
to be turned to literary uses, the fable took a new life. Not only
were there numerous adaptations of Aesop, known as Ysopets,
but Marie de France in the i3th century composed many original
fables, some rivalling La Fontaine's in simplicity and gracefulness.
Later, also, fables were not wanting, though not numerous, in
the English tongue. Chaucer has given us one, in his Nonne
Preste's Tale, which is an expansion of the fable Don Coc el don
Werpil of Marie de France; another is Lydgate's tale of The
Churl and the Bird.
Several of Odo's tales, like Chaucer's story, can be ultimately
1 M. Minas professed to have discovered under the same circum-
stances another collection of ninety-four fables by Babrius. This
second part was accepted by Sir G. C. Lewis, but J. Conington
conclusively proved it spurious, and probably a forgery. c
BABRIUS.
See
traced to the History of Reynard the Fox. This great beast-epic
has been referred by Grimm as far back as the icth century, and
is known to us in three forms, each with independent episodes,
but all woven upon a common basis. The Latin form is probably
the earliest, and the poems Reinardus and Ysengrinus date from
the loth or nth century. Next come the German versions.
The most ancient, that of a minnesinger Heinrich der Glichesaere
(probably a Swabian) , was analysed and edited by Grimm in 1 840.
The French poem of more than 30,000 lines, the Roman du
Renard, belongs probably to the i3th century. In 1498 appeared
Reynke de Voss, almost a literal version in Low Saxon of the
Flemish poem of the i2th century, Reinaert de Vos. Hence
the well-known version of Goethe into modern German hexa-
meters was taken. The poem has been well named " an unholy
world Bible." In it the Aesopian fable received a development
which was in several respects quite original. We have here no
short and unconnected stories. Materials, partly borrowed from
older apologues, but in a much greater proportion new, are
worked up into one long and systematic tale. The moral, so
prominent in the fable proper, shrinks so far into the background,
that the epic might be considered a work of pure fiction, an animal
romance. The attempts to discover in it personal satire have
signally failed; some critics deny even the design to represent
human conduct at all; and we can scarcely get nearer to its
signification than by regarding it as being, in a general way, what
Carlyle has called " a parody of human life." It represents a
contest maintained successfully, by selfish craft and audacity,
against enemies of all sorts, in a half-barbarous and ill-organized
society. With his weakest foes, like Chaunteclere the Cock,
Reynard uses brute-force; over the weak who are protected, like
Kiward the Hare and Belin the Ram, he is victorious by uniting
violence with cunning; Bruin, the dull, strong, formidable Bear,
is humbled by having greater power than his own enlisted against
him; and the most dangerous of all the fox's enemies, Isengrim,
the obstinate, 'greedy and implacable Wolf, after being baffled
by repeated strokes of malicious ingenuity, forces Reynard to a
single combat, but even thus is not a match for his dexterous
adversary. The knavish fox has allies worthy of him in Grimbart
the watchful badger, and in his own aunt Dame Rukenawe, the
learned She-ape; and he plays at his pleasure on the simple
credulity of the Lion-King, the image of an impotent feudal
sovereign. The characters of these and other brutes are kept
up with a rude kind of consistency, which gives them great
liveliness; many of the incidents are devised with much force
of humour; and the sly hits at the weak points of medieval
polity and manners and religion are incessant and palpable.
It is needless to trace the fable, or illustrations borrowed from
fables, that so frequently occur as incidental ornaments in the
older literature of England and other countries. It has appeared
in every modern nation of Europe, but has nowhere become very
important, and has hardly ever exhibited much originality either
of spirit or of manner. In English, Prior transplanted from France
some of La Fontaine's ease of narration and artful artlessness,
while Gay took as his model the Conies rather than the Fables.
Gay's fables are often political satires, but some, like the Fox on
his Deathbed, have the true ring, and in the Hare with many
Friends there is genuine pathos. To Dryden's spirited remodel-
lings of old poems, romances and fabliaux, the name of fables,
which he was pleased to give them, is quite inapplicable. In
German, Hagedorn and Gellert, both famous in their day and
the latter extolled by Goethe, are quite forgotten; and even
Lessing's fables are read by few but schoolboys. In Spanish,
Yriarte's fables on literary subjects are sprightly and graceful,
but the critic is more than the fabulist. A spirited version of the
best appeared in Blackwood's Magazine, 1839. Among Italians
Pignotti is famous for versatility and command of rhythm, as
amongst Russians is Kriloff for his keen satire on Russian society.
He has been translated into English by Ralston.
France alone in modern times has attained any pre-eminence in
the fable, and this distinction is almost entirely owing to one
author. Marie de France in the i3th century, Gilles Corrozet,
Guillaume Haudent and Guillaume Gueroult in the i6th, are now
n6
FABLIAU
studied mainly as the precursors of La Fontaine, from whom
he may have borrowed a stray hint or the outline of a story.
The unique character of his work has given a new word to the
French language: other writers of fables are called fabulisles,
La Fontaine is named le fattier. He is a true poet; his verse
is exquisitely modulated; his love of nature often reminds us of
Virgil, as do his tenderness and pathos (see, for instance, The
Two Pigeons and Death and the Woodcutter). He is full of sly
fun and delicate humour; like Horace he satirizes without
wounding, and " plays around the heart." Lastly, he is a keen
observer of men. The whole society of the lyth century, its
greatness and its foibles, its luxury and its squalor, from Le
grand monarque to the poor manant, from his majesty the lion
to the courtier of an ape, is painted to the life. To borrow his
own phrase, La Fontaine's fables are " une ample comedie
a cent actes divers." Rousseau did his best to discredit the
Fables as immoral and corruptors of youth, but in spite of Emile
they are studied in every French school and are more familiar
to most Frenchmen than their breviary. Among the successors
of La Fontaine the most distinguished is Florian. He justly
estimates his own merits in the pretty apologue that he prefixed
to his Fables. He asks a sage whether a fabulist writing after
La Fontaine would not be wise to consign bis work to the flames.
The sage replies by a question: " What would you say did some
sweet, ingenuous Maid of Athens refuse to let herself be seen
because there was once a Helen of Troy ? "
The fables of Lessing represent the reaction against the French
school of fabulists. " With La Fontaine himself," says Lessing,
" I have no quarrel, but against- the imitators of La Fontaine I
enter my protest." His attention was first called to the fable
by Gellert's popular work published in 1 746. Gellert's fables were
closely modelled after La Fontaine's, and were a vehicle for lively
railings against the fair sex, and hits at contemporary follies.
Lessing's early essays were in the same style, but his subsequent
study of the history and theory of the fable led him to discard his
former model as a perversion of later times, and the " Fabeln,"
published in 1759, are the outcome of his riper views. Lessing's
fables, like all that he wrote, display his vigorous common sense.
He has, it is true, little of La Fontaine's curiosa felicitas, his sly
humour and lightness of touch; and Frenchmen would say that
his criticism of La Fontaine is an illustration of the fable of the
sour grapes. On the other hand, he has the rare power of looking
at both sides of a moral problem; he holds a brief for the stupid
and the feeble, the ass and the lamb; and in spite of his formal
protest against poetical ornament, there is in not a few of his
fables a vein of true poetry, as in the Sheep (ii. 13) and Jupiter
and the Sheep (ii. 18). But the monograph which introduced the
Fabeln is of more inportance than the tables themselves.
According to Lessing the ideal fable is that of Aesop. All the
elaborations and refinements of later authors, from Phaedrus
to La Fontaine, are perversions of this original. The fable is
essentially a moral precept illustrated by a single example,
and it is the lesson thus enforced which gives to the fable its
unity and makes it a work of art. The illustration must be either
an actual occurrence or represented as such, because a fictitious
case invented ad hoc can appeal but feebly to the reader's
judgment. Lastly, the fable requires a story or connected chain
of events. A single fact will not make a fable, but is only an
emblem. We thus arrive at the following definition: " A fable
is a relation of a series of changes which together form a whole.
The unity of the fable consists herein, that all the parts lead up to
an end, the end for which the fable was invented being the moral
precept."
We may notice in passing a problem in connexion with the
fable which had long been debated, but never satisfactorily
resolved till Lessing took it in hand Why should animals
have been almost universally chosen as the chief dramatis
personae? The reason, according to Lessing, is that animals
have distinct characters which are known and recognized by all.
The fabulist who writes of Britannicus and Nero appeals to the
few who know Roman history. The Wolf and the Lamb comes
home to every one whether learned or simple. But, besides this,
human sympathies obscure the moral judgment; hence it follows
that the fable, unlike the drama and the epos, should abstain
from all that is likely to arouse our prejudices or our passions.
In this respect the Wolf and the Lamb of Aesop is a more perfect
fable than the Rich Man and the Poor Man's Ewe Lamb of Nathan.
Lessing's analysis and definition of the fable, though he seems
himself unconscious of the scope of his argument, is in truth its
death-warrant. The beast-fable arose in a primitive age when
men firmly believed that beasts could talk and reason, that any
wolf they met might be a were-wolf, that a peacock might be a
Pythagoras in disguise, and an ox or even a cat a being worthy of
their worship. To this succeeded the second age of the fable,
which belongs to the same stage of culture as the Hebrew proverbs
and the gnomic poets of Greece. That honesty is the best policy,
that death is common to all, seemed to the men of that day
profound truths worthy to be embalmed in verse or set off by the
aid of story or anecdote. Last comes an age of high literary
culture which tolerates the trite morals and hackneyed tales for
the sake of the exquisite setting, and is amused at the wit which
introduces topics and characters of the day under the transparent
veil of animal life. Such an artificial product can be nothing more
than the fashion of a day, and must, like pastoral poetry, die a
natural death. A serious moralist would hardly choose that form
to inculcate, like Mandeville in his Fable of the Bees, a new
doctrine in morals, for the moral of the fable must be such that
he who runs may read. A true poet will not care to masquerade
as a moral teacher, or show his wit by refurbishing some old-world
maxim. Yet Taine in France, Lowell in America, and J. A.
Froude in England have proved that the fable as one form of
literature is not yet extinct, and is capable of new and unexpected
developments.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Pantschatanirum, ed. Kosegarten (Bonn, 1848);
Hitopadesa, ed. Max Miiller (1864) ; Silvestre de Sacy, Calilah et
Dimna, ou Fables de Bidpai, en Arabe, precedees d'un memoire sur
I'origine de ce livre (Paris, 1816), translated by the Rev. Wyndham
Knatchbull (Oxford, 1819); Comparetti, Ricerche intorno al Libra
di Sindebad (Milan, 1869); Max Miiller, "Migration of Fables,"
Chips from a German Workshop, vol. iv. (1875); Keller, Unter-
suchungen uber die Geschichte der griechischen Fabel (Leipzig, 1862);
Babrius, ed. W. G. Rutherford, with excursus on Greek fables
(1883); L. Hervieux, Les Fabulistes latins (1884); Jakob Grimm,
Reinhart Fuchs (Berlin, 1834); A. C. M. Robert, Fables inediles des
XII', XIII' et XIV' siedes, &c. (Paris, 1825); Taine, Essai
sur les fables de La Fontaine (1853); Saint-Marc Girardin, La
Fontaine et les fabitlisies (Paris, 1867). (F. S.)
FABLIAU. The entertaining tales in eight-syllable rhymed
verse which form a marked section of French medieval litera-
ture are called fabliaux, the word being derived by Littre from
fablel, a diminutive of fable. It is a mistake to suppose, as is
frequently done, that every legend of the middle ages is a fabliau.
In a poem of the i2th century a clear distinction is drawn
between songs of chivalry, war or love, and fabliaux, which are
recitals of laughter. A fabliau always related an event; it was
usually brief, containing not more than 400 lines; it was neither
sentimental, religious nor supernatural, but comic and gay.
MM. de Montaiglon and Raynaud, who have closely investigated
this class of literature, consider that about 150 fabliaux have
come down to us more or less intact; a vast number have
doubtless disappeared. It appears from a phrase in the writings
of the trouvere, Henri d' Andeli, that the fabliau was not thought
worthy of being copied out on parchment. The wonder, then,
is that so many of these ephemeral compositions have been
preserved. Arguments brought forward by M. Joseph Bedier,
however, tend to show that we need not regret the disappearance
of the majority of the fabliaux, as those which were copied into
MSS. were those which were felt to be of the greatest intrinsic
value. As early as the 8th century fabliaux must have existed,
since the faithful are forbidden to take pleasure in these fabulas
inanes by the Paenitentiale of Egbert. But it appears that all the
early examples are lost.
In the opinion of the best scholars, the earliest surviving
fabliau is that of Richeut, which dates from 1159. This is a
rough and powerful study of the coarse life of the day, with
little plot, but engaged with a realistic picture of manners.
FABRE
117
Such poems, but of a more strictly narrative nature, continued
to be produced, mainly in the north and north-east of France,
until the middle of the i4th century. Much speculation has been
expended on the probable sources of the tales which the trouveres
told. The Aryan theory, which saw in them the direct influence
of India upon Europe, has now been generally abandoned. It
does not seem probable that any ancient or exotic influences were
brought to bear upon the French jongleurs, who simply invented
or adapted stories of that universal kind which springs unsown
from every untilled field of human society. More remarkable
than the narratives themselves is the spirit in which they are
told. This is full of the national humour and the national irony,
the true esprit gaulois. A very large section of these popular
poems deals satirically with the pretensions of the clergy. Such
are the famous Pretre aux mures, the Pretre qui dit la Passion
and Les Perdrix. Some of these are innocently merry; others are
singularly depraved and obscene. Another class of fabliaux is
that which comprises jests against the professions; in this,
the most prominent example is Le Vilain Mire, a satire on
doctors, which curiously predicts the Medecin malgre lui of
Moliere. There are also tales whose purpose is rather voluptuous
than witty, and whose aim is to excuse libertinage and render
marriage ridiculous. Among these are prominent Court Mantel
and Le Dit de Berenger. Yet another class repeated, with a
strain of irony or oddity, such familiar classical stories as those
of Narcissus, and Pyramus and Thisbe. It is rarely that any
elevation of tone raises these poems above a familiar and even
playful level, but there are some that are almost idealistic.
Among these the story of a sort of Sisyphus errant, Le Chevalier
de Barizel, offers an ethical interest which lifts it in certain
respects above all other surviving fabliaux. An instance of the
pathetic fabliau is Housse Partie, a kind of primitive version of
the story of King Lear.
In composing these pieces, of very varied character, the
jongleurs have practised an art which was in many respects
rudimentary, but sincere and simple. The student of language
finds the rich vocabulary of the fabliaux much more attractive
to him than the conventionality of the serious religious and
amatory poems of the same age. The object of the writers was
the immediate amusement of their audience; by reference to
familiar things, they hoped to arouse a quick and genuine
merriment. Hence their incorrectness and their negligence
are balanced by a delightful ease and absence of pedantry, and
in the fabliaux we get closer than elsewhere to the living diction
of medieval France. It is true that if we extend too severe a
judgment to these pieces, we may find ourselves obliged to
condemn them altogether. An instructed French critic, vexed
with their faults, has gone so far as to say that " the subjects
of these tales are degrading, their inspiration nothing better
than flat and cruel derision, their distinguishing features rascality,
vulgarity and platitude of style." From one point of view, this
condemnation of the fabliau is hardly too severe. But such
scholars as Gaston Paris and Paul Meyer have not failed to
emphasize other sides to the question. They have praised, in
the general laxity of style and garrulity of the middle ages,
the terseness of the jongleurs; in the period of false ornament,
their fidelity to nature; in a time of general vagueness, the
sharp and picturesque outlines of their art. One feature of the
fabliaux, however, cannot be praised and yet must not be over-
looked. In no other section of the world's literature is the scorn
and hatred of women so prominent. It is difficult to account
for the anti-feminine rage which pervades the fabliaux, and takes
hideous shapes in such examples as Le Valet aux deux femmes,
Le Pecheur de Pont-sur-Seine and Chicheface et Bigorne. Probably
this was a violent reaction against the extravagant cult of
woman as expressed in the contemporary lais as well as in the
legends of saints. The exaggeration was not greater in the one
case than in the other, and it is probable that the exaltation was
made endurable to those who listened to the trouveres by the
corresponding degradation. We must remember, too, that
those who listened were not nobles or clerks, they were the
common people. The fabliaux were fabellae ignobilium, little
stories told to amuse persons of low degree, who were irritated
by the moral pretensions of their superiors.
The names of about twenty of the authors of fabliaux have
been preserved, although in most cases nothing is known of their
personal history. The most famous poet of this class of writing
is the man whose name, or more probably pseudonym, was
Rutebeuf. He wrote Frere Denyse and Le Sacristain, while to
him is attributed the Dit d'Aristote, in the course of which Aristotle
gives good advice to Alexander. Fabliaux, however, form but a
small part of the work of Rutebeuf, who was a satirical poet of
wide accomplishment and varied energy. Most of the jongleurs
who wrote these merry and indecent tales in octosyllabic verse
were persons of less distinction. Henri d'Andeli was an ecclesi-
astic, attached, it is supposed, to the cathedral of Rouen. Jean
de Conde, who flourished in the court of Hainaut from 1310 to
1340, and Who is the latest of the genuine writers of fabliaux,
lived in comfort and security, but most of the professional
jongleurs seem to have spent their years in a Bohemian existence,
wandering among the clergy and the merchant class, alternately
begging for money and food and reciting their mocking verses.
The principal authorities for the fabliaux are MM. Anatole de
Montaiglon and Gaston Raynaud, who published the text, in 6 vols.,
between 1872 and 1890. This edition corrected and supplemented
the very valuable labours of Meon (1808-1823) and Jubinal (1839-
1842). The works of Henri d'Andeli were edited by M. A. Heron
in 1880, and those of Rutebeuf were made the subject of an ex-
haustive monograph by M. Leon Cledat in 1891. See also the
editions of separate fabliaux by Gaston Paris, Paul Meyer, Ebeling,
August Scheler and other modern scholars. M. Joseph Bedier's Les
Fabliaux (1895) is a useful summary of critical opinion on the
entire subject. (E. G.)
FABRE, FERDINAND (1830-1898), French novelist, was born
at Bedarieux, in Herault, a very picturesque district of the
south of France, which he made completely his own in literature.
He was the son of a local architect, who failed in business, and
Ferdinand was brought up by his uncle, the Abbe Fulcran Fabre,
at Camplong among the mulberry woods. Of his childhood and
early youth he has given a charming account in Ma Vocation
(1889). He was destined to the priesthood, and was sent for
that purpose to the seminary of St Pons de Thomieres, where, in
1848, he had, as he believed, an ecstatic vision of Christ, who
warned him " It is not the will of God that thou shouldst be a
priest." He had now to look about for a profession, and, after
attempting medicine at Montpellier, was articled as a lawyer's
clerk in Paris. In 1853 he published a volume of verses, Feuilles
de lierre, broke down in health, and crept back, humble and
apparently without ambitidn, to his old home at Bedarieux.
After some eight or nine years of country life he reappeared in
Paris, with the MS. of his earliest novel, Les Courbezon (1862),
in which he treated the subject which was to recur in almost all
his books, the daily business of country priests in the Cevennes.
This story enjoyed an immediate success with the literary class
of readers; George Sand praised it, Sainte-Beuve hailed in its
author " the strongest of the disciples of Balzac," and it was
crowned by the French Academy. From this time forth Fabre
settled down to the production of novels, of which at the time of
his death he had published about twenty. Among these the
most important were Le Chewier (1868), unique among his
works as written in an experimental mixture of Cevenol patois .
and French of the i6th century; L'Abbe Tigrane, candidat d la
papaute (1873), by common consent the best of all Fabre's
novels, a very powerful picture of unscrupulous priestly ambition;
Man Oncle Celestin (1881), a study of the entirely single and
tender-hearted country abbe; and Lucifer (1884), a marvellous
gallery of serious clerical portraits. In 1 883 Fabre was appointed
curator of the Mazarin Library, with rooms in the Institute,
where, on nth February 1898, he died after a brief attack of
pneumonia. Ferdinand Fabre occupies in French literature a
position somewhat analogous to that of Mr Thomas Hardy
amongst English writers of fiction. He deals almost exclusively
with the population of the mountain villages of Herault, and
particularly with its priests. He loved most of all to treat of
the celibate virtues, the strictly ecclesiastical passions, the
enduring tension of the young soul drawn between the spiritual
n8
FABRE D'EGLANTINE FABRICIUS, GAIUS
vocation and the physical demands of nature. Although never
a priest, he preserved a comprehension of and a sympathy with
the clerical character, and he always indignantly denied that he
was hostile to the Church, although he stood just outside her
borders. Fabre possessed a limited and a monotonous talent,
but within his own field he was as original as he was wholesome
and charming.
See also J. Lemaitre, Les Contemporains, vol. ii.; G. Pellissier,
Etudes de litterature conlemporaine (1898); E. W. Gosse, French
Profiles (1905). (E. G.)
FABRE D'EGLANTINE, PHILIPPE FRANCOIS NAZAIRE
(1750-1794), French dramatist and revolutionist, was born at
Carcassonne on the 28th of July 1750. His real name was
simple Fabre, the " d'glantine " being added in commemora-
tion of his receiving the golden eglantine of Clemence Isaure from
the academy of the floral games at Toulouse. After travelling
through the provinces as an actor, he came to Paris, and produced
an unsuccessful comedy entitled Les Gens de lettres, ou le pro-
vincial a Paris (1787). A tragedy, Augusta, produced at the
Theatre Franc.ais, was also a failure. One only of his plays,
Philinte, ou la suite du Misanthrope (1790), still preserves its
reputation. It professes to be a continuation of Moliere's
Misanthrope, but the hero of the piece is of a different character
from ,the nominal prototype an impersonation, indeed, of
pure and simple egotism. On its publication the play was
introduced by a preface, in which the author mercilessly satirizes
the Optimiste of his rival J. F. Collin d'Harleville, whose Chdteaux
en Espagne had gained the applause which Fabre's Presomptueux
(1789) had failed to win. The character of Philinte had much
political significance. Alceste received the highest praise, and
evidently represents the citizen patriot, while Philinte is a
dangerous aristocrat in disguise. Fabre was president and
secretary of the club of the Cordeliers, and belonged also to the
Jacobin club. He was chosen by Danton as his private secretary,
and sat in the National Convention. He voted for the king's
death, supporting the maximum and the law of the suspected,
and he was a bitter enemy of the Girondins. After the death of
Marat he published a Portrait de I' Ami du Peuple. On the
abolition of the Gregorian calendar he sat on the committee
entrusted with the formation of the republican substitute,
and to him was due a large part of the new nomenclature, with
its poetic Prairial and Floreal, its prosaic Primidi and Duodi.
The report which he made on the subject, on the 24th of October,
has some scientific value. On the 1 2th of January 1794 he was
arrested by order of the committee of public safety on a charge
of malversation and forgery in connexion with the affairs of the
Compagnie des Indes. Documents still existing prove that the
charge was altogether groundless. During his trial Fabre showed
the greatest calmness and sang his own well-known song of
// pleut, il pleut, bergire, rentre tes blancs moutons. He was
guillotined on the 5th of April 1794. On his way to the scaffold
he distributed his manuscript poems to the people.
A posthumous play, Les Precepteurs, steeped with the doctrines
of Rousseau's Entile, was performed on the i7th of September
1794, and met with an enthusiastic reception. Among Fabre's
other plays are the gay and successful Convalescent de qualM
(1791), and L'Intrigue epistolaire (1791). In the latter play
Fabre is supposed to have drawn a portrait of the painter Jean
Baptiste Greuze.
The author's CEuvres melees et posthumes were published at Paris
1802, 2 vo!s. See Albert Maurin, Galerie hist, de la Revolution
franfaise, tome n; Jules Janin, Hist, de la lilt, dram.; Chenier,
Tableau de la lilt, frangaise; F. A. Aulard in the Nouvelle Revue
(July 1885).
FABRETTI, RAPHAEL (1618-1700), Italian antiquary, was
born in 1618 at Urbino in Umbria. He studied law at Cagli and
Urbino, where he took the degree of doctor at the age of eighteen.
While in Rome he attracted the notice of Cardinal Lorenzo
Imperial!, who employed him successively as treasurer and
auditor of the papal legation in Spain, where he remained
thirteen years. Meanwhile, his favourite classical and anti-
quarian studies were not neglected; and on his return journey
he made important observations of the relics and monuments of
Spain, France and Italy. At Rome he was appointed judge of
appellation of the Capitol, which post he left to be auditor of the
legation at Urbino. After three years he returned to Rome, on
the invitation of Cardinal Carpegna, vicar of Innocent XI.,
and devoted himself to antiquarian research, examining with
minute care the monuments and inscriptions of the Campagna.
He always rode a horse which his friends nicknamed " Marco
Polo," after the Venetian traveller. By Innocent XII. he was
made keeper of the archives of the castle St Angelo, a charge
which he retained till his death. He died at Rome on the 7th of
January 1700. His collection of inscriptions and monuments
was purchased by Cardinal Stoppani, and placed in the ducal
palace at Urbino, where they may still be seen.
His work De Aquis et Aquae-ductibus veteris Romae (1680),
three dissertations on the topography of ancient Latium, is
inserted in Graevius's Thesaurus, iv. (1677). His interpretation
of certain passages in Livy and other classical authors involved
him in a dispute with Gronovius, which bore a strong resemblance
to that between Milton and Salmasius, Gronovius addressing
Fabretti as Faber Rusticus, and the latter, in reply, speaking of
Grunnovius and his titivilitia. In this controversy Fabretti
used the pseudonym lasitheus, which he afterwards took as his
pastoral name in the Academy of the Arcadians. His other
works, De Columna Trajani Syntagma (Rome, 1683), and
Inscriptionum Antiquarum Explicatio (Rome, 1699), throw much
light on Roman antiquity. In the former is to be found his
explication of a bas-relief, with inscriptions, now in the Capitol
at Rome, representing the war and taking of Troy, known as the
Iliac table. Letters and other shorter works of Fabretti are to
be found in pubh'cations of the time, as the Journal des Savants.
See Crescimbeni, Le Vile degli Arcadi illustri; Fabroni, Vilae
Italorum, vi. 174; Niceron, iv. 372; J. Lamius, Memorabilia
Italorum eruditione praestantium (Florence, 1742-1748).
FABRIANI, SEVERING (1792-1849), Italian author and
teacher, was born at Spilamberto, Italy, on the 7th of January
1792. Entering the Church, he took up educational work, but
in consequence of complete loss of voice he resolved to devote
himself to teaching deaf mutes, and founded a small school
specially for them. This school the duke of Modena made into
an institute, and by a special authority from the pope a teaching
staff of nuns was appointed. Fabriani's method of instruction
is summed up in his Logical Letters on Italian Grammar (1847).
He died on the 27th of April 1849.
FABRIANO, a town of the Marches, Italy, in the province
of Ancona, from which it is 44 m. S.W. by rail, 1066 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1901) town 9586, commune 22,996. It has
been noted since the I3th century for its paper mills, which still
produce the best paper in Italy. A school of painting arose here,
one of the early masters of which is Allegretto Nuzi (1308-1385) ;
and several of the churches contain works by him and other local
masters. His pupil, Gentile da Fabriano (1370-1428), was a
painter of considerably greater skill and wider knowledge; but
there are no important works of his at Fabriano. The sacristy
of S. Agostino also contains some good frescoes by Ottaviano
Nelli of Gubbio. The municipal picture gallery contains a
collection of pictures, and among them are some primitive
frescoes, attributable to the i2th century, which still retain
traces of Byzantine influence. The Archivio Comunale contains
documents on watermarked paper of local manufacture going
back to the i3th century. The Ponte dell' Acra, a bridge of the
1 5th century, is noticeable for the ingenuity and strength of its
construction. The hospital of S. Maria Buon Gesu is a fine work
of 1456, attributed to Rossellino.
See A. Zonghi, Anliche Carte Fabrianesi. (T. As.)
FABRICIUS, GAIUS LUSCINUS (i.e. " the one-eyed "), Roman
general, was the first member of the Fabrician gens who settled in
Rome. He migrated to Rome from Aletrium (Livy ix. 43),
one of the Hernican towns which was allowed to retain its
independence as a reward for not having revolted. In 285 he
was one of the ambassadors sent to the Tarentines to dissuade
them from making war on the Romans. In 282 (when consul)
he defeated the Bruttians and Lucanians, who had besieged
FABRICIUS, G. FABRIZI
119
Thurii (Livy, Epil. 12). After the defeat of the Romans by
Pyrrhus at Heraclea (280), Fabricius was sent to treat for the
ransom and exchange of the prisoners. All attempts to bribe
him were unsuccessful, and Pyrrhus is said to have been so
impressed that he released the prisoners without ransom
(Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 18). The story that Pyrrhus attempted to
frighten Fabricius by the sight of an elephant is probably a
fiction. In 278 Fabricius was elected consul for the second time,
and was successful in negotiating terms of peace with Pyrrhus,
who sailed away to Sicily. Fabricius afterwards gained a series
of victories over the Samnites, the Lucanians and the Bruttians,
and on his return to Rome received the honour of a triumph.
Notwithstanding the offices he had filled he died poor, and pro-
vision had to be made for his daughter out of the funds of the
state (Val. Max. iv. 4, 10). Fabricius was regarded by the
Romans of later times as a model of ancient simplicity and
incorruptible integrity.
FABRICIUS, GEORG (1516-1571), German poet, historian
and archaeologist, was born at Chemnitz in upper Saxony on
the 23rd of April 1516, and educated at Leipzig. Travelling in
Italy with one of his pupils, he made an exhaustive study of the
antiquities of Rome. He published the results in his Roma ( 1 5 50) ,
in which the correspondence between every discoverable relic
of the old city and the references to them in ancient literature
was traced in detail. In 1546 he was appointed rector of the
college of Meissen, where he died on the i7th of July 1571. In
his sacred poems he affected to avoid every word with the slightest
savour of paganism; and he blamed the poets for their allusions
to pagan divinities.
Principal works: editions of Terence (1548) and Virgil (1551);
Poematum sacrorum libri xxv. (1560); Poelarum veterum ecclesia-
sticorum opera Christiana (1562) ; De Re Poetica libri septem (1565) ;
Rerum Misnicarum libri septem (1569); (posthumous) Originum
illustrissimae stirpis Saxonicae libri seplem (1597) ; Rerum Germaniae
magnae et Saxoniae universae memorabilium mirabiliummx volumina
duo (1609). A life of Georg Fabricius was published in 1839 by
D. C. W. Baumgarten-Crusius, who in 1845 also issued an edition of
Fabricius's Epistolae ad W. Meurerum et alias aeguales, with a short
sketch De Vita Ge. Fabricii et de genie Fabriciorum; see also F.
Wachter in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encydopddie.
FABRICIUS, HIERONYMUS [FABRIZIO, GERONIMO] (1537-
1619), Italian anatomist and embryologist, was surnamed
Acquapendente from the episcopal city of that name, where he
was born in 1537. At Padua, after a course of philosophy, he
studied medicine under G. Fallopius, whose successor as teacher
of anatomy and surgery he became in 1562. From the senators
of Venice he received numerous honours, and an anatomical
theatre was built by them for his accommodation. He died at
Venice on the 2ist of May 1619. His works include De visione,
wee et auditu (1600), De formate foetu (1600), De venamm
osliolis (1603), De formation* ovi et pulli (1621), His collected
works were published at Leipzig in 1687 as Opera omnia Ana-
tomlca et Physiologica, but the Leiden edition, pubh'shed by
Albinus in 1738, is preferred as containing a life of the author
and the prefaces of his treatises. (See ANATOMY; EMBRYOLOGY.)
FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT (1668-1736), German classical
scholar and bibliographer, was born at Leipzig on the nth. of
November 1668. His father, Werner Fabricius, director of music
in the church of St Paul at Leipzig, was the author of several
works, the most important being Deliciae Harmonicas (1656).
The son received his early education from his father, who on his
deathbed recommended him to the care of the theologian
Valentin Alberti. He studied under J. G. Herrichen, and after-
wards at Quedlinburg under Samuel Schmid. It was in Schmid's
library, as he afterwards said, that he found the two books,
F. Earth's Adversaria and D. G. Morhof's Polyhistor Literarius,
which suggested to him the idea of his Bibliothecae, the works on
which his great reputation was founded. Having returned to
Leipzig in 1686, he published anonymously (two years later)
his first work, Scriptorum receniiorum decas, an attack on ten
writers of the day. His Decas Decadum, sive plagiariorum et
pseudonymorum centuria (1689) is the only one ot his works to
which he signs the name Faber. He then applied himself to the
study of medicine, which, however, he relinquished for that
of theology; and having gone to Hamburg in 1693, he proposed
to travel abroad, when the unexpected tidings that the expense
of his education had absorbed his whole patrimony, and even left
him in debt to his trustee, forced him to abandon his project.
He therefore remained at Hamburg in the capacity of librarian
to J. F. Mayer. In 1696 he accompanied his patron to Sweden;
and on his return to Hamburg, not long afterwards, he became
a candidate for the chair of logic and philosophy. The suffrages
being equally divided between Fabricius and Sebastian Edzardus,
one of his opponents, the appointment was decided by lot in
favour of Edzardus; but in 1699 Fabricius succeeded Vincent
Placcius in the chair of rhetoric and ethics, a post which he held
till his death, refusing invitations to Greifswald, Kiel, Giessen
and Wittenberg. He died at Hamburg on the 3oth of April 1736.
Fabricius is credited with 128 books, but very many of them
were only books which he had edited. One of the most famed and
laborious of these is the Bibliotheca Latina (1697, republished in an
improved and amended form by J. A. Ernesti, 1773). The divisions
of the compilation are the writers to the age of Tiberius; thence
to that of the Antonines; and thirdly, to the decay of the language;
a fourth gives fragments from old authors, and chapters on early
Christian literature. A supplementary work was Bibliolheca Latina
mediae el infimae Aetatis (17341736; supplementary volume by
C. Schottgen, 1746; ed. Mansi, 1754). His chef-d'ceuvre, however,
is the BMiotheca Graeca (1705-1728, revised and continued by
G. C. Harles, 17901812), a work which has justly been denominated
maximus antiquae erudilionis thesaurus. Its divisions are marked
off by Homer, Plato, Christ, Constantine, and the capture of Con-
stantinople in 1453, while a sixth section is devoted to canon law,
jurisprudence and medicine. Of his remaining works we may
mention : Bibliolheca A ntiquaria, an account of the writers whose
works illustrated Hebrew, Greek, Roman and Christian antiquities
(1713); Centifolium Lutheranum, a Lutheran bibliography (1728);
Bibliotheca Ecclesiastica (1718). His Codex Apocryphus (1703) is
still considered indispensable as an authority on apocryphal Christian
literature.
The details of the Jife of Fabricius are to be found in De Vita et
Scriptis J. A. Fabricii Commeniarius, by his son-in-law, H. S.
Reimarus, the well-known editor of Dio Cassius, published at
Hamburg, 1737 ; see also C. F. Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine
Encyclop&die, and J. E. Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. iii. (1908).
FABRICIUS, JOHANN -CHRISTIAN (1745-1808), Danish
entomologist and economist, was born at Tondern in Schleswig
on the 7th of January 1745. After studying at Altona and
Copenhagen, he was sent to Upsala, where he attended the
lectures of Linnaeus. He devoted his attention professionally
to political economy, and, after lecturing on that subject in 1769,
was appointed in 1775 professor of natural history, economy
and finance at Kiel, in which capacity he wrote various works,
chiefly referring to Denmark, and of no special interest. He
also published a few other works on general and natural history,
botany and travel (including Reise nach Norwegen, 1779), and,
although his professional stipend was small, he extended his
personal researches into every town in northern and central
Europe where a natural history museum was to be found.
It is as an entomologist that his memory survives, and for many
years his great scientific reputation rested upon the system of
classification which he founded upon the structure of the mouth-
organs instead of the wings. He had a keen eye for specific
differences, and possessed the art of terse and accurate description.
He died on the 3rd of March 1808.
A complete list of his entomological publications (31) will be
found in Hagen's Bibliotheca Entomologiae; the following are the
chief: Syslema Entomologiae (1775); Genera Insectorum (1776);
Philosophia Entomologica (1778); Species insectorum (1781); Man-
tissa Insectorum (1787); Entomologia Systematica (1792-1794), with
a supplement (1798); Systema Eleulheralorum (1801), Rhyngolorum
(1803), Piezatorum (1804), and Antliatorum (1805). Full particulars
of his life will be found, with a portrait, in the Transactions of the
Entomological Society of London (1845), 4, pp. i-xvi, where his auto-
biography is translated from the Danish.
FABRIZI, NICOLA (1804-1885), Italian patriot, was born at
Modena on the 4th of April 1804. He took part in the Modena
insurrection of 1831, and attempted to succour Ancona, but was
arrested at sea and taken to Toulon, whence he proceeded to
Marseilles. Afterwards he organized with Mazzini the ill-fated
Savoy expedition. Taking refuge in Spain, he fought against the
Carlists, and was decorated for valour on the battlefield (i8th
July 1837). At the end of the Carlist War he established a
I2O
FABROT FACCIOLATI
centre of conspiracy at Malta, endeavoured to dissuade Mazzini
from the Bandiera enterprise, but aided Crispi in organizing the
Sicilian revolution of 1848. With a company of volunteers he
distinguished himself in the defence of Venice, afterwards
proceeding to Rome, where he took part in the defence of San
Pancrazio. Upon the fall of Rome he returned to Malta, accumu-
lating arms and stores, which he conveyed to Sicily, after having,
in 1859, worked with Crispi to prepare the Sicilian revolution of
1860. While Garibaldi was sailing from Genoa towards Marsala
Fabrizi landed at Pizzolo, and, after severe fighting, joined
Garibaldi at Palermo. Under the Garibaldian Dictatorship he
was appointed governor of Messina and minister of war. Return-
ing to Malta after the Neapolitan plebiscite, which he had
vainly endeavoured to postpone, he was recalled to aid Cialdini
in suppressing brigandage. While on his way to Sicily in 1862,
to induce Garibaldi to ' give up the Aspromonte enterprise,
he was arrested at Naples by Lamarmora. During the war of
1866 he became Garibaldi's chief of staff, and in 1867 fought at
Mentana. In parliament he endeavoured to promote agreement
between the chiefs of the Left, and from 1878 onwards worked to
secure the return of Crispi to power, but died on the 3ist of
March 1885, two years before the realization of his object. His
whole life was characterized by ardent patriotism and unim-
peachable integrity. (H. W. S.)
FABROT, CHARLES ANNIBAL (1580-1659), French juris-
consult, was born at Aix in Provence on the isth of September
1580. At an early age he made great progress in the ancient
languages and in the civil and the canon law; and in 1602 he
received the degree of doctor of law, and was made avocat to
the parlement of Aix. In 1609 he obtained a professorship in
the university of his native town. He is best known by his
translation of the Basilica, which may be said to have formed
the code of the Eastern empire till its destruction. This work was
published at Paris in 1647 in 7 vols. fol., and obtained for its
author a considerable pension from the chancellor, Pierre Seguier,
to whom it was dedicated. Fabrot likewise rendered great service
to the science of jurisprudence by Kis edition of Cujas, which
comprised several treatises of that great jurist previously un-
published. He also edited the works of several Byzantine
historians, and was besides the author of various antiquarian
and legal treatises. He died at Paris on the i6th of January 1659.
FABYAN, ROBERT (d. 1513), English chronicler, belonged" to
an Essex family, members of which had been connected with
trade in London. He was a member of the Drapers company,
alderman of Farringdon Without, and served as sheriff in 1493-
1494. In 1496 he was one of those appointed to make repre-
sentations to the king on the new impositions on English cloth
in Flanders. Next year he was one of the aldermen employed
in keeping watch at the time of the Cornish rebellion. He
resigned his aldermanry in 1502, on the pretext of poverty,
apparently in order to avoid the expense of mayoralty. He
had, however, acquired considerable wealth with his wife
Elizabeth Pake, by whom he had a numerous family. He spent
his latter years on his estate of Halstedys at Theydon Garnon in
Essex. He died on the 28th of February 1513 (Inquisitiones
post mortem for London, p. 29, edited by G. S. Fry, 1896); his
will, dated the nth of July 1511, was proved on the I2th of July
1513. Fabyan's Chronicle was first published by Richard
Pynson in 1516 as The new chronicles of England and of France.
In this edition it ends with the reign of Richard III., and this
probably represents the work as Fabyan left it, though with
the omission of an autobiographical note and some religious
verses, which form the Envoi of his history. The note and verses
are first found in the second edition, printed by John Rastell in
1 533 with continuations down to 1 509. A third edition appeared
in 1542, and a fourth in 1559 with additions to that year. The
only modern edition is that of Sir Henry Ellis, 1811.
In the note above mentioned Fabyan himself says: " and
here I make an ende of the vii. parte and hole werke, the vii.
day of November in the yere of our Lord Jesu Christes In-
carnation M.vc. and iiij." This seems conclusive that in 1504
he did not contemplate any extension of his chronicles beyond
1485. The continuations printed by Rastell are certainly not
Fabyan's work. But Stow in his Collections (ap. Survey of
London, ii. 305-306, ed. C. L. Kingsford) states that Fabyan wrote
" a Chronicle of London, England and of France, beginning at the
creation and endynge in the third year of Henry VIII., which
both I have in written hand." In his Survey of London (i. 191,
209, ii. 55, 1 16) Stow several times quotes Fabyan as his authority
for statements which are not to be found in the printed continua-
tions of Rastell. Some further evidence may be found in other
notes of Stow's (ap. Survey of London, ii. 280, 283, 365-366),
and in the citation by Hakluyt of an unprinted work of Fabyan
as the authority for his note of Cabot's voyages. That Fabyan
had continued his Chronicle to 1511 may be accepted as certain,
but no trace of the manuscript can now be found.
It is only the seventh part of Fabyan's Chronicle, from the
Norman Conquest onwards, that possesses any historical value.
For his French history he followed chiefly the Compendium super
Francorum geslis of Robert Gaguin, printed at Paris in 1497.
For English history his best source was the old Chronicles of
London, from which he borrowed also the arrangement of his
work in civic form. From 1440 to 1485 he follows, as a rule
with great fidelity, the original of the London Chronicle in
Cotton MS. Vitellius A. XVI. (printed in Chronicles of London,
1905, pp. 153-264)-
Fabyan's own merits are little more than those of an industrious
compiler, who strung together the accounts of his different
authorities without any critical capacity. He says expressly
that his work was " gaderyd without understandynge," and
speaks of himself as "of cunnynge full destitute." Nevertheless
he deserves the praise which he has received as an early worker,
and for having made public information which through Hall and
Holinshed has become the common property of later historians,
and has only recently been otherwise accessible. Bale alleges
that the first edition was burnt by order of Cardinal Wolsey
because it reflected on the wealth of the clergy; this probably
refers to his version of the Lollards Bill of 1410, which Fabyan
extracted from one of the London Chronicles.
See further Ellis' Introduction; W. Busch, England under the
Tudors (trans. A. M. Todd, 1895), i. 405-410; and C. L. Kingsford,
Chronicles of London, pp. xxvi-xxxii (1905). (C. L. K.)
FAQ ADE, a French architectural term signifying the external
face of a building, but more generally applied to the principal
front.
FACCIOLATI, JACOPO (1682-1769), Italian philologist, was
born at Torriglia, in the province of Padua, in 1682. He owed
his admission to the seminary of Padua to Cardinal Barberigo,
who had formed a high opinion of the boy's talents. As professor
of logic, and regent of the schools, Facciolati was the ornament
of the Paduan university during a period of forty-five years.
He published improved editions of several philological works,
such as the Thesaurus Ciceronianus of Nizolius, and the polyglot
vocabulary known under the name of Calepino. The latter work,
in which he was assisted by his pupil Egidio Forcellini, he
completed in four years 1715 to 1719. It was written in seven
languages, and suggested to the editor the idea of his opus
magnum, the Totius Latinitatis Lexicon, which was ultimately
published at Cardinal Priole's expense, 4 vols. fol., Padua, 1771
(revised ed. by de Vit, 1858-1887). In the compilation of this
work the chief burden seems to have been borne by Facciolati 's
pupil Forcellini, to whom, however, the lexicographer allows a
very scanty measure of justice. Perhaps the best testimony to
the learning and industry of the compiler is the well-known
observation that the whole body of Latinity, if it were to perish,
might be restored from this lexicon. Facciolati's mastery of
Latin style, as displayed in his epistles, has been very much
admired for its purity and grace. In or about 1739 Facciolati
undertook the continuation of Papadopoli's history of the
university of Padua, carrying it on to his own day. Facciolati
was known over all Europe as one of the most enlightened and
zealous teachers of the time; and among the many flattering
invitations which he received, but always declined, was one frcm
the king of Portugal, to accept the directorship of a college at
FACE FACTOR
121
Lisbon for the young nobility. He died in 1769. His history of
the university was published in 1757, under the name Fasti
Gymnasii Patavini. In 1808 a volume containing nine of his
Epistles, never before published, was issued at Padua.
See J. E. Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. ii. (1908).
FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make,
or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. (paivfiv) , a word
whose various meanings of surface, front, expression of coun-
tenance, look or appearance, are adaptations of the application
of the word to the external part of the front portion of the head,
usually taken to extend from the top of the forehead to the
point of the chin, and from ear to ear (see ANATOMY: Superficial
and Artistic; and PHYSIOGNOMY).
FACTION (through the French, from Lat. faclio, a company
of persons combined for action, facere, to do; from the other
French derivative fac.on comes "fashion"), a term, used especi-
ally with an opprobrious meaning, for a body of partisans who
put their party aims and interests above those of the state or
public, and employ unscrupulous or questionable means; it is
thus a common term of reciprocal abuse between parties. In the
history of the Roman and Later Roman empires the factions
(factiones) of the circus and hippodrome, at Rome and Constanti-
nople, played a prominent part in politics. The factiones were
properly the four companies into which the charioteers were
divided, and distinguished by the colours they wore. Originally
at Rome there were only two, white (albata) and red (russata),
when each race was open to two chariots only; on the increase
to four, the green (prasina) and blue (veneta) were added. At
Constantinople the last two absorbed the red and white factions.
For a brilliant description of the factions at Constantinople under
Justinian, and the part they played in the celebrated Nika riot in
January 532, see Gibbon's Decline and Fall, ch. xl. ; and J. B.
Bury's Appendix 10 in vol. iv. of his edition (1898), for a discus-
sion of the relationship between the facliones and the demes of
Constantinople.
FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do), strictly " one who
makes "; thus in ordinary parlance, anything which goes to the
composition of anything else is termed one of its " factors,"
and in mathematics the term is used of those quantities which,
when multiplied together, produce a given product. In a special
sense, however and that to which this article is devoted
" factor " is the name given to a mercantile agent (of the class
known as " general agents ") employed to buy or sell goods
for a commission. When employed to sell, the possession of the
goods is entrusted to him by his principal, and wjien employed
to buy it is his duty to obtain possession of the goods and to
consign them to his principal. In this he differs from a broker
(q.v.), who has not such possession, and it is this distinguishing
characteristic which gave rise in England to the series of statutes
known as the Factors Acts. By these acts, consolidated and
extended by the act of 1889, third parties buying or taking
pledges from factors are protected as if the factor were in reality
owner; but these enactments have in no way affected the
contractual relations between the factor and his employer,
and it will be convenient to define them before discussing the
position of third parties as affected by the act.
I. FACTOR AND PRINCIPAL
A factor is appointed or dismissed in the same way as any
other agent. He may be employed for a single transaction or to
transact all his principal's business of a certain class during a
limited period or till such time as his authority may be deter-
mined. A factor's duty is to sell or buy as directed ; to carry out
with care, skill and good faith any instructions he may receive;
to receive or make payment; to keep accounts, and to hand over
to his principal the balance standing to his principal's credit,
without any deduction save for commission and expenses. All
express instructions he must carry out to the full, provided they
do not involve fraud or illegality. On any point not covered by
his express instructions he must follow the usual practice of his
particular business, if not inconsistent with his instructions or
his position as factor. Many usages of businesses in which
factors are employed have been proved in court, and may now
be regarded as legally established. For instance, he may, unless
otherwise directed, sell in his own name, give warranties as to
goods sold by him, sell by sample (in most businesses), give such
credit as is usual in his business, receive payment in cash or as
customary, and give receipts in full discharge, sell by indorsement
of bills of lading, and insure the goods. It is his duty to clear the
goods at the customs, take charge of them and keep them
safely, give such notices to his principal and others as may be
required, and if necessary take legal proceedings for the protection
of the goods. On the other hand, he has not authority to delegate
his employment, or to barter; and as between himself and his
principal he has no right to pledge the goods, although as between
the principal and the pledgee, an unauthorized pledge made by
the factor may by virtue of the Factors Act 1889 be binding
upon the principal. It is, moreover, inconsistent with his
employment as agent that he should buy or sell on his own
account from or to his principal. A factor has no right to follow
any usage which is inconsistent with the ordinary duties and
authority of a factor unless his principal has expressly or impliedly
given his consent.
On the due performance of his duties the factor is entitled to
his commission, which is usually a percentage on the value of the
goods sold or bought by him on account of his principal, regulated
in amount by the usages of each business. Sometimes the factor
makes himself personally responsible for the solvency of the
persons with whom he deals, in order that his principal may
avoid the risk entailed by the usual trade credit. In such a case
the factor is said to be employed on del credere terms, and is
entitled to a higher rate of commission, usually 25% extra.
Such an arrangement is not a contract of guarantee within the
Statute of Frauds, and therefore need not be in writing. Besides
his remuneration, the factor is entitled to be reimbursed by his
principal for any expenses, and to be indemnified against any
liabilities which he may have properly incurred in the execution
of his principal's instructions. Foj the purpose of enforcing his
rights a factor has, without legal proceedings, two remedies.
Firstly, by virtue of his general lien (q.v.) he may hold any of his
principal's goods which come to his hands as security for the
payment to him of any commission, out-of-pocket expenses,
or even general balance of account in his favour. Although he
cannot sell the goods, he may refuse to give them up until he is
paid. Secondly, where he has consigned goods to his principal
but not been paid, he may " stop in transit " subject to the same
rules of law as an ordinary vendor; that is to say, he must exer-
cise his right before the transit ends; and his right may be
defeated by his principal transferring the document of title to
the goods to some third person, who takes it in good faith and
for valuable consideration (Factors Act 1889, section 10). If the
factor does not carry out his principal's instructions, or carries
them out so negligently or unskilfully that his principal gets no
benefit thereby, the factor loses his commission and his right
to reimbursement and indemnity. If by such failure or negli-
gence the principal suffers any loss, the latter may recover it as
damages. So too if the factor fails to render proper accounts his
principal may by proper legal proceedings obtain an account
and payment of what is found due; and threatened breaches
of duty may be summarily stopped by an injunction. Criminal
acts by the factor in relation to his principal's goods are dealt
with by section 78 of the Larceny Act 1860.
II. PRINCIPAL AND THIRD PARTY
(a) At Common Law. The actual authority of a factor is
defined by the same limits as his duty, the nature of which has
been just described; i.e. firstly, by his principal's express
instructions; secondly, by the rules of law and usages of trade,
in view of which those instructions were expressed. But his
power to bind his principal as regards third parties is often wider
than his actual authority; for it would not be reasonable that
third parties should be prejudiced by secret instructions, given
in derogation of the authority ordinarily conferred by the custom
of trade; and, as regards them, the factor is said to have
" apparent " or " ostensible " authority, or to be held out as having
FACTORY ACTS FACULTY
122
authority to do what is customary, even though he may in fact
have been expressly forbidden so to do by his principal. But
this rule is subject to the proviso that if the third party have
notice of the factor's actual instructions, the "apparent
authority will not be greater than the actual. " The general
principle of law," said Lord Blackburn in the case of Cole v.
North-Western Bank, 1875, L.R. 10, C.P. 363, " is that when the
true owner has clothed any one with apparent authority to act
as his agent, he is bound to those who deal with the agent on
the assumption that he really is an agent with that authority,
to the same extent as if the apparent authority were real."
Under such circumstances the principal is for reasons of common
fairness precluded, or, in legal phraseology, estopped, from
denying his agent's authority. On the same principle of estoppel,
but not by reason of any trade usages, a course of dealing which
has been followed between a factor and a third party with the
assent of the principal will give the factor apparent authority
to continue dealing on the same terms even after the principal's
assent has been withdrawn; provided that the third party has no
notice of the withdrawal.
Such apparent authority binds the principal both as to acts
done in excess of the actual authority and also when the actual
authority has entirely ceased. ' For instance, A.B. receives goods
from C. D. with instructions not to sell below is. per Ib; A. B.
sells at lojd., the market price; the buyer is entitled to the goods
at ic^d., because A. B. had apparent authority, although he
exceeded his actual authority. On the same principle the buyer
would get a good title by buying from A. B. goods entrusted to
him by C. D., even though at the time of the sale C. D. had
revoked A. B.'s authority and instructed him not to sell at all.
In either case the factor is held out as having authority to sell,
and the principal cannot afterwards turn round and say that his
factor had no such authority. As in the course of his business
the factor must necessarily make representations preliminary
to the contracts into which he enters, so the principal will be
bound by any such representations as may be within the factor's
actual or apparent authority to the same degree as by the
factor's contracts.
(b) Under the Factors Act 1889. The main object of the
Factors Acts, in so far as they relate to transactions carried
out by factors, has been to add to the number of cases in which
third parties honestly buying or lending money on the security
of goods may get a good title from persons in whose possession
the goods are with the consent, actual or apparent, of the real
owners, thus calling in aid the principle of French law that
" possession -oaut litre " as against the doctrine of the English
common law that " nemo dal quod non habet." The chief change
in the law relating specially to factors has been to put pledges
by factors on the same footing as sales, so as to bind a principal
to third parties by his factor's pledge as by his factor's sale.
The Factors Act 1889 in part re-enacts and in part extends the
provisions of the earlier acts of 1823, 1825, 1842 and 1877;
and is, so far as it relates to sales by factors, in large measure
merely declaratory of the law as it previously existed. Its most
important provisions concerning factors are as follows:
Section I., s.s. I. The expression mercantile agent shall mean a
mercantile agent having in the customary course of his business
as such agent authority either to sell goods, or to consign goods
for the purpose of sale, or to buy goods, or to raise money on the
security of goods;
2. A person shall be deemed to be in possession of goods or o
the documents or title to goods when the goods or documents are
in his actual custody or are held by any other person subject to his
control or for him on his behalf.
4. The expression " document of title " shall include any bill o
lading, dock warrant, warehouse keeper's certificate, and warrant
or order for the delivery of goods, and any other document used in
the ordinary course of business as proof of the possession or contro
of goods, or authorizing or purporting to authorize, either by in
dorsement or by delivery, the possessor of the document to transfe
or receive goods thereby represented.
Section II., s.s. I. Where a mercantile agent is, with the consen
of the owner, in possession of goods or of the documents or title t<
goods, any sale, pledge or other disposition of the goods made b
him when acting in the ordinary course of business of a mercantil
agent shall, subject to the provisions of this act, be as valid as :
ie were expressly authorized by the owner of the goods to make
he same; provided that the person taking under the disposition
cts in good faith, and has not at the time of the disposition notice
hat the person making the disposition has not authority to make
he same.
2. Where a mercantile agent has, with the consent of the owner,
jeen in possession of goods or of the documents of title to goods,
any sale, pledge or other disposition which would have been valid
F the consent had continued shall be valid notwithstanding the
[etermination of the consent; provided that the person taking
under the disposition has not at the time thereof notice that the
onsent has been determined.
3. Where a mercantile agent has obtained possession of any
locuments of title to goods by reason of his being or having been,
with the consent of the owner, in possession of the goods repre-
ented thereby, or of any other documents of title to the goods, his
sossession of the first-mentioned documents shall, for the purposes
>f the act, be deemed to be with the consent of the owner.
III. ENFORCEMENT or CONTRACTS
1. Where a factor makes a contract in the name of his
principal and himself signs as agent only, he drops out as soon
as the contract is made, and the principal and third party alone
can sue or be sued upon it. As factors usually contract in their
own name this is not a common case. It is characteristic of
>rokers rather than of factors.
2. Where a factor makes a contract for the principal without
disclosing his principal's name, the third party may, on dis-
covering the principal, elect whether he will treat the factor or
lis principal as the party to the contract; provided that if the
:actor contract expressly as factor, so as to exclude the idea that
ie is personally responsible, he will not be liable. The principal
may sue upon the contract, so also may the factor, unless the
principal first intervene.
3. Where a factor makes a contract in his own name without
disclosing the existence of his principal, the third party may,
on discovering the existence of the principal, elect whether he
will sue the factor or the principal. Either principal or factor
may sue the third party upon the contract. But if the factor
has been permitted by the principal to hold himself out as the
principal, and the person dealing with the factor has believed
that the factor was the principal and has acted on that belief
before ascertaining his mistake, then in an action by the principal
the third party may set up any defences he would have had
against the factor if the factor had brought the action on his own
account as principal.
4. Where a factor has a lien upon the goods and their proceeds
for advances made to the principal it will be no defence to an
action by him for the third party to plead that he has paid the
principal, unless the factor by his conduct led the third party to
believe that he agreed to a settlement being made with his
principal.
5. The factor who acts for a foreign principal will always be
personally liable unless it is clear that the third party has agreed
to look only to the principal.
6. If a factor contract by deed under seal he alone can sue
or be sued upon the contract; but mercantile practice makes
contracts by deed uncommon.
AUTHORITIES. Story, Commentaries on the Law of Agency
(Boston, 1882); Boyd and Pearson, The Factors Acts 1823 to
1877 (London, 1884); Blackwell, The Law relating to Factors
(London, 1897). (L. F. S.)
FACTORY ACTS, the name given generally to a long series
of acts constituting one of the most important chapters in the
history of English labour legislation (see LABOUR LEGISLATION) ;
the term " factory " itself being short for manufactory, a building
or collection of buildings in which men or women are employed
in industry.
FACULA (diminutive of fax, Lat. for " torch "), in astronomy,
a minute shining spot on the sun's disk, markedly brighter than
the photosphere in general, usually appearing in groups. Faculae
are most frequent in the neighbourhood of spots. (See SUN.)
FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas,
ability to do anything, iromfacilis, easy,facere, to do; another
form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original
meaning), power or capacity of mind or body for particular kinds
FAED FAEROE
123
of activity, feeling, &c. In the early history of psychology the
term was applied to various mental processes considered as
causes or conditions of the mind a treatment of " class concepts
of mental phenomena as if they were real forces producing these
phenomena" (G. F. Stout, Analytic Psychology, vol. i. p. 17).
In medieval Latin facultas was used to translate Suva/its in the
Aristotelian application of the word to a branch of learning or
knowledge, and thus it is particularly applied to the various
departments of knowledge as taught in a university and to the
body of teachers of the particular art or science taught. The
principal " faculties " in the medieval universities were theology,
canon and civil law, medicine and arts (see UNIVERSITIES). A
further extension of this use is to the body of members of any
particular profession.
In law, " faculty " is a dispensation or licence to do that
which is not permitted by the common law. The word in this
sense is used only in ecclesiastical law. A faculty may be granted
to be ordained deacon under twenty-three years of age; to
hold two livings at once (usually called a licence or dispensation,
but granted under the seal of the office of faculties; see
BENEFICE); to be married at any place or time (usually called a
special licence; see MARRIAGE; LICENCE); to act as a notary
public (q.v.). Any alteration in a church, such as an addition
or diminution in the fabric or the utensils or ornaments of the
church, cannot strictly be made without the legal sanction of the
ordinary, which can only be expressed by the issue of a faculty.
So a faculty would be required for a vault, for the removal of a
body, for the purpose of erecting monuments, for alterations
in a parsonage house, for brick graves, for the apportionment
of a seat, &c. Cathedrals, however, are exempt from the necessity
for a faculty before making alterations in the fabric, utensils or
ornaments.
The court of faculties is the court of the archbishop for granting
faculties. It is a court in which there is no litigation or holding
of pleas. Its chief officer is called the master of faculties, and
he is one and the same with the judge of the court of arches.
Attached to the court of faculties are a registrar and deputy
registrars, a chief clerk and record-keeper, and a seal keeper.
In Scotland the society of advocates of the court of session, and
local bodies of legal practitioners, are described as faculties.
FAED, THOMAS (1826-1900), British painter, born in Kirk-
cudbrightshire, was the brother of John Faed, R.S.A., and
received his art education in the school of design, Edinburgh.
He was elected an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in
1849, came to London three years later, was elected an associate
of the Royal Academy in 1861, and academician in 1864, and
retired in 1893. He had much success as a painter of domestic
genre, and had considerable executive capacity. Three of his
pictures, " The Silken Gown," " Faults on Both Sides," and " The
Highland Mother," are in the National Gallery of British Art.
See William D. McKay, The Scottish School of Painting (1906).
FAENZA (anc. Favenlia), a city and episcopal see of Emilia,
Italy, in the province of Ravenna, from which it is 31 m. S.W.
by rail, no ft. above sea-level. It is 31 m. S.E. of Bologna by
rail, on the line from Bologna to Rimini, and it is the junction
of a line to Florence through the Apennines. Pop. (1901)
21,809 (town), 39,757 (commune). The town is surrounded by
walls which date from 1456. The cathedral of S. Costanzo
stands in the spacious Piazza Vittorio Emanuele in the centre
of the town. It was begun in 1474 by Giuliano da Maiano;
the facade is, however, incomplete. In the interior is the
beautiful early Renaissance tomb of S. Savinus with reliefs
showing scenes from his life, of fine and fresh execution, by
Benedetto da Maiano; and later tombs by P. Bariloto, a local
sculptor. Opposite the cathedral is a fountain with bronze
ornamentation of 1583-1621. The clock tower alongside the
cathedral belongs to the i7th century. Beyond it is the Palazzo
Comunale, formerly the residence of the Manfredi, but entirely
reconstructed. The other churches of the town have been mostly
restored, but S. Michele (and the Palazzo Manfredi opposite it)
are fine early Renaissance buildings in brickwork. The municipal
art gallery contains an altar-piece by Girolamo da Treviso (who
also painted a fresco in the Chiesa della Commenda), a wooden
St Jerome by Donatello, and a bust of the young St John by
Antonio Rossellino (?), and some fine specimens of majolica,
a variety of which, faience, takes its name from the town. It
was largely manufactured in the i5th and i6th centuries, and
the industry has been revived in modern times with success.
The ancient Faventia, on the Via Aemilia, was obviously
from its name founded by the Romans and had the citizenship
before the Social War. It was the scene of the defeat of C.
Papirius Carbo and C. Norbanus by Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius
in 82 B.C. In the census of Vespasian a woman of Faventia is
said to have given her age as 135. Pliny speaks of the whiteness
of its linen, and the productiveness of its vines is mentioned.
It is noticeable that some of the fields in the territory of the
ancient Faventia still preserve the exact size of the ancient
Roman centuria of 200 iugeri (E. Bormann in Corp. Inscr. Lai.
xi., Berlin, 1888, p. 121). When the exarchate was established,
the town became part of it, and in 748 it was taken by Liutprand.
Desiderius gave it to the church with the duchy of Ferrara.
In the nth century it began to increase in importance. In the
wars of the I2th and I3th centuries it at first took the imperial
side, but in 1240 it stood a long siege from Frederick II. and
was only taken after eight months. After further struggles
between Guelphs and Ghibellines, the Manfredi made themselves
masters of the place early in the i4th century, and remained in
power until 1501, when the town was taken by Caesar Borgia
and the last legitimate members of the house of the Manfredi
were drowned in the Tiber; and, after falling for a few years
into the hands of the Venetians, it became a part of the states
of the church in 1509. (T. As.)
FAEROE (also written FAROE or THE FAEROES, Danish
Faeroerne or Fdroerne, "the sheep islands"), a group of islands
in the North Sea belonging to Denmark. They are situated
between Iceland and the Shetland Islands, about 200 m. N.W.
of the latter, about the intersection of 7 E. with 62 N. The
total land area of the group is 511 sq. m., and there are twenty-
one islands (excluding small rocks and reefs), of which seventeen
are inhabited. The population in 1880 amounted to 11,220,
and in 1900 to 15,230. The principal islands are Stromo, on
which is the chief town, Thorshavn, with a population of 1656;
Ostero, Siidero, Vaago, Sando and Bordo. They consist through-
out of rocks and hills, separated from each other by narrow valleys
or ravines; but, though the hills rise abruptly, there are often
on their summits, or at different stages of their ascent, plains of
considerable magnitude. Almost everywhere they present to
the sea perpendicular cliffs, broken into fantastic forms, affording
at every turn, to those who sail along the coast, the most
picturesque and varied scenery. The highest hills are Slattare-
tindur in Ostero, and Kopende and Skellingfjeld in Stromo,
which rise respectively to 2894, 2592 and 2520 ft. The sea
pierces the islands in deep fjords, or separates them by narrow
inlets through which tidal currents set with great violence, at
speeds up to seven or eight knots an hour; and, as communica-
tions are maintained almost wholly by boat, the natives have
need of expert watermanship. There are several lakes in which
trout are abundant, and char also occur; the largest is Sorvaag
Lake in Vaago, which is close to the sea, and discharges into it
by a sheer fall of about 160 ft. Trees are scarce, and there is
evidence that they formerly flourished where they cannot do
so now.
The fundamental formation is a series of great sheets of columnar
basalt, 70 to 100 ft. thick, in which are intercalated thin beds of tuff.
Upon the basalt rests the so-called Coal formation, 35 to 50 ft. thick ;
the lower part of this is mainly fireclay and sandstone, the upper
part is weathered clay with thin layers of brown coal and shale.
The coal is found in Siidero and in some of the other islands in
sufficient quantity to make it a matter of exploitation. Above these
beds there are layers of dolerite, 15 to 20 ft. thick, with nodular
segregations and abundant cavities which are often lined with
zeolites. As the rocks lie in a horizontal position, on most of the
islands of the group only the basalts or dolerite are visible. The
crater from which the volcanic rocks were outpoured probably lies
off the Faeroe Bank some distance to the south-west of Siidero.
The basalts are submarine flows which formed the basis of the land
124
FAESULAE
upon which grew the vegetation which gave rise to the coals- the
ettusion of dolerite which covered up the Coal formation was sub-
aenal. The existing land features, with the fiords, are due to ice
erosion in the glacial period. 1
The climate is oceanic; fogs are common, violent storms are
frequent at all seasons. July and August are the only true
summer months, but the winters are not very severe. It seldom
freezes for more than one month, and the harbours are rarely
ice-bound. The methods of agriculture are extremely primitive
and less than 3 % of the total area is under cultivation. As the
plough is ill-suited to the rugged surface of the land, the ground
is usually turned up with the spade, care being taken not to
destroy the roots of the grass, as hay is the principal crop.
Horses and cows are few, and the cows give little milk, in conse-
quence of the coarse hay upon which they are fed. The number
of sheep, however, justifies the name of the islands, some indi-
viduals having flocks of from three to five hundred, and the total
number in the islands considerably exceeds ten thousand.
The northern hare (Lepus alpinus) is pretty abundant in Stromo
and Ostero, having been introduced into the islands about
1840-1850. The catching of the numerous sea-birds which build
their nests upon the face of the cliffs forms an important source
of subsistence to the inhabitants. Sometimes the fowler is let
down from the top of the cliff; at other times he climbs the
rocks, or, where possible, is pushed upwards by poles made for
the purpose. The birds and the contents of the nests are taken
in nets mounted on poles; shooting is not practised, lest it
should permanently scare the birds away. Fowling has some-
what decreased in modern times, as the fisheries have risen in
importance. The puffin is most commonly taken for its feathers.
The cod fishery is especially important, dried fish being exported
in large quantity, and the swim-bladders made into gelatine
and also used and exported for food. The whaling industry
came into importance towards the close of the ipth century
and stations for the extraction of the oil and whalebone have
been established at several points, under careful regulations
designed to mitigate the pollution of water, the danger to live-
stock from eating the blubber, &c. The finner whale is the species
most commonly taken.
The trade of the Faeroe Islands was for some time a monopoly
in the hands of a mercantile house at Copenhagen, and this
monopoly was afterwards assumed by the Danish government
but by the law of the 2ist of March 1855 all restrictions were
removed. The produce of the whaling and fishing industries,
woollen goods, lamb skins and feathers, are the chief exports,
while in Thorshavn the preserving of fish and the manufacture
of carpets are carried on to some extent. Thorshavn is situated
on the S.E. side of Stromo, upon a narrow tongue of land
having creeks on each side, where ships may be safely moored!
t is the seat of the chief government and ecclesiastical officials
and has a government house and a hospital. The houses are
generally built of wood and roofed with birch bark covered with
turf. The character of the people is marked by simplicity of
manners, kindness and hospitality. They are healthy, and the
population increases steadily. The Faeroes form an amt (county)
of Denmark. They have also a local parliament (lagthing)
consisting of the amtmann and nineteen other members. Among
other duties, this body elects a representative to the upper house
of parliament (landsthing} in Denmark; the people choose by
vote a representative in the lower house (Jolkething) The
islands are included in the Danish bishopric of Zealand.
History. The early history of the Faeroes is not clear It
appears that about the beginning of the oth century Grim
Kamban, a Norwegian emigrant who had left his country to
escape the tyranny of Harold Haarfager, settled in the islands
tt is said that a small colony of Irish and Scottish monks were
found in Sudero and dispersed by him. The Faeroes then already
bore their name of Sheep Islands, as these animals had been
found to nourish here exceedingly. Early in the nth century
Sigmund or Sigismund Bresterson, whose family had flourished
in the southern islands but had been almost exterminated by
invaders from the northern, was sent from Norway, whither he
had escaped, to take possession of the islands for Olaf Trygvason
king of Norway. He introduced Christianity, and, though he
was subsequently murdered, Norwegian supremacy was upheld
and continued till 1386, when the islands were transferred to
Denmark. English adventurers gave great trouble to the in-
habitants in the 1 6th century, and the name of Magnus Heineson
a native of Stromo, who was sent by Frederick II. to clear the
seas, is still celebrated in many songs and stories. There was
formerly a bishopric at Kirkebo, S. of Thorshavn, where remains
of the cathedral may be seen; but it was abolished at the
introduction of Protestantism by Christian III. Denmark re-
tained possession of the Faeroes at the peace of Kiel in i8is
The native literature of the islands consists of the Faereyinga
Saga dealing with the period of Sigmund Bresterson, and a
number of popular songs and legends of early origin.
.BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lucas Jacobson Debes - Feroa Reserata (Copen-
hagen, 1673; Eng. transl. London, 1675); Torfaeus, De rebus eestis
7S PP 6 " 1 ^ 6 "'. '.695): I Landt, Be'krivele ^
T ( t ^ and D ^ cn P t f ns f the Feroe Islands (London,
V J ' l ym '?f OI k Pen and Penc ^'Sketches of Faroe and Iceland
; J. Russel-Jeaffreson, The Faroe Islands (1901); J Falk
Rpnne, Beskrtvelse over Faroerne (Copenhagen, 1902) fC. H Osten-
feld, E. Warming and others, Botany of the FaZroes (Copenhagen
1901-1903); Annandale, The Faroes and Iceland (Oxford, 1905)
7nM T e3 7f? Saga Was i tpHwkted by F. York Powell (London
1896); for folk-songs and legends see S. Kraeth, Die faroischen
Lieder von Stgurdtfaderborn, 1877); V. U. Hammershaimb,
faeroisk Anthologi (Copenhagen, 1886-1891).
FAESULAE (mod. Fiesole, q.v.), an ancient city of Etruria
on the height 3 m. to the N.E. of Florentia, 970 ft. above sea-
level. Remains of its waUs are preserved on all sides, especially
on the N.E., in one place to a height of 12 to 14 courses The
blocks are often not quite rectangular, and the courses sometimes
change; but the general tendency is horizontal and the walls
are not of remote antiquity, the irregularities in them being
rather due to the hardness of the material employed, the rock of
the hill itself. The courses vary in height from i to 3 ft and
some blocks are as long as 1 2$ ft. In this portion of the wall are
two drains, below one of which is a phallus. The site of an ancient
gate, and the road below it, can be traced; a little farther E
was an archway, conjectured by Dennis to be a gate of the Roman
period, destroyed in 1848. The whole circuit of the walls extended
for about if m. The Franciscan monastery (1130 ft.) occupies
the site of the acropolis, once encircled by a triple wall of which
no traces are now visible. Here was also the Capilolium of
Roman times, as an inscription found here in 1879 records (Corpus
litter. Lot. xi., Berlin, 1888, No. 1545). The Roman theatre
below the cathedral to the N.E., has 19 tiers of stone seats and is
37 yds. in diameter. Above it is an embanking wall of irregular
masonry, and below it some remains of Roman baths, including
five parallel vaults of concrete. Just outside the town on the E
a reservoir, roofed by the convergence of its sides, which were of
large regular blocks, was discovered in 1832, but filled in again
Over 1000 silver denarii, all coined before 63 B.C., were found
at Faesulae in 1829. A small museum contains the objects found
in the excavations of the theatre.
Though Faesulae was an Etruscan city, we have no record of
it in history until 215 B.C., when the Gauls passed near it in
their march on Rome. Twelve years later Hannibal seems to
have taken this route in his march south after the victory of the
Trebia. It appears to have suffered at the hands of Rome in the
Social War, and Sulla expelled some of the inhabitants from
their lands to make room for his veterans, but some of the latter
were soon driven out in their turn by the former occupiers.
Both the veterans, who soon wasted what they had acquired,
and the dispossessed cultivators joined the partisans of Catiline,'
and Manlius, one of his supporters, made his headquarters at
Faesulae. Under the empire we hear practically nothing of it;
in A.D. 405 Radagaisus was crushed in the neighbouring hills'
and Belisarius besieged and took it in A.D. 539.
See Hans von Post, " Om Faroarnes uppkomst," Geoloeiska
Forentngens i Stockholm Forhandlingar, vol. xxiv. (1902).
See L. A. Milani, Rendiconti dei Lincei, ser. vi. vol ix (1900)
289 seq., on the discovery of an archaic altar of the Locus sacer of
Florence, belonging to Ancharia (Angerona), the goddess of Fiesole
(T. As.)
FAFNIR FA-HIEN
FAFNIR, in Scandinavian mythology, the son of the giant
Hreidmar. He was the guardian of the hoard of the Nibelungs
and was killed by Sigurd.
FAGGING (from "fag," meaning "weary"; of uncertain
etymology), in English public schools, a system under which,
generally with the full approval of the authorities, a junior boy
performs certain duties for a senior. In detail this custom
varies slightly in the different schools, but its purpose the.
maintenance of discipline among the boys themselves is the
same. Dr Arnold of Rugby defined fagging as " the power
given by the supreme authorities of the school to the Sixth Form,
to be exercised by them over the lower boys, for the sake of
securing a regular government among the boys themselves,
and avoiding the evils of anarchy; in other words, of the lawless
tyranny of brute force." Fagging was a fully established system
at Eton and Winchester in the i6th century, and is probably a
good deal older. That the advantages of thus granting the
boys a kind of autonomy have stood the test of time is obvious
from the fact that in almost all the great public schools founded
during the igth century, fagging has been deliberately adopted
by the authorities. The right to fag carries with it certain
well-defined duties. The fag-master is the protector of his
fags, and responsible for their happiness and good conduct. In
cases of bullying or injustice their appeal is to him, not to the
form or house master, and, except in the gravest cases, all such
cases are dealt with by the fag-master on his own responsibility
and without report to the master. Until recent years a fag's
duties included such humble tasks as blacking boots, brushing
clothes, and cooking breakfasts, and there was no limit as to
hours; almost all the fag's spare time being so monopolized.
This is now changed. Fagging is now restricted to such light
tasks as running errands, bringing tea to the "master's " study,
and fagging at cricket or football. At Eton there is no cricket
fagging, and at most schools it is made lighter by all the fags
taking their turn in regular order for one hour, so that each boy
has to " fag " but once in so many weeks. At Rugby there is
" study-fagging " two fags being assigned to each Sixth Form
boy and made responsible for the sweeping out and tidying up
of his study alternately each week, and " night-fagging "
running errands for the Sixth between 8.30 and 9.30 every
evening, and each boy can choose whether he will be a study-
fag or night-fag. The right to fag is usually restricted to the
Sixth Form, but at Eton the privilege is also granted the Fifth,
and at Marlborough and elsewhere the Eleven have a right to
fag at cricket, whether in the Sixth or not.
FAGGOT, a bundle of sticks used for firewood. The word
is adapted from the Fr. fagot, and appears in Italian as fagotto,
the name given to the bassoon (q.v.). " Faggot " is frequently
used with reference to the burning of heretics, and recanted
heretics wore an embroidered faggot on the arm as a symbol
of the punishment they had escaped. In the i8th century the
word is used of a " dummy " soldier, appearing on the rolls of a
regiment. It is this use, coupled with the idea of a bundle of
sticks as being capable of subdivision, that appears in the
expression " faggot-vote," a vote artificially created by the
minute splitting up of property so as to give a bare qualification
for the franchise.
FAGNIEZ, GUSTAVE CHARLES (1842- ), French historian
and economist, was born in Paris on the 6th of October 1842.
Trained at the Ecole des Charles and the Ecole des Hautes
Etudes, he made his first appearance in the world of scholarship
as the author of an excellent book called FJudes sur I'industrie
el la dasse industrielle a Paris au XIII' etau XI V' siecle (1877).
This work, composed almost entirely from documents, many
unpublished, opened a new field for historical study. Twenty
years later he supplemented this book by an interesting collection
of Documents relalifs a I'histoire de I'industrie et du commerce en
France (2 vols., 1898-1900), and in 1897 he published L'conomie
sociale de la France sous Henri IV, a. volume containing the
results of very minute research. He did not, however, confine
himself to economic history. His Le Pere Joseph el Richelieu
(1894), though somewhat frigid and severe, is based on a mass
of unpublished information, and shows remarkable psychologic
grasp. In 1878 his Journal parisien de Jean de Maupoint, prieur
de Ste Catherine '-de-la-Coulure was published in vol. iv. of the
Memoires de la society de I'histoire de Paris el de I' fie de France.
He wrote numerous articles in the Revue historique (of which
he was co-director with Gabriel Monod for some years) and in
other learned reviews, such as the Revue des questions historiques
and the Journal des savants. In 1901 he was elected member of
the Academic, des Sciences Morales et Politiques.
FAGUET, EMILE (1847- ), French critic and man of
letters, was born at La Roche sur Yon on the i7th of December
1847. He was educated at the normal school in Paris, and after
teaching for some time in La Rochelle and Bordeaux he came to
Paris. After acting as assistant professor of poetry in the uni-
versity he became professor in 1897. He was elected to the
academy in 1900, and received the ribbon of the Legion of Honour
in the next year. He acted as dramatic critic to the Sokil;
from 1892 he was literary critic to the Revue bleue; and in 1896
took the place of M. Jules Lemaitre on the Journal des dibats.
Among his works are monographs on Flaubert (1899), Andre
Chenier (1902), Zola (1903); an admirably concise Histoire de la
litlerature franchise depuis le XVII' siecle jusqu'd nos jours;
series of literary studies on the i7th, i8th and igth centuries;
Questions politiques (1890; ; Propos litter aires (3 series, 1902
1905); Le Liberalisme (1902); and L' Anticlericalisme (1906).
See A. Seche, mile Faguet (1904).
FA-HIEN (fl. A.D. 399-414), Chinese Buddhist monk, pilgrim-
traveller, and writer, author of one of the earliest and most
valuable Chinese accounts of India. He started from Changgan
or Si-gan-fu, then the capital of the Tsin empire, and passing the
Great Wall, crossed the " River of Sand '' or Gobi Desert beyond,
that home of " evil demons and hot winds," which he vividly
describes, where the only way-marks were the bones of the
dead, where no bird appeared in the air above, no animal on the
ground below. Arriving at Khotan, the traveller witnessed a
great Buddhist festival; here, as in Yarkand, Afghanistan and
other parts thoroughly Islamized before the close of the middle
ages, Fa-Hien shows us Buddhism still prevailing. India was
reached by a perilous descent of " ten thousand cubits " from the
" wall-like hills " of the Hindu Rush into the Indus valley (about
A.D. 402); and the pilgrim passed the next ten years in the
" central " Buddhist realm, making journeys to Peshawur and
Afghanistan (especially the Kabul region) on one side, and to the
Ganges valley on another. His especial concern was the explora-
tion of the scenes of Buddha's life, the copying of Buddhist
texts, and converse with the Buddhist monks and sages whom
the Brahmin reaction had not yet driven out. Thus we find him
at Buddha's birthplace on the Kohana, north-west of Benares;
in Patna and on the Vulture Peak near Patna; at the Jetvana
monastery in Oudh; as well as at Muttra on the Jumna, at
Kanauj, and at Tamluk near the mouth of the Hugli. But now
the narrative, which in its earlier portions was primarily historical
and geographical, becomes mystical and theological; miracle-
stories and meditations upon Buddhist moralities and sacred
memories almost entirely replace matters of fact. From the
Ganges delta Fa-Hien sailed with a merchant ship, in fourteen
days, to Ceylon, where he transcribed all the sacred books, as yet
unknown in China, which he could find; witnessed the festival
of the exhibition of Buddha's tooth; and remarked the trade of
Arab merchants to the island, two centuries before Mahomet.
He returned by sea to the mouth of the Yangtse-Kiang, changing
vessels at Java, and narrowly escaping shipwreck or the fate
of Jonah.
Fa-Hien's work is valuable evidence to the strength, and in
many places to the dominance, of Buddhism in central Asia
and in India at the time of the collapse of the Roman empire in
western Europe. His tone throughout is that of the devout,
learned, sensible, rarely hysterical pilgrim-traveller. His record
is careful and accurate, and most of his positions can be identi-
fied; his devotion is so strong that it leads him to depreciate
China as a " border-land," India the home of Buddha being the
true " middle kingdom " of his creed.
126
FAHLCRANTZ FAIN
See James Leggc, Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, being an account
by the Chinese Monk Fd-hien of his travels in India and Ceylon;
translated and edited, with map, &c. (Oxford, 1886); S. Beal,
Travels of Fah-IIian and Sung- Yun, Buddhist pilgrims from China
to India, 400 and 518 A.D., translated, with map, &c. (1869);
C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, vol. i. (1897), pp. 478-485.
FAHLCRANTZ, CHRISTIAN ERIK (1790-1866), Swedish
author, was born at Stora Tuna in Sweden on the 3oth of August
1790. His brothers, Carl Johan (1774-1861), the landscape-
painter, and Axel Magnus (1780-1854), the sculptor, became
hardly less distinguished than himself. In 1804 he entered the
university of Upsala; in 1821 he became tutor in Arabic, and
in 1825 professor of Oriental languages. In 1828 he entered the
church, but earlier than this, in 1825, he published his Noachs
Ark, a successful satire on the literary and social life of his time,
followed in 1826 by a second part. In 1835 Fahlcrantz brought
out the first part of his epic of Ansgarius, which was completed
in 1846, in 14 cantos. In 1842 he was made a member of the
Swedish Academy, and in 1849 he was made bishop of Vesteras,
his next literary work being an archaeological study on the
beautiful ancient cathedral of his diocese. In the course of the
years 1858-1861 appeared the five volumes of his Romjorr och
nu (Rome as it was and is), a theological polemic, mainly directed
against the Jesuits. He died on the 6th of August 1866. His
complete works (7 vols., Orebro, 1863-1866) were issued mainly
under his own superintendence.
FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL (1686-1736), German
physicist, was born at Danzig on the I4th of May 1686. For the
most part he lived in England and Holland, devoting himself
to the study of physics and making a living, apparently, by the
manufacture of meteorological instruments. He was the author
of important improvements in the construction of thermometers,
and he introduced the thermometric scale known by his name
and still extensively used in Great Britain and the United States
(see THERMOMETRY). He also invented an improved form of
hygrometer, a description of which, together with accounts of
various observations and experiments made by him, was pub-
lished in the Phil. Trans, for 1724. He died in Holland on the
1 6th of September 1736.
FAIDHERBE, LOUIS LEON CESAR (1818-1889), French
general and colonial administrator, was born on the 3rd of
June 1818, at Lille, received his military education at the Ecole
Poly technique and at Metz, and entered the engineers in 1840.
From 1844 to 1847 he served in Algeria, then two years in the
West Indies, and again in Algeria, taking part in many expedi-
tions against the Arabs. In 1852 he was transferred to Senegal
as sub-director of engineers, and in 1854 was promoted chef de
bataillon and appointed governor of the colony. He held this
post with one brief interval until July 1865. The work he
accomplished in West Africa constitutes his most enduring
monument. At that time France possessed in Senegal little else
than the town of St Louis and a strip of coast. Explorers had,
however, made known the riches and possibilities of the Niger
regions, and Faidherbe formed the design of adding those
countries to the French dominions. He even dreamed of creating
a French African empire stretching from Senegal to the Red Sea.
To accomplish even the first part of his design he had very
inadequate resources, especially in view of the aggressive action
of Omar Al-Hadji, the Moslem ruler of the countries of the
middle Niger. By boldly advancing the French outposts on the
upper Senegal Faidherbe stemmed the Moslem advance, and by
an advantageous treaty with Omar in 1860 brought the French
possessions into touch with the Niger. He also brought into
subjection the country lying between the Senegal and Gambia.
When he resigned his post French rule had been firmly established
over a very considerable and fertile area and the foundation
laid upon which his successors built up the predominant position
occupied now by France in West Africa. In 1863 he became
general of brigade. From 1867 to the early part of 1870 he
commanded the subdivision of Bona in Algeria, and was com-
manding the Constantine division at the commencement of the
Franco-German War. Promoted general of division inNovember
1870, he was on the 3rd of December appointed by the Govern-
ment of National Defence to be commander-in-chief of the army
of the North. In this post he showed himself to be possessed
of the highest military talents, and the struggle between the I.
German army and that commanded by Faidherbe, in which were
included the hard-fought battles of Pont Noyelles, Bapaume and
St Quentin, was perhaps the most honourable to the French army
in the whole of the People's War. Even with the inadequate
force of which he disposed he was able to maintain a steady
resistance up to the end of the war. Elected to the National
Assembly for the department of the Nord, he resigned his seat
in consequence of its reactionary proceedings. For his services
he was decorated with the grand cross, and made chancellor
of the order of the Legion of Honour. In 1872 he went on a
scientific mission to Upper Egypt, where he studied the monu-
ments and inscriptions. An enthusiastic geographer, philologist
and archaeologist, he wrote numerous works, among which may
be mentioned Collection des inscriptions numidiques (1870),
Epigraphie phenicienne (1873), Essai sur la langue paid (1875),
and Le Zenaga des tribes senegalaises (1877), the last a study of
the Berber language. He also wrote on the geography and
history of Senegal and^the Sahara, and La Campagne de I'armee du
Nord (1872). He was elected a senator in 1879, and, in spite of
failing health, continued to the last a close student of his favourite
subjects. He died on the 29th of September 1889, and received
a public funeral. Statues and monuments to his memory were
erected at Lille, Bapaume, St Quentin and St Louis, Senegal.
FAIENCE, properly the French term for the porzellana di
Faenza, a fine kind of glazed and painted earthenware made at
Faenza in Italy, hence a term applied generally to all kinds of
pottery other than unglazed pottery or porcelain. It is often
particularly applied to the translucent earthenware made in
Persia (see CERAMICS).
FAILLY, PIERRE LOUIS CHARLES DE (1810-1892), French
general, was born at Rozoy-sur-Serre (Aisne) on the 2ist of
January 1810, and entered the army from St Cyr in 1828. In
1851 he had risen to the rank of colonel, and Napoleon III.,
with whom he was a favourite, made him general of brigade in
1854 and general of division in 1855, after which for a time De
Failly was his aide-de-camp. In the war of 1859 De Failly
commanded a division, and in 1867 he defeated Garibaldi at
Mentana, this action being the first in which the chassepot was
used. In 1870 De Failly commanded the V. corps. His in-
activity at Bitsch on the 6th of August while the I. corps on his
right and the II. corps on his left were crushed at Worth and
Spicheren respectively, gave rise to the greatest indignation in
France, and his military career ended, after the V. corps had been
severely handled at Beaumont on the 3oth of August, with the
catastrophe of Sedan. The rest of his life was spent in retirement.
De Failly wrote Campaigne de 1870, Operations et marche du f"
corps jusqu'au 30 aodt (Brussels, 1871).
FAIN, AGATHON JEAN FRANCOIS (1778-1837), French
historian, was born in Paris on the nth of January 1778. Having
gained admittance to the offices of the Directory, he became
head of a department. Under the Consulate he entered the
office of the secretary of state, in the department of the archives.
In 1806 he was appointed secretary and archivist to the cabinet
particulier of the emperor, whom he attended on his campaigns
and journeys. He was created a baron of the empire in 1809,
and, on the fall of Napoleon, was first secretary of the cabinet
and confidential secretary. Compelled by the second Restoration
to retire into private life, he devoted his leisure to writing the
history of his times, an occupation for which his previous employ-
ments well fitted him. He published successively Manuscrit de
1814, conlenant I'histoire des six derniers mois du regne de Napoleon
(1823; new edition with illustrations, 1906); Manuscrit de
1813, contenant le precis des ivenements de celle annie pour scnir
& I'histoire de Vempereur Napoleon (1824); Manuscrit de 1812
(1827); and Manuscrit de Van Hi. (1704-1795), contenant les
premieres transactions de I' Europe avec la republique franqaise et
le tableau des derniers evenements du regime conventionnel (1828),
all of which are remarkable for accuracy and wide range of
knowledge, and are a very valuable source for the history of
FAIR
127
Napoleon I. Of still greater importance for the history of
Napoleon are Fain's Memoires, which were published posthum-
ously in 1908; they relate more particularly to the last five
years of the empire, and give a detailed picture of the emperor at
work on his correspondence among his confidential secretaries.
Immediately after the overthrow of Charles X., King Louis
Philippe appointed Fain first secretary of his cabinet (August
1830). Fain was a member of the council of state and deputy
from Montargis from 1834 until his death, which occurred in
Paris on the i6th of September 1837.
FAIR, a commercial institution, defined as a " greater species
of market recurring at more distant intervals": both "fair"
and " market " (q.v.) have been distinguished by Lord Coke
from "mart," which he considers as a greater species of fair;
and all three may be defined as periodic gatherings of buyers and
sellers in an appointed place, subject to special regulation by
law or custom. Thus in England from a strictly legal point of
view there can be no fair or market without a franchise; and a
franchise of fair or market can only be exercised by right of a
grant from the crown, or by the authority of parliament or by
prescription presupposing a grant. In the earliest times periodical
trading in special localities was necessitated by the difficulties of
communication and the dangers of travel. Public gatherings,
whether religious, military or judicial, which brought together
widely scattered populations, were utilized as opportunities for
commerce. At the festivals of Delos and at the Olympic games
trade, it is said, found important outlets, while in Etruria the
annual general assembly at the temple of Voltumna served at
the same time as a fair and was regularly attended by Roman
traders. Instances of a similar nature might be multiplied;
but it was above all with religious festivals which recurred with
regularity and convoked large numbers of persons that fairs,
as distinguished from markets, are most intimately associated.
The most commonly accepted derivation of the word "fair"
is from the Latin feria, a name which the church borrowed from
Roman custom and applied to her own festivals. A fair was
generally held during the period of a saint's feast and in the
precincts of his church or abbey, but in England this desecration
of church or churchyard was first forbidden by the Statute of
Winton (c. Edward I.). Most of the famous fairs of medieval
England and Europe, with their tolls or other revenues, and,
within certain limits of time and place, their monopoly of trade,
were grants from the sovereign to abbots, bishops and other
ecclesiastical dignitaries. Their "holy day" associations are
preserved in the German word for fairs, Messen; as also in the
kirmiss, " church mass," of the people of Brittany. So very
intimate was the connexion between the fair and the feast of the
saint that the former has very commonly been regarded as an
off-shoot or development of the latter. But there is every reason
to suppose that fairs were already existing national institutions,
long before the church turned or was privileged to turn them to
her own profit.
The first charter of the great fair of Stourbridge, near
Cambridge, was granted by King John for the maintenance of
a leper hospital; but the origin of the fair itself is ascribed
to Carausius, the rebel emperor of Britain, A.D. 207. At all
events, it may be seen from the data given in Herbert Spencer's
Descriptive Sociology that the country had then arrived at the
stage of development where fairs might have been recognized as
a necessity. The Romans also appear to have elaborated a
market-law similar to that in force throughout medieval Europe
though it must be observed that the Roman nundinae, which
some have regarded as fairs, were weekly markets. It has also
been supposed that the ancient fairs of Lyons were a special
privilege granted by the Roman conquerors; and Sidonius
Apollinaris, A.D. 427, alludes to the fairs of the district afterwards
known as the county of Champagne, as if they were then familiarly
known institutions. Fairs, in a word, would not only have arisen
naturally, wherever the means of communication between indi-
vidual centres of production and consumption were felt to be
inadequate to the demand for an interchange of commodities;
but, from their very nature, they might be expected to show
some essential resemblances, even in points of legislation, and
where no international transmission of custom could have been
possible. Thus, the fair courts of pre-Spanish Mexico corre-
sponded very closely to those of the Beaucaire fair. They
resembled the English courts of piepowder. The Spaniards,
when first they saw the Mexican fairs, were reminded of the like
institutions in Salamanca and Granada. The great fair or market
at the city of Mexico is said to have been attended by about
40,000 or 50,000 persons, and is thus described by Prescott:
" Officers patrolled the square, whose business it was to keep the
peace, to collect the dues imposed on the various kinds of merchan-
dise, to see that no false measures or fraud of any kind were used,
and to bring offenders at once to justice. A court of twelve judges
sat in one part of the tianguez clothed with those ample and
summary powers which, in despotic countries, are often delegated
even to petty tribunals. The extreme severity with which they
exercised those powers, in more than one instance, proves that they
were not a dead letter."
But notwithstanding the great antiquity of fairs, their charters
are comparatively modern the oldest known being that of St
Denys, Paris, which Dagobert, king of the Franks, granted
(A.D. 642) to the monks of the place " for the glory of God, and
the honour of St Denys at his festival."
In England it was only after the Norman conquest that fairs
became of capital importance. Records exist of 2800 grants of
franchise markets and fairs between the years 1199 and 1483.
More than half of these were made during the reigns of John and
Henry III., when the power of the church was in ascendancy.
The first recorded grant, however, appears to be that of William
the Conqueror to the bishop of Winchester, for leave to hold
an annual " free fair " at St Giles's hill. The monk who had been
the king's jester received his charter of Bartholomew fair,
Smithfield, in the year 1133. And in 1248 Henry III. granted
a like privilege to the abbot of Westminster, in honour of the
" translation " of Edward the Confessor. Sometimes fairs were
granted to towns as a means for enabling them to recover from
the effects of war and other disasters. Thus, Edward III.
granted a " free fair " to the town of Burnley in Rutland, just
as, in subsequent times, Charles VII. favoured Bordeaux after
the English wars, and Louis XIV. gave fair charters to the
towns of Dieppe and Toulon. The importance attached to
these old fairs rnay be understood from the inducements which,
in the I4th century, Charles IV. held out to traders visiting the
great fair of Frankfort-on-Main. The charter declared that
both during the continuance of the fair, and for eighteen days
before and after it, merchants would be exempt from imperial
taxation, from arrest for debt, or civil process of any sort, except
such as might arise from the transactions of the market itself
and within its precincts. Philip of Valois's regulations for the
fairs of Troyes in Champagne might not only be accepted as
typical of all subsequent fair-legislation of the kingdom, but
even of the English and German laws on the subject. The fair
had its staff of notaries for the attestation of bargains, its court
of justice, its police officers, its sergeants for the execution of the
market judges' decrees, and its visitors of whom we may mention
the prud'hommes, whose duty it was to examine the quality of
goods exposed for sale, and to confiscate those found unfit for
consumption. The confiscation required the consent of five or
six representatives of the merchant community at the fair.
The effect of these great " free fairs " of England and the
continent on the development of society was indeed great.
They helped to familiarize the western and northern countries
with the banking and financial systems of the Lombards and
Florentines, who resorted to them under the protection of the
sovereign's " firm peace," and the ghostly terrors of the pope.
They usually became the seat of foreign agencies. In the names
of her streets Provins preserved the memory of her 1 2th-century
intercourse with the agents and merchants of Germany and the
Low Countries, and long before that time the Syrian traders at
St Denys had established their powerful association in Paris.
Like the church on the religious side, the free fairs on the com-
mercial side evoked and cherished the international spirit. And
during long ages, when commercial " protection " was regarded
128
FAIR
as indispensable to a nation's wealth, and the merchant was
compelled to " fight his way through a wilderness of taxes,"
they were the sole and, so far as they went, the complete sub-
stitute for the free trade of later days.
Their privileges, however, were, from their very nature,
destined to grow more oppressive and intolerable the more
the towns were multiplied and the means of communication
increased. The people of London were compelled to close their
shops during the days when the abbot of Westminster's fair was
open. But a more curious and complete instance of such an
ecclesiastical monopoly was that of the St Giles's fair, at first
granted for the customary three days, which were increased by
Henry III. to sixteen. The bishop of Winchester was, as we
have seen, the lord of this fair. On the eve of St Giles's feast
the magistrates of Winchester surrendered the keys of the city
gates to the bishop, who then appointed his own mayor, bailiff
and coroner, to hold office until the close of the fair. During the
same period, Winchester and Southampton also though it was
then a thriving trading town were forbidden to transact their
ordinary commercial business, except within the bishop's fair,
or with his special permission. The bishop's officers were posted
along the highways, with power to forfeit to his lordship all goods
bought and sold within 7 m. of the fair in whose centre stood
" the pavilion," or bishop's court. It is clear, from the curious
record of the Establishment and Expenses of the Household of
Percy, sth earl of Northumberland, that fairs were the chief
centres of country traffic even as late as the i6th century. They
began to decline rapidly after 1759, when good roads had been
constructed and canal communication established between Liver-
pool and the towns of Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lancashire. In
the great towns their extinction was hastened in consequence of
their evil effects on public morals. All the London fairs were
abolished as public nuisances before 1855 the last year of the
ever famous fair of St Bartholomew; and the fairs of Paris were
swept away in the storm of the Revolution.
English Fairs and Markets. For the general reasons apparent
from the preceding sketch, fairs in England, as in France and
Germany, have very largely given way to markets for specialities.
Even the live-stock market of the metropolis is being superseded
by the dead-meat market, a change which has been encouraged
by modern legislation on cattle disease, the movements of home
stock and the importation of foreign animals. Agricultural
markets are also disappearing before the " agencies " and the
corn exchanges in the principal towns. Still there are some
considerable fairs yet remaining. Of the English fairs for live
stock, those of Weyhill in Hampshire (October 10), St Faith's,
near Norwich (October 17), as also several held at Devizes,
Wiltshire, are among the largest in the kingdom. The first named
stands next to none for its display of sheep. Horncastle, Lincoln-
shire, is the largest horse fair in the kingdom, and is regularly
visited by American and continental dealers. The other leading
horse fairs in England are Howden in Yorkshire (well known for
its hunters) ,Woodbridge (on Lady Day) for Suffolk horses, Barnet
in Hertfordshire, and Lincoln. Exeter December fair has a
large display of cattle, horses and most kinds of commodities.
Large numbers of Scotch cattle are also brought to the fairs of
Carlisle and Ormskirk. Nottingham has a fair for geese. Ipswich
has a fair for lambs on the ist of August, and for butter and
cheese on the ist of September. Gloucester fair is also famous
for the last-named commodity. Falkirk fair, or tryst, for cattle
and sheep, is one of the largest in Scotland; and Ballinasloe,
Galway, holds a like position among Irish fairs. The Ballinasloe
cattle are usually fed for a year in Leinster before they are
considered fit for the Dublin or Liverpool markets.
French Fairs. In France fairs and markets are held under
the authority of the prefects, new fairs and markets being estab-
lished by order of the prefects at the instance of the commune
interested. Before the Revolution fairs and markets could only
be established by seigneurs jusliciers, but only two small markets
have survived the law of 1790 abolishing private ownership of
market rights, namely, the Marche Ste Catherine and the Marche
des enfants rouges, both in Paris. Under the present system
markets and fairs are held in most of the towns and villages in
France; and at all such gatherings entertainments form an
important feature. The great fair of Beaucaire instituted in
1 1 68) has steadily declined since the opening of railway com-
munication, and now ranks with the fairs of ordinary provincial
towns. Situated at the junction of the Rhone and the Canal du
Midi, and less than 40 m. from the sea, it at one time attracted
merchants from Spain, from Switzerland and Germany, and
from the Levant and Mediterranean ports, and formed one of the
greatest temporary centres of commerce on the continent. One
trade firm alone, it is said, rarely did less than i ,000,000 francs
worth of business during the fortnight that the fair lasted.
German Fairs. In Germany the police authorities are con-
sidered the market authorities, and to them in most cases is
assigned the duty of establishing new fairs and markets, subject
to magisterial decision. The three great fairs of Germany are
those of Frankfort-on-Main, Frankfort-on-Oder and Leipzig,
but, like all the large fairs of Europe, they have declined rapidly
in importance. Those of Frankfort-on-Main begin on Easter
Tuesday and on the nearest Monday to September 8 respectively,
and their legal duration is three weeks, though the limit is regu-
larly extended. The fairs of the second-named city are Remini-
scere, February or March; St Margaret, July; St Martin,
November. Ordinarily they last fifteen days, which is double the
legal term. The greatest of the German fairs are those of Leipzig,
whose display of books is famous all over the world. Its three
fairs are dated January i, Easter, Michaelmas. The Easter one
is the book fair, which is attended by all the principal booksellers
of Germany, and by many more from the adjoining countries.
Most German publishers have agents at Leipzig. As many as
5000 new publications have been entered in a single Leipzig
catalogue. As in the other instances given, the Leipzig fairs last
for three weeks, or nearly thrice their allotted duration. Here no
days of grace are allowed, and the holder of a bill must demand
payment when due, and protest, if necessary, on the same day,
otherwise he cannot proceed against either drawer or endorser.
Russian Fairs. In Russia fairs are held by local authorities.
Landed proprietors may also hold fairs on their estates subject
to the sanction of the local authorities; but no private tolls
may be levied on commodities brought to such fairs. In Siberia
and the east of Russia, where more primitive conditions foster
such centres of trade, fairs are still of considerable importance.
Throughout Russia generally they are very numerous. The
most important, that of Nijni Novgorod, held annually in July
and August at the confluence of the rivers Volga and Kama,
was instituted in the I7th century by the tsar Michael Fedoro-
vitch. In 1881 it was calculated that trade to the value of
246,000,000 roubles was carried on within the limits of the fair.
It still continues to be of great commercial importance, and is
usually attended by upwards of 100,000 persons from all parts
of Asia and eastern Europe. Other fairs of consequence are
those of Irbit in Perm, Kharkoff (January and August) , Poltava
(August and February), Koreunais in Koursk, Ourloupinsknia
in the Don Cossack country, Krolevetz in Tchernigoff, and a
third fair held at Poltava on the feast of the Ascension.
Indian Fairs. The largest of these, and perhaps the largest
in Asia, is that of Hurdwar, on the upper course of the Ganges.
The visitors to this holy fair number from 200,000 to 300,000;
but every twelfth year there occurs a special pilgrimage to the
sacred river, when the numbers may amount to a million or
upwards. Those who go solely for the purposes of trade are
Nepalese, Mongolians, Tibetans, central Asiatics and Mahom-
medan pedlars from the Punjab, Sind and the border states.
Persian shawls and carpets, Indian silks, Kashmir shawls, cottons
(Indian and English) , preserved fruits, spices, drugs, &c., together
with immense numbers of cattle, horses, sheep and camels, are
brought to this famous fair.
American Fairs. The word " fair," as now used in the United
States, appears to have completely lost its Old World meaning.
It seems to be exclusively applied to industrial exhibitions and
to what in England are called fancy bazaars. Thus, during the
Civil War, large sums were collected at the " sanitary fairs,"
FAIRBAIRN, A. M. FAIRBAIRN, W.
129
for the benefit of the sick and wounded. To the first-named class
belong the state and county fairs, as they are called. Among the
first and best-known of these was the " New York World's Fair,"
opened in 1853 by a company formed in 1851. (See EXHIBITION.)
Law of Fairs. As no market or fair can be held in England
without a royal charter, or right of prescription, so any person
establishing a fair without such sanction is liable to be sued under
a writ of Quo warranto, by any one to whose property the said
market may be injurious. Nor can a fair or market be legally held
beyond the time specified in the grant; and by 5 Edward III. c. 5
(1331) a merchant selling goods after the legal expiry of the fair
forfeited double their value. To be valid, a sale must take place in
" market-overt " (open market) ; " it will not be binding if it carries
with it a presumption of fraudulence." These regulations satisfied,
the sale " transfers a complete property in the thing sold to the
vendee; so that however injurious or illegal the title of the vendor
may be, yet the vendee's is good against all men except the king."
(In Scottish law, the claims of the real owner would still remain
valid.) However, by 21 Henry VIII. c. 2 (1529) it was enacted that,
" if any felon rob or take away money, goods, or chattels, and be
indicted and found guilty, or otherwise attainted upon evidence
given by the owner or party robbed, or by any other by their pro-
curement, the owner or party robbed shall be restored to his money,
goods or chattels," but only those goods were restored which were
specified in the indictment, now could the owner recover from a
bona fide purchaser in market-overt who had sold the goods before
conviction. For obvious reasons the rules of market-overt were
made particularly stringent in the case of horses. Thus, by 2
Philip & Mary c. 7 (1555) and 31 Eliz. c. 12 (1589) no sale of a
horse was legal which had not satisfied the following conditions:
Public exposure of the animal for at least an hour between sunrise
and sunset; identification of the vendor by the market officer, or
guarantee for his honesty by " one sufficient and credible person ";
entry of these particulars, together with a description of the animal,
and a statement of the price paid for it, in the market officer's book.
Even if his rights should have been violated in spite of all these
precautions, the lawful owner could recover, if he claimed within
six months, produced witnesses, and tendered the price paid to the
vendor. Tolls were not a " necessary incident " of a fair i.e. they
were illegal unless specially granted in the patent, or recognized by
custom. As a rule, they were paid only by the vendee, and to the
market clerk, whose record of the payment was aa attestation to
the genuineness of the purchase. By 2 & 3 Philip & Mary c. 7
every lord of a fair entitled to exact tolls was bound to appoint a
clerk to collect and enter them. It was also this functionary's
business to test measures and weights. Tolls, again, are sometimes
held to include " stallage " and " picage," which mean respectively
the price for permission to erect stalls and to dig holes for posts in
the market grounds. But toll proper belongs to the lord of the
market, whereas the other two are usually regarded as the property
of the lord of the soil. The law also provided that stallage might
be levied on any house situated in the vicinity of a market, and kept
open for business during the legal term of the said market. Among
modern statutes, one of the chief is the Markets and Fairs Clauses
Act 1847, the chief purpose of which was to consolidate previous
measures. By the act no proprietors of a new market were per-
mitted to let stallages, take tolls, or in any way open their ground
for business, until two justices of the peace certified to the completion
of the fair or market. After the opening of the place for public use,
no person other than a licensed hawker may sell anywhere within
the borough, his own house or shop excepted, any articles in respect
of which tolls are legally exigible in the market. A breach of this
provision entails a penalty of forty shillings. Vendors of unwhole-
some meat are liable to a penalty of 5 for each offence; and the
" inspectors of provisions " have full liberty to seize the goods and
institute proceedings against the owners. They may also enter " at
all times of the day, with or without assistance, the slaughter-house
which the undertaker of the market may, by the special act, have
been empowered to construct. For general sanitary reasons,
persons are prohibited from killing animals anywhere except in
these slaughter-houses. Again, by the Fairs Act 1873, times of
holding fairs are determined by the secretary of state; while the
Fairs Act 1871 empowers him to abolish any fair on the represent-
ation of the magistrate and with the consent of the owner. The
preamble of the act states that many fairs held in England and Wales
are both unnecessary and productive of " grievous immorality."
The Fair Courts. The piepowder courts, the lowest but most
expeditious courts of justice in the kingdom, as Chitty calls them,
were very ancient. The Conqueror's law De Emporiis shows their
pre-existence in Normandy. Their name was derived from pied
poudreux, i. e. " dusty-foot." l The lord of the fair or his representa-
tive was the presiding judge, and usually he was assisted by a jury
of traders chosen on the spot. Their jurisdiction was limited by
the legal time and precincts of the fair, and to disputes about
1 In Med. Lat. pede-pulverosus meant an itinerant merchant or
pedlar. In Scots borough law " marchand travelland " and " dusty
lute " are identical.
x. 5
contracts, " slander of wares," attestations, the preservation of
order, &c.
Authorities. See Herbert Spencer's Descriptive Sociology (1873),
especially the columns and paragraphs on " Distribution"; Pres-
cott's History of Mexico, for descriptions of fairs under the Aztecs;
Giles Jacob's Law Dictionary (London, 1809); Joseph Chilly's
Treatise on the Law of Commerce and Manufactures, vol. ii. chap. 9
(London, 1824) ; Holmshed's and Grafton's Chronicles, for lists, &c.,
of English fairs; Meyer's Das grosse Conversations-Lexicon (1852),
under "Messen"; article " Foire " in Larousse's Dictionnaire
universelle du XIX' siecle (Paris, 1866-1874), and its references
to past authorities; and especially, the second volume, commercial
series, of the Encyclopedic methodique (Paris, 1783); M'Culloch's
Dictionary of Commerce (18691871); Wharton's History of English
Poetry, pp. 185, 186 of edition of 1870 (London, Murray & Son), for
a description of the Winchester Fair, &c. ; a note by Professor Henry
Morley in p. 498, vol. vii. Notes and Queries, second series; the same
author's unique History of the Fair of St Bartholomew (London, 1859) ;
Wharton's Law Lexicon (Will's edition, London, 1876) ; P. Huvelin's
Essai historique sur le droit des marches et des foires (Paris, 1897);
Report of the Royal Commission on Market Rights and Tolls, vols. i.
(1889), xiv. (1891); Final Report (1891); Walford's Fairs, Past
and Present (1883); The Law relating to Markets and Fairs, by
Pease and Chitty (London, 1899). (J. MA.; Ev. C.*)
FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN (1838- ), British Non-
conformist divine, was born near Edinburgh on the 4th of
November 1838. He was educated at the universities of Edin-
burgh and Berlin, and at the Evangelical Union Theological
Academy in Glasgow. He entered the Congregational ministry
and held pastorates at Bathgate, West Lothian and at Aberdeen.
From 1877 to 1886 he was principal of Airedale College, Bradford,
a post which he gave up to become the first principal of Mansfield
College, Oxford. In the transference to Oxford under that name
of Spring Hill College, Birmingham, he took a considerable part,
and he has exercised influence not only over generations of his
own students, but also over a large number of undergraduates
in the university generally. He was granted the degree of M.A.
by a decree of Convocation, and in 1903 received the honorary
degree of doctor of literature. He was also given the degrees of
doctor of divinity of Edinburgh and Yale, and doctor of laws
of Aberdeen. His activities were not limited to his college work.
He delivered the Muir lectures at Edinburgh University (1878-
1882), the Gifford lectures at Aberdeen (1892-1894), the Lyman
Beecher lectures at Yale (1891-1892), and the Haskell lectures
in India (1898-1899). He was a member of the Royal Commis-
sion of Secondary Education in 1894-1895, and of the Royal
Commission on the Endowments of the Welsh Church in 1 906. In
1883 he was chairman of the Congregational Union of England
and Wales. He is a prolific writer on theological subjects. He
resigned his position at Mansfield College in the spring of 1909.
Among his works are : Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and
History (1876); Studies in the Life of Christ (1881); Religion in
History and in Modern Life (1884; rev. 1893); Christ in Modern
Theology (1893); Christ in the Centuries (1893); Catholicism Roman
and Anglican (1899); Philosophy of the Christian Religion (1902);
Studies in Religion and Theology (1909).
FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1780-1874), Scottish
engineer, was born on the igth of February 1789 at Kelso,
Roxburghshire, where his father was a farm-bailiff. In 1803
he obtained work at three shillings a week as a mason's labourer
on the bridge then being built by John Rennie at Kelso; but
within a few days he was incapacitated by an accident. Later
in the same year, his father having been appointed steward on a
farm connected with Percy Main Colliery near North Shields,
he obtained employment as a carter in connexion with the
colliery. In March 1804 he was bound an apprentice to a mill-
wright at Percy Main, and then found time to supplement the
deficiencies of his early education by systematic private study.
It was at Percy Main that he made the acquaintance of George
Stephenson, who then had charge of an engine at a neighbouring
colliery. For some years subsequent to the expiry of his appren-
ticeship in 1811, he lived a somewhat roving life, seldom remain-
ing long in one place and often reduced to very hard straits before
he got employment. But in 1817 he entered into partnership
with a shopmate, James Lillie, with whose aid he hired an old
shed in High Street, Manchester, where he set up a lathe and
began business. The firm quickly secured a good reputation,
130
FAIRBANKS, E. FAIRFAX OF CAMERON
and the improvements in mill-work and water-wheels introduced
by Fairbairn caused its fame to extend beyond Manchester to
Scotland and even the continent of Europe. The partnership
was dissolved in 1832.
In 1830 Fairbairn had been employed by the Forth and Clyde
Canal Company to make experiments with the view of determin-
ing whether it were possible to construct steamers capable of
traversing the canal at a speed which would compete successfully
with that of the railway; and the results of his investigation
were published by him in 1831, under the title Remarks on Canal
Navigation. His plan of using iron boats proved inadequate
to overcome the difficulties of this problem, but in the develop-
ment of the use of this material both in the case of merchant
vessels and men-of-war he took a leading part. In this way
also he was led to pursue extensive experiments in regard to
the strength of iron. In 1835 he established, in connexion with
his Manchester business, a shipbuilding yard at Millwall, London,
where he constructed several hundred vessels, including many
for the royal navy; but he ultimately found that other engage-
ments prevented him from paying adequate attention to the
management, and at the end of fourteen years he disposed of the
concern at a great loss. In 1837 he was consulted by the sultan
of Turkey in regard to machinery for the government workshops
at Constantinople. In 1845 he was employed, in conjunction
with Robert Stephenson, in constructing the tubular railway
bridges across the Conway and Menai Straits. The share he had
in the undertaking has been the subject of some dispute; his
own version is contained in a volume he published in 1849, An
Account of the Construction of the Britannia and Conway Tubular
Bridges. In 1849 he was invited by the king of Prussia to submit
designs for the construction of a bridge across the Rhine, but
after various negotiations, another design, by a Prussian engineer,
which was a modification of Fairbairn's, was adopted. Another
matter which engaged much of Fairbairn's attention was steam
boilers, in the construction of which he effected many improve-
ments. Amid all the cares of business he found time for varied
scientific investigation. In 1851 his fertility and readiness of
invention greatly aided an inquiry carried out at his Manchester
works by Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and J. P. Joule,
at the instigation of William Hopkins, to determine the melting
points of substances under great pressure; and from 1861 to
1865 he was employed to guide the experiments of the govern-
ment committee appointed to inquire into the " application of
iron to defensive purposes." He died at Moor Park, Surrey,
on the i8th of August 1874. Fairbairn was a member of many
learned societies, both British and foreign, and in 1861 served
as president of the British Association. He declined a knighthood
in 1861, but accepted a baronetcy in 1869.
His youngest brother, Sir PETER FAIRBAIRN (1799-1861),
founded a large machine manufacturing business in Leeds.
Starting on a small scale with flax-spinning machinery, he
subsequently extended his operations to the manufacture of
textile machinery in general, and finally to that of engineering
tools. He was knighted in 1858.
See The Life of Sir William Fairbairn, partly written by himself
and edited and completed by Dr William Pole (1877).
FAIRBANKS, ERASTUS (1792-1864), American manufacturer,
was born in Brimfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th of October
1792. He studied law but abandoned it for mercantile pur-
suits, finally settling in St Johnsbury, Vermont, where in 1824 he
formed a partnership with his brother Thaddeus for the manu-
facture of stoves and ploughs. Subsequently the scales invented
by Thaddeus were manufactured extensively. Erastus was a
member of the state legislature in 1836-1838, and governor of
Vermont in 1852-1853 and 1860-1861, during his second term
rendering valuable aid in the equipment and despatch of troops
in the early days of the Civil War. His son HORACE (1820-1888)
became president of E. & T. Fairbanks & Co. in 1874, and
was governor of Vermont from 1876 to 1878.
His brother, THADDEUS FAIRBANKS (1796-1886), inventor,
was born at Brimfield, Massachusetts, on the i7th of January
1796. He early manifested a genius for mechanics and designed
the models from which he and his brother manufactured stoves
and ploughs at St Johnsbury. In 1826 he patented a cast-iron
plough which was extensively used. The growing of hemp was
an important industry in the vicinity of St Johnsbury, and in
1831 Fairbanks invented a hemp-dressing machine. By the old
contrivances then in use, the weighing of loads of hemp-straw
was tedious and difficult, and in 1831 Fairbanks invented his
famous compound-lever platform scale, which marked a great
advance in the construction of machines for weighing bulky
and heavy objects. He subsequently obtained more than fifty
patents for improvements or innovations 'in scales and in
machinery used in their manufacture, the last being granted
on his ninetieth birthday. His firm, eventually known as
E. & T. Fairbanks & Co., went into the manufacture of scales
of all sizes, in which these inventions were utilized. He, with his
brothers, Erastus and Joseph P., founded the St Johnsbury
Academy. He died at St Johnsbury on the 1 2th of April 1886.
The latter's. son HENRY, born in 1830 at St Johnsbury,
Vermont, graduated at Dartmouth College in 1853 and at
Andover Theological Seminary in 1857, and was professor of
natural philosophy at Dartmouth from 1859 to 1865 and of '
natural history from 1865 to 1868. In the following year he
patented a grain-scale and thenceforth devoted himself to the
scale manufacturing business of his family. Altogether he
obtained more than thirty patents for mechanical devices.
FAIRFAX, EDWARD (c. 1580-1635), English poet, translator
of Tasso, was born at Leeds, the second son of Sir Thomas
Fairfax of Denton (father of the ist Baron Fairfax of Cameron).
His legitimacy has been called in question, and the date of his
birth has not been ascertained. He is said to have been only
about twenty years of age when he published his translation of
the Gerusalemme Liberata, which would place his birth about the
year 1580. He preferred a life of study and retirement to the
military service in which his brothers were distinguished. He
married a sister of Walter Laycock, chief alnager of the northern
counties, and lived on a small estate at Fewston, Yorkshire.
There his time was spent in his literary pursuits, and in the
education of his children and those of his elder brother, Sir
Thomas Fairfax, afterwards baron of Cameron. His translation
appeared in 1600, Godfrey of Bulloigne, or the Recoiierie of
lerusalem, done into English heroicall Verse by Edw. Fairefax,
Gent., and was dedicated to the queen. It was enthusiastically
received. In the same year in which it was published extracts
from it were printed in England's Parnassus. Edward Phillips,
the nephew of Milton, in his Theatrum Poetarum, warmly
eulogized the translation. Edmund Waller said he was indebted
to it for the harmony of his numbers. It is said that it was King
James's favourite English poem, and that Charles I. entertained
himself in prison with its pages. Fairfax employed the same
number of lines and stanzas as his original, but within the limits
of each stanza he allowed himself the greatest liberty. Other
translators may give a more literal version, but Fairfax alone
seizes upon the poetical and chivalrous character of the poem.
He presented, says Mr Courthope, " an idea of the chivalrous
past of Europe, as seen through the medium of Catholic orthodoxy
and classical humanism." The sweetness and melody of many
passages are scarcely excelled even by Spenser. Fairfax made
no other appeal to the public. He wrote, however, a series of
eclogues, twelve in number, the fourth of which was published,
by permission of the family, in Mrs Cooper's Muses' Library
(1737). Another of the eclogues and a Discourse on Witchcraft,
as it was acted in the Family of Mr Edward Fairfax of Fuystone
in the county of York in 1621, edited from the original copy by
Lord Houghton, appeared in the Miscellanies of the Philobiblon
Society (1858-1859). Fairfax was a firm believer in witchcraft.
He fancied that two of his children had been bewitched, and
he had the poor wretches whom he accused brought to trial,
but without obtaining a conviction. Fairfax died at Fewston
and was buried there on the 27th of January 1635.
FAIRFAX OF CAMERON, FERDINANDO FAIRFAX, 2ND
BARON (1584-1648), English parliamentary general, was a son
of Thomas Fairfax of Denton (1560-1640), who in 1627 was
FAIRFAX OF CAMERON
created Baron Fairfax of Cameron in the peerage of Scotland.
Born on the agth of March 1584, he obtained his military educa-
tion in the Netherlands, and was member of parliament for
Boroughbridge during the six parliaments which met between
1614 and 1629 and also during the Short Parliament of 1640.
In May 1640 he succeeded his father as Baron Fairfax, but being
a Scottish peer he sat in the English House of Commons as one
of the representatives of Yorkshire during the Long Parliament
from 1640 until his death; he took the side of the parliament,
but held moderate views and desired to maintain the peace.
In the first Scottish war Fairfax had commanded a regiment in
the king's army; then on the outbreak of the Civil War in 1642
he was made commander of the parliamentary forces in York-
shire, with Newcastle as his opponent. Hostilities began after
the repudiation of a treaty of neutrality entered into by Fairfax
with the Royalists. At first he met with no success. He was
driven from York, where he was besieging the Royalists, to
Selby; then in 1643 to Leeds; and after beating off an attack
at that place he was totally defeated on the 3oth of June at
Adwalton Moor. He escaped to Hull, which he successfully
defended against Newcastle from the 2nd of September till the
nth of October, and by means of a brilliant sally caused the
siege to be raised. Fairfax was victorious at Selby on the nth
of April 1644, and joining the Scots besieged York, after which
he was present at Marston Moor, where he commanded the
infantry and was routed. He was subsequently, in July, made
governor of York and charged with the further reduction of the
county. In December he took the town of Pontefract, but failed
to secure the castle. He resigned his command on the passing of
the Self-denying Ordinance, but remained a member of the
committee for the government of Yorkshire, and was appointed,
on the 24th of July 1645, steward of the manor of Pontefract.
He died from an accident on the I4th of March 1648 and was
buried at Bolton Percy. He was twice married, and by his first
wife, Mary, daughter of Edmund Sheffield, 3rd Lord Sheffield
(afterwards ist earl of Mulgrave), he had six daughters and
two sons, Thomas, who succeeded him as 3rd baron, and Charles,
a colonel of horse, who was killed at Marston Moor. During his
command in Yorkshire, Fairfax engaged in a paper war with
Newcastle, and wrote The Answer of Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax,
to a Declaration of William, earl of Newcastle (1642; printed
in Rushworth, pt. iii. vol. ii. p. 139) ; he also published A Letter
from . . . Lord Fairfax to . . . Robert, Earl of Essex (1643),
describing the victorious sally at Hull.
FAIRFAX OF CAMERON, THOMAS FAIRFAX, 3RD BARON
(1612-1671), parliamentary general and commander-in-chief
during the English Civil War, the eldest son of the 2nd lord,
was born at Denton, near Otley, Yorkshire, on the I7th of
January 1612. He studied at St John's College, Cambridge
(1626-1629), and then proceeded to Holland to serve as a
volunteer with the English army in the Low Countries under
Sir Horace (Lord) Vere. This connexion led to one still closer;
in the summer of 1637 Fairfax married Anne Vere, the daughter
of the general.
The Fairfaxes, father and son, though serving at first under
Charles I. (Thomas commanded a troop of horse, and was
knighted by the king in 1640), were opposed to the arbitrary
prerogative of the crown, and Sir Thomas declared that
" his judgment was for the parliament as the king and king-
dom's great and safest council." When Charles endeavoured
to raise a guard for his own person at York, intending
it, as the event afterwards proved, to form the nucleus of
an army, Fairfax was employed to present a petition to his
sovereign, entreating him to hearken to the voice of his parlia-
ment, and to discontinue the raising of troops. This was at a
great meeting of the freeholders and farmers of Yorkshire
convened by the king on Heworth Moor near York. Charles
evaded receiving the petition, pressing his horse forward, but
Fairfax followed him and placed the petition on the pommel of
the king's saddle. The incident is typical of the times and of
the actors in the scene. War broke out, Lord Fairfax was
appointed general of the Parliamentary forces in the north,
and his son, Sir Thomas, was made lieutenant-general of the
horse under him. Both father and son distinguished themselves
in the campaigns in Yorkshire (see GREAT REBELLION). Some-
times severely defeated, more often successful, and always
energetic, prudent and resourceful, they contrived to keep up
the struggle until the crisis of 1644, when York was held by the
marquess of Newcastle against the combined forces of the English
Parliamentarians and the Scots, and Prince Rupert hastened
with all available forces to its relief. A gathering of eager
national forces within a few square miles of ground naturally
led to a battle, and Marston Moor (<?..) was decisive of the
struggle in the north. The younger Fairfax bore himself with
the greatest gallantry in the battle, and though severely wounded
managed to join Cromwell and the victorious cavalry on the other
wing. One of his brothers, Colonel Charles Fairfax, was killed
in the action. But the marquess of Newcastle fled the kingdom,
and the Royalists abandoned all hope of retrieving their affairs.
The city of York was taken, and nearly the whole north submitted
to the parliament.
In the south and west of England, however, the Royalist
cause was still active. The war had lasted two years, and the
nation began to complain of the contributions that were exacted,
and the excesses that were committed by the military. Dis-
satisfaction was expressed with the military commanders, and,
as a preliminary step to reform, the Self-denying Ordinance
was passed. This involved the removal of the earl of Essex
from the supreme command, and the reconstruction of the armed
forces of the parliament. Sir Thomas Fairfax was selected as
the new lord general with Cromwell as his lieutenant-general
and cavalry commander, and after a short preliminary campaign
the " New Model " justified its existence, and " the rebels' new
brutish general," as the king called him, his capacity as com-
mander-in-chief in the decisive victory of Naseby (<?..). The
king fled to Wales. Fairfax besieged Leicester, and was suc-
cessful at Taunton, Bridgwater and Bristol. The whole west
was soon reduced.
Fairfax arrived in London on the I2th ef November 1645.
In his progress towards the capital he was accompanied by
applauding crowds. Complimentary speeches and thanks were
presented to him by both houses of parliament, along with a
jewel of great value set with diamonds, and a sum of money.
The king had returned from Wales and established himself at
Oxford, where there was a strong garrison, but, ever vacillating,
he withdrew secretly, and proceeded to Newark to throw himself
into the arms of the Scots. Oxford capitulated; and by the
end of September 1646 Charles had neither army nor garrison
in England. In January 1647 he was delivered up by the Scots
to the commissioners of parliament. Fairfax met the king
beyond Nottingham, and accompanied him during the journey
to Holmby, treating him with the utmost consideration in every
way. " The general," said Charles, " is a man of honour, and
keeps his word which he had pledged to me." With the collapse
of the Royalist cause came a confused period of negotiations
between the parliament and the king, between the king and the
Scots, and between the Presbyterians and the Independents in
and out of parliament. In these negotiations the New Model
Army soon began to take a most active part. The lord general
was placed in the unpleasant position of intermediary between
his own officers and parliament. To the grievances, usual in
armies of that time, concerning arrears of pay and indemnity
for acts committed on duty, there was quickly added the political
propaganda of the Independents, and in July the person of the
king was seized by Joyce, a subaltern of cavalry an act which
sufficiently demonstrated the hopelessness of controlling the
army by its articles of war. It had, in fact, become the most
formidable political party in the realm, and pressed straight on
to the overthrow of parliament and the punishment of Charles.
Fairfax was more at home in the field than at the head of a
political committee, and, finding events too strong for him, he
sought to resign his commission as commander-in-chief. He was,
however, persuaded to retain it. He thus remained the titular
chief of the army party, and with the greater part of its objects
132
FAIRFIELD
he was in complete, sometimes most active, sympathy. Shortly
before the outbreak of the second Civil War, Fairfax succeeded
his father in the barony and in the office of governor of Hull.
In the field against the English Royalists in 1648 he displayed
his former energy and skill, and his operations culminated in the
successful siege of Colchester, after the surrender of which place
he approved the execution of the Royalist leaders Sir Charles
Lucas and Sir George Lisle, holding that these officers had broken
their parole. At the same time Cromwell's great victory of
Preston crushed the Scots, and the Independents became
practically all-powerful.
Milton, in a sonnet written during the siege of Colchester,
called upon the lord general to settle the kingdom, but the crisis
was now at hand. Fairfax was in agreement with Cromwell
and the army leaders in demanding the punishment of Charles,
and he was still the effective head of the army. He approved,
if he did not take an active part in, Pride's Purge (December
6th, 1648), but on the last and gravest of the questions at issue
he set himself in deliberate and open opposition to the policy
of the officers. He was placed at the head of the judges who
were to try the king, and attended the preliminary sitting of the
court. Then, convinced at last that the king's death was in-
tended, he refused to act. In calling over the court, when the
crier pronounced the name of Fairfax, a lady in the gallery called
out " that the Lord Fairfax was not there in person, that he
would never sit among them, and that they did him wrong to
name him as a commissioner." This was Lady Fairfax, who
could not forbear, as Whitelocke says, to exclaim aloud against
the proceedings of the High Court of Justice. His last service
as commander-in-chief was the suppression of the Leveller
mutiny at Burford in May 1640. He had given his adhesion to
the new order of things, and had been reappointed lord general.
But he merely administered the affairs of the army, and when in
1650 the Scots had declared for Charles II., and the council of
state resolved to send an army to Scotland in order to prevent
an invasion of England, Fairfax resigned his commission.
Cromwell was appointed his successor, " captain-general and
commander-in-chief of all the forces raised or to be raised by
authority of parliament within the commonwealth of England."
Fairfax received a pension of 5000 a year, and lived in retirement
at his Yorkshire home of Nunappleton till after the death of the
Protector. The troubles of the later Commonwealth recalled
Lord Fairfax to political activity, and for the last time his
appearance in arms helped to shape the future of the country
when Monk invited him to assist in the operations about to
be undertaken against Lambert's army. In December 1659
he appeared at the head of a body of Yorkshire gentlemen,
and such was the influence of Fairfax's name and reputation
that 1200 horse quitted Lambert's colours and joined him.
This was speedily followed by the breaking up of all Lambert's
forces, and that day secured the restoration of the monarchy.
A " free " parliament was called; Fairfax was elected member
for Yorkshire, and was put at the head of the commission
appointed by the House of Commons to wait upon Charles II.
at the Hague and urge his speedy return. Of course the " merry
monarch, scandalous and poor," was glad to obey the summons,
and Fairfax provided the horse on which Charles rode at his
coronation. The remaining eleven years of the life of Lord
Fairfax were spent in retirement at his seat in Yorkshire. He
must, like Milton, have been sorely grieved and shocked by the
scenes that followed the brutal indignities offered to the
remains of his companions in arms, Cromwell and Ireton, the
sacrifice of Sir Harry Vane, the neglect or desecration of all
that was great, noble or graceful in England, and the flood ol
immorality which, flowing from Whitehall, sapped the founda-
tions of the national strength and honour. Lord Fairfax died al
Nunappleton on the I2th of November 1671, and was buried a1
B ilborough , near York. Asa soldier he was exact and methodical
in planning, in the heat of battle " so highly transported that
scarce any one durst speak a word to him" (Whitelocke)
chivalrous and punctilious in his dealings with his own men
and the enemy. Honour and conscientiousness were equally the
characteristics of his private and public character. But his
modesty and distrust of his powers made him less effectual as a
statesman than as a soldier, and above all he is placed at a dis-
advantage by being both in war and peace overshadowed by
lis associate Cromwell.
Lord Fairfax had a taste for literature. He translated some
of the Psalms, and wrote poems on solitude, the Christian war-
are, the shortness of life, &c. During the last year or two of
lis life he wrote two Memorials which have been published one
on the northern actions in which he was engaged in 1642-1644,
and the other on some events in his tenure of the chief command.
At York and at Oxford he endeavoured to save the libraries
'rom pillage, and he enriched the Bodleian with some valuable
VtSS. His only daughter, Mary Fairfax, was married to George
Villiers, the profligate duke of Buckingham of Charles II. 's court.
His correspondence, edited by G. W. Johnson, was published in
1848-1849 in four volumes (see note thereon in Diet. Nat. Biogr.,
s.v.), and a life of him by Clements R. Markham in 1870. See also
S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War (1893).
His descendant Thomas, 6th baron (1692-1782), inherited
:rom his mother, the heiress of Thomas, 2nd Baron Culpepper,
arge estates in Virginia, U.S.A., and having sold Denton Hall
and his Yorkshire estates he retired there about 1746, dying a
bachelor. He was a friend of George Washington. Thomas
found his cousin William Fairfax settled in Virginia, and made
him his agent, and Bryan (1737-1802), the son of William
Fairfax, eventually inherited the title, becoming 8th baron in
1793. His claim was admitted by the House of Lords in 1800.
But it was practically dropped by the American family, until,
shortly before the coronation of Edward VII., the successor in
title was discovered in Albert Kirby Fairfax (b. 1870), a
descendant of the 8th baron, who was an American citizen.
In November 1908 Albert's claim to the title as I2th baron was
allowed by the House of Lords.
FAIRFIELD, a township in Fairfield county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., near Long Island Sound, adjoining Bridgeport on the E.
and Westport on the W. Pop. (1890) 3868; (1900) 4489 (1041
being foreign-born) ; (1910) 6134. It is served by the New York,
New Haven & Hartford railway. The principal villages of the
township are Fairfield, Southport, Greenfield Hill and Stratfield.
The beautiful scenery and fine sea air attract to the township a
considerable number of summer visitors. The township has the
well-equipped Pequot and Fairfield memorial libraries (the
former in the village of Southport, the latter in the village of
Fairfield), the Fairfield fresh air home (which cares for between
one and two hundred poor children of New York during each
summer season) , and the Gould home for self-supporting women.
The Fairfield Historical Society has a museum of antiquities
and a collection of genealogical and historical works. Among
Fairfield's manufactures are chemicals, wire and rubber goods.
Truck-gardening is an important industry of the township. In
the Pequot Swamp within the present Fairfield a force of Pequot
Indians was badly defeated in 1637 by some whites, among whom
was Roger Ludlow, who, attracted by the country, founded the
settlement in 1639 and gave it its present name in 1645. Within
its original limits were included what are now the townships of
Redding (separated, 1767), Weston (1787) and Easton (formed
from part of Weston in 1845), and parts of the present Westport
and Bridgeport. During the colonial period Fairfield was a
place of considerable importance, but subsequently it was greatly
outstripped by Bridgeport, to which, in 1870, a portion of it
was annexed. On the 8th of July 1779 Fairfield was burned by
the British and Hessians under Governor William Tryon. Among
the prominent men who have lived in Fairfield are Roger Sher-
man, the first President Dwight of Yale (who described Fairfield
in his Travels andinhispoemGreenfield Hill), Chancellor James
Kent, and Joseph Earle Sheffield.
See Frank S. Child, An Old New England Town, Sketches of Life,
Scenery and Character (New York, 1895) ; and Mrs E. H. Schenck,
History of Fairfield (2 vols., New York, 1889-1905).
FAIRFIELD, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county,
Iowa, U.S.A., about 51 m. W. by N. of Burlington. Pop. (1890)
3391; (1900) 4689, of whom 206 were foreign-born and 54 were
FAIRHAVEN FAIRUZABADI
133
negroes; (1905) 5009; (1910) 4970. Area, about 2-25 sq. m.
Fairfield is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways, The city is in a blue
grass country, in which much live stock is bred; and it is an
important market for draft horses. It is the seat of Parsons
College (Presbyterian, co-educational, 1875), endowed by Lewis
Baldwin Parsons, Sr. (1798-1855), a merchant of Buffalo, N.Y.
The college offers classical, philosophical and scientific courses,
and has a school of music and an academic department; in
1907-1908 it had 19 instructors and 257 students, of whom 93
were in the college and 97 were in the school of music. Fairfield
has a Carnegie library (1892), and a museum with a collection of
laces. Immediately E. of the city is an attractive Chautauqua
Park, of 30 acres, with an auditorium capable of seating about
4000 persons; and there is an annual Chautauqua assembly.
The principal manufactures of Fairfield are farm waggons,
farming implements, drain-tile, malleable iron, cotton gloves and
mittens and cotton garments. The municipality owns its water-
works and an electric-lighting plant. Fairfield was settled in
1839; was incorporated as a town in 1847; and was first
chartered as a city in the same year.
See Charles H. Fletcher, Jefferson County, Iowa: Centennial
History (Fairfield, 1876).
FAIRHAVEN, a township in Bristol county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on New Bedford Harbor, opposite New Bedford. Pop.
(1890) 2919; (1900) 3567 (599 being foreign-born); (1905, state
census) 4235; (1910) 5122. Area, about 13 sq. m. Fairhavenis
served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by
electric railway to Mattapoisett and Marion, and is connected
with New Bedford by two bridges, by electric railway, and by
the New York, New Haven & Hartford ferry line. The principal
village is Fairhaven; others are Oxford, Naskatucket and
Sconticut Neck. As a summer resort Fairhaven is widely known.
Among the principal buildings are the following, presented to
the township by Henry H. Rogers (1840-1909), a native of
Fairhaven and a large stockholder and long vice-president of the
Standard Oil Co. ; the town hall, a memorial of Mrs Rogers, the
Rogers public schools; the Millicent public library (17,500 vols.
in 1908), a memorial to his daughter; and a fine granite memorial
church (Unitarian) with parish house, a memorial to his mother;
and there is also a public park, of 13 acres, the gift of Mr Rogers.
From 1830 to 1857 the inhabitants of Fairhaven were chiefly
engaged in whaling, and the fishing interests are still important.
Among manufactures are tacks, nails, iron goods, loom-cranks,
glass, yachts and boats, and shoes.
Fairhaven, originally a part of New Bedford, was incorporated
as a separate township in 1812. On the sth of September 1778
a fleet and armed force under Earl Grey, sent to punish New
Bedford and what is now Fairhaven for their activity in privateer-
ing, burned the shipping and destroyed much of New Bedford.
The troops then marched to the head of the Acushnet river, and
down the east bank to Sconticut Neck, where they camped till
the 7th of September, when they re-embarked, having meanwhile
dismantled a small fort, built during the early days of the war,
on the east side of the river at the entrance to the harbour.
On the evening of the Sth of September a landing force from the
fleet, which had begun to set fire to Fairhaven, was driven off
by a body of about 1 50 minute-men commanded by Major Israel
Fearing; and on the following day the fleet departed. The fort
was at once rebuilt and was named Fort Fearing, but as early
as 1784 it had become known as Fort Phoenix; it was one of the
strongest defences on the New England coast during the war of
1812. The township of Acushnet was formed from the northern
part of Fairhaven in 1860.
See James L. Gillingham and others, A Brief History of the Town
of Fairhaven, Massachusetts (Fairhaven, 1903).
FAIRHOLT, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-1866), English
antiquary and wood engraver, was born in London in 1814.
His father, who was of a German family (the name was originally
Fahrholz), was a tobacco manufacturer, and for some years
Fairholt himself was employed in the business. For a time he
was a drawing-master, afterwards a scene-painter, and in 1835
he became assistant to S. Sly, the wood engraver. Some pen
and ink copies made by him of figures from Hogarth's plates led
to his being employed by Charles Knight on several of his
illustrated publications. His first published literary work was
a contribution to Hone's Year-Book in 1831. His life was one
of almost uninterrupted quiet labour, carried on until within a
few days of death. Several works on civic pageantry and some
collections of ancient unpublished songs and dialogues were
edited by him for the Percy Society in 1842. In 1844 he was
elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. He published an
edition of the dramatic works of Lyly in 1856. His principal
independent works are Tobacco, its History and Association
(1859); Gog and Magog (i860); Up the Nile and Home Again
(1862); many articles and serials contributed to the Art Journal,
some of which were afterwards separately published, as Costume
in England (1846); Dictionary of Terms in Art (1854). These
works are illustrated by numerous cuts, drawn on the wood by
his own hand. His pencil was also employed in illustrating
Evans's Coins of the Ancient Britons, Madden's Jewish Coinage,
Halliwell's folio Shakespeare and his Sir John Maundeville,
Roach Smith's Richborough, the Miscellanea Graphica of Lord
Londesborough, and many other works. He died on the 3rd of
April 1866. His books relating to Shakespeare were bequeathed
to the library at Stratford-on-Avon; those on civic pageantry
(between 200 and 300 volumes) to the Society of Antiquaries;
his old prints and works on costume to the British Museum;
his general library bed. sired to be sold and the proceeds devoted
to the Literary Fund.
FAIRMONT, a city and the county-seat of Marion county,
West Virginia, U.S.A., on both sides of the Monongahela river,
about 75 m. S.E. of Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 1023; (1900) 5655,
of whom 283 were negroes and 182 foreign-born; (1910) 9711.
It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio railway. Among its manu-
factures are glass, machinery, flour and furniture, and it is an
important shipping point for coal mined in the vicinity. The
city is the seat of one of the West Virginia state normal schools.
Fairmont was laid out as Middletown in 1 8 1 9, became the county-
seat of the newly established Marion county in 1842, received its
present name about 1844, and was chartered as a city in 1899.
FAIR OAKS, a station on a branch of the Southern railway,
6 m. E. of Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A. It is noted as the site
of one of the battles of the Civil War, fought on the 3ist of May
and the ist of June 1862, between the Union (Army of the
Potomac) under General G. B. McClellan and the Confederate
forces (Army of Northern Virginia) commanded by General J. E.
Johnston. The attack of the Confederates was made at a moment
when the river Chickahominy divided the Federal army into
two unequal parts, and was, moreover, swollen to such a degree
as to endanger the bridges. General Johnston stationed part
of his troops along the river to prevent the Federals sending
aid to the smaller force south of it, upon which the Con-
federate attack, commanded by General Longstreet, was directed.
Many accidents, due to the inexperience of the staff officers
and to the difficulty of the ground, hindered the development of
Longstreet's attack, but the Federals were gradually driven
back with a loss of ten guns, though at the last moment reinforce-
ments managed to cross the river and re-establish the line of
defence. At the close of the day Johnston was severely wounded,
and General G. W. Smith succeeded to the command. The
battle was renewed on the ist of June but not fought out. At
the close of the action General R. E. Lee took over the command
of the Confederates, which he held till the final surrender in
April 1865. So far as the victory lay with either side, it was
with the Union army, for the Confederates failed to achieve
their purpose of destroying the almost isolated left wing of
McClellan's army, and after the battle they withdrew into the
lines of Richmond. The Union losses were 5031 in killed,
wounded and missing; those of the Confederates were 6134.
The battle is sometimes known as the battle of Seven Pines.
FAIRUZABADI [Abu-t-Tahir ibn Ibrahim Majd ud-Din ul-
Fairuzabadl] (1329-1414), Arabian lexicographer, was born at
Karazln near Shiraz. His student days were spent in Shiraz,
Wasit, Bagdad and Damascus. He taught for ten years in
FAIRY
Jerusalem, and afterwards travelled in western Asia and Egypt.
In 1368 he settled in Mecca, where he remained for fifteen years.
He next visited India and spent some time in Delhi, then remained
in Mecca another ten years. The following three years were
spent in Bagdad, in Shiraz (where he was received by Timur),
and in Ta'iz. In 1395 he was appointed chief cadi (qadi) of
Yemen, married a daughter of the sultan, and died at Zabld
in 1414. During this last period of his life he converted his
house at Mecca into a school of Malikite law and established
three teachers in it. He wrote a huge lexicographical work
of 60 or 100 volumes uniting the dictionaries of Ibn Slda, a
Spanish philologist (d. 1066), and of Sajam (d. 1252). A digest
of or an extract from this last work is his famous diction-
ary al-Qamus (" the Ocean "), which has been published in
Egypt, Constantinople and India, has been translated into
Turkish and Persian, and has itself been the basis of several later
dictionaries. (G. W. T.)
FAIRY (Fr. fie, faerie; Prov. fada; Sp. hada; Ital. fata;
med. Lat. fatare, to enchant, from Lat. fatum, fate, destiny),
the common term for a supposed race of supernatural beings
who magically intermeddle in human affairs. Of all the minor
creatures of mythology the fairies are the most beautiful, the
most numerous, the most memorable in literature. Like all
organic growths, whether of nature or of the fancy, they are not
the immediate product of one country or of one time; they
have a pedigree, and the question of their ancestry and affiliation
is one of wide bearing. But mixture and connexion of races
have in this as in many other cases so changed the original
folk-product that it is difficult to disengage and separate the
different strains that have gone to the making or moulding of
the result as we have it.
It is not in literature, however ancient, that we must look for
the early forms of the fairy belief. Many of Homer's heroes
have fairy lemans, called nymphs, fairies taken up into a higher
region of poetry and religion; and the fairy leman is notable
in the story of Athamas and his cloud bride Nephele, but this
character is as familiar to the unpoetical Eskimo, and to the Red
Indians, with their bird-bride and beaver-bride (see A. Lang's
Custom and Myth, " The Story of Cupid and Psyche "). The
Gandharvas of Sanskrit poetry are also fairies.
One of the most interesting facts about fairies is the wide
distribution and long persistence of the belief in them. They
are the chief factor in surviving Irish superstition. Here they
dwell in the " raths," old earth-forts, or earthen bases of later
palisaded dwellings of the Norman period, and in the subter-
ranean houses, common also in Scotland. They are an organized
people, often called " the army," and their life corresponds to
human life in all particulars. They carry off children, leaving
changeling substitutes, transport men and women into fairyland,
and are generally the causes of all mysterious phenomena. Whirls
of dust are caused by the fairy marching army, as by the being
called Kutchi in the Dieri tribe of Australia. In 1907, in northern
Ireland, a farmer's house was troubled with flying stones (see
POLTERGEIST). The neighbours said that the fairies caused the
phenomenon, as the man had swept his chimney with a bough
of holly, and the holly is " a gentle tree," dear to the fairies.
The fairy changeling belief also exists in some districts of Argyll,
and a fairy boy dwelt long in a small farm-house in Glencoe,
now unoccupied.
In Ireland and the west Highlands neolithic arrow-heads
and flint chips are still fairy weapons. They are dipped in water,
which is given to ailing cattle and human beings as a sovereign
remedy for diseases. The writer knows of " a little lassie in
green " who is a fairy and, according to the percipients, haunts
the banks of the Mukomar pool on the Lochy. In Glencoe is a
fairy hill where the fairy music, vocal and instrumental, is heard
in still weather. In the Highlands, however, there is much more
interest in second sight than in fairies, while in Ireland the
reverse is the case. The best book on Celtic fairy lore is still
that of the minister of Aberfoyle, the Rev. Mr Kirk (ob. 1692).
His work on The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns and
Fairies, left in MS. and incomplete (the remainder is in the Laing
MSS., Edinburgh University library), was published (a hundred
copies) in 1815 by Sir Walter Scott, and in the Bibliotheque de
Carabas (Lang) there is a French translation. Mr Kirk is said
(though his tomb exists) to have been carried away by fairies.
He appeared to a friend and said that he would come again,
when the friend must throw a dirk over his shoulder and he
would return to this world. The friend, however, lost his nerve
and did not throw the dirk. In the same way a woman re-
appeared to her husband in Glencoe in the last generation,
but he was wooing another lass and did not make any effort to
recover his wife. His character was therefore lost in the glen.
It is clear that in many respects fairyland corresponds to the
pre-Christian abode of the dead. Like Persephone when carried
to Hades, or Wainamoi'nen in the Hades of the Finns (Manala),
a living human being must not eat in fairyland; if he does,
he dwells there for ever. Tamlane in the ballad, however, was
" fat and fair of flesh," yet was rescued by Janet: probably
he had not abstained from fairy food. He was to be given as
the kane to Hell, which shows a distinction between the beliefs
in hell and in the place of fairies.
It is a not uncommon theory that the fairies survive in legend
from prehistoric memories of a pigmy people dwelling in the
subterranean earth-houses, but the contents of these do not
indicate an age prior to the close of the Roman occupation of
Britain; nor are pigmy bones common in neolithic sepulchres.
The " people of peace " (Daoine Shie) of Ireland and Scotland
are usually of ordinary stature, indeed not to be recognized as
varying from mankind except by their proceedings (see J. Curtin,
Irish Folk-tales).
The belief in a species of lady fairies, deathly to their human
lovers, was found by R. L. Stevenson to be as common in Samoa
(see Island Nights' Entertainments) as in Strathfinlas or on the
banks of Loch Awe. In New Caledonia a native friend of J. J.
Atkinson (author of Primal Law) told him that he had met
and caressed the girl of his heart in the forest, that she had
vanished and must have been a fairy. He therefore would die
in three days, which (Mr Atkinson informs the writer) he punctu-
ally did. The Greek sirens of Homer are clearly a form of these
deadly fairies, as the Nereids and Oreads and Naiads are fairies
of wells, mountains and the sea. The fairy women who come
to the births of children and foretell their fortunes (Fata, Moerae,
ancient Egyptian Hathors, Fees, Dominae Fatales), with their
spindles, are refractions of the human " spae-women " (in the
Scots term) who attend at birth and derive omens of the child's
future from various signs. The custom is common among
several savage races, and these women, represented in the
spiritual world by Fata, bequeath to us the French fee, in the
sense of fairy. Perrault also uses fee for anything that has
magical quality; " the key was fee," had mana, or wakan,
savage words for the supposed " power," or ether, which works
magic or is the vehicle of magical influences.
Though the fairy belief is universally human, the nearest
analogy to the shape which it takes in Scotland and Ireland
the " pixies " of south-western England is to be found in Jan
or Jinnis of the Arabs, Moors and people of Palestine. In stories
which have passed through a literary medium, like The Arabian
Nights, the geni or Jan do not so much resemble our fairies as
they do in the popular superstitions of the East, orally collected.
The Jan are now a subterranean commonwealth, now they reside
in ruinous places, like the fairies in the Irish raths. Like the
fairies they go about in whirls of dust, or the dust-whirls them-
selves are Jan. They carry off men and women " to their own
herd," in the phrase of Mr Kirk, and are kind to mortals who are
kind to them. They chiefly differ from our fairies in their
greater tendency to wear animal forms; though, like the
fairies, when they choose to appear in human shape they are
not to be distinguished from men and women of mortal mould.
Like the fairies everywhere they have amours with mortals,
such as that of the Queen of Faery with Thomas of Ercildoune.
The herb rue is potent against them, as in British folk-lore, and
a man long captive among the Jan escaped from them by
observing their avoidance of rue, and by plucking two handfuls
FAIRY RING FAITH HEALING
thereof. They, like the British brownies (a kind of domesticated
fairy), are the causes of strange disappearances of things. To
preserve houses from their influences, rue, that " herb of grace,"
is kept in the apartments, and the name of Allah is constantly
invoked. If this is omitted, things are stolen by the Jan.
They often bear animal names, and it is dangerous to call a
cat or dog without pointing at the animal, for a Jinni of the
same name may be present and may take advantage of the
invocation. A man, in fun, called to a goat to escort his wife
on a walk: he did not point at the goat, and the wife disappeared.
A Jinni had carried her off, and her husband had to seek her at
the court of the Jan. Euphemistically they are addressed as
mubarakin, " blessed ones," as we say " the good folk " or " the
people of peace." As our fairies give gold which changes into
withered leaves, the Jan give onion peels which turn into gold.
Like our fairies the Jan can apply an ointment, kohl, to human
eyes, after which the person so favoured can see Jan, or fairies,
which are invisible to other mortals, and can see treasure wherever
it may be concealed (see Folk-lore of the Holy Land, by J. E.
Hanauer, 1907).
It is plain that fairies and Jan are practically identical,
a curious proof of the uniformity of the working of imagination
in peoples v/idely separated in race and religion. Fairies
naturally won their way into the poetry of the middle ages.
They take lovers from among men, and are often described as
of delicate, unearthly, ravishing beauty. The enjoyment of
their charms is, however, generally qualified by some restriction
or compact, the breaking of which is the cause of calamity to
the lover and all his race, as in the notable tale of Melusine.
This fay by enchantment built the castle of Lusignan for her
husband. It was her nature to take every week the form of a
serpent from the waist below. The hebdomadal transformation
being once, contrary to compact, witnessed by her husband,
she left him with much wailing, and was said to return and
give warning by her appearance and great shrieks whenever one
of the race of Lusignan was about to die. At the birth of Ogier
le Danois six fairies attend, five of whom give good gifts, which
the sixth overrides with a restriction. Gervaise of Tilbury,
writing early in the i3th century, has in his Otia Imperialia a
chapter, De lamiis et nocturnis larvis, where he gives it out, as
proved by individuals beyond all exception, that men have been
lovers of beings of this kind whom they call Fadas, and who
did in case of infidelity or infringement of secrecy inflict terrible
punishment the loss of goods and even of life. There seems
little in the characteristics of these fairies of romance to dis-
tinguish them from human beings, except their supernatural
knowledge and power. They are not often represented as
diminutive in stature, and seem to be subject to such human
passions as love, jealousy, envy and revenge. To this class
belong the fairies of Boiardo, Ariosto and Spenser.
There is no good modern book on the fairy belief in general.
Keightley's Fairy Mythology is full of interesting matter; Rhys's
Celtic Mythology is especially copious about Welsh fairies, which
are practically identical with those of Ireland and Scotland. The
works of Mr Jeremiah Curtin and Dr Douglas Hyde are useful for
Ireland ; for Scotland, Kirk's Secret Commonwealth has already been
quoted. Scott's dissertation on fairies in The Border Minstrelsy is
rich in lore, though necessarily Scott had not the wide field of
comparative study opened by more recent researches. There is a
FAIRY RING, the popular name for the circular patches of a
dark green colour that are to be seen occasionally on permanent
grass-land, either lawn or meadow, on which the fairies were
supposed to hold their midnight revels. They mark the area of
growth of some fungus, starting from a centre of one or more
plants. The mycelium produced from the spores dropped by
the fungus or from the " spawn " in the soil, radiates outwards,
and each year's successive crop of fungi rises from the new
growth round the circle. The rich colour of the grass is due
to the fertilizing quality of the decaying fungi, which are
peculiarly rich in nitrogenous substances. The most complete
and symmetrical grass rings are formed by Marasmius oreades,
the fairy ring champignon, but the mushroom and many other
species occasionally form rings, both on grass-lands and in woods.
Observations were made on a ring in a pine-wood for a period of
nine years, and it was calculated that it increased from centre
to circumference about 8| in. each year. The fungus was never
found growing within the circle during the time the ring was
under observation, the decaying vegetation necessary for its
growth having become exhausted.
FAITHFULL, EMILY (1835-1895), English philanthropist,
was the youngest daughter of the Rev. Ferdinand Faithfull,
and was born at Headley Rectory, Surrey, in 1835. She took a
great interest in the conditions of working-women, and with the
object of extending their sphere of labour, which was then
painfully limited, in 1860 she set up in London a printing estab-
lishment for women. The " Victoria Press," as it was called,
soon obtained quite a reputation for its excellent work, and Miss
Faithfull was shortly afterwards appointed printer and publisher
in ordinary to Queen Victoria. In 1863 she began the publication
of a monthly organ, The Victoria Magazine, in which for eighteen
years she continuously and earnestly advocated the claims of
women to remunerative employment. In 1868 she published a
novel, Change upon Change, She also appeared as a lecturer,
and with the object of furthering the interests of her sex, lectured
widely and successfully both in England and the United States,
which latter she visited in 1872 and 1882. In 1888 she was
awarded a civil list pension of 50. She died in Manchester on
the 3ist of May 1895.
FAITH HEALING, a form of "mind cure," characterized by the
doctrine that while pain and disease really exist, they may be
neutralized and dispelled by faith in Divine power; the doctrine
known as Christian Science (q.v.) holds, however, that pain is
only an illusion and seeks to cure the patient by instilling into
him this belief. In the Christian Church the tradition of faith
healing dates from the earliest days of Christianity; upon the
miracles of the New Testament follow cases of healing, first by
the Apostles, then by their successors; but faith healing proper
is gradually, from the 3rd century onwards, transformed into
trust in relics, though faith cures still occur sporadically in later
times. Catherine of Siena is said to have saved Father Matthew
from dying of the plague, but in this case it is rather the healer
than the healed who was strong in faith. With the Reformation
faith healing proper reappears among the Moravians and
Waldenses, who, like the Peculiar People of our own day, put
their trust in prayer and anointing with oil. In the i6th century
we find faith cures recorded of Luther and other reformers,
in the next century of the Baptists, Quakers and other Puritan
sects, and in the i8th century the faith healing of the Methodists
in this country was paralleled by Pietism in Germany, which
drew into its ranks so distinguished a man of science as Stahl
(1660-1734). In the i gth century Prince Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-
Schillingsfurst, canon of Grosswardein, was a famous healer on
the continent; the Mormons and Irvingites were prominent
among English-speaking peoples; in the last quarter of the
1 9th century faith healing became popular in London, and
Bethshan homes were opened in 1881, and since then it has
found many adherents in England.
Under faith healing in a wider sense may be included (i) the
cures in the temples of Aesculapius and other deities in the
ancient world; (2) the practice of touching for the king's evil,
in vogue from the nth to the i8th century; (3) the cures of
Valentine Greatrakes, the " Stroker " (1620-1683); and (4)
the miracles of Lourdes, and other resorts of pilgrims, among
which may be mentioned St Winifred's Well in Flintshire,
Treves with its Holy Coat, the grave of the Jansenist F. de Paris
in the i8th century, the little town of Kevelaer from 1641 on-
wards, the tombs of St Louis, Francis of Assisi, Catherine of
Siena and others.
An animistic theory of disease was held by Pastor J. Ch.
Blumhardt, Dorothea Trudel, Boltzius and other European
faith healers. Used in this sense faith healing is indistinguishable
from much of savage leech-craft, which seeks to cure disease
by expelling the evil spirit in some portion of the body. Although
136
FAITHORNE FALAISE
it is usually present, faith in the medicine man is not essential
for the efficacy of the method. The same may be said of the
lineal descendant of savage medicine the magical leech-craft
of European folk-lore; cures for toothache, warts, &c., act in
spite of the disbelief of the sufferer; how far incredulity on the
part of the healer would result in failure is an open question.
From the psychological point of view all these different kinds
of faith healing, as indeed all kinds of mind cure, including
those of Christian Science and hypnotism, depend on suggestion
(q.v.). In faith healing proper not only are powerful direct
suggestions used, but the religious atmosphere and the auto-
suggestions of the patient co-operate, especially where the cures
take place during a period of religious revival or at other times
when large assemblies and strong emotions are found. The
suggestibility of large crowds is markedly greater than that of
individuals, and to this and the greater faith must be attributed
the greater success of the fashionable places of pilgrimage.
See A. T. Myers and F. W. H. Myers in Proc. Soc. Psychical Re-
search, ix. 160-209, on the miracles of Lourdes, with bibliography;
A. Feilding, Faith Healing and Christian Science; O. Stoll, Sug-
gestion una Hypnotismus in der Volkerpsychologie; article "Great-
rakes " in Diet. Nat. Biog. (N. W. T.)
FAITHORNE, WILLIAM (1626 or 1627-1691), English painter
and engraver, was born in London and was apprenticed to
Robert Peake, a painter and printseller, who received the honour
of knighthood from Charles I. On the outbreak of the Civil War
he accompanied his master into the king's service, and being
made prisoner at Basinghouse, he was confined for some time to
Aldersgate, where, however, he was permitted to follow his
profession of engraver, and among other portraits did a small
one of the first Villiers, duke of Buckingham. At the earnest
solicitation of his friends he very soon regained his liberty,
but only on condition of retiring to France. There he was so
fortunate as to receive instruction from Robert Nanteuil. He
was permitted to return to England about 1650, and took up a
shop near Temple Bar, where, besides his work as an engraver,
he carried on a large business as a printseller. In 1680 he gave
up his shop and retired to a house in Blackfriars, occupying
himself chiefly in painting portraits from the life in crayons,
although still occasionally engaged in engraving. It is said that
his life was shortened by the misfortunes, dissipation, and early
death of his son William. Faithorne is especially famous as a
portrait engraver, and among those on whom he exercised his art
were a large number of eminent persons, including Sir Henry
Spelman, Oliver Cromwell, Henry Somerset, the marquis of
Worcester, John Milton, Queen Catherine, Prince Rupert,
Cardinal Richelieu, Sir Thomas Fairfax, Thomas Hobbes, Richard
Hooker, Robert second earl of Essex, and Charles I. All his works
are remarkable for their combination of freedom and strength
with softness and delicacy, and his crayon paintings unite to
these the additional quality of clear and brilliant colouring.
He is the author of a work on engraving (1622).
His son WILLIAM (1656-1686), mezzotint engraver, at an early
age gave promise of attaining great excellence, but became idle
and dissipated, and involved his father in money difficulties.
Among persons of note whose portraits he engraved are Charles
II., Mary princess of Orange, Queen Anne when princess of
Denmark, and Charles XII. of Sweden.
The best account of the Faithornes is that contained in Walpole's
Anecdotes of Painting. A life of Faithorne the elder is preserved
in the British Museum among the papers of Mr Bayford, librarian
to Lord Oxford, and an intimate friend of Faithorne.
FAIZABAD, a town of Afghanistan, capital of the province of
Badakshan, situated on the Kokcha river. In 1821 it was
destroyed by Murad Beg of Kunduz, and the inhabitants removed
to Kunduz. But since Badakshan was annexed by Abdur
Rahman, the town has recovered its former importance, and is
now a considerable place of trade. It is the chief cantonment
for eastern Afghanistan and the Pamir region, and is protected
by a fort built in 1904.
FAJARDO, a district and town on the E. coast of Porto Rico,
belonging to the department of Humacao. Pop. (1899) of the
district, 16,782; and of the town, 3414. The district is highly
fertile and is well watered, owing in great measure to its abundant
rainfall. Sugar production is its principal industry, but some
attention is also given to the growing of oranges and pineapples.
The town, which was founded in 1774, is a busy commercial
centre standing ij m. from a large and well-sheltered bay, at the
entrance to which is the cape called Cabeza de San Juan. It is
the market town for a number of small islands off the E. coast,
some of which produce cattle for export.
FAKHR UD-DlN RAZI (1149-1209), Arabian historian and
theologian, was the son of a preacher, himself a writer, and was
born at Rai (Rei, Rhagae), near Tehran, where he received his
earliest training. Here and at Maragha, whither he followed his
teacher Majd ud-Dln ul-Jill, he studied philosophy and theology.
He was a Shafi'ite in law and a follower of Ash'ari (q.v.) in
theology, and became renowned as a defender of orthodoxy.
During a journey in Khwarizm and Mawara'1-nahr he preached
both in Persian and Arabic against the sects of Islam. After
this tour he returned to his native city, but settled later in Herat,
where he died. His dogmatic positions may be seen from his
work Kitdb ul-Muhassal, which is analysed by Schmolders in his
Essai sur les Scales philosophiques chez les Arabes (Paris, 1842).
Extracts from his History of the Dynasties were published by
Jourdain in the Fundgruben des Orients (vol. v.), and by D. R.
Heinzius (St Petersburg, 1828). His greatest work is the
Mafatih ul-Ghaib (" The Keys of Mystery "), an extensive
commentary on the Koran published at Cairo (8 vols., 1890)
and elsewhere; it is specially full in its exposition of Ash'arite
theology and its use of early and late Mu'tazilite writings.
For an account of his life see F. Wustenfeld's Geschichte der
arabischen Arzte, No. 200 (Gottingen, 1840); for a list of his works
cf. C. Brockelmann's Gesch. der arabischen Literatur, vol. i (Weimar,
1898), pp. 506 ff. An account of his teaching is given by M. Schreiner
in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft (vol. 52,
pp. 505 ff-)- (G. W. T.)
FAKIR (from Arabic faqlr, " poor "), a term equivalent to
Dervish (q.v.) or Mahommedan religious mendicant, but which
has come to be specially applied to the Hindu devotees and
ascetics of India. There are two classes of these Indian Fakirs,
(i) the religious orders, and (2) the nomad rogues who infest the
country. The ascetic orders resemble the Franciscans of Christi-
anity. The bulk lead really excellent lives in monasteries,
which are centres of education and poor-relief; while others go
out to visit the poor as Gurus or teachers. Strict celibacy is
not enforced among them. These orders are of very ancient date,
owing their establishment to the ancient Hindu rule, followed
by the Buddhists, that each " twice-born " man should lead in
the woods the life of an ascetic. The second class of Fakirs are
simply disreputable beggars who wander round extorting, under
the guise of religion, alms from the charitable and practising
on the superstitions of the villagers. As a rule they make no
real pretence of leading a religious life. They are said to number
nearly a million. Many of them are known as " Jogi," and lay
claim to miraculous powers which they declare have become
theirs by the practice of abstinence and extreme austerities.
The tortures which some of these wretches will inflict upon
themselves are almost incredible. They will hold their arms over
their heads until the muscles atrophy, will keep their fists
clenched till the nails grow through the palms, will lie on beds
of nails, cut and stab themselves, drag, week after week, enormous
chains loaded with masses of iron, or hang themselves before a
fire near enough to scorch. Most of them are inexpressibly
filthy and verminous. Among the filthiest are the Aghoris,
who preserve the ancient cannibal ritual of the followers of Siva,
eat filth, and use a human skull as a drinking-vessel. Formerly
the fakirs were always nude and smeared with ashes; but now
they are compelled to wear some pretence of clothing. The
natives do not really respect these wandering friars, but they
dread their curses.
See John Campbell Oman, The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of
India (1903), and Indian Census Reports.
FALAISE, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Calvados, on the right
bank of the Ante, 19 m. S. by E. of Caen by road. Pop. (1906)
FALASHAS FALCAO
6215. The principal object of interest is the castle, now partly
in ruins, but formerly the seat of the dukes of Normandy and the
birthplace of William the Conqueror. It is situated on a lofty
crag overlooking the town, and consists of a square mass defended
by towers and flanked by a small donjon and a lofty tower added
by the English in the isth century; the rest of the castle dates
chiefly from the i2th century. Near the castle, in the Place de
la Trinite, is an equestrian statue in bronze of William the
Conqueror, to whom the town owed its prosperity. The churches
of La Trinite and St Gervais combine the Gothic and Renaissance
styles of architecture, and St Gervais also includes Romanesque
workmanship. A street passes by way of a tunnel beneath the
choir of La Trinite. Falaise has populous suburbs, one of which,
Guibray, is celebrated for its annual fair for horses, cattle and
wool, which has been held in August since the nth century.
The town is the seat of a subprefecture and has tribunals of
first instance and commerce, a chamber of arts and manufacture,
a board of trade-arbitrators and a communal college. Tanning
and important manufactures of hosiery are carried on.
From 1417, when after a siege of forty-seven days it succumbed
to Henry V., king of England, till 1450, when it was retaken by
the French, Falaise was in the hands of the English.
FALASHAS (i.e. exiles; Ethiopic falas, a stranger), or "Jews
of Abyssinia," a tribe of Hamitic stock, akin to Galla, Somali
and Beja, though they profess the Jewish religion. They claim
to be descended from the ten tribes banished from the Holy Land.
Another tradition assigns them as ancestor Menelek, Solomon's
alleged son by the queen of Sheba. There is little or no physical
difference between them and the typical Abyssinians, except
perhaps that their eyes are a little more oblique; and they may
certainly be regarded as Hamitic. It is uncertain when they
became Jews: one account suggests in Solomon's time; another,
at the Babylonian captivity; a third, during the ist century
of the Christian era. That one of the earlier dates is correct
seems probable from the fact that the Falashas know nothing
of either the Babylonian or Jerusalem Talmud, make no use of
phylacteries (tefillin), and observe neither the feast of Purim
nor the dedication of the temple. They possess not in Hebrew,
of which they are altogether ignorant, but in Ethiopic (or Geez)
the canonical and apocryphal books of the Old Testament;
a volume of extracts from the Pentateuch, with comments given
to Moses by God on Mount Sinai; the Te-e-sa-sa Sanbat, or
laws of the Sabbath; the Ardit, a book of secrets revealed to
twelve saints, which is used as a charm against disease; lives of
Abraham, Moses, &c.; and a translation of Josephus called Sana
Aihud. A copy of the Orit or Mosaic law is kept in the holy of
holies in every synagogue. Various pagan observances are
mingled in their ritual: every newly-built house is considered
uninhabitable till the blood of a sheep or fowl has been spilt in it;
a woman guilty of a breach of chastity has to undergo purification
by leaping into a flaming fire; the Sabbath has been deified, and,
as the goddess Sanbat, receives adoration and sacrifice and is
said to have ten thousand times ten thousand angels to wait
on her commands. There is a monastic system, introduced
it is said in the 4th century A.D. by Aba Zebra, a pious man
who retired from the world and lived in the cave of Hoharewa,
in the province of Armatshoho. The monks must prepare all
their food with their own hands, and no lay person, male or
female, may enter their houses. Celibacy is not practised by the
priests, but they are not allowed to marry a second time, and no
one is admitted into the order who has eaten bread with a
Christian, or is the son or grandson of a man thus contaminated.
Belief in the evil eye or shadow is universal, and spirit-raisers,
soothsayers and rain-doctors are in repute. Education is in the
hands of the monks and priests, and is confined to boys. Fasts,
obligatory on all above seven years of age, are held on every
Monday and Thursday, on every new moon, and at the passover
(the 2 1 st or 2 2nd of April) . The annual festivals are the passover,
the harvest feast, the Baala Mazalat or feast of tabernacles
(during which, however, no booths are built) , the day of covenant
or assembly and Abraham's day. It is believed that after death
the soul remains in a place of darkness till the third day, when the
first sacrifice for the dead is offered; prayers are read in the
synagogue for the repose of the departed, and for seven days a
formal lament takes place every morning in his house. No
coffins are used, and a stone vault is built over the corpse so
that it may not come into direct contact with the earth.
The Falashas are an industrious people, living for the most part
in villages of their own, or, if they settle in a Christian or Mahom-
medan town, occupying a separate quarter. They had their own
kings, who, they pretend, were descended from David, from the
zoth century until 1800, when the royal race became extinct,
and they then became subject to the Abyssinian kingdom of
Tigre. They do not mix with the Abyssinians, and never marry
women of alien religions. They are even forbidden to enter the
houses of Christians, and from such a pollution have to be purified
before entering their own houses. Polygamy is not practised;
early marriages are rare, and their morals are generally better
than those of their Christian masters. Unlike most Jews, they
have no liking for trade, but are skilled in agriculture, in the
manufacture of pottery, ironware and cloth, and are good
masons. Their numbers are variously estimated at from one
hundred to one hundred and fifty thousand.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. M. Flad, Zwolf Jahre in Abyssinia (Basel, 1869),
and his Falashas of Abyssinia, translated from the German by S. P.
Goodhart (London, 1869) ; H. A. Stern, Wanderings among the
Falashas in Abyssinia (London, 1862); Joseph Halevy, Travels in
Abyssinia (trans. London, 1878); Morals, "The Falashas" in
Penn Monthly (Philadelphia, 1880); Cyrus Adlcr, "Bibliography
of the Falashas " in American Hebrew (i6th of March 1894) ; Lewin,
" Ein verlassener Bruderstamm," in Bloch's Wochenschrift (7th
February 1902), p. 85; J. Faitlovitch, Notes d'un voyage chez les
Falachas (Paris, 1905).
FALCAO, CHRISTOVAO DE SOUSA (? 1512-1557), Portuguese
poet, came of a noble family settled at Portalegre in the Alemtejo,
which had originated with John Falcon or Falconet, one of the
Englishmen who went to Portugal in 1386 in the suite of Philippa
of Lancaster. His father, Joao Vaz de Almada Falcao, was an
upright public servant who had held the captaincy of Elmina on
the West African coast, but died, as he had lived, a poor man.
There is a tradition that in boyhood Christovao fell in love
with a beautiful child and rich heiress, D. Maria Brandao, and
in 1526 married her clandestinely, but parental opposition
prevented the ratification of the marriage. Family pride, it is
said, drove the father of Christovao to keep his son under strict
surveillance in his own house for five years, while the lady's
parents, objecting to the youth's small means, put her into the
Cistercian convent of Lorvao, and there endeavoured to wean
her heart from him by the accusation that he coveted her fortune
more than her person. Their arguments and the promise of a
good match ultimately prevailed, and in 1534 D. Maria left the
convent to marry D. Luis de Silva, captain of Tangier, while the
broken-hearted Christovao told his sad story in some beautiful
lyrics and particularly in the eclogue Clirisfal. He had been the
disciple and friend of the poets Bernardim Ribeiro and Sa de
Miranda, and when his great disappointment came, Falcao laid
aside poetry and entered on a diplomatic career. There is
documentary evidence that he was employed at the Portuguese
embassy in Rome in 1542, but he soon returned to Portugal,
and we find him at court again in 1548 and 1551. The date of
his death, as of his birth, is uncertain. Such is the story accepted
by Dr Theophilo Braga, the historian of Portuguese literature,
but Senhor Guimaraes shows that the first part is doubtful,
and, putting aside the testimony of a contemporary and grave
writer, Diogo do Couto, he even denies the title of poet to
Christovao Falcao, arguing from internal and other evidence
that Clirisfal is the work of Bernardim Ribeiro; his destructive
criticism is, however, stronger than his constructive work. The
eclogue, with its 104 verses, is the very poem of saudade, and its
simple, direct language and chaste and tender feeling, enshrined
in exquisitely sounding verses, has won for its author lasting
fame and a unique position in Portuguese literature. Its
influence on later poets has been very considerable, and Camoens
used several of the verses as proverbs.
The poetical works of Christovao Falca* were published anony-
mously, owing, it is supposed, to their personal nature and allusions.
I 3 8
FALCK FALCON
and, in part or in whole, they have been often reprinted. There
is a modern critical edition of Chrisfal and a Carta (lettej) by A.
Epiphanio da Silva Dias under the title Obras de Christovao Falcao
(Oporto, 1893), and one of the Cantigas and Esparsas by the same
scholar appeared in the Revista Lusitana, vol. 4, pp. 142-179 (Lisbon,
1896), under the name Fragmento de um Cancioneiro do Seculo XVI.
See Bernardim Ribeiro e o Bucolismo, by Dr T. Braga (Oporto, 1897),
and Bernardim Ribeiro (O Poeta Crisfal), by Delfim Guimaraes
(Lisbon, 1908). (E. PR.)
FALCK, ANTON REINHARD (1777-1843), Dutch statesman,
was born at Utrecht on the ipth of March 1777. He studied
at the university of Leiden, and entered the Dutch diplomatic
service, being appointed to the legation at Madrid. Under King
Louis Napoleon he was secretary-general for foreign affairs, but
resigned office on the annexation of the Batavian republic to
France. He took a leading part in the revolt of 1813 against
French domination, and had a considerable share in the organiza-
tion of the new kingdom of the Netherlands. As minister of
education under William I. he reorganized the universities of
Ghent, Louvain and Liege and the Royal Academy of Brussels.
Side by side with his activities in education he directed the
departments of trade and the colonies. Falck was called in
Holland the king's good genius, but William I. presently tired
of his counsels and he was superseded by Van Maanen. He was
ambassador in London when the disturbances of 1830 convinced
him of the necessity of the separation of Belgium from Holland.
He consequently resigned his post and lived in close retirement
until 1839, when he became the first Dutch minister at the Belgian
court. He died at Brussels on the i6th of March 1843. Besides
some historical works he left a correspondence of considerable
political interest, printed in Brieven van A. R. Falck, 1795-1843
(znd ed. The Hague, 1861), and Amblsbrieven van A. R. Falck
(ibid. 1878).
FALCON, the most northern state of Venezuela, with an
extensive coast line on the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Venezuela.
Pop. (1905 est.) 173,968. It lies between the Caribbean on the
N. and the state of Lara on the S., with Zulia and the Gulf of
Venezuela on the W. Its surface is much broken by irregular
ranges of low mountains, and extensive areas on the coast are
sandy plains and tropical swamps. The climate is hot, but,
being tempered by the trade winds, is not considered unhealthy
except in the swampy districts. The state is sparsely settled
and has no large towns, its capital, Coro, being important
chiefly because of its history, and as the entrepot for an extensive
inland district. The only port in the state is La Vela de Coro,
on a small bay of the same name, 7 m. E. of the capital, with
which it is connected by railway.
FALCON (Lat. Falco; 1 Fr. Faucon; Teutonic, Folk or Valken),
a word now restricted to the high-couraged and long-winged
birds of prey which take their quarry as it moves; but formerly
it had a very different meaning, being by the naturalists of the
1 8th and even of the igth century extended to a great number
of birds comprised in the genus Falco of Linnaeus and writers
of his day, 2 while, on the other hand, by falconers, it was,
and still is, technically limited to the female of the birds
employed by them in their vocation (see FALCONRY), whether
" long-winged " and therefore " noble," or " short-winged " and
" ignoble."
According to modern usage, the majority of the falcons, in the
sense first given, may be separated intone very distinct groups:
(i) the falcons pure and simple (Falco proper); (2) the large
northern falcons (Hierofalco, Cuvier); (3) the " desert falcons "
(Gennaea, Kaup); (4) the merlins (Aesalon, Kaup); and (5)
the hobbies (Hypotriorchis, Boie). A sixth group, the kestrels
1 Unknown to classical writers, the earliest use of this word is said
to be by Servius Honoratus (circa A.D. 390-480) in his notes on Aen.
x. 145. It seems possibly to be the Latinized form of the Teutonic
Falk, though falx is commonly accounted its root.
The nomenclature of nearly all the older writers on this point is
extremely confused. What many of them, even so lately as Pen-
nant's time, termed the " gentle falcon " is certainly the bird we
now call the goshawk (i.e. goose-hawk), which name itself may
have been transferred to the Astur palumbarius of modern ornitho-
logists, from one of the long-winged birds of prey.
(Tinnunculus, Vieillot), is often added. This, however, appears
to have been justifiably reckoned a distinct genus.
The typical falcon is by common consent allowed to be that
almost cosmopolitan species to which unfortunately the English
epithet " peregrine " (i.e. strange or wandering) has been
attached. It is the Falco peregrinus of Tunstall (1771) and of
most recent ornithologists, though some prefer the specific name
communis applied by J. F. Gmelin a few years later (1788) to a
bird which, if his diagnosis be correct, could not have been a true
falcon at all, since it had yellow irides a colour never met with
in the eyes of any bird now called by naturalists a " falcon. "
This species inhabits suitable localities throughout the greater
part of the globe, though examples from North America have by
some received specific recognition as F. anatum (the " duck-
hawk "), and those from Australia have been described as distinct
under the name of F. melanogenys. Here, as in so many other
cases, it is almost impossible to decide as to which forms should,
and which should not, be accounted merely local races. In size
not surpassing a raven, this falcon (fig. i) is perhaps the most
powerful bird of prey for its bulk that flies, and its courage is not
less than its power. It is the species, in Europe, most commonly
FIG. i. Peregrine Falcon.
trained for the sport of hawking (see FALCONRY). Volumes have
been written upon it, and to attempt a complete account of it is,
within the limits now available, impossible. The plumage of the
adult is generally blackish-blue above, and white, with a more or
less deep cream-coloured tinge, beneath the lower parts, except
the chin and throat, being barred transversely with black, while
a black patch extends from the bill to the ear-coverts, and
descends on either side beneath the mandible. The young have
the upper parts deep blackish-brown, and the lower white, more
or less strongly tinged with ochraceous-brown, and striped
longitudinally with blackish-brown. From Port Kennedy, the
most northern part of the American continent, to Tasmania,
and from the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk to Mendoza in the
Argentine territory, there is scarcely a country in which this
falcon has not been found. Specimens have been received from
the Cape of Good Hope, and it is only a question of the technical
differentiation of species whether it does not extend to Cape
Horn. Fearless as it is, and adapting itself to almost every
circumstance, it will form its eyry equally on the sea-washed
cliffs, the craggy mountains, or (though more rarely) the drier
spots of a marsh in the northern hemisphere, as on trees (says
H. Schlegel) in the forests of Java or the waterless ravines of
Australia. In the United Kingdom it was formerly very common,
and hardly a high rock from the Shetlands to the Isle of Wight
FALCON
139
but had a pair as its tenants. But the British gamekeeper has
long held the mistaken faith that it is his worst foe, and the
number of pairs now allowed to rear their brood unmolested in
the British Islands is very small. Yet its utility to the game-
preserver, by destroying every one of his most precious wards
that shows any sign of infirmity, can hardly be questiorfed by
reason, and G. E. Freeman (Falconry) has earnestly urged its
claims to protection. 1 Nearly allied to this falcon are several
species, such as F. barbarus of Mauretania, F. minor of South
( Africa, the Asiatic F. babylonicus, F. peregrinator of India
(the shaheen), and perhaps F. cassini of South America, with
some others.
Next to the typical falcons comes a group known as the
" great northern " falcons (Hierofalco). Of these the most re-
markable is the gyrfalcon (F. gyrfalco), whose home is in the
Scandinavian mountains, though the young are yearly visitants
i to the plains of Holland and Germany. In plumage it very
much resembles F. peregrinus, but its flanks have generally a
bluer tinge, and its superiority in size is at once manifest. Nearly
allied to it is the Icelander (F. islandus), which externally differs
in its paler colouring and in almost entirely wanting the black
mandibular patch. Its proportions, however, differ a good deal,
its body being elongated. Its country is shown by its name,
but it also inhabits south Greenland, and not unfrequently
makes its way to the British Islands. Very close to this comes the
Greenland falcon (F. candicans), a native of north Greenland,
and perhaps of other countries within the Arctic Circle. Like
the last, the Greenland falcon from time to time occurs in the
United Kingdom, but it is always to be distinguished by wearing
a plumage in which at every age the prevailing colour is pure
white. In north-eastern America these birds are replaced by
a kindred form (F. labradorus), first detected by Audubon and
subsequently recognized by Dresser (Orn. Miscell. i. 135). It
is at once distinguished by its very dark colouring, the lower parts
being occasionally almost as deeply tinted at all ages as the
upper.
All the birds hitherto named possess one character in common.
The darker markings of their plumage are longitudinal before the
first real moult takes place, and for ever afterwards are transverse.
In other words, when young the markings are in the form of
stripes, when old intheformof bars. The variation of tint is very
great, especially in F. peregrinus; but the experience of falconers,
whose business it is to keep their birds in the very highest condi-
tion, shows that a falcon of either of these groups if light-coloured
in youth is light-coloured when adult, and if dark when young
is also dark when old age, after the first moult, making no
difference in the complexion of the bird. The next group is that
of the so-called " desert falcons " (Gennaea), wherein the differ-
ence just indicated does not obtain, for long as the bird may live
and often as it may moult, the original style of markings never
gives way to any other. Foremost among these are to be con-
sidered the lanner and the saker (commonly termed F. lanarius
and F. sacer), both well known in the palmy days of falconry,
but only since about 1845 readmitted to full recognition. Both
of these birds belong properly to south-eastern Europe, North
Africa and south-western Asia. They are, for their bulk, less
powerful than the members of the preceding group, and
though they may be trained to high flights are naturally
captors of humbler game. The precise number of species is-
very doubtful, but among the many candidates for recognition
are especially to be named the lugger (F. jugger) of India, and
the prairie falcon (F. mexicanus) of the western plains of North
America.
The systematist finds it hard to decide in what group he
should place two somewhat large Australian species (F. hypoleucus
1 It is not to be inferred, as many writers have done, that falcons
habitually prey upon birds in which disease has made any serious
progress. Such birds meet their fate from the less noble Accipttres
or predatory animals of many kinds. But when a bird is first
affected by any disorder, its power of taking care of itself is at once
impaired, and hence in the majority of cases it may become an eas>
victim under circumstances which would enable a perfectly sound
bird to escape from the attack even of a falcon.
and F. subniger), both of which are rare in collections the latter
especially.
A small but very beautiful group comes next the merlins 2
Aesalon of some writers, Lilhofalco of others). The European
merlin (F. aesalon) is perhaps the boldest of the Accipilres,
not hesitating to attack birds of twice its own size, and even on
FIG. 2. Merlin.
occasion threatening human beings. Yet it readily becomes tame,
if not affectionate, when reclaimed, and its ordinary prey consists
of the smaller Passer es. Its " pinion of glossy blue " has become
almost proverbial, and a deep ruddy blush suffuses its lower
parts; but these are characteristic only of the male the female
maintaining very nearly the sober brown plumage she wore
when as a nestling she left her lowly cradle in the heather. Very
close to this bird comes the pigeon-hawk (F. columbarius) of
North America so close, indeed, that none but an expert
ornithologist can detect the difference. The turumti of Anglo-
Indians (F. chicguera), and its representative from southern
Africa (F. ruficollis), also belong to this group, but they are
considerably larger than either of the former.
Lastly, the Hobbies (Hypotriorchis) comprise a greater
number of forms though how many seems to be doubtful.
FIG. 3. Hobby.
They are in life at once recognizable by their bold upstanding
position, and at any time by their long wings. The type of this
group is the English hobby (F. subbuteo), a bird of great power
of flight, chiefly shown in the capture of insects, which form its
1 French, mtrillon ; Icelandic, Smirtil.
140
FALCONE FALCONER, W.
ordinary food. It is a summer visitant to most parts of Europe,
including the British Islands, and is most wantonly and need-
lessly destroyed by gamekeepers. A second European species
of the group is the beautiful F. eleonorae, which hardly comes
farther north than the countries bordering the Mediterranean,
and, though in some places abundant, is an extremely local bird.
The largest species of this section seems to be the Neotropical
F. femoralis, for F. diroleucus though often ranked here, is now
supposed to belong to the group of typical falcons. (A. N.)
FALCONE, ANIELLO (1600-1665), Italian battle-painter, was
the son of a tradesman, and was born in Naples. He showed his
artistic tendency at an early age, received some instruction from
a relative, and then studied under Ribera (Lo Spagnoletto), of
whom he ranks as the most eminent pupil. Besides battle-
pictures, large and small, taken from biblical as well as secular
history, he painted various religious subjects, which, however,
count for little in his general reputation. He became, as a battle-
painter, almost as celebrated as Borgognone (Courtois), and was
named " L'OracolodelleBattaglie." His works have animation,
variety, truth to nature, and careful colour. Falcone was bold,
generous, used to arms, and an excellent fencer. In the insur-
rection of Masaniello (1647) he resolved to be bloodily avenged
for the death, at the hands of two Spaniards, of a nephew
and of a pupil in the school of art which he had established in
Naples. He and many of his scholars, including Salvator Rosa
and Carlo Coppola, formed an armed band named the Compagnia
delta Morte (" Company of Death "; see ROSA, SALVATOR).
They scoured the streets by day, exulting in slaughter; at night
they were painters again, and handled the brush with impetuous
zeal. Peace being restored, they had to decamp. Falcone and
Rosa made off to Rome; here Borgognone noticed the works of
Falcone, and became his friend, and a French gentleman induced
him to go to France, where Louis XIV. became one of his patrons.
Ultimately Colbert obtained permission for the painter to return
to Naples, and there he died in 1665. Two of his battle-pieces
are to be seen in the Louvre and in the Naples museum; he
painted a portrait of Masaniello, and engraved a few plates.
Among his principal scholars, besides Rosa and Coppola (whose
works are sometimes ascribed to Falcone himself) , were Domenico
Gargiuolo (named Micco Spadaro), Paolo Porpora and Andrea
di Lione.
FALCONER, HUGH (1808-1865), British palaeontologist and
botanist, descended from an old Scottish family, was born at
Forres on the 2pth of February 1808. In 1826 he graduated at
Aberdeen, where he manifested a taste for the study of natural
history. He afterwards studied medicine in the university of
Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.D. in 1829; during this
period he zealously attended the botanical classes of Prof. R.
Graham (1786-1845), and those on geology by Prof. R. Jameson.
Proceeding to India in 1830 as assistant-surgeon on the Bengal
establishment of the East India Company, he made on his
arrival an examination of the fossil bones from Ava in the
possession of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and his description
of the collection, published soon afterwards, gave him a recog-
nized position among the scientists of India. Early in 1831 he
was appointed to the army station at Meerut, in the North-
Western Provinces, but in the same year he was asked to officiate
as superintendent of the botanic garden of Saharanpur, during
the ill-health and absence of Dr J. F. Royle; and in 1832 he
succeeded to this post. He was thus placed in a district that
proved to be rich in palaeontological remains; and he set to
work to investigate its natural history and geology. In 1834 he
published a geological description of the Siwalik hills, in the
Tertiary strata of which he had in 1831 discovered bones of
crocodiles, tortoises and other animals; and subsequently, with
conjoint labourers, he brought to light a sub-tropical fossil
fauna of unexampled extent and richness, including remains of
Mastodon, the colossal ruminant Sivatherium, and the enormous
tortoise Colossochelys Alias. For these valuable discoveries he
and Captain (afterwards Sir Proby T.) Cautley (1802-1871)
received in 1837 the Wollaston medal in duplicate from the
Geological Society of London. In 1834 Falconer was appointed
to inquire into the fitness of India for the growth of the tea-
plant, and it was on his recommendation that it was introduced
into that country.
He was compelled by illness to leave India in 1842, and
during his stay in England he occupied himself with the classifica-
tion and arrangement of the Indian fossils presented to the
British Museum and East India House, chiefly by himself and
Sir Proby T. Cautley. He then set to work to edit the great
memoir by Cautley and himself, entitled Fauna Antigua Siva-
lensis, of which Part I. text was issued in 1846, and a series of
107 plates during the years 1846-1849. Unfortunately the
work, owing partly to Dr Falconer's absence from England and
partly to ill-health, was never completed. He was elected F. R. S.
in 1845. In 1847 he was appointed superintendent of the
Calcutta botanical garden, and professor of botany in the
medical college; and on entering on his duties in the following
year he was at once employed by the Indian government and the
Agricultural and Horticultural Society as their adviser on all
matters connected with the vegetable products of India. He
prepared an important report on the teak forests of Tenasserim,
and this was the means of saving them from destruction by
reckless felling; and through his recommendation the cultivation
of the cinchona bark was introduced into the Indian empire.
Being compelled by the state of his health to leave India in
1855, he spent the remainder of his life chiefly in examining
fossil species in England and the Continent corresponding to
those which he had discovered in India, notably the species of
mastodon, elephant and rhinoceros; he also described some new
mammalia from the Purbeck strata, and he reported on the
bone-caves of Sicily, Gibraltar, Gower and Brixham. In the
course of his researches he became interested in the question of
the antiquity of the human race, and actually commenced a work
on " Primeval Man," which, however, he did not live to finish.
He died on the 3ist of January 1865. Shortly after his death a
committee was formed for the promotion of a " Falconer
Memorial." This took the shape of a marble bust, which was
placed in the rooms of the Royal Society of London, and of a
Falconer scholarship of the annual value of 100, open for
competition to graduates in science or medicine of the university
of Edinburgh.
Dr Falconer's botanical notes, with 450 coloured drawings of
Kashmir and Indian plants, have been deposited in the library at
Kew Gardens, and his Palaeontological Memoirs and Notes, com-
prising all his papers read before learned societies, have been edited,
with a biographical sketch, by Charles Murchison, M.D. (London,
1868). Many reminiscences of Dr Falconer, and a portrait of him,
were published by his niece, Grace, Lady Prestwich, in her Essays
descriptive and biographical (1901).
FALCONER, WILLIAM (1732-1769), British poet, was born
in Edinburgh on the nth of February 1732. His father was a
wig-maker, and carried on business in one of the small shops
with wooden fronts at the Netherbow Port, an antique castellated
structure which remained till 1764, dividing High Street from
the Canongate. The old man became bankrupt, then tried
business as a grocer, and finally died in extreme poverty.
William, the son, having received a scanty education, was put
to sea. He served on board a Leith merchant vessel, and in his
eighteenth year obtained the appointment of second mate of the
" Britannia," a vessel employed in the Levant trade, and
sailed from Alexandria for Venice. The "Britannia" was over-
taken by a dreadful storm off Cape Colonna and was wrecked,
only three of the crew being saved. Falconer was happily one
of the three, and the incidents of the voyage and its disastrous
termination formed the subject of his poem of The Shipwreck
(1762). Meanwhile, on his return to England, Falconer, in his
nineteenth year, printed at Edinburgh an elegy on Frederick,
prince of Wales, and afterwards contributed short pieces to the
Gentleman's Magazine. Some of these descriptive and lyrical
effusions possess merit. The fine naval song of " The Storm "
(" Cease, rude Boreas "), reputed to be by George Alexander
Stevens, the dramatic writer and lecturer, has been ascribed to
Falconer, but apparently on no authority. The duke of York,
to whom The Shipwreck had been dedicated, advised Falconer
FALCONET FALCONRY
141
to enter the royal navy, and before the end of 1762 the poet*
sailor was rated as a midshipman on board the " Royal George."
But as this ship was paid off at the peace of 1763, Falconer
received an appointment as purser of the " Glory " frigate, a
situation which he held until that vessel was laid up on ordinary
at Chatham. In 1764 he published a new and enlarged edition
of The Shipwreck, and in the same year a rhymed political tirade
against John Wilkes and Charles Churchill, entitled The Dema-
gogue. In 1769 appeared his Universal Marine Dictionary, in
which retreat is denned as a French manoeuvre, " not properly
a term of the British marine." While engaged on this dictionary,
J. Murray, a bookseller in Fleet Street, father of Byron's munifi-
cent publisher and correspondent, wished him to join him as a
partner in business. The poet declined the offer, and became
purser of the " Aurora " frigate, which had been commissioned to
carry out to India certain supervisors or superintendents of the
East India Company. Besides his nomination as purser, Falconer
was promised the post of private secretary to the commissioners.
Before sailing he published a third edition of his Shipwreck,
which had again undergone " correction," but not improvement.
The poet sailed in the " Aurora " from S pithead on the zoth of
September 1769. The vessel arrived safely at the Cape of Good
Hope, and left on the 27th of December. She was never more
heard of, having, as is supposed, foundered at sea. The Ship-
wreck, the poem with which Falconer's name is connected, had
a great reputation at one time, but the fine passages which
pleased the earlier critics have not saved it from general oblivion.
See his Poetical Works in the " Aldine Edition " (1836), with a life
by J. Mitford.
FALCONET, ETIENNE MAURICE (1716-1791), French
sculptor, was born in Paris. His parents were poor, and he was
at first apprenticed to a carpenter, but some of his clay-figures,
with the making of which he occupied his leisure hours, attracted
the notice of the sculptor Lemoine, who made him his pupil.
He found time to study Greek and Latin, and also wrote several
brochures on art. His artistic productions are characterized by
the same defects as his writings, for though manifesting consider-
able cleverness and some power of imagination, they display in
many cases a false and fantastic taste, the result, most probably,
of an excessive striving after originality. One of his most
successful statues was one of Milo of Crotona, which secured his
admission to the membership of the Academy of Fine Arts in
1754. At the invitation of the empress Catherine he went in
1766 to St Petersburg, where he executed a colossal statue of
Peter the Great in bronze. In 1788 he became director of the
French Academy of Painting. Many of Falconet's works, being
placed in churches, were destroyed at the time of the French
Revolution. His " Nymphe descendant au bain " is in the Louvre.
Among his writings are Reflexions sur la sculpture (Paris, 1768),
and Observations sur la statue, de Marc-Auriile (Paris, 1771). The
whole were collected under the title of (Euvres litteraires (6 vols.,
Lausanne, 1781-1782; 3 vols., Paris, 1787).
FALCONRY (Fr. fauconnerie, from Late Lat. falco, falcon),
the art of employing falcons and hawks in the chase, often termed
Hawking. Falconry was for many ages one of the principal
sports of the richer classes, and, since many more efficacious
methods and appliances for the capture of game undoubtedly
existed, it is probable that it has always been carried on as a
pure sport. The antiquity of falconry is very great. There
appears to be little doubt that it was practised in Asia at a very
remote period, for which we have the concurrent testimony of
various Chinese and Japanese works, some of the latter being
most quaintly and yet spiritedly illustrated. It appears to
have been known in China some 2000 years B.C., and the records
of a king Wen Wang, who reigned over a province of that country
689 B.C., prove that the art was at that time in very high favour.
In Japan it appears to have been known at least 600 years B.C.,
and probably at an equally early date in India, Arabia, Persia
and Syria. Sir A. H. Layard, in his Nineveh and Babylon,
considered that in a bas-relief found by him in the ruins of
Khorsabad " there appeared to be a falconer bearing a hawk
on his wrist," from which it would appear to have been known
there some 1 700 years B.C. In all the above-mentioned countries
of Asia it is practised at the present day.
Little is known of the early history of falconry in Africa,
but from very ancient Egyptian carvings and drawings it seems
to have been known there many ages ago. It was probably also
in vogue in the countries of Morocco, Oran, Algiers, Tunis and
Egypt, at the same time as in Europe. The older writers on
falconry, English and continental, often mention Barbary and
Tunisian falcons. It is still practised in Egypt.
Perhaps the oldest records of falconry in Europe are supplied
by the writings of Pliny, Aristotle and Martial. Although their
notices of the sport are slight and somewhat vague, yet they are
quite sufficient to show clearly that it was practised in their
days between the years 384 B.C. and A.D. 40. It was probably
introduced into England from the continent about A.D. 860,
and from that time down to the middle of the 17th century
falconry was followed with an ardour that perhaps no English
sport has ever called forth, not even fox-hunting. Stringent
laws and enactments, notably in the reigns of William the
Conqueror, Edward III., Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, were
passed from time to time in its interest. Falcons and hawks
were allotted to degrees and orders of men according to rank and
station for instance, to the emperor the eagle and vulture,
to royalty the jerfalcons, to an earl the peregrine, to a yeoman the
goshawk, to a priest the sparrow-hawk, and to a knave or servant
the useless kestrel. The writings of Shakespeare furnish ample
testimony to the high and universal estimation in which it was
held in his days. About the middle of the i7th century falconry
began to decline in England, to revive somewhat at the Restora-
tion. It never, however, completely recovered its former favour,
a variety of causes operating against it, such as enclosure of
waste lands, agricultural improvements, and the introduction of
fire-arms into the sporting field, till it fell, as a national sport,
almost into oblivion. Yet it has never been even temporarily
extinct, and it is successfully practised even at the present day.
In Europe the game or " quarry " at which hawks are flown
consists of grouse (confined to the British Isles), black-game,
pheasants, partridges, quails, landrails, ducks, teal, woodcocks,
snipes, herons, rooks, crows, gulls, magpies, jays, blackbirds,
thrushes, larks, hares and rabbits. In former days geese, cranes,
kites, ravens and bustards were also flown at. Old German
works make much mention of the use of the Iceland falcon for
taking the great bustard, a flight scarcely alluded to by English
writers. In Asia the list of quarry is longer, and, in addition
to all the foregoing, or their Asiatic representatives, various
kinds of bustards, sand grouse, storks, ibises, spoonbills, pea-fowl,
jungle-fowl, kites, vultures and gazelles are captured by trained
hawks. In Mongolia and Chinese Tartary, and among the nomad
tribes of central Asia, the sport still flourishes; and though some
late accounts are not satisfactory either to the falconer or the
naturalist, yet they leave no doubt that a species of eagle is still
trained in those regions to take large game, as antelopes and
wolves. Mr Atkinson, in his account of his travels in the country
of the Amur, makes particular mention of the sport, as does also
Mr Shaw in his work on Yarkand; and in a letter from the
Yarkand embassy, under Mr Forsyth, C.B., dated Camp near
Yarkand, Nov. 27, 1873, the following passage occurs:
" Hawking appears also to be a favourite amusement, the golden
eagle taking the place of the falcon or hawk. This novel sport
seemed very successful." It is questionable whether the bird
here spoken of is the golden eagle. In Africa gazelles are taken,
and also partridges and wildfowl.
The hawks used in England are the three great northern
falcons, viz. the Greenland, Iceland and Norway falcons, the
peregrine falcon, the hobby, the merlin, the goshawk and the
sparrow-hawk. In former days the saker, the lanner and the
Barbary or Tunisian falcon were also employed. (See FALCON.)
Of the foregoing the easiest to keep, most efficient in the field,
and most suitable for general use are the peregrine falcon and
the goshawk.
In all hawks, the female is larger and more powerful than the
male.
142
FALCONRY
Hawks are divided by falconers all over the world into two
great classes. The first class comprises " falcons," i.e. " long-
winged hawks," or " hawks of the lure," distinguished by
Eastern falconers as " dark-eyed hawks." In these the wings
are pointed, the second feather in the wing is the longest, and the
iris is of a deep, dark-brown hue. Merlins must, however, be
excepted; and here it would seem that the Eastern distinction
is the better, for though merlins are much more falcons than they
are hawks, they differ from falcons in having the third feather
in the wing the longest, while they are certainly " dark-eyed
hawks."
The second class is that of " hawks," i.e. " short-winged
hawks," or " hawks of the fist," called by Eastern falconers
" yellow (or rose) eyed hawks." In these the wings are rounded,
the fourth feather is the longest in the wing, and the iris is
yellow, orange or deep-orange.
The following glossary of the principal terms used in falconry
may assist the reader in perusing this notice of the practice of
the art. Useless or obsolete terms are omitted:
Austringan. A falconer.
Bate. A hawk is said to " bate " when she flutters off from the fist,
perch or block, whether from wildness, or for exercise, or in
the attempt to chase.
Bewits. Straps of leather by which the bells are fastened to a
hawk's legs.
Bind. A hawk is said to " bind " when she seizes a bird in the
air and clings to it.
Block. The conical piece of wood, of the form of an inverted flower-
pot, used for hawks to sit upon; for a peregrine it should be
about 10 to 12 in. high, 5 to.6 in diameter at top, and 8 to 9 in
diameter at base.
Brail. A thong of soft leather used to secure, when desirable, the
wing of a hawk. It has a slit to admit the pinion joint, and the
ends are tied together.
Cadge. The wooden frame on which hawks, when numerous, are
carried to the field.
Cadger. The person who carries the cadge.
Calling off. Luring a hawk (see Lure) from the hand of an
assistant.
Carry. -A hawk is said to " carry " when she flies away with the
quarry on the approach of the falconer.
Cast. Two hawks which may be used for flying together are called
a " cast," not necessarily a pair.
Casting. The oblong or egg-shaped ball, consisting of feathers,
bones, &c., which all hawks (and insectivorous birds) throw
up after the nutritious part of their food has been digested.
Also the fur or feathers given them to assist the process.
Cere. -The naked wax-like skin above the beak.
Check. A hawk is said tc fly at " check " when she flies at a bird
other than the intended object of pursuit.
Clutching. Taking the quarry in the feet as the short-winged hawks
do. Falcons occasionally " clutch."
Come to. A. hawk is said to " come to " when she begins to get
tame.
Coping. Cutting the beak or talo.ns of a hawk.
Crab. To fight.
Creance. A long line or string.
Crop, to put away. A hawk is said to " put away her crop " when
the food passes out of the crop into the stomach.
Deck feathers. The two centre tail-feathers.
Eyas. A hawk which has been brought up from the nest (nyas,
from Fr. niais).
Eyry. The nest of a hawk.
Foot. A hawk is said to " foot " well or to be a " good footer "
when she is successful in killing. Many hawks are very fine
fliers without being " good footers."
Frounce. A disease in the mouth and throat of hawks.
Get in. To go up to a hawk when she has killed her quarry.
Hack. The state of partial liberty in which young hawks must
always at first be kept.
Haggard. A wild-caught hawk in the adult plumage.
Hood. (See fig.)
Hoodshy. A hawk is said to be " hoodshy " when she is afraid of,
or resists, having her hood put on.
Hunger trace. A mark, and a defect, in the tail feathers, denoting
a weak point; generally due to temporary starvation as a
nestling.
Imping. The process of mending broken feathers iscalled " imping."
(See fig.)
Imping needle. A piece of tough soft iron wire from about i\ to
2i in. long, rough filed so as to be three-sided and tapering
from the middle to the ends. (See fig.)
Intermewed. A hawk moulted in confinement is said to be " inter-
mewed."
Jack. Mate of the merHn.
Jerkin. Mate of the jerfalcon.
Jesses. Strips of light but very tough leather, some 6 to 8 in. long,
which always remain on a hawk's legs one on each leg. (See
fig-)
Jonk. To sleep.
Leash. A strong leathern thong, some 2! or 3 ft. long, with a knot
or button at one end, used to secure a hawk. (See fig.)
Lure. The instrument used for calling long-winged hawks a dead
pigeon, or an artificial lure made of leather and feathers or wings
of birds, tied to a string, with meat attached to it.
Mail. The breast feathers.
Make hawk. A hawk is called a " make hawk " when, as a
thoroughly trained and steady hawk, she is flown with young
ones to teach them their work.
Man a hawk. To tame a hawk and accustom her to strangers.
IWTU(Ml SIZE
Implements used in Falconry.
1. Hood. the upper ring of swivel is
2. Back view of hood, showing attached.
braces a, a, b, b ; by drawing 6. Hawk's leg with bell a, bewit
the braces b, b, the hood, b, jess c.
now open, is closed. 7. Jesses, swivel and leash.
3. Rufter hood. 8. Portion of first wing-feather
4. Imping- needle. of male peregrine falcon,
5. Jess; d is the space for the " tiercel," half natural size,
hawk's leg; the point and in process of imping; a,
slit a, a are brought round the living hawk's feather;
the leg, and passed through b, piece supplied from an-
slit j6, after which the point other tiercel, with the imp-
c and slit c, and also the ing needle c pushed half its
whole remaining length of length into it and ready to
jess, are pulled through slits be pushed home into the
a and b; c is the slit to which living bird's feather.
Mantle. A hawk is said to " mantle " when she stretches out a leg
and a wing simultaneously, a common action of hawks when
at ease; also when she spreads out her wings and feathers to
hide any quarry or food she may have seized from another
hawk, or from man. In the last case it is a fault.
Mew. A hawk is said to' " mew " when she moults. The place
where a hawk was kept to moult was in olden times called
her " mew." Buildings where establishments of. hawks were
kept were called " mews."
Musket. Male of the sparrow-hawk.
Mutes (mutings). Excrement of hawk.
Pannel. The stomach of a hawk, correpponding with the gizzard
of a fowl, is called her pannel. In it the casting is formed.
Passage. The line herons take over a tract of country on their way
to and from the heronry when procuring food in the breeding
season.
Passage hawks. Hawks captured when on their passage or
migration.
Pelt. The dead body of any quarry the hawk has killed.
Pitch. The height to which a hawk, when waiting for game to be
flushed, rises in the air.
FALCONRY
Plume. A hawk is said to " plume " a bird when she pulls off the
feathers.
Point. A hawk " makes her point " when she rises in the air over
the spot where quarry has saved itself from capture by dashing
into a hedge, or has otherwise secreted itself.
Pounces. A hawk's claws.
Pull through the hood. A hawk is said to pull through the hood
when she eats with it on.
Put in. A bird is said to " put in " when it saves itself from the
hawk by dashing into covert or other place of security.
Quarry. The bird or beast flown at.
Rake out. A hawk is said to " rake out " when she flies, while
" waiting on " (see Wait on), too far and wide from her master.
Ramage. Wild.
Red hawk. Hawks of the first year, in the young plumage, are
called " red hawks."
Ringing. A bird is said to " ring " when it rises spirally in the air.
Rufter hood. An easy fitting hood, not, however, convenient for
hooding and unhooding used only for hawks when first
captured. (See fig.)
Sails. The wings of a hawk.
Seeling. Closing the eyes by a fine thread drawn through the lid
of each eye, the threads being then twisted together above the
head a practice long disused in England.
Serving a hawk. Driving out quarry which has taken refuge, or
has " put in."
Stoop. The hawk's rapid plunge upon the quarry.
Take the air. A bird is said to " take the air " when it seeks to
escape by trying to rise higher than the falcon.
Tiercel. The male of various falcons, particularly of the peregrine,
also tarcell, tassell or tercel ; the term is also applied to the male
of the goshawk.
Trussing. A hawk is said to " truss " a bird when she catches it
in the air, and comes to the ground with it in her talons this
term is not applied to large quarry. (See Bind.)
Varvels. Small rings, generally of silver, fastened to the end of the
jesses, and engraved with the owner's name.
Wait on. A hawk is said to " wait on " when she flies above her
master waiting till game is sprung.
Weathering. Hawks are " weathered " by being placed unhooded
in the open air. Passage hawks which are not sufficiently
reclaimed to be left out by themselves unhooded on blocks are
" weathered " by being put out for an hour or two under the
falconer's eye.
Yarak. An Eastern term, generally applied to short-winged
hawks. When a hawk is keen, and in hunting condition, she
is said to be " in yarak."
The training of hawks affords much scope for judgment,
experience and skill on the part of the falconer, who must care-
fully observe the temper and disposition as well as the constitu-
tion of each bird. It is through the appetite principally that
hawks, like most wild animals, are tamed; but to fit them for use
in the field much patience, gentleness and care must be used.
Slovenly taming necessitates starving, and low condition and
weakness are the result. The aim of the falconer must be
to have his hav.'ks always keen, and the appetite when they are
brought into the field should be such as would induce the bird
in a state of nature to put forth its full powers to obtain its food,
with, as near as possible, a corresponding condition as to flesh.
The following is an outline of the process of training hawks,
beginning with the management of a wild-caught peregrine
falcon. When first taken, a rufter hood should be put on her
head, and she must be furnished with jesses, swivel, leash and
bell. A thick glove or rather gauntlet must be worn on the left
hand (Eastern falconers always carry a hawk on the right),
and she must be carried about as much as possible, late into
the night, every day, being constantly stroked with a bird's
wing or feather, very lightly at first. At night she should be
tied to a perch in a room with the window darkened, so that no
light can enter in the morning. The perch should be a padded
pole placed across the room, about 45 ft. from the ground,
with a canvas screen underneath. She will easily be induced
to feed in most cases by drawing a piece of beefsteak over her
feet, brushing her legs at the time with a wing, and now and
then, as she snaps, slipping a morsel into her mouth. Care must
be taken to make a peculiar sound with the lips or tongue, or to
use a low whistle as she is in the act of swallowing; she will very
soon learn to associate this sound with feeding, and it will be
found that directly she hears it, she will gripe with her talons,
and bend down to feel for food. When the falconer perceives
this and other signs of her " coming to," that she no longer
starts at the voice or touch, and steps quietly up from the perch
when the hand is placed under her feet, it will be time to change
her rufter hood for the ordinary hood. This latter should be very
carefully chosen an easy fitting one, in which the braces draw
closely and yet easily and without jerking. An old one previously
worn is to be recommended. The hawk should be taken into a
very dark room one absolutely dark is best and the change
should be made if possible in total darkness. After this she
must be brought to feed with her hood off; at first she must be
fed every day in a darkened room, a gleam of light being admitted.
The first day, the hawk having seized the food and begun to
pull at it freely, the hood must be gently slipped off, and after
she has eaten a moderate quantity, it must be replaced as slowly
and gently as possible, and she should be allowed to finish her
meal through the hood. Next day the hood may be twice re-
moved, and so on; day by day the practice should be continued,
and more light gradually admitted, until the hawk will feed
freely in broad daylight, and suffer the hood to be taken off and
replaced without opposition. Next she must be accustomed to
see and feed in the presence of strangers and dogs, &c. A good
plan is to carry her in the streets of a town at night, at first
where the gas-light is not strong, and where persons passing by
are few, unhooding and hooding her from time to time, but not
letting her get frightened. Up to this time she should be fed
on lean beefsteak with no castings, but as soon as she is tolerably
tame and submits well to the hood, she must occasionally be
fed with pigeons and other birds. This should be done not later
than 3 or 4 P.M., and when she is placed on her perch for the
night in the dark room, she must be unhooded and left so, of
course being carefully tied up. The falconer should enter the
room about 7 or 8 A.M. next day, admitting as little light as
possible, or using a candle. He should first observe if she has
thrown her casting; if so, he will at once take her to the fist,
giving her a bite of food, and re-hood her. If her casting is not
thrown it is better for him to retire, leaving the room quite dark,
and come in again later. She must now be taught to know the
voice the shout that is used to call her in the field and to
jump to the fist for food, the voice being used every time she is
fed. When she comes freely to the fist she must be made ac-
quainted with the lure. Kneeling down with the hawk on his
fist, and gently unhooding her, the falconer casts out a lure,
which may be either a dead pigeon or an artificial lure garnished
with beefsteak tied to a string, to a distance of a couple or three
feet in front of her. When she jumps down to it, she should be
allowed to eat a little on it the voice being used the while
receiving morsels from the falconer's hand; and before her meal
is finished she must be taken off to the hand, being induced to
forsake the lure for the hand by a tempting piece of meat.
This treatment will help to check her inclination hereafter to
carry her quarry. This lesson is to be continued till the falcon
feeds very boldly on the lure on the ground, in the falconer's
presence till she will suffer him to walk round her while she is
feeding. All this time she will have been held by the leash only,
but in the next step a strong, but light creance must be made
fast to the leash, and an assistant holding the hawk should
unhood her, as the falconer, standing at a distance of 5 to 10 yds.,
calls her by shouting and casting out the lure. Gradually day
after day the distance is increased, till the hawk will come 30 yds.
or so without hesitation; then she may be trusted to fly to the
lure at liberty, and by degrees from any distance, say 1000 yds.
This accomplished, she should learn to stoop at the lure. Instead
of allowing the hawk to seize upon it as she comes up, the falconer
should snatch the lure away and let her pass by, and immediately
put it out that she may readily seize it when she turns round to
look for it. This should be done at first only once, and then>
progressively until she will stoop backwards and forwards at the
lure as often as desired. Next she should be entered at her
quarry. Should she be intended for rooks or herons, two or three
of these birds should be procured. One should be given her
from the hand, then one should be released close to her, and a
third at a considerable distance. If she take these keenly, she
may be flown at a wild bird. Care must, however, be taken to
144
FALCONRY
let her have every possible advantage in her first flights wind
and weather, and the position of the quarry with regard to the
surrounding country, must be considered.
Young hawks, on being received by the falconer before they
can fly, must be put into a sheltered place, such as an outhouse
or shed. Their basket or hamper should be filled with straw.
A hamper is best, with the lid so placed as to form a platform
for the young hawks to come out upon to feed. This should
be fastened to a beam or prop a few feet from the ground.
The young hawks must be most plentifully fed on the best fresh
food obtainable good beefsteak and fresh-killed birds; the
falconer when feeding them should use his voice as in luring.
As they grow old enough they will come out, and perch about the
roof of their shed, by degrees extending their flights to neighbour-
ing buildings or trees, never failing to come at feeding time to
the place where they are fed. Soon they will be continually
on the wing, playing or fighting with one another, and later the
falconer will observe them chasing other birds, as pigeons and
rooks, which may be passing by. As soon as one fails to come
for a meal, it must be at once caught with a bow net or a snare
the first time it comes back, or it will be lost. It must be borne
in mind that the longer hawks can be left at hack the better they
are likely to be for use in the field those hawks being always
the best which have preyed a few times for themselves before
being caught. Of course there is great risk of losing hawks when
they begin to prey for themselves. When a hawk is so caught
she is said to be " taken up " from hack. She will not require a
rufter hood, but a good deal of the management described for
the passage falcon will be necessary. She must be carefully
tamed and broken to the hood in the same manner, and so
taught to know the lure; but, as might be expected, very much
less difficulty will be experienced. As soon as the eyas knows the
lure sufficiently well to come to it sharp and straight from a
distance, she must be taught to " wait on." This is effected
by letting the hawk loose in an open place, such as a down.
It will be found that she will circle round the falconer looking
for the lure she has been accustomed to see perhaps mount a
little in the air, and advantage must be taken of a favourable
moment when the hawk is at a little height, her head being turned
in towards the falconer, to let go a pigeon which she can easily
catch. When the hawk has taken two or three pigeons in this
way, and mounts immediately in expectation, in short, begins
to wait on, she should see no more pigeons, but be tried at game
as soon as possible. Young peregrines should be flown at
grouse first in preference to partridges, not only because the
season commences earlier, but because, grouse being the heavier
birds, they are not so much tempted to " carry " as with
partridges.
The training of the great northern falcons, as well as that of
merlins and hobbies, is conducted much on the above principles,
but the jerfalcons (gerfalcons or gyrfalcons) will seldom wait on
well, and merlins will not do it at all.
The training of short-winged hawks is a simpler process.
They must, like falcons, be provided with jesses, swivel, leash and
bell. In these hawks a bell is sometimes fastened to the tail.
Sparrow-hawks can, however, scarcely carry a bell big enough to
be of any service. The hood is seldom used for short-winged
hawks never in the field. They must be made as tame as
possible by carriage on the fist and the society of man, and taught
to come to the fist freely when required at first to jump to it in a
room, and then out of doors. When the goshawk comes freely
and without hesitation from short distances, she ought to be
called from long distances from the hand of an assistant, but not
oftener than twice in each meal, until she will come at least
1000 yds., on each occasion being well rewarded with some food
she likes very much, as a fresh-killed bird, warm. When she
does this freely, and endures the presence of strangers, dogs, &c.,
a few bagged rabbits should be given to her, and she will be ready
to take the field. Some accustom the goshawk to the use of the
lure, for the purpose of taking her if she will not come to the
fist in the field when she has taken stand in a tree after being
baulked of her quarry, but it ought not to be necessary to use it.
Falcons or long-winged hawks are either " flown out of the
hood," i.e. unhooded and slipped when the quarry is in sight,
or they are made to " wait on " till game is flushed. Herons and
rooks are always taken by the former method. Passage hawks
are generally employed for flying at these birds, though some-
times good eyases are quite equal to the work. For heron-
hawking a well-stocked heronry is in the first place necessary.
Next an open country which can be ridden over over which
herons are in the constant habit of passing to and from their
heronry on their fishing excursions, or making their " passage."
A heron found at his feeding-place at a brook or pond affords no
sport whatever. If there be little water any peregrine falcon
that will go straight at him will seize him soon after he rises.
It is sometimes advisable to fly a young falcon at a heron so
found, but it should not be repeated. If there be much water
the heron will neither show sport nor be captured. It is quite a
different affair when he is sighted winging his way at a height
in the air over an open tract of country free from water. Though
he has no chance whatever of competing with a falcon in straight-
forward flight, the heron has large concave wings, a very light
body proportionately, and air-cells in his bones, and can rise with
astonishing rapidity, more perpendicularly, or, in other words,
in smaller rings, than the falcon can, with very little effort.
As soon as he sees the approach of the falcon, which he usually
does almost directly she is cast off, he makes play for the upper
regions. Then the falcon commences to climb too to get above
him, but in a very different style. She makes very large circles
or rings, travelling at a high rate of speed, due to her strength and
weight and power of flying, till she rises above the heron. Then
she makes her attack by stooping with great force at the quarry,
sometimes falling so far below it as the blow is evaded that she
cannot spring up to the proper pitch for the next stoop, and has
to make another ring to regain her lost command over the heron,
which is ever rising, and so on the " field " meanwhile galloping
down wind in the direction the flight is taking till she seizes
the heron aloft, " binds " to him, and both come down together.
Absurd stories have been told and pictures drawn of the heron
receiving the falcon on its beak in the air. It is, however,
well known to all practical falconers that the heron has no power
or inclination to fight with- a falcon in the air; so long as he
is flying he seeks safety solely from his wings. When on the
ground, however, should the falcon be deficient in skill or
strength, or have been mutilated by the coping of her beak and
talons, as was sometimes formerly done in Holland with a view
to saving the heron's life, the heron may use his dagger-like bill
with dangerous effect, though it is very rare for a falcon to be
injured. It is never safe to fly the goshawk at a heron of any
description. Short-winged hawks do not immediately kill their
quarry as falcons do, nor do they seem to know .where the life
lies, and seldom shift their hold once taken even to defend
themselves; and they are therefore easily stabbed by a heron.
Rooks are flown in the same manner as herons, but the flight
is generally inferior. Although rooks "fly very well, they seek
shelter in trees or bushes as soon as possible.
For game-hawking eyases are generally used, though un-
doubtedly passage or wild-caught hawks are to be preferred.
The best game hawks we have seen have been passage hawks,
but there are difficulties attending the use of them. It may
perhaps be fairly said that it is easy to make all passage hawks
" wait on " in grand style, but until they have got over a season
or two they are very liable to be lost. Among the advantages
attending the use of eyases are the following: they are easier
to obtain and to train and keep; they also moult far better
and quicker than passage hawks, while if lost in the field they
will often go home by themselves, or remain about the spot
where they were liberated. Experience, and, we must add,
some good fortune also, are requisite to make eyases good for
waiting on for game. Slight mistakes on the part of the falconer,
false points from dogs, or bad luck in serving, will cause a young
hawk to acquire bad habits, such as sitting down on the ground,
taking stand in a tree^ raking out wide, skimming the ground,
or lazily flying about at no height. A good game hawk in proper
FALCONRY
flying order goes up at once to a good pitch in the air the
higher she flies the better and follows her master from field to
field, always ready for a stoop when the quarry is sprung.
Hawks that have been successfully broken and judiciously
worked become wonderfully clever, and soon learn to regulate
their flight by the movements of their master. Eyases were not
held in esteem by the old falconers, and it is evident from their
writings that these hawks have been very much better understood
and managed in the igth century than in the middle ages.
It is probable that the old falconers procured their passage
and wild-caught hawks with such facility, having at the same
time more scope for their use in days when quarry was more
abundant and there was more waste land than there now is,
that they did not find it necessary to trouble themselves about
eyases. Here may be quoted a few lines from one of the best
of the old writers, which may be taken as giving a fair account
of the estimation in which eyases were generally held, and from
which it is evident that the old falconers did not understand
flying hawks at hack. Simon Latham, writing in 1633, says of
eyases :
They will be verie easily brought to familiaritie with the man,
not in the house only, but also abroad, hooded or unhooded; nay,
many of them will be more gentle and quiet when unhooded than
when hooded, for if a man doe but stirre or speake in their hearing,
they will crie and bate as though they did desire to see the man.
Likewise some of them being unhooded, when they see the man
will cowre and crie, shewing thereby their exceeding fondness and
fawning love towards him . . .
. . . These kind of hawks be all (for the most part) taken out
of the nest while verie young, even in the downe, from whence
they are put into a close house, whereas they be alwaies fed and
familiarly brought up by the man, untill they bee able to flie, when
as the summer approaching verie suddenly they are continued
and trained up in the same, the weather being alwaies warm and
temperate; thus they are still inured to familiaritie with the man,
not knowing from whence besides to fetch their relief or sustenance.
When the summer is ended they bee commonly put up into a house
again, or else kept in some warm place, for they cannot endure the
cold wind to blow upon them. . . . But leaving to speak of these
kind of scratching hawks that I never did love should come too
neere my fingers, and to return unto the faire conditioned haggard
faulcon. . . .
The author here describes with accuracy the condition of
unhacked eyases, which no modern falconer would trouble
himself to keep. Many English falconers in modern times have
had eyases which have killed grouse, ducks and other quarry in a
style almost equalling that of passage hawks. Rooks also have
been most successfully flown, and some herons on passage have
been taken by eyases. No sport is to be had at game without
hawks that wait on well. Moors, downs, open country where
the hedges are low and weak are best suited to game hawking.
Pointers or setters may be used to find game, or the hawk may be
let go on coming to the ground where game is known to lie,
and suffered, if an experienced one, to " wait on " till game is
flushed. However, the best plan with most hawks, young ones
especially, is to use a dog, and to let the hawk go when the dog
points, and to flush the birds as soon as the hawk is at her pitch.
It is not by any means necessary that the hawk should be near
the birds when they rise, provided she is at a good height, and
that she is watching; she will come at once with a rush out of
the air at great speed, and either cut one down with the stoop,
or the bird will save itself by putting in, when every exertion
must be made, especially if the hawk be young and inexperienced,
to " serve " her as soon as possible by driving out the bird again
while she waits overhead. If this be successfully done she is
nearly certain to kill it at the second flight. Perhaps falcons
are best for grouse and tiercels for partridges.
Magpies afford much sport. Only tiercels should be used for
hunting magpies. A field is necessary at the very least 4 or 5
runners to beat the magpie out, and perhaps the presence of a
horseman is an advantage. Of course in open flight a magpie
would be almost immediately caught by a tiercel peregrine,
and there would be no sport, but the magpie makes up for his
want of power of wing by his cunning and shiftiness; and he is,
moreover, never to be found except where he has shelter under
his lee for security from a passing peregrine. Once in a hedge
or tree he is perfectly safe from the wild falcon, but the case is
otherwise when the falconer approaches with his trained tiercel,
perhaps a cast of tiercels, waiting on in the air, with some
active runners in his field. Then driven from hedge to hedge,
from one kind of shelter to another, stooped at every instant
when he shows himself ever so little away from cover by the
watchful tiercels overhead, his egg-stealing days are brought to
an end by a fatal stroke sometimes not before the field is pretty
well exhausted with running and shouting. The magpie always
manoeuvres towards some thick wood, from which it is the aim
of the field to cut him off. At first hawks must be flown in
easy country, but when they understand their work well they
will kill magpies in very enclosed country with a smart active
field a magpie may even be pushed through a small wood.
Magpie hawking affords excellent exercise, not only for those who
run to serve the hawks, but for the hawks also; they get a great
deal of flying, and learn to hunt in company with men any
number of people may be present. Blackbirds may be hunted
with tiercels in the same way. Woodcock afford capital sport
where the country is tolerably open. It will generally be found
that after a hawk has made one stoop at a woodcock, the cock
will at first try to escape by taking the air, and will show a very
fine flight. When beaten in the air it will try to get back to
covert again, but when once a hawk has outflown a woodcock,
he is pretty sure to kill it. Hawks seem to pursue woodcock
with great keenness; something in the flight of the cock tempts
them to exertion. The laziest and most useless hawks hawks
that will scarcely follow a slow pigeon will do their best at
woodcock, and will very soon, if the sport is continued, be im-
proved in their style of flying. Snipe may be killed by first-class
tiercels in favourable localities. Wild duck and teal are only to
be flown at when they can be found in small pools or brooks
at a distance from much water where the fowl can be suddenly
flushed by men or dogs while the falcon is flying at her pitch
overhead. For duck, falcons should be used; tiercels will kill
teal well.
The merlin is used for flying at larks, and there does not seem
to be any other use to which this pretty little falcon may fairly
be put. It is very active, but far from being, as some authors
have stated, the swiftest of all hawks. Its flight is greatly
inferior in speed and power to that of the peregrine. Perhaps
its diminutive size, causing it to be, soon lost to view, and a
limited acquaintance with the flight of the wild peregrine falcon,
have led to the mistake.
The hobby is far swifter than the merlin, but cannot be said
to be efficient in the field; it may be trained to wait on beauti-
fully, and will sometimes take larks; it is very much given to
the fault of " carrying."
The three great northern falcons are not easy to procure in
proper condition for training. They are very difficult to break
to the hood and to manage in the field. They are flown, like the
peregrine, at herons and rooks, and in former days were used
for kites and hares. Their style of flight is magnificent; they
are considerably swifter than the peregrine, and are a most deadly
" footers." They seem, however, to lack somewhat of the spirit
and dash of the peregrine.
For the short-winged hawks an open country is not required;
indeed they may be flown in a wood. Goshawks are flown at
hares, rabbits, pheasants, partridges and wild-fowl. Only
very strong females are able to take hares; rabbits are easy
quarry for any female goshawk, and a little too strong for the
male. A good female goshawk may Idll from 10 to 15 rabbits
in a day, or more. For pheasants the male is to be preferred,
certainly for partridges; either sex will take duck and teal,
but the falconer must get close to them before they are flushed,
or the goshawk will stand a poor chance of killing. Rabbit
hawking may be practised by ferreting, and flying the hawk
as the rabbits bolt, but care must be taken or the hawk will
kill the ferret. Where rabbits sit out on grass or in turnip fields,
a goshawk may be used with success, even in a wood when the
holes are not too near. From various causes it is impossible, or
nearly so, to have goshawks in England in the perfection to which
140
FALCONRY
they are brought in the East. In India, for instance, there is a
far greater variety of quarry suited to them, and wild birds are
much more approachable; moreover, there are advantages for
training which do not exist in England. Unmolested and
scarcely noticed except perhaps by others of his calling or tastes
the Eastern falconer carries his hawk by day and night in the
crowded bazaars, till the bird becomes perfectly indifferent to
men, horses, dogs, carriages, and, in short, becomes as tame as
the domestic animals.
The management of sparrow-hawks is much the same as that
of goshawks, but they are far more delicate than the latter.
They are flown in England at blackbirds, thrushes and other
small birds; good ones will take partridges well till the birds
get too wild and strong with the advancing season. In the East
large numbers of quail are taken with sparrow-hawks.
It is of course important that hawks from which work in the
field is expected should be kept in the highest health, and they
must be carefully fed; no bad or tainted meat must on any
account be given to them at any rate to hawks of the species
used in England. Peregrines and the great northern falcons
are best kept on beefsteak, with a frequent change in the shape
of fresh-killed pigeons and other birds. The smaller falcons,
the merlin and the hobby, require a great number of small birds
to keep them in good health for any length of time. Goshawks
should be fed like peregrines, but rats and rabbits are very good
as change of food for them. The sparrow-hawk, like the small
falcons, requires small birds. All hawks require castings fre-
quently. It is true that hawks will exist, and often appear to
thrive, on good food without castings, but the seeds of probable
injury to their health are being sown the whole time they are so
kept. If there is difficulty in procuring birds, and it is more con-
venient to feed the hawks on beefsteak, they should frequently
get the wings and heads and necks of game and poultry. In
addition to the castings which they swallow, tearing these is
good exercise for them, and biting the bones prevents the beaks
from overgrowing. Most hawks, peregrines especially, require
the bath. The end of a cask, sawn off to give a depth of about
6 in., makes a very good bath. Peregrines which are used for
waiting on require a bath at least twice a week. If this be
neglected, they will not wait long before going off in search
of water to bathe, however hungry they may be.
The most agreeable and the best way, where practicable,
of keeping hawks is to have them on blocks on the lawn. Each
hawk's block should stand in a circular bed of sand about 8 ft.
in diameter; this will be found very convenient for keeping
them clean. Goshawks are generally placed on bow perches,
which ought not to be more than 8 or 9 in. high at the highest
part of the arc. It will be several months before passage or wild-
caught falcons can be kept out of doors; they must be fastened
to a perch in a darkened room, hooded, but by degrees as they
get thoroughly tame may be brought to sit on the lawn. In
England (especially in the south) peregrines, the northern falcons
and goshawks may be kept out of doors all day and night in a
sheltered situation. In very wild boisterous weather, or in snow
or sharp frost, it will be advisable to move them to the shelter
of a shed, the floor of which should be laid with sand to a depth of
3 or 4 in. Merlins and hobbies are too tender to be kept much
out of doors. An eastern aspect is to be preferred all birds
enjoy the morning sun, and it is very beneficial to them. The
more hawks confined to blocks out of doors see of persons, dogs,
horses, &c., moving about the better, but of course only when
there is no danger of their being frightened or molested, or of
food being given to them by strangers. Those who have only
seen wretched ill-fed hawks in cages as in zoological gardens or
menageries, pining for exercise, with battered plumage, torn
shoulders and bleeding ceres, from dashing against their prison
bars, and overgrown beaks from never getting bones to break,
can have little idea of the beautiful and striking-looking birds
to be seen pluming their feathers and stretching their wings at
their ease at their blocks on the falconer's lawn, watching with
their .large bright keen eyes everything that moves in the sky
and everywhere else within the limits of their view. Contrary
to the prevailing notion, hawks show a good deal of attachment
when they have been properly handled. It is true that by
hunger they are in a great measure tamed and controlled, and
the same may be said of all undomesticated and many domesti-
cated animals. And instinct prompts all wild creatures when
away from man's control to return to their former shyness,
but hawks certainly retain their lameness for a long time, and
their memory is remarkably retentive. Wild-caught hawks have
been retaken, either by their coming to the lure or upon quarry,
from 2 to 7 days after they had been lost, and eyases after 3
weeks. As one instance of retentiveness of memory displayed by
hawks we may mention the case of a wild-caught falcon which
was recaptured after being at liberty more than 3 years, still
bearing the jesses which were cut short close to the leg at the time
she was released; in five days she was flying at the lure again
at liberty, and was found to retain the peculiar ways and habits
she was observed to have in her former existence as a trained
hawk. It is useless to bring a hawk into the field unless she has
a keen appetite; if she has not, she will neither hunt effectually
nor follow her master. Even wild-caught falcons, however,
may sometimes be seen so attached to their owner that, when
sitting on their blocks on a lawn with food in their crops, they
will on his coming out of the house bate hard to get to him, till
he either go up to them and allow them to jump up to his hand
or withdraw from their sight. Goshawks are also known to
evince attachment to their owner. Another prevailing error
regarding hawks is that they are supposed to be lazy birds,
requiring the stimulus of hunger to stir them to action. The
reverse is the truth; they are birds of very active habits, and
exceedingly restless, and the notion of their being lazy has been
propagated by those who have seen little or nothing of hawks
in their wild state. The wild falcon requires an immense deal
of exercise, and to be in wind, in order to exert the speed and
power of flight necessary to capture her prey when hungry;
and to this end instinct prompts her to spend hours daily on the
wing, soaring and playing about in the air in all weathers,
often chasing birds merely for play or exercise. Sometimes she
takes a siesta when much gorged, but unless she fills her crop
late in the evening she is soon moving again before half her
crop is put over. Goshawks and sparrow-hawks, too, habitually
soar in the air at about 9 or 10 A.M., and remain aloft a consider-
able time, but these birds are net of such active habits as the
falcons. The frequent bating of thoroughly tame hawks from
their blocks, even when not hungry or frightened, proves their
restlessness and impatience of repose. So does the wretched
condition of the caged falcon (before alluded to) , while the really
lazy buzzards and kites, which do not in a wild state depend on
activity or power of wing for their sustenance, maintain them-
selves for years, even during confinement if properly fed, in good
case and plumage. Such being the habits of the falcon in a
state of nature, the falconer should endeavour to give the hawks
under his care as much flying as possible, and he should avoid
the very common mistake of keeping too many hawks. In this
case a favoured few are sure to get all the work, and the others,
possibly equally good if they had fair play, are spoiled for want
of exercise.
The larger hawks may be kept in health and working order
for several years 15 or 20 barring accidents. The writer has
known peregrines, shaheens and goshawks to reach ages between
15 and 20 years. Goshawks, however, never fly well after 4 or
5 seasons, when they will no longer take difficult quarry; they
may be used at rabbits as long as they live. Shaheens may be
seen in the East at an advanced age, killing wild-fowl beautifully.
The shabeen is a falcon of the peregrine type, which does not
travel, like the peregrine, all over the world. It appears that
the jerfalcons also may be worked to a good age. Old Simon
Latham tells us of these birds " I myself have known one
of them an excellent Hearnor (killer of herons) , and to continue
her goodnesse very near twentie yeeres, or full out that time."
AUTHORITIES. Schlegel's Traite de fauconnerie contains a veiy
large list of works on falconry in the languages of all the principal
countries of the Old World. Bibliotheca accipitraria, by J.E.
FALDSTOOL FALGUIERE
Harting (1891), gives a complete bibliography. See Coursing and
Falconry in the Badminton Library; and The Art and Practice of
Hawking, by E. B. Michell (1900), the best modern book on the
subject. Perhaps the most useful of the old works are The Booke
of Faulconrie or Hawking, by George Turberville (1575), and The
Faulcon's Lure and Cure, by Simon Latham (1633). (E. D. R.)
FALDSTOOL (from the O.K. Ger. falden or fallen, to fold,
and stud, Mod. Ger. Stuhl, a stool; from the medieval Latin
faldistolium is derived, through the old form faudesteuil, the
Mod. Fr. fauleuil), properly a folding seat for the use of a bishop
when not occupying the throne in his own cathedral, or when
officiating in a cathedral or church other than his own; hence
any movable folding stool used for kneeling in divine service.
The small desk or stand from which the Litany is read is some-
times called a faldstool, and a similar stool is provided for the
use of the sovereign at his coronation.
FALERII [mod. Civita Castellana (q.v.)], one of the twelve
chief cities of Etruria, situated about i m. W. of the ancient
Via Flaminia, 1 32 m. N. of Rome. According to the legend, it
was of Argive origin; and Strabo's assertion that the population,
the Falisci (q.v.), were of a different race from the Etruscans is
proved by the language of the earliest inscriptions which have
been found here. Wars between Rome and the Falisci appear
to have been frequent. To one of the first of them belongs the
story of the schoolmaster who wished to betray his boys to
Camillus; the latter refused his offer, and the inhabitants
thereupon surrendered the city. At the end of the First Punic
War, the Falisci rose in rebellion, but were soon conquered
(241 B.C.) and lost half their territory. Zonaras (viii. 18) tells
us that the ancient city, built upon a precipitous hill, was
destroyed and another built on a more accessible site on the plain.
The description of the two sites agrees well with the usual
theory that the original city occupied the site of the present
Civita Castellana, and that the ruins of Falleri (as the place is
now called) are those of the Roman town which was thus trans-
ferred 3 m. to the north-west. After this time Falerii hardly
appears in history. It became a colony (Junonia Faliscorum)
perhaps under Augustus, though according to the inscriptions
apparently not until the time of Gallienus. There were bishops
of Falerii up till 1033, when the desertion of the place in favour
of the present site began, and the last mention of it dates from
A.D. 1064.
The site of the original Falerii is a plateau, about noo yds.
by 400, not higher than the surrounding country (475 ft.) but
separated from it by gorges over 200 ft. in depth, and only
connected with it on the western side, which was strongly
fortified with a mound and ditch; the rest of the city was
defended by walls constructed of rectangular blocks of tufa, of
which some remains still exist. Remains of a temple were
found at Lo Scasato, at the highest point of the ancient town,
in 1888, and others have been excavated in the outskirts. The
attribution of one of these to Juno Quiritis is uncertain. These
buildings were of wood, with fine decorations of coloured terra-
cotta (Notizie degli scam, 1887, p. 92; 1888, p. 414). Numerous
tombs hewn in the rock are visible on all sides of the town,
and important discoveries have been made in them; many
objects, both from the temples and from the tombs, are in the
Museo di Villa Giulia at Rome. Similar finds have also been
made at Calcata, 6 m. S., and Corchiano, 5 m. N.W. The site
of the Roman Falerii is now entirely abandoned. It lay upon a
road which may have been (see H. Nissen, Italische Landeskunde
ii. 361) the Via Annia, a by-road of the Via Cassia; this roac
approached it from the south passing through Nepet, while its
prolongation to the north certainly bore the name Via Amerina
The circuit of the city is about 2250 yds., its shape roughly
triangular, and the walls are a remarkably fine and well-preservec
specimen of Roman military architecture. They are constructed
1 The Roman town lay 3 m. farther N.W. on the Via Annia. The
Via Flaminia, which did not traverse the Etruscan city, had two
post-stations near it, Aquaviva, some 2j m. S.E., and Aequum
Faliscum, 4! m. N.N.E. ; the latter is very possibly identical witl
the Etruscan site which G. Dennis (Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria
London, 1883, i. 121) identified with Fescennium (q.v.). Se<
O. Cuntz in Jahreshefte des osterr. arch. Inst. ii. (1899), 87.
}f rectangular blocks of tufa two Roman ft. in height; the
walls themselves reach in places a height of 56 ft. and are 7 to
9 ft. thick. There were about 80 towers, some 50 of which are
till preserved. Two of the gates also, of which there were eight,
are noteworthy. Of the buildings within the walls hardly any-
hing is preserved above ground, though the forum and theatre
as also the amphitheatre, the arena of which measured 180 by
108 ft. outside the walls) were all excavated in the I9th century.
Almost the only edifice now standing is the 12th-century abbey
church of S. Maria. Recent excavations have shown that the
plan of the whole city could easily be recovered, though the
>uilding3 have suffered considerable devastation (Notizie degli
scavi, 1903, 14).
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883), i.
97 ; for philology and ethnology see FALISCI. (T. As.)
FALERIO (mod. Falerone), an ancient town of Picenum, Italy,
about 10 m. S.E. of Urbs Salvia. We know almost nothing of
:he place except from inscriptions, from which, and from the
remains of its buildings, it appears to have been of some import-
ance. It was probably founded as a colony by Augustus after
lis victory at Actium. A question arose in the time of Domitian
Detween the inhabitants of Falerio and Firmum as to land '
which had been taken out of the territory of the latter (which
was recolonized by the triumvirs), and, though not distributed
to the new settlers, had not been given back again to the people
of Firmum. The emperor, by a rescript, a copy of which in
bronze was found at Falerio, decided in favour of the people of
Falerio, that the occupiers of this land should remain in possession
of it (Th. Mommsen in Corp. Inscr. Latin, ix., Berlin, 1883,
No. S, 420). Considerable remains of a theatre in concrete
faced with brickwork, erected, according to an inscription,
in 43 B.C., and 161 ft. in diameter, were excavated in 1838
and are still visible; and an amphitheatre, less well preserved,
also exists, the arena of which measures about 180 by 150 ft.
Between the two is a water reservoir (called Bagno della Regina)
connected with remains of baths.
See G. de Minicis in Giornale Arcadico, Iv. (1832), 160 seq.;
Annali dell' Istituto (1839), 5 seq. (T. As.)
FALGUIERE, JEAN ALEXANDRE JOSEPH (1831-1900),
French sculptor and painter, was born at Toulouse. A pupil of
the Ecole des Beaux Arts he won the Prix de Rome in 1859; he
was awarded the medal of honour at the Salon in 1868 and was
appointed officer of the Legion of Honour in 1878. His first
bronze statue of importance was the " Victor of the Cock-Fight "
(1864), and " Tarcisus the Christian Boy-Martyr " followed in
1867; both are now in the Luxembourg Museum. His more
important monuments are those to Admiral Courbet (1890) at
Abbeville and the famous " Joan of Arc." Among more ideal
work are " Eve " (1880), " Diana " (1882 and 1891), " Woman
and Peacock," and " The Poet," astride his Pegasus spreading
wings for flight. His " Triumph of the Republic " (1881-1886),
a vast quadriga for the Arc de Triomphe, Paris, is perhaps more
amazingly full of life than others of his works, all of which
reveal this quality of vitality in superlative degree. To these
works should be added his monuments to " Cardinal Lavigerie "
and " General de La Fayette " (the latter in Washington),
and his statues of " Lamartine " (1876) and " St Vincent de
Paul " (1879), as well as the " Balzac," which he executed for the
Societe des gens de leltres on the rejection of that by Rodin;
and the busts of " Carolus-Duran " and " Coquelin cadet "
(1896).
Falguiere was a painter as well as a sculptor, but somewhat
inferior in merit. He displays a fine sense of colour and tone,
added to the qualities of life and vigour that he instils into his
plastic work. His " Wrestlers " (1875) and " Fan and Dagger "
(1882; a defiant Spanish woman) are in the Luxembourg, and
other pictures of importance are " The Beheading of St John
the Baptist " (1877), " The Sphinx " (1883), " Acis and Galatea "
(1885), "Old Woman and Child" (1886) and "In the Bull
Slaughter-House." He became a member of the Institute
(Academic des Beaux-Arts) in 1882. He died in 1000.
See Leonce Benedite, Alexandre Falguiere, Librairie de lart
(Paris).
148
FALIERO FALK
FALIERO (or FALIER), MARINO (1279-1355), doge of Venice,
belonged to one of the oldest and most illustrious Venetian
families and had served the republic with distinction in various
capacities. In 1346 he commanded the Venetian land forces
at the siege of Zara, where he was attacked by the Hungarians
under King Louis the Great and totally defeated them; this
victory led to the surrender of the city. In September 1354,
while absent on a mission to Pope Innocent IV. at Avignon,
Faliero was elected doge, an honour which apparently he had
not sought. His reign began, as it was to end, in disaster, for
very soon after his election the Venetian fleet was completely
destroyed by the Genoese off the island of Sapienza, while plague
and a declining commerce aggravated the situation. Although a
capable commander and a good statesman, Faliero possessed a
violent temper, and after his election developed great ambition.
The constitutional restrictions of the ducal power, which had been
further curtailed just before his election, and the insolence of
the nobility aroused in him a desire to free Himself from all
control, and the discontent of the arsenal hands at their treat-
ment by the nobles offered him his opportunity. In concert, with
a sea-captain named Bertuccio Ixarella (who had received a
blow from the noble Giovanni Dandolo), Filippo Calendario, a
stonemason, and others, a plot was laid to murder the chief
patricians on the isth of April and proclaim Faliero prince of
Venice. But there was much ferment in the city and disorders
broke out before the appointed time; some of the conspirators
having made revelations, the Council of Ten proceeded to arrest
the ringleaders and to place armed guards all over the town.
Several of the. conspirators were condemned to death and others
to various terms of imprisonment. The doge's complicity
having been discovered, he was himself arrested; at the trial
he confessed everything and was condemned and executed on
the lyth of April 1355.
The story of the insult written by Michele Steno on the doge's
chair is a legend of which no record is found in any contemporary
authority. The motives of Faliero are not altogether clear, as
his past record, even in the judgment of the poet Petrarch,
showed him as a wise, clear-headed man of no unusual ambition.
But possibly the attitude of the aristocracy and th'e example
offered by the tyrants of neighbouring cities may have induced
him to attempt a similar policy. The only result of the plot
was to consolidate the power of the Council of Ten.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. An account of Marino Faliero's reign is given
in S. Romania's Storia documentata di Venezia, lib. ix. cap. ii. (Venice,
1855) ; M. Sanudo, Le Vile dei Dogi in new edition of Muratori fasc.,
3, 4, 5 (Citta di Castello, 1900). For special works see V. Lazzerini's
Genealogia d. M. Faliero " in the Archivio Veneto of 1892; " M.
Faliero avanti il Dogado," ibid. (1893), and his exhaustive study
" M.Faliero,laCongiura,"i6i(i. (1897). The jnost recent essay on the
subject is contained in Horatio Brown's Studies in Venetian History
(London, 1907), wherein all the authorities are set forth. (L. V.*)
FALISCI, a tribe of Sabine origin or connexions, but speaking
a dialect closely akin to Latin, who inhabited the town of Falerii
(q.ii.), as well as a considerable tract of the surrounding country,
probably reaching as far south as to include the small town of
Capena. But at the beginning of the historical period, i.e. from
the beginning of the 5th century B.C., and no doubt earlier,
the dominant element in the town was Etruscan; and all through
the wars of the following centuries the town was counted a
member, and sometimes a leading member, of the Etruscan
league (cf. Livy iv. 23, v. 17, vii. 17).
In spite of the Etruscan domination, the Faliscans preserved
many traces of their Italic origin, such as the worship of the
deities Juno Quiritis (Ovid, Fasti, vi. 49) and Feronia (Livy
xxvi. n), the cult of Dit Soranus by the Hirpi or fire-leaping
priests on Mount Soracte (Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. 2, 19; Servius,
ad Aen. xi. 785, 787), above all their language. This is preserved
for us in some 36 short inscriptions, dating from the 3rd and 2nd
centuries B.C., and is written in a peculiar alphabet derived
from the Etruscan, and written from right to left; but showing
some traces of the influence of the Latin alphabet. Its most
characteristic signs are
I
As a specimen of the dialect may be quoted the words written
round the edge of a picture on a patera, the genuineness of which
is established by the fact that they were written before the glaze
was put on: " foied vino pipafo, era carefo," i.e. in Latin " hodie
vinum bibam, eras carebo " (R. S. Conway, Italic Dialects, p.
312, b). This shows some of the phonetic characteristics of the
Faliscan dialect, viz.:
1. The retention of medial f which in Latin became b;
2. The representation of an initial Ind.-Eur. gh by/ (joied, contrast
Latin hodie) ;
3. The palatalization of d-\- consonant i into some sound denoted
merely by i the central sound of foied, from fa-died;
4. The loss of final s, at all events before certain following sounds
(era beside Latin eras) ;
Other characteristics, appearing elsewhere, are :
5. The retention of the velars (Fal. cuando = Latin quando ; contrast
LJmbrian pan(n?u) ;
6. The assimilation of some final consonants to the initial letter
of the next word: " pretod de zenatuo sententiad (Conway, lib.
cit. 321), i.e. " praetor de senatus sententia " (zenatuo for senaiuos.,
an archaic genitive). For further details see Conway, ib. pp. 370 ff.,
especially pp. 384-385, where the relation of the names Falisci, Falerii
to the local hero Halaesus (e.g. Ovid, Fasti, iv. 73) is discussed, and
where reason is given for thinking that the change of initial / (from
an original bh or dh) into an initial h was a genuine mark of Faliscan
dialect.
It seems probable' that the dialect lasted on, though being
gradually permeated with Latin, till at least 150 B.C.
In addition to the remains found in the graves (see FALERII),
which belong mainly to the period of Etruscan domination and
give ample evidence of material prosperity and refinement,
the earlier strata have yielded more primitive remains from the
Italic epoch. A large number of inscriptions consisting mainly
of proper names may be regarded as Etruscan rather than
Faliscan, and they have been disregarded in the account of the
dialect just given. It should perhaps be mentioned that there
was a town Feronia in Sardinia, named probably after their
native goddess by Faliscan settlers, from some of whom we have a
votive inscription found at S. Maria di Falleri(Conway, ib. p. 335).
Further information may be sought from W. Deecke, Die Falisker
(a useful but somewhat uncritical collection of the evidence access-
ible in 1888); E. Bormann, in C.I.L. xi. pp. 465 ff., and Conway,
op. cit. (R. S. C.)
FALK, JOHANN DANIEL (1768-1826), German author and
philanthropist, was born at Danzig on the 28th of October 1768.
After attending the gymnasium of his native town, he entered the
university of Halle with the view of studying theology, but
preferring a non-professional life, gave up his theological studies
and went to live at Weimar. There he published a volume of
satires which procured him the notice and friendship of Wieland,
and admission into literary circles. After the battle of Jena,
Falk, on the recommendation of Wieland, was appointed to a
civil post under the French official authorities and rendered his
townsmen such good service that the duke of Weimar created
him a counsellor of legation. In 1813 he established a society
for friends in necessity (Gesellschaft der Freunde in der Not),
and about the same time founded an institute for the care and
education of neglected and orphan children, which, in 1829, was
taken over by the state and still exists as the Falksches Institul.
The first literary efforts of Falk took the form chiefly of satirical
poetry, and gave promise of greater future excellence than was
ever completely fulfilled; his later pieces, directed more against
individuals than the general vices and defects of society, gradu-
ally degenerated in quality. In 1806 Falk founded a critical
journal under the title of Elysium und Tartarus. He also
contributed largely to contemporary journals. He enjoyed the
acquaintance and intimate friendship of Goethe, and his account
of their intercourse was posthumously published' under the
title Goethe aus naherem personlichen Umgange dargestellt (1832)
(English by S. Austin). Falk died on the i4th of February 1826.
Falk's Satirische Werke appeared in 7 vols. (1817 and 1826); his
Auserlesene Schriften (3 vols., 1819). See Johannes Falk: Erinnerungs-
blatter aus Briefen und Tagebiichern, gesammelt von dessen Tochter
Rosalie Falk (1868); Heinzelmann, Johannes Falk und die Gesell-
schaft der Freunde in der Not (1879); A. Stein, J. Falk (1881);
S. Schultze, Falk und Goethe (1900).
FALK FALKLAND
149
FALK, PAUL LUDWIG ADALBERT (1827-1900), German
politician, was born at Matschkau, Silesia, on the loth of August
1827. In 1847 he entered the Prussian state service, and in
1853 became public prosecutor at Lyck. In 1858 he was elected
a deputy, joining the Old Liberal party. In 1868 he became a
privy-councillor in the ministry of justice. In 1872 he was made
minister of education, and in connexion with Bismarck's policy
of the Kultur-kampf he was responsible for the famous May
Laws against the Catholics (see GERMANY: History). In 1879
his position became untenable, owing to the death of Pius IX.
and the change of German policy with regard to the Vatican,
and he resigned his office, but retained his seat in the Reichstag
till 1882. He was then made president of the supreme court of
justice at Hamm, where he died in 1900.
FALKE, JOHANN FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB (1823-1876),
German historian, was born at Ratzeburg on the 2oth of April
1823. Entering the university of Erlangen in 1843, he soon
began to devote his attention to the history of the German
language and literature, and in 1848 went to Munich, where he
remained five years, and diligently availed himself of the use
of the government library for the purpose of prosecuting his
historical studies. In 1856 he was appointed secretary of the
German museum at Nuremberg, and in 1859 keeper of the manu-
scripts. With the aid of the manuscript collections in the
museum he now turned his attention chiefly to political history,
and, with Johann H. Miiller, established an historical journal
under the name of Zeitschrift fiir deutsche Kulturgeschichte (4 vols.,
Nuremberg, 1856-1859). To this journal he contributed a history
of German taxation and commerce. On the latter subject he
pubh'shed separately Geschichle des deutschen Har.dels (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1850-1860) and Die Hansa ah deutsche See-und Handels-
machl (Berlin, 1862). In 1862 he was appointed secretary of the
state archives at Dresden, and, a little later, keeper. He there
began the study of Saxon history, still devoting his attention
chiefly to the history of commerce and economy, and published
Die Geschichte des Kurfursten August von Sachsen in volks-
ivirthschaftlicher Beziehung (Leipzig, 1868) and Geschichte des
deutschen Zollwesens (Leipzig, 1869). He died at Dresden on the
2nd of March 1876.
FALKIRK, a municipal and police burgh of Stirlingshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1891) 19,769; (1901) 29,280. It is situated
on high ground overlooking the fertile Carse of Falkirk, n m.
S.E. of Stirling, and about midway between Edinburgh and
Glasgow. Grangemouth, its port, lies 3 m. to the N.E., and the
Forth & Clyde Canal passes to the north, and the Union Canal
to the south of the town. Falkirk now comprises the suburbs
of Laurieston (E.), Grahamston and Bainsford (N.), and Camelon
(W.). The principal structures include the burgh and county
buildings, town hall, the Dollar free library and Camelon fever
hospital. The present church, with a steeple 146 ft. high, dates
only from 181 1. In the churchyard are buried Sir John Graham,
Sir John Stewart who fell in the battle of 1298, and Sir Robert
Munro and his brother, Dr Duncan Munro, killed in the battle
of 1746. The town is under the control of a council with provost
and bailies, and combines with Airdrie, Hamilton, Lanark and
Linlithgow (the Falkirk group of burghs) to return a member to
parliament. The district is rich in coal and iron, which supply
the predominant industries, Falkirk being the chief seat of the
light casting trade in Scotland; but tanning, flour-milling,
brewing, distilling and the manufacture of explosives (Nobel's)
and chemicals are also carried on. Trysts or sales of cattle,
sheep and horses are held thrice a year (August, September and
October) on Stenhousemuir, 3 m. N.W. They were transferred
hither from Crieff in 1770, and were formerly the most important
in the kingdom, but have to a great extent been replaced by
the local weekly auction marts. Carron, 2 m. N.N.W., is famous
for the iron- works established in 1760 by Dr John Roebuck
(1718-1794), whose advising engineers were successively John
Smeaton and James Watt. The short iron guns of large calibre
designed by General Robert Melville, and first cast in 1779,
were called carronades from this their place of manufacture.
Falkirk is a town of considerable antiquity. Its original name
was the Gaelic Eaglais breac, " church of speckled or mottled
stone," which Simeon of Durham (fl. 1130) transliterated as
Egglesbreth. By the end of the i3th century appears the form
Faukirke (the present local pronunciation), which is merely a
translation of the Gaelic fau orfaw, meaning " dun," " pale red."
The first church was built by Malcolm Canmore (d. 1093).
Falkirk was made a burgh of barony in 1600 and a burgh of
regality in 1646, but on the forfeiture of the earl of Linlithgow
in 1715, its superiority was vested in the crown. Callender
House, immediately to the S., was the seat of the earl and his
ancestors. The mansion was visited by Queen Mary, captured
by Cromwell, and occupied by Generals Monk and Hawley. The
wall of Antoninus ran through the grounds, and the district is
rich in Roman remains, Camelon, about 2 m. W., being the
site of a Roman settlement; Merchiston Hall, to the N.W.,
was the birthplace of Admiral Sir Charles Napier. The eastern
suburb of Laurieston was first called Langtoune, then Merchis-
town, and received its present name after Sir Lawrence Dundas
of Kerse, who had promoted its welfare. At Polmont, farther
east, which gives the title of baron to the duke of Hamilton,
is the school of Blair Lodge, besides coal-mines and other
industries.
Bailies of Falkirk. The battle of the 22nd of July 1298 was
fought between the forces of King Edward I. of England and
those of the Scottish national party under Sir William Wallace.
The latter, after long baffling the king's attempts to bring him to
battle, had taken up a strong position south of the town behind
a morass. They were formed in four deep and close masses
(" schiltrons ") of pikemen, the light troops screening the front
and flanks and a body of men-at-arms standing in reserve. It
was perhaps hoped that the English cavalry would plunge into
the morass, for no serious precautions were taken as to the
flanks, but in any case Wallace desired no more than to receive
an attack at the halt, trusting wholly to his massed pikes. The
English right wing first appeared, tried the morass in vain, and
then set out to turn it by a long detour; the main battle under the
king halted in front of it, while the left wing under Antony Bee,
bishop of Durham, was able to reach the head of the marsh
without much delay. Once on the enemy's side of the obstacle
the bishop halted to wait for Edward, who was now following him,
but his undisciplined barons, shouting " 'Tis not for thee, bishop,
to teach us war. Go say mass ! " drove off the Scottish archers
and men-at-arms and charged the nearest square of pikes,
which repulsed them with heavy losses. On the other flank the
right wing, its flank march completed, charged with the same
result. But Edward, who had now joined the bishop with the
centre or "main battle," peremptorily ordered the cavalry to
stand fast, and, taught by his experience in the Welsh wars,
brought up his archers. The longbow here scored its first victory
in a pitched battle. Before long gaps appeared in the close ranks
of pike heads, and after sufficient preparation Edward again
launched his men-at-arms to the charge. The shaken masses
then gave way one after the other, and the Scots fled in all
directions.
The second battle of Falkirk, fought on the I7th of January
1746 between the Highlanders under Prince Charles and the
British forces under General Hawley, resulted in the defeat
of the latter. It is remarkable only for the bad conduct of the
British dragoons and the steadiness of the infantry. Hawley
retreated to Linlithgow, leaving all his baggage, 700 prisoners
and seven guns in the enemy's hands.
FALKLAND, LUCIUS CARY, 2nd VISCOUNT (c. 1610-1643),
son of Sir Henry Gary, afterwards ist Viscount Falkland (d.
1633), a member of an ancient Devonshire family, who was lord
deputy of Ireland from 1622 to 1629, and of Elizabeth (1585-
1639), only daughter of Sir Lawrence Tanfield, chief baron of
the exchequer, was born either in 1609 or 1610, and was educated
at Trinity College, Dublin. In 1625 he inherited from his
grandfather the manors of Great Tew and Burford in Oxford-
shire, and, about the age of 21, married Lettice, daughter of
Sir Richard Morrison, of Tooley Park in Leicestershire. Involved
in a quarrel with his father, whom he failed to propitiate by
FALKLAND
offering to hand over to him his estate, he left England to take
service in the Dutch army, but soon returned. In 1633, by the
death of his father, he became Viscount Falkland. His mother
had embraced the Roman Catholic faith, to which it was now
sought to attract Falkland himself, but his studies and reflections
led him, under the influence of Chillingworth, to the interpreta-
; tion of religious problems rather by reason than by tradition
or authority. At Great Tew he enjoyed a short but happy
period of study, and he assembled round him many gifted and
learned men, whom the near neighbourhood of the university
and his own brilliant qualities attracted to his house. He was
the friend of Hales and Chillingworth, was celebrated by Jonson,
Suckling, Cowley and Waller in verse, and in prose by Clarendon,
who is eloquent in describing the virtues and genius of the
" incomparable " Falkland, and draws a delightful picture of
his society and hospitality.
Falkland's intellectual pleasures, however, were soon inter-
rupted by war and politics. He felt it his duty to take part on
the king's side as a volunteer under Essex in the campaign of
1639 against the Scots. In 1640 he was returned for Newport
in the Isle of Wight to the Short and Long Parliaments, and took
an active part on the side of the opposition. He spoke against
the exaction of shipmoney on the 7th of December 1640, denoun-
cing the servile conduct of Lord Keeper Finch and the judges. 1
He supported the prosecution of Strafford, at the same time
endeavouring on more than one occasion to moderate the
measures of the Commons in the interests of justice, and voted
for the third reading of the attainder on the 2ist of April 1641.
On the great question of the church he urged, in the debate of
the 8th of February 1641, that the interference of the clergy in
secular matters, the encroachments in jurisdiction of the spiritual
courts, and the imposition by authority of unnecessary cere-
monies, should be prohibited. On the other hand, though he
denied that episcopacy existed jure divino, he was opposed to its
abolition; fearing the establishment of the Presbyterian system,
which in Scotland had proved equally tyrannical. Triennial
parliaments would be sufficient to control the bishops, if they
meditated any further attacks upon the national liberties, and
he urged that " where it is not necessary to change, it is necessary
not to change." Even Hampden still believed that a compromise
with the episcopal principle was possible, and assured Falkland
that if the bill taken up to the Lords on the ist of May 1641,
excluding the bishops from the Lords and the clergy from secular
offices, were passed, " there would be nothing more attempted
to the prejudice of the church." Accordingly the bill was
supported by Falkland. The times, however, were not favourable
to compromise. The bill was lost in the Lords, and on the 2;th
of May the Root and Branch Bill, for the total abolition of
episcopacy, was introduced in the House of Commons. This
measure Falkland opposed, as well as the second bill for excluding
the bishops, introduced on the 2ist of October. In the discussion
on the Grand Remonstrance he took the part of the bishops and
the Arminians. He was now opposed to the whole policy of the
opposition, and, being reproached by Hampden with his change
of attitude, replied " that he had formerly been persuaded by
that worthy gentleman to believe many things which he had
since found to be untrue, and therefore he had changed his
opinion in many particulars as well as to things as to persons." 2
On the ist of January 1642, immediately before the attempted
arrest of the five members, of which, however, he was not
cognizant, he was offered by the king the secretaryship of state,
and was persuaded by Hyde to accept it, thus becoming involved
directly in the king's policy, though evidently possessing little
influence in his counsels. He was one of the peers who signed
the protestation against making war, at York on the i sth of June
1642. On the 5th of September he carried Charles's overtures
for peace to the parliament, when he informed the leaders of the
opposition that the king consented to a thorough reformation
of religion. The secret correspondence connected with the
Waller plot passed through his hands. He was present with the
1 His speeches are in the Thomason Tracts, E 196 (9), (26), (36).
* Clarendon's Hist. iv. 94, note.
king at Edgehill and at the siege of Gloucester. By this time
the hopelessness of the situation had completely overwhelmed
him. The aims and principles of neither party in the conflict
could satisfy a man of Falkland's high ideals and intellectual
vision. His royalism could not suffer the substitution, as the
controlling power in the state, of a parliament for the monarchy,
nor his conservatism the revolutionary changes in church and
state now insisted upon by the opposite faction. The fatal
character and policy of the king, the most incapable of men
and yet the man upon whom all depended, must have been by
now thoroughly understood by Falkland. Compromise had long
been out of the question. The victory of either side could only
bring misery; and the prolongation of the war was a prospect
equally unhappy. Nor could Falkland find any support or
consolation in his own inward convictions or principles. His
ideals and hopes were now destroyed, and he had no definite
political convictions such as inspired and strengthened Strafford
and Pym. In fact his sensitive nature shrank from contact
with the practical politics of the day and prevented his rise to
the place of a leader or a statesman. Clarendon has recorded
his final relapse into despair. " Sitting amongst his friends,
often, after a deep silence and frequent sighs (he) would with a
shrill and sad accent ingeminate the word Peace, Peace, and
would passionately profess that the very agony of the war,
and the view of the calamities and desolation the kingdom did
and must endure, took his sleep from him and would shortly
break his heart." At Gloucester he had in vain exposed himself
to risks. On the morning of the battle of Newbury, on the 2oth
of September 1643, he declared to his friends, who would have
dissuaded him from taking part in the fight, that " he was weary
of the times and foresaw much misery to his own Country and
did believe he should be out of it ere night." 3 He served during
the engagement as a volunteer under Sir John Byron, and,
riding alone at a gap in a hedge commanded by the enemy's fire,
was immediately killed.
His death took place at the early age of 33, which should be
borne in mind in every estimate of his career and character.
He was succeeded in the title by his eldest son Lucius, 3rd
Viscount Falkland, his male descent becoming extinct in the
person of Anthony, 5th viscount, in 1694, when the viscounty
passed to Lucius Henry (1687-1730), a descendant of the first
viscount, and the present peer is his direct descendant.
Falkland wrote a Discourse of Infallibility, published in 1646
(Thomason Tracts, E 361 [i]), reprinted in 1650, in 1651 (E 634
[i]) ed. by Triplet with replies, and in 1660 with the addition
of two discourses on episcopacy by Falkland. This is a work
of some importance in theological controversy, the general argu-
ment being that " to those who follow their reason in the inter-
pretation of the Scriptures God will either give his grace for
assistance to find the truth or his pardon if they miss it. And
then this supposed necessity of an infallible guide (with the
supposed damnation for the want of it) fall together to the
ground." Also A Letter ... jo Sept. 1642 concerning the late
conflict before Worcester (1642); and Poems, in which he shows
himself a follower of Ben Jonson, edited by A. B. Grosart in
Miscellanies of the Fuller Worthies Library, vol. iii. (1871).
The chief interest in Falkland does not lie in his writings or in
the incidents of his career, but in his character and the distinction
of his intellectual position, in his isolation from his contemporaries
seeking reformation in the inward and spiritual life of the church
and state and not in its outward and material form, and as the
leader and chief of rationalism in an age dominated by violent
intolerance and narrow dogmatism. His personal appearance,
according to Clarendon, was insignificant, " in no degree attrac-
tive or promising. His stature was low and smaller than most
men; his motion not graceful ... but that little person and
small stature was quickly found to contain a great heart. . .
all mankind could not but admire and love him." 4
AUTHORITIES. There is a Life and Times by T. A. R. Marriott
(1907); see also S. R. Gardiner's Hist, of England; Hist, of the
Civil War; the same author's article in the Diet, of Nat. Biography
3 Whitelocke, p. 73.
Life, i. 37.
FALKLAND FALKLAND ISLANDS
and references there given; Clarendon's Hist, of the Rebellion,
passim and esp. vii. 217-234; Clarendon's Life; Rational Theology
... in the i^th Century, by John Tulloch (1874), ' 7^; Life of
Lady Falkland from a MS. in the imperial library at Lille (1861);
Life of the same by Lady Georgiana Fullerton (1883) ; Jonson's Ode
Pindaric to the memory and friendship of . . . Sir Lucius Gary and
Sir Henry Morrison; W. J. Courthope, History of English Poetry
(1903), iii. 291; Life of Falkland, by W. H. Trale in the English-
man's Library, vol. 22 (1842); D. Lloyd, Memoires (1668), -531;
and the Life of Falkland, by Lady M. T. Lewis in Lives of the
Friends . . . of Lord Chancellor Clarendon, vol. i. p. 3. John
Duncan's account of Lettice, Lady Falkland, was edited in 1908 by
M. F. Howard. (P. C. Y.)
FALKLAND, a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 809. It is situated at the northern base of the
hill of East Lomond (1471 ft. high), 25 m. from Falkland
Road station (with which there is communication by 'bus), on
the North British railway company's main line to Dundee,
21 m. N. of Edinburgh as the crow flies. It is an old-world-
looking place, many of the ancient houses still standing. Its
industries are chiefly concerned with the weaving of linen and
the brewing of ale, for which it was once specially noted; and
it has few public buildings save the town hall. The palace of
the Stuarts, however more beautiful than Holyrood and quite
as romantic lends the spot its fame and charm. The older
edifice that occupied this site was a hunting-tower of the Mac-
duffs, earls of Fife, and was transferred with the earldom in 1371
to Robert Stewart, earl of Fife and Menteith, afterwards duke
of Albany, second son of Robert II. Because of his father's
long illness and the incapacity of Robert III., his brother Albany
was during many years virtual ruler of Scotland, and, in the hope
of securing the crown, caused the heir-apparent David, duke
of Rothesay to be conveyed to the castle by force and there
starved to death, in 1402. The conversion of the Thane's tower
into the existing palace was begun by James III. and completed
in 1538. The western part had two round towers, similar to
those at Holyrood, which were also built by James V., and the
southern elevation was ornamented with niches and statues,
giving it a close resemblance to the Perpendicular style of the
semi-ecclesiastical architecture of England. The palace soon
became the favourite summer residence of the Stuarts. From it
James V. when a boy fled to Stirling by night from the custody
of the earl of Angus, and in it he died in 1542.
Here, too, Queen Mary spent some of her happiest days,
playing the country girl in its parks and woods. When the court
was held at Falkland the Green was the daily scene of revelry
and dance, and " To be Falkland bred " was a proverb that then
came into vogue to designate a courtier. James VI. delighted
in the palace and especially in the deer. He upset the schemes
of the Gowrie conspirators by escaping from Falkland to St
Andrews, and it was while His Majesty was residing in the
palace that the fifth earl of Bothwell, in 1592, attempted to
kidnap him. In September 1 596 an intensely dramatic interview
took place in the palace between the king and Andrew Melville
and other Presbyterian ministers sent by the general assembly
at Cupar to remonstrate with him on allowing the Roman
Catholic lords to return to Scotland. In 1654 the eastern wing
was accidentally destroyed by fire, during its tenancy by the
soldiers of Cromwell, by whose orders the fine old oaks in the
park were cut down for the building of a fort at Perth. Even
in its neglected state the mansion impressed Defoe, who declared
the Scottish kings owned more palaces than their English
brothers. In 1715 Rob Roy garrisoned the palace and failed
not to levy dues on the burgh and neighbourhood. Signs of
decay were more evident when Thomas Carlyle saw it, for he
likened it to "a black old bit of coffin or protrusive shin-bone
striking through the soil of the dead past." But a munificent
protector at length appeared in the person of the third marquess
of Bute, who acquired the estate and buildings in 1888, and forth-
with undertook the restoration of the palace.
Falkland became a royal burgh in 1458 and its charter was
renewed in 1595, and before the earlier date it had been a seat
of the Templars. It gives the title of viscount to the English family
of Gary, the patent having been granted in 1620 by James VI.
The town's most distinguished native was Richard Cameron,
the Covenanter. His house a three-storeyed structure with
yellow harled front and thatched roof still stands on the south
side of the square in the main street. The Hackstons of Rathillet
also had a house in Falkland.
FALKLAND ISLANDS (Fr. Malouines; Span. Malmnas), a
group of islands in the South Atlantic Ocean, belonging to
Britain, and lying about 250 m. E. of the nearest point in the
mainland of South America, between 51 and 53 S., and 57 40'
and 61 25' W. With the uninhabited dependency of South
Georgia Island, to the E.S.E., they form the most southerly
colony of the British empire. The islands, inclusive of rocks and
reefs, exceed 100 in number and have a total area of 6500
sq. m. ; but only two are of considerable size; the largest of
these, East Falkland, is 95 m. in extreme length, with an average
width of 40 m., and the smaller, West Falkland, is 80 m. long
and about 25 m. wide. The area of East Falkland is about 3000
sq. m., and that of West Falkland 2300. Most of the others
are mere islets, the largest 16 m. long by 8 m. wide. The two
principal islands are separated by Falkland Sound, a narrow
strait from 18 to 25 m. in width, running nearly N.E. and S.W.
The general appearance of the islands is not unlike that of one
of the outer Hebrides. The general colouring, a faded brown,
is somewhat dreary, but the mountain heights and promontories
of the west display some grandeur of outline. The coast -line
of both main islands is deeply indented and many of the bays
and inlets form secure and well-protected harbours, some of
which, however, are difficult of access to sailing ships.
East Falkland is almost bisected by two deep fjords, Choiseul
and Brenton Sounds, which leave the northern and southern
portions connected only by an isthmus a mile and a half wide.
The northern portion is hilly, and is crossed by a rugged range,
the Wickham Heights, running east and west, and rising in some
places to a height of nearly 2000 ft. The remainder of the island
consists chiefly of low undulating ground, a mixture of pasture
and morass, with many shallow freshwater tarns, and small
streams running in the valleys. Two fine inlets, Berkeley
Sound and Port William, run far into the land at the north-
eastern extremity of the island. Port Louis, formerly the seat
of government, is at the head of Berkeley Sound, but the
anchorage there having been found rather too exposed, about
the year 1844 a town was laid out, and the necessary public
buildings were erected on Stanley Harbour, a sheltered recess
within Port William. West Falkland is more hilly near the
east island; the principal mountain range, the Hornby Hills,
runs north and south parallel with Falkland Sound. Mount
Adam, the highest hill in the islands, is 2315 ft. high.
The little town of Stanley is built along the south shore of
Stanley harbour and stretches a short way up the slope; it
has a population of little more than 900. The houses, mostly
white with coloured roofs, are generally built of wood and iron,
and have glazed porches, gay with fuchsias and pelargoniums.
Government House, grey, stone-built and slated, calls to mind
a manse in Shetland or Orkney. The government barrack is a
rather imposing structure in the middle of the town, as is the
cathedral church to the east, built of stone and buttressed with
brick. Next to Stanley the most important place on East
Falkland is Darwin on Choiseul Sound a village of Scottish
shepherds and a station of the Falkland Island Company.
The Falkland Islands consist entirely, so far as is known, of
the older Palaeozoic rocks, Lower Devonian or Upper Silurian,
slightly metamorphosed and a good deal crumpled and distorted,
in the low grounds clay slate and soft sandstone, and on the
ridges hardened sandstone passing into the conspicuous white
quartzites. There do not seem to be any minerals of value,
and the rocks are not such as to indicate any probability of their
discovery. Galena is found in small quantity, and in some places
it contains a large percentage of silver. The dark bituminous
layers of clay slate, which occur intercalated among the quartzites,
have led, here as elsewhere, to the hope of coming upon a seam
of coal, but it is contrary to experience that coal of any value
should be found in rocks of that age.
FALKLAND ISLANDS
Many of the valleys in the Falklands are occupied by pale
glistening masses which at a little distance much resemble small
glaciers. Examined more closely these are found to be vast
accumulations of blocks of quartzite, irregular in form, but having
a tendency to a rude diamond shape, from 2 to 20 ft. in length,
and half as much in width, and of a thickness corresponding
with that of the quartzite ridges on the hills above. The blocks
are angular, and rest irregularly one upon another, supported
in all positions by the angles and edges of those beneath. The
whole mass looks as if it were, as it is, slowly sliding down the
valley to the sea. These " stone runs " are looked upon with
great wonder by the shifting population of the Falklands, and
they are shown to visitors with many strange speculations as
to their mode of formation. Their origin is attributed by some
to the moraine formation of former glaciers. Another out of
many theories 1 is that the hard beds of quartzite are denuded
by the disintegration of the softer layers. Their support being
removed they break away in the direction of natural joints, and
the fragments fall down the slope upon the vegetable soil.
This soil is spongy, and, undergoing alternate contraction and
expansion from being alternately comparatively dry and satur-
ated with moisture, allows the heavy blocks to slip down by their
own weight into the valley, where they become piled up, the
valley stream afterwards removing the soil from among and over
them.
The Falkland Islands correspond very nearly in latitude in
the southern hemisphere with London in the northern, but
the climatic influences are very different. The temperature is
equable, the average of the two midsummer months being about
47 Fahr., and that of the two midwinter months 37 Fahr. The
extreme frosts and heats of the English climate are unknown,
but occasional heavy snow-falls occur, and the sea in shallow
inlets is covered with a thin coating of ice. The sky is almost
constantly overcast, and rain falls, mostly in a drizzle and in
frequent showers, on about 250 days in the year. The rainfall is
not great, only about 20 in., but the mean humidity for the year
is 80, saturation being 100. November is considered the only
dry month. The prevalent winds from the west, south-west and
south blow continuously, at times approaching the force of a
hurricane. " A region more exposed to storms both in summer
and winter it would be difficult to mention " (Fitzroy, Voyages
of" Adventure " and " Beagle," ii. 228). The fragments of many
wrecks emphasize the dangers of navigation, which are increased
by the absence of beacons, the only lighthouse being that
maintained by the Board of Trade on Cape Pembroke near the
principal settlement. Kelp is a natural danger-signal, and the
sunken rock, " Uranie," is reputed to be the only one not buoyed
by the giant seaweed.
Of aboriginal human inhabitants there is no trace in the Falk-
lands, and the land fauna is very scanty. A small wolf, the
loup-renard of de Bougainville, is extinct, the last having been
seen about 1875 on the West Falkland. Some herds of cattle
and horses run wild; but these were, of course, introduced, as
were also the wild hogs, the numerous rabbits and the less
common hares. All these have greatly declined in numbers,
being profitably replaced by sheep. Land-birds are few in kind,
and are mostly strays from South America. They include,
however, the snipe and military starling, which on account of
its scarlet breast is locally known as the robin. Sea-birds are
abundant, and, probably from the islands having been com-
paratively lately peopled, they are singularly tame. Gulls and
amphibious birds abound in large variety; three kinds of
penguin have their rookeries and breed here, migrating yearly
for some months to the South American mainland. Stray
specimens of the great king penguin have been observed, and
there are also mollymauks (a kind of albatross), Cape pigeons
and many carrion birds. Kelp and upland geese abound, the
latter being edible; and their shooting affords some sport.
The Falkland Islands form essentially a part of Patagonia,
with which they are connected by an elevated submarine plateau,
1 See B Stechele, in'Munchener geographische Studien, xx.(igo6),
and Geographical Journal (December 1907).
and their flora is much the same as that of Antarctic South
America. The trees which form dense forest and scrub in
southern Patagonia and in Fuegia are absent, and one of the
largest plants on the islands is a gigantic woolly ragweed (Senecio
candicans) which attains in some places a height of 3 to 4 ft.
A half -shrubby veronica (V. decussata) is found in some parts,
and has. also received cultivation. The greater part of the
" camp " (the open country) is formed of peat, which in some
places is of great age and depth, and at the bottom of the bed
very dense and bituminous. The peat is different in character
from that of northern Europe: cellular plants enter but little
into its composition, and it is formed almost entirely of the roots
and stems of Empetrum rubrum, a variety of the common crow-
berry of the Scottish hills with red berries, called by the Falk-
landers the " diddle-dee " berry ; of Myrtus nummularia, a
little creeping myrtle whose leaves are used by the shepherds
as a substitute for tea; of Calt/ia appendiculata, a dwarf species
of marsh-marigold; and of some sedges and sedge-like plants,
such as A stelia pumila, Gaimardia australis and Bostkoma
grandiflora. Peat is largely used as fuel, coal being obtained
only at a cost of 3 a ton.
Two vegetable products, the " balsam bog " (Bolar glebaria)
and the " tussock grass " (Dactylis caespitosa] have been objects
of curiosity and interest ever since the first accounts of the islands
were given. The first is a huge mass of a bright green colour,
living to a great age, and when dead becoming of a grey and
stony appearance. When cut open, it displays an infinity of tiny
leaf-buds and stems, and at intervals there exudes from it an
aromatic resin, which from its astringent properties is used by
the shepherds as a vulnerary, but has not been converted to any
commercial purpose. The " tussock grass " is a wonderful and
most valuable natural production, which, owing to the intro-
duction of stock, has become extinct in the two main islands, but
still flourishes elsewhere in the group. It is a reed-like grass,
which grows in dense tufts from 6 to 10 ft. high from stool-like
root-crowns. It forms excellent fodder for cattle, and is regularly
gathered for that purpose. It is of beautiful appearance, and
the almost tropical profusion of its growth may have led to the
early erroneous reports of the densely-wooded nature of these
islands.
The population slightly exceeds 2000. The large majority of
the inhabitants live in the East Island, and the predominating
element is Scottish Scottish shepherds having superseded the
South American Gauchos. In 1867 there were no settlers on
the west island, and the government issued a proclamation
offering leases of grazing stations on very moderate terms. In
1868 all the available land was occupied. These lands are fairly
healthy, the principal drawback being the virulent form assumed
by simple epidemic maladies. The occupation of the inhabitants
is almost entirely pastoral, and the principal industry is sheep-
farming. Wool forms by far the largest export, and tallow, hides,
bones and frozen mutton are also exported. Trade is carried on
almost entirely with the United Kingdom; the approximate
annual value of exports is i 20,000, and of imports a little more
than half that sum. The Falkland Islands Company, having its
headquarters at Stanley and an important station in the camp
at Darwin, carries on an extensive business in sheep-farming
and the dependent industries, and in the general import trade.
The development of this undertaking necessitated the establish-
ment of stores and workshops at Stanley, and ships can be
repaired and provided in every way ; a matter of importance
since not a few vessels, after suffering injury during heavy
weather off Cape Horn, call on the Falklands in distress. The
maintenance of the requisite plant and the high wages current
render such repairs somewhat costly. A former trade in oil and
sealskin has decayed, owing to the smaller number of whales
and seals remaining about the islands. Communications are
maintained on horseback and by water, and there are no roads
except at Stanley. There is a monthly mail to and from England ,
the passage occupying about four weeks.
The Falkland Islands are a crown colony, with a governor
and executive and legislative councils. The legislative council
FALLACY
153
consists of the governor and three official and two unofficial
nominated members, and the executive of the same, with the
exception that there is only one unofficial member. The colony
is self-supporting, the revenue being largely derived from the
drink duties, and there is no public debt. The Falklands are
the seat of a colonial bishop. Education is compulsory. The
government maintains schools and travelling teachers; the
Falkland Islands Company also maintains a school at Darwin,
and there is one for those of the Roman Catholic faith in Stanley.
There is also on Keppel Island a Protestant missionary settlement
for the training in agriculture of imported Fuegians. Stanley
was for some years a naval station, but ceased to be so in
1904.
The Falkland Islands were first seen by Davis in the year 1592,
and Sir Richard Hawkins sailed along their north shore in 1 594.
The claims of Amerigo Vespucci to a previous discovery are
doubtful. In 1598 Sebald de Wert, a Dutchman, visited them,
and called them the Sebald Islands, a name which they bear on
some Dutch maps. Captain Strong sailed through between the
two principal islands in 1690, landed upon one of them, and
called the passage Falkland Sound, and from this the group
afterwards took its English name. In 1764 the French explorer
De Bougainville took possession of the islands on behalf of his
country, and established a colony at Port Louis on Berkeley
Sound. But in 1767 France ceded the islands to Spain, De
Bougainville being employed as intermediary. Meanwhile in
1765 Commodore Byron had taken possession on the part of
England on the ground of prior discovery, and had formed a
settlement at Port Egmont on the small island of Saunders.
The Spanish and English settlers remained in ignorance, real or
assumed, of each other's presence until 1769-1770, when Byron's
action was nearly the cause of a war between England and Spain,
both countries having armed fleets to contest the barren sover-
eignty. In 1771, however, Spain yielded the islands to Great
Britain by convention. As they had not been actually colonized
by England, the republic of Buenos Aires claimed the group in
1820, and subsequently entered into a dispute with the United
States of America concerning the rights to the products of these
islands. On the representations of Great Britain the Buenos
Aireans withdrew, and the British flag was once more hoisted
at Port Louis in 1833, and since that time the Falkland Islands
have been a regular British colony.
In 1845 Mr S. Lafone, a wealthy cattle and hide merchant
on the river Plate, obtained from government a grant of the
southern portion of the island, a peninsula 600,000 acres in
extent, and possession of all the wild cattle on the island for a
period of six years, for a payment of 10,000 down, and 20,000
in ten years from January i, 1852. In 1851 Mr Lafone's interest
in Lafonia, as the peninsula came to be called, was purchased
for 30,000 by the Falkland Islands Company, which had been
incorporated by charter in the same year.
See Pernety, Journal historique d'une voyage faite aux ties Ma-
louines en 1763 et 1764 (Berlin, 1767); S. Johnson, Thoughts on the
late Transactions respecting Falkland's Islands (1771); L. A. de
Bougainville, Voyage autour du monde (1771); T. Falkner, Des-
cription of Patagonia and the Falkland Islands (1774); B. Penrose,
Account of the last Expedition to Port Egmont in the Falkland Islands
(1775); Observations on the Forcible Occupation of Mahinas by the
British Government in 1833 (Buenos Ayres, 1833); Reclamation del
Gobierno de las provincial Unidas de la Plata contra el de S.M.
Britanica sobre la soverania y possesion de las Islas Mahinas (Lon-
don, 1841); Fitzroy, Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of H.M.S.
" Adventure " and " Beagle " (1839); Darwin, Voyage of a Naturalist
round the World (1845); S. B. Sullivan, Description of the Falkland
Islands (1849); W. Hadfield, Brazil, the Falkland Islands, &c.
(1854); Wi Parker Snow, Two Years' Cruise off the Tierra.del Fuego,
the Falkland Islands, &c. (1857); Sir C. Wyville Thomson, Voyage
of the " Challenger" (1877); C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of
the British Colonies, vol. ii. " The West Indies " (Oxford, 1890) ;
Colonial Reports Annual; MS. Sloane, 3295.
FALLACY (Lat. fall-ax, apt to mislead), the term given
generally to any mistaken statement used in argument; in
Logic, technically, an argument which violates the laws of
correct demonstration. An argument may be fallacious in
matter (i.e. misstatement of facts), in wording (i.e. wrong use of
words), or in the process of inference. Fallacies have, therefore,
been classified as: I. Material, II. Verbal, III. Logical or
Formal; II. and III. are often included under the general
description Logical, and in scholastic phraseology, following
Aristotle, are called fallacies in dictione or in tioce, as opposed
to material fallacies in re or extra diclionem.
I. Material. The classification widely adopted by modern
logicians and based on that of Aristotle, Organon (Sophistici
elenchi), is as follows: (i) Fallacy of Accident, i.e. arguing
erroneously from a general rule to a particular case, without
proper regard to particular conditions which vitiate the applica-
tion of the general rule; e.g. if manhood suffrage be the law,
arguing that a criminal or a lunatic must, therefore, have a vote;
(2) Converse Fallacy of Accident, i.e. arguing from a special case
to a general rule; (3) Irrelevant Conclusion, or Ignoratio Elenchi,
wherein, instead of proving the fact in dispute, the arguer seeks
to gain his point by diverting attention to some extraneous
fact (as in the legal story of " No case. Abuse the plaintiff's
attorney"). Under this head come the so-called argumentum
(a) ad hominem, (b) adpopulum, (c) adbaculum, (d) adverecundiam,
common in platform oratory, in which the speaker obscures the
real 'issue by appealing to his audience on the grounds of (a)
purely personal considerations, (b) popular sentiment, (c) fear,
(d) conventional propriety. This fallacy has been illustrated
by ethical or theological arguments wherein the fear of punish-
ment is subtly substituted for abstract right as the sanction of
moral obligation. (4) Petitio principii (begging the question) or
Circulus in probando (arguing in a circle), which consists in
demonstrating a conclusion by means of premises which pre-
suppose that conclusion. Jeremy Bentham points out that this
fallacy may lurk in a single word, especially in an epithet, e.g.
if a measure were condemned simply on the ground that it is
alleged to be " un-English "; (5) Fallacy of the Consequent, really
a species of (3), wherein a conclusion is drawn from premises
which do not really support it; (6) Fallacy of False Cause, or
Non Sequitur (" it does not follow "), wherein one thing is in-
correctly assumed as the cause of another, as when the ancients
attributed a public calamity to a meteorological phenome-
non; (7) Fallacy of Many Questions (Plurium Inlerrogationum) ,
wherein several questions are improperly grouped in the form of
one, and a direct categorical answer is demanded, e.g. if a prosecut-
ing counsel asked the prisoner " What time was it when you met
this man? " with the intention of eliciting the tacit admission
that such a meeting had taken place.
II. Verbal Fallacies are those in which a false conclusion
is obtained by improper or ambiguous use of words. They
are generally classified as follows, (i) Equivocation consists in
employing the same word in two or more senses, e.g. in a syllogism,
the middle term being used in one sense in the major and another
in the minor premise, so that in fact there are four not three
terms (" All fair things are honourable; This woman is fair;
therefore this woman is honourable," the second " fair " being in
reference to complexion). (2) Amphibology is the result of
ambiguity of grammatical structure, e.g. of the position of the
adverb " only " in careless writers (" He only said that," in
which sentence, as experience shows, the adverb has been
intended to qualify any one of the other three words). (3) Com-
position, a species of (i), which results from the confused use of
collective terms (" The angles of a triangle are less than two right
angles " might refer to the angles separately or added together).
(4) Division, the converse of the preceding, which consists in
employing the middle term distributively in the minor and
collectively in the major premise. (5) Accent, which occurs only
in speaking and consists of emphasizing the wrong word in a
sentence (" He is a fairly good pianist," according to the emphasis
on the words, may imply praise of a beginner's progress, or an
expert's depreciation of a popular hero, or it may imply that
the person in question is a deplorable violinist). (6) Figure of
Speech, the confusion between the metaphorical and ordinary
uses of a word or phrase.
III. The purely Logical or Formal fallacies consist in the
violation of the formal rules of the Syllogism (q.v.). They are
154
FALLIERES FALLMERAYER
(a) fallacy of Four Terms (Quaternio terminorum) ; (b) of Un-
distributed Middle; (c) of Illicit process of the major or the
minor term; (d) of Negative Premises.
Of other classifications of Fallacies in general the most famous
are those of Francis Bacon and J. S. Mill. Bacon (Noiium
organum, Aph. i. 33, 38 sqq.) divided fallacies into four Idola
(Idols, i.e. False Appearances), which summarize the various
kinds of mistakes to which the human intellect is prone (see
BACON, FRANCIS). With these should be compared the Ojfendicula
of Roger Bacon, contained in the Opus maius, pt. i. (see BACON,
ROGER). J. S. Mill discussed the subject in book v. of his Logic,
and Jeremy Bentham's Book of Fallacies (1824) contains valuable
remarks.
See Rd. Whateley's Logic, bk. v. ; A. de Morgan, Formal Logic
(1847) ; A. Sidgwick, Fallacies (1883) and other text-books. See
also article LOGIC, and for fallacies of Induction, see INDUCTION.
FALLIERES, CLEMENT ARM AND (1841- ), president of
the French republic, was born at Mezin in the department of
Lot-et-Garonne, where his father was clerk of the peace. He
studied law and became an advocate at Nerac, beginning his
public career there as municipal councillor (1868), afterwards
mayor (1871), and as councillor-general of the department of
Lot-et-Garonne (1871). Being an ardent Republican, he lost
this position in May 1873 upon the fall of Thiers, but in February
1876 was elected deputy for Nerac. In the chamber he sat with
the Republican Left, signed the protestation of the i8th of May
1877, and was re-elected in October by his constituency. In 1880
he became under-secretary of state in the department of the
interior in the Jules Ferry ministry (May 1880 to November 1881).
From the 7th of August 1882 to the 2oth of February 1883 he
was minister of the interior, and for a month (from the 29th
of January 1883) was premier. His ministry had to face the
question of the expulsion of the pretenders to the throne of
France, owing to the proclamation by Prince Jerome Napoleon
(January 1883), and M. Fallieres, who was ill at the time, was
not able to face the storm of opposition, and resigned when the
senate rejected his project. In the following November, how-
ever, he was chosen as minister of public instruction by Jules
Ferry, and carried out various reforms in the school system.
He resigned with the ministry in March 1885. Again becoming
minister of the interior in the Rouvier cabinet in May 1887,
he exchanged his portfolio in December for that of justice. He
returned to the ministry of the interior in February 1889, and
finally took the department of justice from March 1890 to
February 1892. In June 1890 his department (Lot-et-Garonne)
elected him to the senate by 417 votes to 23. There M. Fallieres
remained somewhat apart from party struggles, although main-
taining his influence among the Republicans. In March 1899
he was elected president of the senate, and retained that position
until January 1906, when he was chosen by a union of the groups
of the Left in both chambers as candidate for the presidency of
the republic. He was elected on the first ballot by 449 votes
againt 371 for his opponent, Paul Doumer.
FALL-LINE, in American geology, a line marking the junction
between the hard rocks of the Appalachian Mountains and
the softer deposits of the coastal plain. The pre-Cambrian and
metamorphic rocks of the mountain mass form a continuous
ledge parallel to the east coast, where they are subject to denuda-
tion and form a series of " falls " and rapids in the river courses
all along this line. The relief of the land below the falls is very
slight, and this low country rarely rises to a height of 200 ft.,
so that the rivers are navigable up to the falls, while the falls
themselves are a valuable source of power. A line of cities may
be traced upon the map whose position will thus be readily
understood in relation to the economic importance of the fall-line.
They are Trenton on the Delaware, Philadelphia on the Schuyl-
kill, Georgetown on the Potomac, Richmond on the James, and
Augusta on the Savannah. It will be readily understood that
the softer and more recent rocks of the coastal plain have been
more easily washed away, while the harder rocks of the moun-
tains, owing to differential denudation, are left standing high
above them, and that the trend of the edge of this great lenticular
mass of ancient rock is roughly parallel to that of the Appalachian
system.
FALLMERAYER, JAKOB PHILIPP (1790-1861), German
traveller and historical investigator, best known for his opinions
in regard to the ethnology of the modern Greeks, was born,
the son of a poor peasant, at Tschotsch, near Brixen in Tirol,
on the loth of December 1790. In 1809 he absconded from the
cathedral choir school at Brixen and made his way to Salzburg,
where he supported himself by private teaching while he studied
theology, the Semitic languages, and history. After a year's
study he sought to assure to himself the peace and quiet necessary
for a student's life by entering the abbey of Kremsmunster, but
difficulties put in his way by the Bavarian officials prevented
the accomplishment of this intention. At the university of
Landshut, to which he removed in 1812, he first applied himself
to jurisprudence, but soon devoted his attention exclusively
to history and philology. His immediate necessities were pro-
vided for by a rich patron. During the Napoleonic wars he
joined the Bavarian infantry as a subaltern in 1813, fought at
Hanau (3oth October 1813), and served throughout the campaign
in France. He remained in the army of occupation on the banks
of the Rhine until Waterloo, when he spent six months at
Orleans as adjutant to General von Spreti. Two years of garrison
life at Lindau on Lake Constance after the peace were spent in
the study of modern Greek, Persian and Turkish.
Resigning his-commission in 1818, he was successively engaged
as teacher in the gymnasium at Augsburg and in the pro-
gymnasium and lyceum at Landshut. In 1827 he won the gold
medal offered by the university of Copenhagen with his Geschichte
des Kaisertums von Trapezunt, based on patient investigation
of Greek and oriental MSS. at Venice and Vienna. The strictures
on priestcraft contained in the preface to this book gave offence
to the authorities, and his position was not improved by the
liberal views expressed in his Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea
wdhrend des Mittelalters (Stuttgart, 1830-1836, 2 pts.). The
three years from 1831 to 1834 he spent in travel with the Russian
count Ostermann Tolstoy, visiting Egypt, Palestine, Syria,
Cyprus, Rhodes, Constantinople, Greece and Naples. On his
return he was elected in 1835 a member of the Royal Bavarian
Academy of Sciences, but he soon after left the country again on
account of political troubles, and spent the greater part of the
next four years in travel, spending the winter of 1839-1840 with
Count Tolstoy at Geneva. Constantinople, Trebizond, Athos,
Macedonia, Thessaly and Greece were visited by him during
1840-1841; and after some years' residence in Munich he
returned in 1847 t the East, and travelled in Palestine, Syria
and Asia Minor. The authorities continued to regard him with
suspicion, and university students were forbidden to attend the
lectures he delivered at Munich. He entered, however, into
friendly relations with the crown prince Maximilian, but this
intimacy was destroyed by the events following on 1848. At
that period he was appointed professor of history in the Munich
University, and made a member of the national congress at
Frankfort-on-Main. He there joined the left or opposition party,
and in the following year he accompanied the rump-parlia-
ment to Stuttgart, a course of action which led to his expulsion
from his professorate. During the winter of 1849-1850 he
was an exile in Switzerland, but the amnesty of April 1850
enabled him to return to Munich. He died on the 26th of
April 1861.
His contributions to the medieval history of Greece are of
great value, and though his theory that the Greeks of the present
day are of Albanian and Slav descent, with hardly a drop of true
Greek blood in their veins, has not been accepted in its entirety
by other investigators, it has served to modify the opinions of
even his greatest opponents. A criticism of his views will be
found in Hopf's Geschichte Griechenlands (reprinted from Ersch
and Gruber's Encykl.) and in Finlay's History of Greece in
the Middle Ages. Another theory which he propounded and
defended with great vigour was that the capture of Constanti-
nople by Russia was inevitable, and would lead to the absorption
by the Russian empire of the whole of the Balkan and Grecian
FALLOPIUS FALL RIVER
peninsula; and that this extended empire would constitute a
standing menace to the western Germanic nations. These views
he expressed in a series of brilliant articles in German journals.
His most important contribution to learning remains his history
of the empire of Trebizond. Prior to his discovery of the chronicle
of Michael Panaretos, covering the dominion of Alexus Comnenus
and his successors from 1204 to 1426, the history of this medieval
empire was practically unknown.
His works are^Geschichte des Kaiserthums Trapezunt (Munich,
1827-1848) ; Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea im Mittelalter (Stuttgart,
1830-1836); Uber die Entstehung der Neugriechen (Stuttgart, 1835);
" Originalfragmente, Chroniken, u.s.w., zur Geschichte des K.
Trapezunts " (Munich, 1843), in Abhandl. der hist. Classe der K.
Bayerisch. Akad. v. Wiss, ; Fragments aus dem Orient (Stuttgart,
1845); Denkschrift iiber Golgotha, und das heilige Grab (Munich,
1852), and Das Todte Meer (1853) both of which had appeared in
the Abhandlungen of the Academy; Das albanesische Element in
Griechenland, iii. parts, in the Abhandl. for 1860-1866. After his
death there appeared at Leipzig in 1861, under the editorship
of G. M. Thomas, three volumes of Gesammelte Werke, containing
Neue Fragrmnte aus dem Orient, Kritische Versuche, and Studien
und Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben. A sketch of his life will also
be found in L. Steub, Herbsttage in Tyrol (Munich, 1867).
FALLOPIUS (or FALLOPIO), GABRIELLO (1523-1562), Italian
anatomist, was born about 1523 at Modena, where he became
a canon of the cathedral. He studied medicine at Ferrara, and,
after a European tour, became teacher of anatomy in that city.
He thence removed to Pisa, and from Pisa, at the instance of
Cosmo I., grand-duke of Tuscany, to Padua, where, besides the
chairs of anatomy and surgery and of botany, he held the office
of superintendent of the new botanical garden. He died at
Padua on the gib. of October 1562. Only one treatise by
Fallopius appeared during his lifetime, namely the Obseriiationes
anatomicae (Venice, 1561). His collected works, Opera genuina
omnia, were published at Venice in 1584. (See ANATOMY.)
FALLOUX, FREDERIC ALFRED PIERRE, COMTE DE (1811-
1886), French politician and author, was born at Angers on
the nth of May 1811. His father had been ennobled by
Charles X., and Falloux began his career as a Legitimist and
clerical journalist under the influence of Mme Swetchine. In
1846 he entered the legislature as deputy for Maine-et-Loire,
and with many other ultra-Catholics he gave real or pretended
support to the revolution of 1848. Louis Napoleon made him
minister of education in 1849, but disagreements with the
president led to his resignation within a year. He had neverthe-
less secured the passage of the Loi Falloux (March 15, 1850)
for the organization of primary and secondary education. This
law provided that the clergy and members of ecclesiastical
orders, male and female, might exercise the profession of teaching
without producing any further qualification. This exemption
was extended even to priests who taught in secondary schools,
where a university degree was exacted from lay teachers. The
primary schools were put under the management of the cures.
Falloux was elected to the French Academy in 1856. His failure
to secure re-election to the legislature in 1866, 1869, 1870 and
1871 was due to the opposition of the stricter Legitimists, who
viewed with suspicion his attempts to reconcile the Orleans
princes with Henri, comte de Chambord. In spite of his failure
to enter the National Assembly his influence was very great,
and was increased by the intimacy of his personal relations with
Thiers. B ut in 1 8 7 2 he offended both sections of the monarchical
party at a conference arranged in the hope of effecting a fusion
between the partisans of the comte de Chambord and of the
Orleans princes, divided on the vexed question of the flag. He
suggested that the comte de Chambord might recede from his
position with dignity at the desire of the National Assembly,
and not content with this encroachment on royalist principles,
he insinuated the possibility of a transitional stage with the due
d'Aumale as president of the republic. His disgrace was so
complete that he was excommunicated by the bishop of Angers
in 1876. He died on the i6th of January 1886.
Of his numerous works the best known are his Histoire de
Louis XVI (1840); Histoire de Saint Pie (1845); De la contre-
revolution (1876); and the posthumous Memoires d'un royahste
(2 vols., 1888).
FALLOW, land ploughed and tilled, but left unsown, usually
for a year, in order, on the one hand, to disintegrate, aerate
and free it from weeds, and, on the other, to allow it to re-
cuperate. The word was probably early confused with " fallow "
(from O. Eng. fealu, probably cognate with Gr. iroXtos, grey),
of a pale-brown or yellow colour, often applied to soil left untilled
and unsown, but chiefly seen in the name of the " fallow deer."
The true derivation is from the O. Eng. fealga, only found in the
plural, a harrow, and the ultimate origin is a Teutonic root
meaning " to plough," cf. the German falgen. The recognition
that continuous growing of wheat on the same area of land robs
the soil of its fertility was universal among ancient peoples, and
the practice of " fallowing " or resting the soil is as old as
agriculture itself. The " Sabbath rest " ordered to be given
every seventh year to the land by the Mosaic law is a classical
instance of the " fallow." Improvements in crop rotations and
manuring have diminished the necessity of the " bare fallow,"
which is uneconomical because the land is left unproductive,
and because the nitrates in the soil unintercepted by the roots of
plants are washed away in the drainage waters. At the present
time bare fallowing is, in general, only advisable on stiff soils
and in dry climates. A " green fallow " is land planted with
turnips, potatoes or some similar crop in rows, the space between
which may be cleared of weeds by hoeing. The " bastard
fallow " is a modification of the bare fallow, effected by the
growth of rye, vetches, or some other rapidly growing crop,
sown in autumn and fed off in spring, the land then undergoing
the processes of ploughing, grubbing and harrowing usual in the
bare fallow.
FALLOW-DEER (that is, DUN DEER, in contradistinction
to the red deer, Cervus [Dama] damn), a medium-sized repre-
sentative of the family Ceruidae, characterized by its expanded
or palmated antlers, which generally have no bez-tine, rather
long tail (black above and white below), and a coat spotted with
white in summer but uniformly coloured in winter. The shoulder
height is about 3 fi. The species is semi-domesticated in British
parks, and occurs wild in western Asia, North Africa, the south
of Europe and Sardinia. In prehistoric times it occurred
throughout northern and central Europe. One park-breed has
no spots. Bucks and does live apart except during the pairing-
season; and the doe produces one or two, and sometimes three
fawns at a birth. These deer are particularly fond of horse-
chestnuts, which the stags are said to endeavour to procure by
striking at the branches with their antlers. The Persian fallow-
deer (C. [D.] mesopotamicus), a native of the mountains of
Luristan, is larger than the typical species, and has a brighter
coat, differing in some details of colouring. The antlers have
the trez-tine near the small brow-tine, and the palmation
beginning near the former. Here may be mentioned the gigantic
fossil deer commonly known as the Irish elk, which is perhaps a
giant type of fallow-deer, and if so should be known as Cervus
(Dama) giganteus. If a distinct type, its title should be C.
(Megaceros) giganteus. This deer inhabited Ireland, Great Britain,
central and northern Europe, and western Asia in Pleistocene
and prehistoric times; and must have stood 6 ft. high at the
shoulder. The antlers are greatly palmated and of enormous
size, fine specimens measuring as much as 1 1 ft. between the tips.
FALL RIVER, a city of Bristol county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
situated on Mount Hope Bay, at the mouth of the Taunton river,
49 m.S. of Boston. Pop. (1890)74,3985(1900) 104,863; (estimated,
1906) 105,942;* (1910 census) 119,295. It is the third city in
size of the commonwealth. Of the population in 1900, 50,042,
or 47-7%, were foreign-born, 90,244 were of foreign parentage
(i.e. either one or both parents were foreign), and of these 81,721
had both foreign father and foreign mother. Of the foreign-born,
20,172 were French Canadians, 2329 were English Canadians,
12,268 were from England, 1045 were from Scotland, 7317 were
from Ireland, 2805 were from Portugal, and 1095 were from
Russia, various other countries being represented by smaller
1 The small increase between 1900 and 1906 was due in large part
to the emigration of many of the inhabitants during the great strike
of 1904-1905.
i 5 6
FALMOUTH
numbers. Fall River is served by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway, and has good steamer connexions with Pro-
vidence, Newport and New York, notably by the " Fall River
Line," which is much used, in connexion with the N.Y., N.H.&
H. railway, by travellers between New York and Boston. The
harbour is large, deep and easy of access. The city lies on a
plateau and on slopes that rise rather steeply from the river,
and is irregularly laid out. Granite underlying the city furnishes
excellent building material; among the principal buildings
are the state armoury, the county court house, the B.M.C.
Durfee high school, the custom house, Notre Dame College, the
church of Notre Dame, the church of St Anne, the Central
Congregational church and the public library. The common-
wealth aids in maintaining a textile school (the Bradford Durfee
textile school), opened in 1904. The city library contained in
1908 about 78,500 volumes. There is considerable commerce,
but it is as a manufacturing centre that Fall River is best known.
Above the city, on the plateau, about 2 m. from the bay, are the
Watuppa Lakes, 7 m. long and on an average three-fourths of a
mile wide, and from them runs the Fall (Quequechan) river,
with a constant flow and descending near its mouth through
127 ft. in less than half a mile. The conjunction of water
transportation and water power is thus remarkable, and accounts
in great part for the city's rapid growth. The waters of the
North Watuppa Lake (which is fed by springs and drains out
a very small area) are also exceptionally pure and furnish an
excellent water-supply. The Fall river runs directly through the
city (passing beneath the city hall), and along its banks are long
rows of cotton mills; formerly many of these were run by water
power, and their wheels were placed directly in the stream bed,
but steam power is now used almost exclusively. According to
the special census of manufactures of 1905, the value of all
factory products for the calendar year 1904 was $43,473,105,
of which amount $35,442,581, or 81-5%, consisted of cotton
goods and dyeing and finishing, making Fall River the largest
producer of cotton goods among American cities. 1 A large hat
manufactory (the Marshall Brothers' factory) furnishes the
United States army with hats. Until forced by the competition
of mills in the Southern states to direct attention to finer pro-
ducts, the cotton manufacturers of Fall River devoted themselves
almost exclusively to the making of print cloth, in which respect
the city was long distinguished from Lawrence and Lowell,
whose products were more varied and of higher grade. The
number of spindles increased from 265,328 in 1865 to 1,269,043
in 1875, 3,000,000 in 1900, and to about 3,500,000 in 1906.
Excellent drainage and sewerage systems contribute to the city's
health. The birth-rate was in 1900 the highest (38-75) of any
city in the country of above 30,000 inhabitants (three of the four
next highest being Massachusetts towns). The social conditions
and labour problems of Fall River have long been exceptional.
The mills supplement the public schools in the mingling of races
and the work for Americanization, and labour disturbances,
for which Fall River was once conspicuous, have become less
frequent and less bitter, the great strike of 1904-1905 perhaps
the greatest in the history of the textile industry in the United
States being marked by little or no violence. Fall River has
become a " city of homes," and tenements are giving way to
dwellings for one or two families. The lists of the city's corpora-
tion stockholders show more than 10,000 names. The municipal
police is controlled (as nowhere else in the state save in Boston)
by a state board; this arrangement is generally regarded as
having worked for better order. Lowell was about three times
as large as Fall River in 1850, and Lawrence was larger until after
1870. Fall River was originally a part of Freetown; it was
incorporated as a township in 1803 (being known as " Troy "
in 1804-1834), and was chartered as a city in 1854. In 1861
it was increased by certain territory secured from Rhode Island,
1 The above figures do not show adequately the full importance
of Fall River as a cotton manufacturing centre, for during six
months of the census year the great strike was in progress; this
strike, caused by a reduction in wages, lasted from the 25th of July
1904 to the i8th of January 1905.
the city having spread across the state boundary and become
subject to a divided jurisdiction. In 1902 the city received a
new charter. Its manufactures amounted to little before the
War of 1812. A disastrous fire occurred in 1843 (loss above
$500,000). In 1904 Fall River became the see of the Roman
Catholic diocese of that name.
See H. H. Earl, Centennial History of Fall River . . . 1656-1876
(New York, 1877); and the report of Carroll D. Wright on Fall
River, Lawellpnd Lawrence, in I3th annual report of the Massachusetts
Bureau of Statistics of Labor (1882), which, however, was regarded
as unjust and partial by the manufacturers of Fall River.
FALMOUTH, a municipal and contributary parliamentary
borough and seaport of Cornwall, England, 306 m. W.S.W. of
London, on a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901)
11,789. It is finely situated on the west shore of the largest of
the many estuaries which open upon the south coast of the
county. This is entered by several streams, of which the largest
is the Fal. Falmouth harbour lies within Pendennis Point, which
shelters the estuary from the more open Falmouth Bay. The
Penryn river, coming in from the north-west, forms one of several
shallow, winding arms of the estuary, the main channel of which
is known as Carrick Roads. To the east Pendennis Castle stands
on its lofty promontory, while on the opposite side of the roads
the picturesque inlet of the Porthcuel river opens between Castle
Point on the north, with St Mawes' Castle, and St Anthony Head
and Zoze Point on the south. The shores of the estuary as a
rule slope sharply up to about 250 ft., and are beautifully wooded.
The entrance is i m. across, and the roads form one of the
best refuges for shipping on the south coast, being accessible at
all times by the largest vessels. Among the principal buildings
and institutions in Falmouth are the town hall, market-house,
hall of the Cornwall Polytechnic Society, a meteorological and
magnetic observatory, and a submarine mining establishment.
The Royal Cornwall Yacht Club has its headquarters here, and
in the annual regatta the principal prize is a cup given by the
prince of Wales as duke of Cornwall. Engineering, shipbuilding,
brewing and the manufacture of manure are carried on, and
there are oyster and trawl fisheries, especially for pilchard. The
inner harbour, under the jurisdiction partly of commissioners and
partly of a dock company, is enclosed between two breakwaters,
of which the eastern has 23 ft. of water at lowest tides alongside.
The area of the harbour is 42 acres, with nearly 700 lineal yards
of quayage. There are two graving docks, and repairing yards.
Grain, timber, coal and guano and other manures are imported,
and granite, china clay, copper ore, ropes and fish exported.
Falmouth is also in favour as a watering-place. The parlia-
mentary borough of Penryn and Falmouth returns one member.
The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councillors. Area, 790 acres.
Falmouth (Falemuth) as a haven and port has had a place
in the maritime history of Cornwall from very early times. The
site of the town, which is comparatively modern, was formerly
known as Smithick and Pennycomequick and formed part of
the manor of Arwenack held by the family of Killigrew. The
corporations of Penryn, Truro and Helston opposed the under-
taking, but the lords in council, to whom the matter was referred,
decided in Killigrew's favour. In 1652 the House of Commons
considered that it would be advantageous to the Commonwealth
to grant a Thursday market to Smithick. This market was
confirmed to Sir Peter Killigrew in 1660 together with two fairs,
on the 3oth of October and the 27th of July, and also a ferry
between Smithick and Flushing. By the charter of incorporation
granted in the following year the name was changed to Falmouth,
and a mayor, recorder, 7 aldermen and 12 burgesses constituted
a common council with the usual rights and privileges. Three
years later an act creating the borough a separate ecclesiastical
parish empowered the mayor and aldermen to assess all buildings
within the town at the rate of sixteen pence in the pound for
the support of the rector. This rector's rate occasioned much
ill-feeling in modern times, and by act of parliament in 1896
was taken over by the corporation, and provision made for its
eventual extinction. The disfranchisement of Penryn, which
FALSE POINT FALUN
had long been a subject of debate in the House of Commons,
was settled in 1832, by uniting Penryn with Falmouth for parlia-
mentary purposes and assigning two members to the united
boroughs. By the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, the number
of members was reduced to one. The fairs granted in 1660 are
no longer held, and a Saturday market has superseded the
chartered market. In the i;th and i8th centuries Falmouth
grew in importance owing to its being a station of the Packet
Service for the conveyance of mails.
FALSE POINT, a landlocked harbour in the Cuttack district
of Bengal, India. It was reported by the famine commissioners
in 1867 to be the best harbour on the coast of India from the
Hugli to Bombay. It derives its name from the circumstance
that vessels proceeding up the Bay of Bengal frequently mistook
it for Point Palmyras, a degree farther north. The anchorage
is safe, roomy and completely landlocked, but large vessels are
obliged to lie out at some distance from its mouth in an exposed
roadstead. The capabilities of False Point as a harbour remained
long unknown, and it was only in 1860 that the port was opened.
It was rapidly developed, owing to the construction of the Orissa
canals. Two navigable channels lead inland across the Maha-
nadi delta, and connect the port with Cuttack city. The
trade of False Point is chiefly with other Indian harbours, but
a large export trade in rice and oil-seeds has sprung up with
Mauritius, the French colonies and France. False Point is now
a regular port of call for Anglo-Indian coasting steamers. Its
capabilities were first appreciated during the Orissa famine of
1866, when it afforded almost the only means by which supplies
of rice could be thrown into the province. A lighthouse is
situated a little to the south of the anchorage, on the point which
screens it from the southern monsoon.
FALSE PRETENCES, in English law, the obtaining from any
other person by any false pretence any chattel, money or valuable
security, with intent to defraud. It is an indictable misde-
meanour under the Larceny Act of 1861. The broad distinction
between this offence and larceny is that in the former the owner
intends to part with his property, in the latter he does not.
This offence dates as a statutory crime practically from 1756.
At common law the only remedy originally available for an owner
who had been deprived of his goods by fraud was an indictment
for the crime of cheating, or a civil action for deceit. These
remedies were insufficient to cover all cases where money or other
properties had been obtained by false pretences, and the offence
was first partially created by a statute of Henry VIII. (1541),
which enacted that if any person should falsely and deceitfully
obtain any money, goods, &c., by means of any false token or
counterfeit letter made in any other man's name, the offender
should suffer any punishment other than death, at the discretion
of the judge. The scope of the offence was enlarged to include
practically all false pretences by the act of 1756, the provisions
of which were embodied in the Larceny Act 1861.
The principal points to notice are that the pretence must
be a false pretence of some existing fact, made for the purpose
of inducing the prosecutor to part with his property (e.g. it was
held not to be a false pretence to promise to pay for goods on
delivery), and it may be by either words or conduct. The
property, too, must have been actually obtained by the false
pretence. The owner must be induced by the pretence to make
over the absolute and immediate ownership of the goods, other-
wise it is " larceny by means of a trick." It is not always easy,
however, to draw a distinction between the various classes of
offences. In the case where a man goes into a restaurant and
orders a meal, and, after consuming it, says that he has no
means of paying for it, it was usual to convict for obtaining food
by false pretences. But R. v. Jones, 1898, L.R. i Q.B. 119
decided that it is neither larceny nor false pretences, but an
offence under the Debtors Act 1869, of obtaining credit by
fraud. (See also CHEATING; FRAUD; LARCENY.)
United States. American statutes on this subject are mainly
copied from the English statutes, and the courts there in a general
way follow the English interpretations. The statutes of each
state must be consulted. There is no Federal statute, though
there are Federal laws providing penalties for false personation
of the lawful owner of public stocks, &c., or of persons entitled
to pensions, prize money, &c. (U.S. Rev. Stats. 5435), or the
false making of any order purporting to be a money order
(id. 5463).
In Arizona, obtaining money or property by falsely personating
another is punishable as for larceny (Penal Code, 1901, 479).
Obtaining credit by false pretences as to wealth and mercantile
character is punishable by six months' imprisonment and a
fine not exceeding three times the value of the money or property
obtained (id. 481).
In Illinois, whoever by any false representation or writing
signed by him, of his own respectability, wealth or mercantile
correspondence or connexions, obtains credit and thereby de-
frauds any person of money, goods, chattels or any valuable thing,
or who procures another to make a false report of his honesty,
wealth, &c., shall return the money, goods, &c., and be fined and
imprisoned for a term not exceeding one year (Crim. Code, 1903,
ch. xxxviii. 96, 97). Obtaining money or property by bogus
cheques, the " confidence game " (Dorr v. People, 1907, 228,
111. 216), or " three card monte," sleight of hand, fortune-telling,
&c., is punishable by imprisonment for from one to ten years
(id. 98, 100). Obtaining goods from warehouse, mill or wharf
by fraudulent receipt wrongly stating amount of goods de-
posited by imprisonment for not less than one nor more than
ten years (id. 124). Fraudulent use of railroad passes is a
misdemeanour (id. 1250).
In Massachusetts it is simple larceny to obtain by false pre-
tences the money or personal chattel of another (Rev. Laws,
1902, ch. ccviii. 26). Obtaining by a false pretence with intent
to defraud the signature of a person to a written instrument,
the false making whereof would be forgery, is punishable by
imprisonment in a state prison or by fine (id. 27).
In New York, obtaining property by false pretences, felonious
breach of trust and embezzlement are included in the term
" larceny " (Penal Code, 528; Paul v. Dumar, 106 N.Y. 508;
People v. Tattlekan, 1907, 104 N.Y. Suppl. 805), but the methods
of proof required to establish each crime remain as before the
code. Obtaining lodging and food on credit at hotel or lodging
house with intent to defraud is a misdemeanour (Pen. Code,
382). Purchase of property by false pretences as to person's
means or ability to pay is not criminal when in writing signed by
the party to be charged (Pen. Code, 544).
FALTICHENI (Falti$enf) , the capital of the department of
Suceava, Rumania, situated on a small right-hand tributary of
the Sereth, among the hills of north-west Moldavia, and 2 m.
S.E. of the frontier of Bukovina. Pop. (1900) 9643, about half
being Jews. A branch railway runs for 15 m. to join the main
line between Czernowitz in Bukovina, and Galatz. The Suceava
department (named after Suceava or Suciava, its former capital,
now Suczawa in Bukowina) is densely forested; its considerable
timber trade centres in Falticheni. For five weeks, from the
aoth July onwards, Russians and Austro-Hungarians, as well as
Rumans, attend the fair which is held at Falticheni, chiefly for
the sale of horses, carriages and cattle.
FALUN, a town of Sweden, capital of the district (liin) of
Kopparberg, 153 m. N.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900)
9606. It is situated in a bare and rocky country near the
western shore of lake Runn. Here are the oldest and most
celebrated copper mines in Europe. Their produce has gradually
decreased since the i7th century, and is now unimportant, but
sulphate of copper, iron pyrites, and some gold, silver, sulphur
and sulphuric acid, and red ochre are also produced. The mines
belong to the Kopparberg Mining Company (Stora Kopparbergs
Bergs/ags Aktiebolag, formerly Kopparbergslagen). This is the
oldest industrial corporation in Sweden, and perhaps the oldest
still existing in the world; it is known to have been established
before 1347. Since its reorganization as a joint-stock company
in 1890 many of the shares have been held by the crown, philan-
thropic institutions and other public bodies. The company also
owns iron mines, limestone and quartz quarries, large iron-works
at Domnarfvet and elsewhere, a great extent of forests and
i 5 8
FAMA FAMILY
saw-mills, and besides the output of the copper mines it pro-
duces manufactured iron and steel, timber, wood-pulp, bricks
and charcoal. Falun has also railway rolling-stock factories.
There are museums of mineralogy and geology, a lower school
of mining, model room and scientific library. The so-called
" Gothenburg System " of municipal control over the sale of
spirits was actually devised at Falun as early as 1850.
FAMA (Gr. ftj/w;, "CWa), in classical mythology, the personi-
fication of Rumour. The Homeric equivalent Ossa (Iliad, ii. 93)
is represented as the messenger of Zeus, who spreads reports
with the rapidity of a conflagration. Homer does not personify
Pheme, which is merely a presage drawn from human utterances,
whereas Ossa (until later times) is associated with the idea of
divine origin. A more definite character is given to Pheme by
Hesiod (Works and Days, 764), who calls her a goddess; in
Sophocles (Oed. Tyr. 158) she is the immortal daughter of golden
Hope and is styled by the orator Aeschines (Contra Timarchum,
1 28) one of the mightiest of goddesses. According to Pausanias
(i. 17. i) there was a temple of Pheme at Athens, and at Smyrna
(ib. ix. n, 7), whose inhabitants were especially fond of seeking
the aid of divination, there was a sanctuary of Cledones (sounds
or rumours supposed to convey omens).
There does not seem to have been any cult of Fama among the
Romans, by whom she was regarded merely as "a figure of
poetical religion." The Temple of Fame and Omen (Pheme and
Cledon) mentioned by Plutarch {M or alia, p. 319) is due to a con-
fusion with Aius Locutius, the divinity who warned the Romans
of the coming attack of the Gauls. There are well-known
descriptions of Fame in Virgil (Aeneid, iv. 173) and Ovid (Metam.
xii. 39); see also Valerius Flaccus (ii. 116), Statius (Thebais, iii.
425). An unfavourable idea gradually became attached to the
name; thus Ennius speaks of Fama as the personification of
" evil " reputation and the opposite of Gloria (cp. the adjective
famosus, which is not used in a good sense till the post-Augustan
age). Chaucer in his House of Fame is obviously imitating
Virgil and Ovid, although he is also indebted to Dante's
Divina Commedia.
FAMAGUSTA (Gr. Ammochoslos) , a town and harbour on
the east cost of Cyprus, 25 m. S. of the ruins of Salamis. The
population in 1901 was 818, nearly all being Moslems who live
within the walls of the fortress; the Christian population has
migrated to a suburb called Varosia (pop. 2948). The foundation
of Salamis (q.v.) was ascribed to Teucer: it was probably the
most important town in early Cyprus. The revolt of the Jews
under Trajan, and earthquakes in the time of Constantius and
Constantine the Great helped in turn to destroy it. It was
restored by Fl. Constantius II. (A.D. 337-361) as Constantia.
Another town a little to the south, built by Ptolemy Phila-
delphus in 274 B.C., and called Arsinoe in honour of his sister,
received the refugees driven from Constantia by the Arabs under
Mu'awiyah, became the seat of the orthodox archbishopric,
and was eventually known as Famagusta. It received a large
accession of population at the fall of Acre in 1291; was annexed
by the Genoese in 1376; reunited to the throne of Cyprus in
1464; and surrendered, after an investment of nearly a year,
to the Turks in 1571. The fortifications, remodelled by the
Venetians after 1489, the castle, the grand cathedral church of
St Nicolas, and the remains of the palace and many other
churches make Famagusta a place of unique interest. Acts ii.
and v. of Shakespeare's Othello pass there. In 1903 measures
were taken to develop the fine natural harbour of Famagusta.
Basins were dredged to give depths of 15 and 24 ft. respectively at
ordinary low tides, and commodious jetties and quays were
constructed.
FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris,
of or belonging to the familia, family), an adjective, properly
meaning belonging to the family or household, but in this sense
the word is rare. The more usual meanings are: friendly,
intimate, well known; and from its application to the easy
relations of intimate friends the term may be used in an invidious
sense of " free and easy " conduct on the part of any one not
justified by any close relationship, friendship or intimacy.
" Familiar" is, however, also used as a substantive, especially
of the spirit or demon which attended on a wizard or magician,
and was summoned to execute his master's wishes. The idea
underlies the notion of the Christian guardian angel and of
the Roman genius natalis (see DEMONOLOGY; WITCHCRAFT).
In the Roman Church the term is applied to persons attached to
the household of the pope or of bishops. These must actually
do some domestic service. They are supported by their patron,
and enjoy privileges which in the case of the papal familiars
are considerable. " Familiars of the Holy Office " were lay
officers of the Inquisition, whose functions were chiefly those of
police, in making arrests, &c., of persons charged.
FAMILISTS, a term of English origin (later adopted in other
languages) to denote the members of the Familia Caritatis (Hus
der Lief ten; Huis der Liefde; Haus der Liebe; " Family of
Love "), founded by Hendrik Niclaes (born on the gth or icth
of January 1501 or 1502, probably at Miinster; died after 1570,
not later than 1581, probably in 1580). His calling was that of
a merchant, in which he and his son Franz prospered, becoming
ultimately wealthy. Not till 1540 did he appear in the character
of one divinely endowed with "the spirit of the true love of
Jesus Christ." For twenty years (1540-1560) Emden was the
headquarters at once of his merchandise and of his propaganda;
but he travelled in both interests to various countries, visiting
England in 1552 or 1553. To this period belong most of his
writings. His primary work was Den Spegel der Gherechticheit
dorch den Geist der Lie/den unde den vergodeden Mensch H.N.
uth de hemmelische Warheit beliiget. It appeared in an English
form with the author's revision, as An Introduction to the holy
Understanding of the Glasse of Righteousness (i 57 5? ; reprinted
in 1649). None of his works bear his name in full; his initials
were mystically interpreted as standing for Homo Novus. His
" glass of righteousness " is the spirit of Christ as .interpreted
by him. The remarkable fact was brought out by G. Arnold
(and more fully by F. Nippold in 1862) that the printer of
Niclaes's works was Christopher Plantin, of Antwerp, a specially
privileged printer of Roman Catholic theology and liturgy, yet
secretly a steadfast adherent of Niclaes. It is true that Niclaes
claimed to hold an impartial attitude towards all existing religious
parties, and his mysticism, derived from David Joris, was
undogmatic. Yet he admitted his followers by the rite of adult
baptism, and set up a hierarchy among them on the Roman
model (see his Evangelium Regni, in English A Joyfull Message
of the Kingdom, 1574?; reprinted, 1652). His pantheism had
an antinomian drift; for himself and his officials he claimed
impeccability; but, whatever truth there may be in the charge
that among his followers were those who interpreted " love "
as licence, no such charge can be sustained against the morals
of Niclaes and the other leaders of the sect. His chief apostle
in England was Christopher Vitel, a native of Delft, an " illumi-
nate elder," living at Colchester and Southwark, who ultimately
recanted. The society spread in the eastern counties, in spite
of repressive measures; it revived under the Commonwealth,
and lingered into the early years of the i8th century; the lead-
ing idea of its " service of love " was a reliance on sympathy
and tenderness for the moral and spiritual edification of its
members. Thus, in an age of strife and polemics, it seemed
to afford a refuge for quiet, gentle spirits, and meditative
temperaments.
See F. Nippold, " H. Niclaes u. das Haus der Liebe," in Zeitschrtft
fur die histpr. Theol. (1862); article " H. Niclaes" in A. J. van
der Aa, Biog. Woordenboek der Nederlanden (1868); article " H.
Nicholas," by C. Fell Smith, in Diet. Nat. Biog. (1894); article
" Familisten, ' by Loofs, in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie
(1898). . (A. Go.*)
FAMILY, a' word of which the etymology but partially
illustrates the meaning. The Roman familia, derived from the
Oscan famel (serous), originally signified the servile property,
the thralls, of a master. Next, the term denoted other domestic
property, in things as well as in persons. Thus, in the fifth of
the laws of the Twelve Tables, the rules are laid down: Si-
INTESTATO MORITUR CUI STJTJS HERES NEC SIT ADGNATUS
FAMILY
theory.
PROXIMTJS FAMILIAM HABETO, and SI AGNATUS NEC ESCIT
GENTILIS-FAMILIAM-NANCITOR; that is, if a man die intestate,
leaving no natural heir who had been under his potestas, the
nearest agnate, or relative tracing his connexion with the
deceased exclusively through males, is to inherit the famtiia,
or family fortune of every sort. Failing an agnate, a member
of the gens of the .dead man is to inherit. In a third sense,
familia was applied to all the persons who could prove themselves
to be descended from the same ancestor, and thus the word
almost corresponded to our own use of it in the widest meaning,
as when we say that a person is " of a good family " (Ulpian,
Dig. 50, 16, 195 fin.).
1. Leaving for awhile the Roman terms, to which it will be
necessary to return, we may provisionally define Family, in the
modern sense, as the small community formed by
^ e union of one man with one woman, and by the
increase of children born to them. These in modern
times, and in most European countries, constitute the household,
and it has been almost universally supposed that little natural
associations of this sort are the germ-cell of early society. The
Bible presents the growth of the Jewish nation from the one
household of Abraham. His patriarchal family differed from the
modern family in being polygamous, but, as female chastity
was one of the conditions of the patriarchal family, and as
descent through males was therefore recognized as certain,
the plurality of wives makes no real difference to the argument.
In the same way the earliest formal records of Indian, Greek and
Roman society present the family as firmly established, and
generally regarded as the most primitive of human associations.
Thus, Aristotle derives the first household (ot/aa TTPOJTTJ) from
the combination of man's possession of property in the slave
or in domesticated animals with man's relation to woman,
and he quotes Hesiod: OLKOV fj.lv xpuiriora 7w<uK<x re fiovv r'
aporrjpa (Politics, i. 2. 5). The village, again, with him is a
colony or offshoot of the household, and monarchical government
in states is derived from the monarchy of the eldest male member
of the family. Now, though certain ancient terms, introduced
by Aristotle in the chapters to which we refer, might have led
him to imagine a very different origin of society, his theory is, on
the face of it, natural and plausible, and it has been almost
universally accepted. The beginning of society, it has been said
a thousand times, is the family, a natural association of kindred
by blood, composed of father, mother and their descendants.
In this family, the father is absolute master of his wife, his
children and the goods of the little community; at his death
his eldest son succeeds him; and in course of time this associa-
tion of kindred, by natural increase and by adoption, develops
into the clan, gens, or yfvos. As generations multiply, the more
distant relations split off into other clans, and these clans, which
have not lost the sense of primitive kinship, unite once more
into tribes. The tribes again, as civilization advances, ac-
knowledge themselves to be subjects of a king, in whose veins
the blood of the original family runs purest. This, or something
like this, is the common theory of the growth of society.
2. It was between 1866 and 1880 that the common opinion
began to be seriously opposed. John Ferguson McLennan, in his
Primitive Marriage and his essays on The Worship of
criticism. Flints and Animals (see his Studies in Ancient History,
second series), drew attention to the wide prevalence of
the custom of inheriting the kinship name through mothers,
not fathers; and to the law of " Exogamy " (q.v.). The former
usage he attributed to archaic uncertainty as to fatherhood;
the natural result of absolute sexual promiscuity, or of Polyandry
(q.v.). Either practice is inconsistent, prima facie, with the
primitive existence of the Family, whether polygamous or
monogamous, whether patriarchal or modern. The custom of
Exogamy, again, here taken to mean the unwritten law which
makes it incest, and a capital offence, to marry within the real
or supposed kin denoted by the common name of the kinship,
pointed to an archaic condition of family affairs all unlike our
Table of prohibited degrees. This law of Exogamy was found,
among many savage races, associated with Totems, that is plants,
animals and other natural objects which give names to the
various kinships, and are themselves, in various degrees, rever-
enced by members of the kinships. (See TOTEM AND TOTEMISM.)
Traces of such kinships, and of Totemism, also of alleged promis-
cuity in ancient times, were detected by McLennan in the legends,
folk-lore and institutions of Greece, Rome and India. Later,
Prof. Robertson Smith found similar survivals, or possible
survivals, among the Semitic races (Kinship in Early Arabia).
Others, have followed the same trail among the Celts (S. Reinach,
Cultes, mythes et religions, 1904).
If arguments founded on these alleged survivals be valid,
it may be that the most civilized races have passed through the
stages of Exogamy, Totemism and reckoning descent in the
female line. McLennan explained Exogamy as a result of
scarcity of women, due to female infanticide. Women being
scarce, the men of a group would steal them from other groups,
and it would become shameful, and finally a deadly sin, for a man
to marry within his own group-name, or name of kinship, say
Wolf or Raven. Meanwhile, owing to scarcity of women, one
woman would be the mate of many husbands (polyandry);
hence, paternity being undetermined, descent would be reckoned
through mothers.
Such are the outlines of McLennan's theory, which, as a
whole, has been attacked by many writers, and is now, perhaps,
accepted by none. McLennan's was the most brilliant
pioneer work; but his supply of facts was relatively ^^" aaa s
scanty, and his friend CharlesDarwin stated objections
which to many seem final, as regards the past existence of a stage
of sexual promiscuity. C. N. Starcke (The Primitive Family,
1889), Edward Alexander Westermarck (History of Human
Marriage, 1891), Ernest Crawley (The Mystic Rose), Herbert
Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Lord Avebury and many others,
have criticized McLennan, who, however, in coining trie term
Exogamy, and drawing scientific attention to Totemism, and
reckoning of kin through mothers, founded the study of early
society. Here it must be observed that " Matriarchate " (q.v.)
is a misleading term, as is " Gynaecocracy," for the custom of
deducing descent on the spindle side. Women among totemistic
and exogamous savages are in a degraded position, nor does the
deriving and inheriting of the kinship name, or anything else,
on the spindle side, imply any ignorance of paternal relations;
even where, as among Central Australian tribes, the facts of
reproduction are said to be unknown.
3. Simultaneous with McLennan's researches and speculations
were the works of Lewis H. Morgan. He was the discoverer of a
custom very important in its bearing on the history of
society. In about two-thirds of the globe, persons ^"rgan.
in addressing a kinsman do not discriminate between
grades of relationship. All these grades are merged in large
categories. Thus, in what Morgan calls the " Malayan system,"
" all consanguinei, near or far, fall within one of these relation-
ships grandparent, parent, brother, sister, child and grand-
child." No other blood-relationships are recognized (Ancient
Society). This at once reminds us of the Platonic Republic.
" We devised means that no one should ever be able to know his
own child, but that all should imagine themselves to be of one
family, and should regard as brothers and sisters those who
were within a certain limit of age; and those who were of an elder
generation they were to regard as parents and grandparents,
and those who were of a younger generation as children and
grandchildren " (Timaeus, 18, Jowett's translation, first edition,
vol. ii., 1871). This system prevails in the Polynesian groups
and in New Zealand. Next comes what Morgan chooses to call
the Turanian system. " It was universal among the North
American aborigines," whom he styles Ganowanians. " Traces
of it have been found in parts of Africa " (Ancient Society),
and " it still prevails in South India among the Hindus, who
speak the Dravidian language," and also in North India, among
other Hindus. The system, Morgan says, " is simply stu-
pendous." It is not exactly the same among all his miscellaneous
" Turanians," but, on the whole, assumes the following shapes.
Suppose the speaker to be a male, he will style his nephew and
i6o
FAMILY
niece in the male line, his brother's children, " son " and-
" daughter," and his grand-nephews and grand-nieces in the male
line, "grandson" and "granddaughter." Here the Turanian
and the Malayan systems agree. But change the sex; let the
male speaker address his nephews and nieces in the female line,
the children of his sister, he salutes them as "nephew" and
"niece, ' and they hail him as "uncle." Now, in the Malay
system, nephews and nieces on both sides, brother's children or
sisters, are alike named " children " of the uncle. If the speaker
be a female, using the Turanian style, these terms are reversed.
Her sister's sons and daughters are saluted by her as " son "
and " daughter," her brother's children she calls " nephew "
and " niece." Yet the children of the persons thus styled
" nephew " and " niece " are not recognized in conversation as
" grand-nephew " and " grand-niece," but as " grandson " and
"granddaughter." It is impossible here to do more than
indicate these features of the classificatory nomenclature, from
which the others may be inferred. The reader is referred for
particulars to Morgan's Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of
tkt Human Race.
The existence of the classificatory system is not an entirely
novel discovery. Nicolaus Damascenus, one of the inquirers
into early society, who lived in the first century of our era,
noticed this mode of address among the Galactophagi. Lafitau
found it among the Iroquois. To Morgan's perception of the
importance of the facts, and to his energetic collection of reports,
we owe our knowledge of the wide prevalence of the system.
From an examination of the degrees of kindred which seem
to be indicated by the " Malayan " and " Turanian " modes of
address, he has worked out a theory of the evolution of the modern
family. A brief comparison of this with other modern theories
will close our account of the family. The main points of the
theory are shortly stated in Systems of Consanguinity, &c., and
in Ancient Society. From the latter work we quote the following
description of the five different and successive forms of the
family:
" I. The Consanguine Family. It was founded upon the inter-
marriage of brothers and sisters, own and collateral, in a group.
"II. The Punaluan Family. It was founded upon the inter-
marriage of several sisters, own and collateral, with each others'
husbands, in a group the joint husbands not being necessarily
kinsmen of each other; also, on the intermarriage of several
brothers, own and collateral, with each others' wives in a group
these wives not being necessarily of kin to each other, although
often the case in both instances (sic). In each case the group of
men were conjointly married to the group of women.
" III. The Syndyasmian or Pairing Family. It was founded upon
marriage between single pairs, but without an exclusive cohabita-
tion. The marriage continued during the pleasure of the parties.
" IV. The Patriarchal Family. It was founded upon the marriage
of one man with several wives, followed in general by the seclusion
of the wives.
" V. The Monogamian Family. It was founded upon marriage
between single pairs with an exclusive cohabitation.
" Three of these forms, namely, the first, second, and fifth, were
radical, because they were sufficiently general and influential to
create three distinct systems of consanguinity, all of which still
exist in living forms. Conversely, these systems are sufficient
of themselves to prove the antecedent existence of the forms of
the family and of marriage with which they severally stand
connected."
Morgan makes the systems of nomenclature proofs of the
existence of the Consanguine and Punaluan fa milies. Unhappily,
there is no other proof, and the same systems have been explained
on a very different principle (McLennan, Studies in Ancient
History). Looking at facts, we find the Consanguine family
nowhere, and cannot easily imagine how early groups abstained
from infringing on each other, and created a systematic marriage
of brothers and sisters. St Augustine, however (De civ. Dei,
xv. 1 6), and Archinus in his Thessalica (Odyssey, xi. 7, scholia
B, Q) agree more or less with Morgan. Next, how did the
Consanguine family change into the Punaluan ? Morgan says
(Ancient Society) brothers ceased to marry their sisters, because
"the evils of it could not for ever escape human observation."
Thus the Punaluan family was hit upon, and " created a distinct
system of consanguinity " (Ancient Society), the Turanian.
Again, " marriages in Punaluan groups explain the relationships
in the system." But Morgan provides himself with another
explanation, " the Turanian system owes its origin to marriage
in the group and to the gentile organization." He calls exogamy
" the gentile organization," though, in point of fact, the only
gentes we know, the Roman gentes, show scarcely a trace of
exogamy. Again, " the change of relationships which resulted
from substituting Punaluar. in the place of Consanguine marriage
turns the Malayan into the Turanian system." On the same
page Morgan attributes the change to the " gentile organization,"
and, still on the same page, uses both factors in his working out
of the problem. Now, if the Punaluan marriage is a sufficient
explanation, we do not need the " gentile organization." Both,
in Morgan's opinion, were efforts of conscious moral reform.
In Systems of Consanguinity the gentile organization (there
called tribal), that is, exogamy, is said to have been " designed
to work out a reformation in the intermarriage of brothers and
sisters." But the Punaluan marriage had done that, otherwise
it would not have produced (as Morgan says it did) the change
from the Malayan to the Turanian system, the difference in the
two systems, as exemplified in Seneca and Tamil, being " in the
relationships which depended on the intermarriage or non-
intermarriage of brothers and sisters " (Ancient Society). Yet the
Punaluan family, though itself a reform in morals and in " breed-
ing," "did not furnish adequate motives to reform the Malay
system," which, as we have seen, it did reform. The Punaluan
family, it is suspected, " frequently involved own brothers and
sisters "; had it not been so, there would have been no need of a
fresh moral reformation, " the gentile organization." Yet even
in the Punaluan family (Ancient Society) " brothers ceased to
marry their own sisters. " What, then, did the " gentile organiza-
tion " do for men ? As they had already ceased to marry their
own sisters, and as, under the gentile organization, they were
still able to marry their half-sisters, the reformatory " ingenuity "
of the inventors of the organizations was at once superfluous and
useless. It is impossible to understand the Punaluan system.
Its existence is inferred from a system of nomenclature which it
does (and does not) produce; it admits (and excludes) own
brothers and sisters. Morgan has intended, apparently, to
represent the Punaluan marriage as a long transition to the
definite custom of exogamy, but it will be seen that his language
is not very clear nor his positions assured. He does not adduce
sufficient proof that the Punaluan family ever existed as an
institution, even in Hawaii. There is, if possible, a greater
absence of historical testimony to the existence of the Con-
sanguine family. It is difficult to believe that exogamy was a
conscious moral and social reformation, because, ex hypolhesi, the
savages had no moral data, nothing to cause disgust at relations
which seem revolting to us. It is as improbable that they dis-
covered the supposed physical evils of breeding in and in. That
discovery could only have been made after a long experience, and
in the Consanguine family that experience was impossible. Thus,
setting moral reform aside as inconceivable, we cannot understand
how the Consanguine families ever broke up. Morgan's ingenious
speculations as to a transitional step towards the gens (as he calls
what we style the totem-kindred), supposed to be found in the
" classes " and marriage laws of the Kamilaroi, are vitiated by
the weakness and contradictory nature of the evidence (see
Pritchard; J. D. Lang's Queensland, Appendix; Proceedings of
American Academy of Arts, &c., vol. viii. 412; Nature, October
29, 1874). Further, though Morgan calls the Australian "gentile
organization " " incipient," he admits (Ancient Society) that the
Narrinyeri have totem groups, in which " the children are of the
clan of the father." Far from being " incipient," the gens of the
Narrinyeri is on the footing of the ghotra of Hindu custom.
Lastly, though Morgan frequently declares that the Polynesians
have not the gens (for he thinks them not sufficiently advanced) ,
W. W. Gill (Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, London,
1876) has shown that unmistakable traces of the totem survive in
Polynesian mythology.
4. Morgan's theory was opposed by McLennan (Studies in
Ancient History, 1876), who maintained that the names for
FAMILY
161
relationships, in the " classificatory system," were merely terms
of address, as among ourselves when a preacher calls any adult
male " brother," when an old woman is addressed as
theories. " m ther," when an elder man calls a junior " my
son." He also showed that his own system accounted
for the terms. The controversy is still alive; one set of writers
regarding the savage terms of relationship as indicating a state of
things in which human beings dwelt in a " horde," with pro-
miscuous intercourse; another set holding that the terms do not
indicate consanguineous kinship, but degrees of age, status, and
reciprocal obligations in a local tribe, and therefore that they do
not yield any presumption that there was a past of promiscuity or
of what is called " group marriage." On Morgan's side (not of
course accepting all his details) a.re L. Fison and A. W. Howitt,
and Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen. Against him are Starcke,
Westermarck, A. Lang, Dr Durkheim, apparently, Crawley and
many others.
5. A second presumption in favour of original promiscuity has
been drawn by the eminent Australian students, Baldwin
Evidence Spencer and F. J. Gillen, and by A. W. Howitt, from
of original the customs of some Australian aborigines. In each
promis- tribe, owing to customary laws which are to be
examined later, only men and women of a given status
are intermarriageable (nupa, noa, unaiva) with each other.
Though child-betrothals are usual, and though the woman is
specialized to one man, who protects and nourishes her and all
her children, and though their union is immediately preceded by
an extended jus primae noctis (such as Herodotus describes among
the Nasamones), yet, among certain tribes, the following custom
prevails. At great meetings the tribal leaders assign a woman as
paramour (with what amount of permanence remains obscure) to
a man (pirrauru) ; one woman may have several pirrauru men,
one man several pirrauru women, in addition to the.'* regularly
betrothed (lippa malku) wives and husbands. The husband
occasionally shows fight, and bitter jealousies prevail, but, at
the great ceremonial meetings, complaisance is enforced under
penalty of strangling. Thenceforth, if the husband permits, the
male pirrauru has matrimonial rights over the other man's
iippa malku wife when they meet. A symbolic ceremony of
union precedes the junction of the pirrauru people. This institu-
tion, as far as reported, is peculiar to a group of tribes near Lake
Eyre, the Dieri, Urabunna, and their congeners, or perhaps to
all who have the same " phratry " names as the Dieri and
Urabunna (Kiraru and Matlera, in various dialectic forms).
Elsewhere the pirrauru custom is not known: but almost
everywhere there are licentious festivals, in which all marriage
rules except those which forbid incest (in our sense of the word,
namely between the closest relations) are thrown to the winds.
Also a native travelling among alien tribes is lent women of the
status into which he may legally marry.
Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, and A. W. Howitt, regard
pirrauru as " group marriage " and as a proof that, at one time,
all intermarriageable people were actually husbands
an ^ wives, while the other examples of licence are also
survivals, in a later stage of decay, of promiscuity, and
" group marriage." To this it is replied that " group marriage "
is a misnomer; that if pirrauru be in a sense marriage it is
status, not group marriage. Again, it is urged, pirrauru is a
modification of tippa malku, which comes first; a woman is
" specialized " to a man before she can be made pirrauru to
another, and her lippa malku husband continues to support her,
and to recognize her children as his own, after she has become
pirrauru to another man or other men. Without the foregoing
tippa malku union, the pirrauru unions are not conceivable;
they are mere legalized paramourships, modifying the lippa
malku marriage (like the Italian cicisbeism), procuring a protector
for a woman in her husband's absence, and supplying legal loves
for bachelors. The custom is peculiar to a given set of kindred
tribes. The festivals are the legalized, restricted and more or
less permanent modification of the casual orgies of feasts of
licence, or Saturnalia, which have their analogies among many
people, ancient and modern. Pirrauru is no more a survival
x. 6
marriage.
of and a proof of primitive promiscuity, than is the legalized incest
of ancient Egypt or ancient Peru. If these views be correct the
argument for primitive promiscuity derived from pirrauru falls
to the ground.
6. The questions at issue obviously are, was mankind originally
promiscuous, with no objections to marriage between persons of
the nearest kin; and was the first step in advance
the prohibition of marriage (or of amatory intercourse) J/sforfca/
between brothers and sisters; or did mankind origin- problem.
ally live in very small groups, under a jealous sire,
who imposed restrictions on intercourse between the young
males, his sons, and all the females of the " hearth-circle," who
constituted his harem ? The problem has been studied, first,
in the institutions of savages, notably of the most backward
savages, the black natives of Australia; and next, in the light
of the habits of the higher mammalia.
As regards Australian matrimonial institutions, it has been
known since the date of the Journals of two Expeditions of
Discovery, by Sir George Grey (1837-1839), that they are very
complex and peculiar, in points strongly resembling the customary
laws of the more backward Red Indian tribes of North America.
Information came in, while McLennan was working, from
G. Taplin (The Narrinyeri, 1874), from A. W. Howitt and L.
Fison, and many other inquirers (in Brough Smyth's Aborigines
of Victoria, 1878), from Howitt and Fison again (in Kamilaroi
and Kurnai, 1880) , and many essays by these authors, and finally,
in Native Tribes of Central Australia (1899) and Northern Tribes
of Central Australia (1904), by Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen;
and in Howitt's Native Tribes of South-East Australia (1904),
with R. Roth's North-West Central Queensland Aborigines (1897).
All of these are works of very high merit. Knowledge is now
much more wide, minute and securely based than it was when
McLennan 's Studies in Ancient History, second series, was
posthumously published (1896). We know with certainty that
in Australia, among archaic savages who have neither metals,
agriculture, pottery nor domesticated animals, a graduated
scale of matrimonial institutions exists. First there are local
tribes, each tribe having its own dialect; holding a recognized
area of territory; and living on friendly terms with neighbouring
tribes. Territorial conquest is never attempted. In many cases
a knot of tribes of allied dialects and kindred rites may be, or at
least is, spoken of as a " nation " by our authorities.
7. Customary law is administered by the Seniors, the wise,
the magically skilled, who in many cases are " headmen " of
local groups or of sets of kindred. As to marriage, Primitive
persons may wed within the local tribe, or into a restric-
neighbouring local tribe, at will, provided that they a a * "
obey the restrictions of customary law. The local marr/a * e -
tribe is neither exogamous nor endogamous, any more than is an
English county. The restrictions, except where they have become
obsolete, fall into six main categories:
(i) In the most primitive, each tribe consists of two inter-
marrying and exogamous divisions, which are often styled
phratries. Each such division has a name, which, when it can
be translated, is the name of an animal: in the majority of
cases, however, the meaning of the phratry name is lost. In one
instance, that of the Euahlayi tribe of north-west New South
Wales, the phratry names are said (by Mrs Langloh Parker) to
mean " Light Blood " and " Dark Blood." This, as in the theory
of the Rev. J. Mathews, Eagle and Crow, might be taken to
indicate a blending of two distinct races.
Taking, for the sake of clearness, tribes whose phratry names
mean " Crow " and " Eagle Hawk," every member of the tribe
belongs either to Eagle Hawk phratry or to Crow phratry: if to
Crow, the man or woman can only marry an Eagle Hawk, if to
Eagle Hawk, can only marry a Crow. The children invariably
belong to the phratry of the mother, in this most primitive type.
Within Eagle Hawk phratry is one set of totem kins, named
usually after various species of animals and plants; within
Crow phratry is another set of totem kins, named always (except
in one region of Central Australia) after a di/erent set of plants
and animals. With the exception mentioned (that of the Arunta
162
FAMILY
" nation "), in no tribe does the same totem ever occur in both
phratries. Totems an4 'totem names are inherited by the
children from the mother, in this primitive type. Thus a man,
Eagle Hawk by phratry, Snipe by totem, marries a woman Crow
by phratry, Black Duck by totem. His children by her are of
phratry Crow, of totem Black Duck. Obviously no person can
marry another of his or her own totem, because, in the phratry
into which he or she must marry, no man or woman of his or her
totem exists. The prohibition extends to members of alien and
remote tribes, if of the same totem name.
The same rules exist in the more primitive North American
tribes, but as the phratry there has generally, though not always,
decayed, the rule, where this has occurred, merely forbids
marriage within the totem km.
(2) We find this type of organization, where the child inherits
phratry and totem from the father, not from the mother.
(3) We find tribes in which phratry and totem are inherited
from the mother, but an additional rule prevails: the rule of
" Matrimonial Classes." By this device, in phratry " Dilbi,"
there are two classes, " Muri " and " Kubi." In phratry
" Kupathin " are two classes, " Ipai " and " Kumbo " (all these
names are of unknown meaning) . Each child inherits its mother's
phratry name and totem name, and also the name of that class
of the two in the mother's phratry to which the mother does not
belong. No person may marry into his or her own class-
practically into his or her own generation: the rule makes
parental and filial marriages impossible, but these never occur
even among more primitive tribes which have not the institution
of classes. Suppose that the class names are really names of
animals and other objects in nature as in a few cases they
actually are. Then the rules, where classes exist, would amount
to this: no person may marry another who, by phratry, totem or
generation, owns the same hereditary animal name as himself
or herself. In practice, where phratries exist, a man who knows
a woman's phratry name knows whether or not he may marry
her. Where class names exist (even though the phratry name be
lost), a man who knows a woman's class name knows whether
or not he may marry her. Nothing can be simpler in practice.
(4) The same rules as under (3) exist, but the phratry, totem
and class are inherited through the father: the class of the child
of course not being the father's, but the linked class in his
phratry.
(5) In the fifth category (Central North Australia), while
phratry name (if not lost) and totem name are inherited from
the father, by a refinement of law which is spreading southwards
there are four classes in each phratry (or main exogamous
division unnamed), and the choice of a partner in life is thus
more restricted than in more primitive tribes.
(6) Finally we reach the institutions of the group of tribes
called, from the name of the most powerful tribe in the set,
" the Arunta nation." They occupy the Macdonnell
Ranges and other territory in the very centre of
Australia. The Arunta reckon kinship in the male line :
their phratry names they have forgotten, in place of phratries
eight matrimonial classes regulate marriage. In these respects
they resemble most of the central and northern tribes, but present
this unique peculiarity, that the same totems may and do exist
in both of the opposed intermarrying exogamous divisions con-
sisting of four classes each. It thus results that a man, in the
Arunta tribe, may marry a woman of his own totem, if she be
in the class with which he may intermarry. This licence is un-
known in every other part of the totemic world, and even in the
Kaitish tribe of the Arunta nation intertotemic marriages, in
practice, almost never occur.
Among the Arunta the totems are only prominent in magical
ceremonies, unknown in South-Eastern Australia. At these
ceremonies (Intichiuma) the men of the totem do co-operative
magic for the benefit of their plant or animal, as part of the
tribal food-supply. The members of the totem taste it sparingly
on these occasions, apparently under the belief that to do so
increases their magical power: the rest of the tribe eat freely.
But, as far as denoting kinship or regulating marriage is con-
cerned, the totems, among the Arunta, have no legally important
existence. Men and women of the same totem may intermarry,
their children need not belong to the totem of either father or
mother.
The process by which Arunta totems came thus to differ from
those of all other savages is easily understood. Like the other
tribes from the centre to the north (including the Urabunna
nation, which reckons descent through women), the Arunta
believe that the souls of the primal semi-bestial ancestors of the
Alcheringa or " dream time " are perpetually reincarnated.
This opinion does not affect by itself the usual exogamous
character of totemism among the other tribes. The Arunta
nation, however, cultivates an additional myth, namely that the
primal ancestors, when they sank into the ground, left behind
them certain oval stone slabs, with archaic markings, called
churinga nanja, or " sacred things of the nanja." The nanja,
again, is a tree or rock, fabled to have risen up to mark the spot
where a group of primal ancestors, all of one and the same totem
in each case (Cats here, Grubs there, Ducks elsewhere), " went
into the ground." The souls of these ancestors haunt such spots,
especially they haunt the nanja tree or rock, and the stone
churinga nanja. Each district, therefore, has its own oknanikilla
(or local totem centre of the ghosts), Cat ghosts, Grub ghosts,
Hakea flower ghosts and so on. These spirits enter into women
and are reborn as children. When a child comes to birth, the
mother names the oknanikilla in which she conceived it, and,
whatever the ghost totem of that place may be, it is the child's
totem. Its mother may be a Grub, its father may be a Crow,
but if the child was conceived in a Duck, or Cat, or Opossum or
Kangaroo locality, it is, by totem, a Cat, Opossum, Duck or
Kangaroo. The churinga nanja of its primal ancestor is sought
for at the place of the child's conception, and is put into the
sacred repository of such objects.
Thus the child does not inherit its totem from father, or from
mother, as everywhere else, but does inherit the right to do
ceremonies for the paternal totem: a proof that, of old, totems
were inherited, as elsewhere, and that in the male line. If totems
among the Arunta, as everywhere else, were once arranged on
the plan that the same totem never occurs in both exogamous
moieties, that arrangement has been destroyed, as was in-
evitable, by the existing method of allotting totems to children,
not by inheritance, but at haphazard. By this means (a
consequence of the unique Arunta belief about churinga nanja)
the same totems have got into both exogamous moieties, so that
persons of the same totem, but of appropriate matrimonial
classes, may marry. This licence is absolutely confined to the
limited region in which stone churinga nanja occur.
The whole system is impossible except where descent is
reckoned in the male line, for there alone is local totemism
possible, and the Arunta system is based on local totemism,
plus the churinga nanja and reincarnation beliefs. With reckon-
ing of descent in the female line, no locality can possibly have
its local totem: all the totems indiscriminately distributed
everywhere: and thus no woman can say in what totemic
locality her child was conceived, for there is not and cannot be,
with female descent, any totemic locality. Now it is admitted
that reckoning by female descent is the earlier method, and it is
granted that in rites and ceremonies the Arunta are of a relatively
advanced and highly organized pattern. Their social organiza-
tion is local, and they have a kind of local magistracies, hereditary
in the male line.
In spite of these facts, Spencer and Gillen conceive that the
peculiar totemism of the Arunta is the most primitive type
extant (cp. Spencer, J.A.I. (N.S.), vol. i. 275-281; and Frazer,
ibid. 281-288). It is not easy to understand this position, as,
without male kinship and consequent local totemism (which are
not primitive), and without the churinga nanja (which exist only
in a strictly limited area), the Arunta system of non-exogamous
totems cannot possibly exist. Again, the other tribes cannot have
passed through the Arunta stage, for, if they had, their totems
would have existed, as among the Arunta, in both exogamous
moieties, and would there remain when they came to be inherited;
FAMILY
163
so that the totems of all these tribes would still benon-exogamous,
like those of the Arunta. But this is not the case. Once more,
it is clear that the Arunta system has but recently reached their
neighbours, the Kaitish, for though they have the churinga nanja
belief, and the haphazard method of acquiring totems by local
accident, these things have not yet overcome the old traditional
reluctance to marry within the totem name. It is not unlawful
among the Kaitish; but it is hardly ever done.
Despite these objections, however, Spencer and Gillen hold,
as we have said, that, originally, there were no restrictions (or
no known restrictions) on marriage. Totems were merely the
result of the formation of co-operative magical societies, in the
interest of the tribal food supply. Then, in some unknown way,
regulations as to marriage were introduced for some unknown
purpose, or were involved in some manner not understood.
" The traditions of the Arunta," says Spencer, " point to a very
definite introduction of an exogamous system long after the
totemic groups were fully developed, and, further, they point
very clearly to the fact that the introduction was due to the
deliberate action of certain ancestors. Our knowledge of the
natives leads us to the opinion that it is quite possible that this
really took place, that the exogamic groups were deliberately
introduced so as to regulate marital relations."
Thus the wisdom of men living promiscuously as regards
marriage, but organized in magical societies for the benefit of
the common food supply of the local tribe (a complex institution
postulated as already in being at this early stage), induced them
to institute exogamy. Why they did this, what harm they saw
in their promiscuity, we are not informed. Spencer goes on,
" by this we do not mean that the regulations had anything
whatever to do with the idea of incest, or of any harm accruing
from the union of individuals who were regarded as too nearly
related. . . . There was felt the need of some kind of organiza-
tion, and this gradually resulted in the development of exogamous
groups." But as " it is quite possible that the exogamous groups
were deliberately introduced to regulate marital relations," and
as they could only do so by introducing exogamy, we do not
see how that system can be the result of the gradual develop-
ment of an organization quelconque, of unknown nature. A
magical organization already existed (Journal of the Anthropo-
logical Institute, New Series, i. pp. 284-285).
The traditions of the Arunta seem here to be first accepted:
" quite possibly " they are correct in stating that an exogamic
system was purposefully introduced, long after totemic groups
had arisen, by " the deliberate action of certain ancestors,"
and then that myth is rejected, in favour of the gradual develop-
ment of exogamy, " out of some form of organization," unknown.
People who, like the Arunta, have lost memory of the very
names of the phratries, cannot conceivably remember the
nature of the origin of exogamy. Accustomed as they now are to
tribal councils which introduce new rules, they fancy that, in the
beginning, new rules were thus introduced.
Meanwhile the working of magic for the behoof of the totem
animals and plants, or rather for the name-giving animals of
Conclusion ma S' ca l societies, is not known to Howitt among the
as to tribes of primitive social organization, while it is well
Spencer's known among agricultural natives of the Torres
tbesi* Strait Islands and among the advanced Sioux and
Omaha of North America. The practice seems to
belong rather to the decadence than to the dawn of totemism.
On the whole, then, there seem to be insuperable difficulties
in the way of Spencer's hypothesis that mankind were pro-
miscuous, as regards marriage, but were organized into co-
operative magical groups, athwart which came, in some un-
explained way, the rule of exogamy; while, when it did come,
all savages except the Arunta arranged matters so that totem
kins were exogamous. The reverse was probably the case,
totem kins were originally exogamous, and ceased to be so,
and even to be kins among the Arunta, in consequence of the
churinga nanja creed, becoming co-operative magical societies
(Hartland, Marett, Durkheim and others).
8. Spencer and Gillen leave the origin of exogamy an open
question. Howitt supposes that, in the shape of the phratriac
division of the tribe into two exogamous moieties,
the scheme may have been introduced to the tribal < ^ fln
headmen by a medicine man " announcing to his exogamy.
fellow headman a command received from some super-
natural being . . ." (Natives of South- East Australia, pp. 89, 90).
The Council, so to speak, of " headmen " accept the divine
decree, and the assembled tribe pass the Act. But this explana-
tion explains nothing. Why did the prophet wish to introduce
exogamy? Why were names of animals given, in so many cases,
to the two exogamous divisions ? As Howitt asks (op. cit. p. 153),
" How was it that men assumed the names of objects, which in
fact must have been the commencement of totemism ? "
It is apparent that any theory which begins by postulating
the existence of early mankind in promiscuous groups or hordes,
into which exogamous moieties are introduced by tribal decree,
takes for granted that the tribe, with its headman, councils and
great meetings (not to mention its inspired prophet, with the
tribal " All Father " who inspires him), existed before any rules
regulating " marital relations " were evolved. Even if all this
were probable, we are not told why a promiscuous tribe thought
good to establish exogamous divisions. Some native myths
attribute the institution to certain wise ancestors; some to the
supernatural " All Father," say Baiame; some to a treaty
between Eagle Hawk and Crow, beings of cosmogonic legend,
who give names to the phratries. Such myths are mere hypo-
theses. It is impossible to imagine how early savages, ex hypo-
thesi promiscuous, saw anything to reform in their state of
promiscuity. They now think certain unions wrong, because
they are forbidden: they were not forbidden, originally, because
they were thought wrong.
Westermarck has endeavoured to escape the difficulty thus:
" Among the ancestors of man, as among other animals, there
was no doubt a time when blood relationship was no
bar to sexual intercourse. But variations here, as
elsewhere, would naturally present themselves, and
those of our ancestors who avoided in and in breeding would
survive," while the others would die out. This appears to be
orthodox evolutionary language, but it carries us no further.
Human societies are not animals or plants, in whose structure
various favourable " accidents " occur, producing better types,
which survive. We ask why in human society did " variations
present themselves "; why did certain sets of human beings
" avoid in and in breeding " ? We are merely told that some
of our ancestors became exogamous and survived, while others
remained promiscuous and perished. No light is thrown on the
problem, wherefore did some of our ancestors avoid in and in
breeding, and become exogamous ? Nothing is gained by saying
" thus an instinct would be developed which would be powerful
enough, as a rule, to prevent injurious unions." There is no
" instinct," there is a tribal law of exogamy. If there had been
an " instinct," it might account for the avoidance of " in and in
breeding " that is, it might account for exogamy, ab initio.
But that is left unaccounted for by the theory which, after
maintaining that the avoidance produced the instinct, seems to
argue that the instinct produced the avoidance. Westermarck
goes on to say that " exogamy, as a natural extension of the
instinct, would arise when single families united in small hordes."
But, if the single families already had the " instinct," they would
not marry within the family: they would be exogamous,
marrying only into other families, before they " united in small
hordes." The difficulty of accounting for exogamy does not
seem to have been overcome, and no attempt is made to explain
the animal names of totem kins and phratries. Westermarck,
however, says that " there is no reason why we should assume,
as so many anthropologists have done, that primitive men
lived in small endogamous groups, practising incest in every
degree," although, as he also says, " there was no doubt a time
when blood relationship was no bar to sexual intercourse."
If there was no bar, people would " practise incest in every
degree," what was there to prevent them? (History of Human
Marriage, pp. 352, 353 (1891)).
164
FAMILY
So far we have seen no luminous and consistent account of
how mankind became exogamous, if they began by being
promiscuous. The theories rest on the idea that man,
m ' dwelling in an " undivided horde " (except so far as
it was divided into co-operative magical societies), bisected it
into two exogamous intermarrying moieties. Durkheim has put
forward a theory which is not at all points easily understood.
He supposes that, " at the beginning of societies of men, incest
was not prohibited . . . before each horde (peuplade) divided
itself into two primitive ' clans ' at least " (L Annie sociologique,
i. pp. 62, 63). Each of the two " clans " claimed descent from a
different animal, which was its totem, and its "god." The two
clans were exogamous, out of respect to the blood of their
totem (with which every member of the clan is mystically one),
and, being hostile, the two clans raided each other for women.
Each clan threw off colonies, which took new totems, new "gods,"
though still owning some regard to their original clan, from
which they had seceded, while abandoning its " god." When the
two "primary clans " made alliance and connubium, they became
the phratries in the local tribe, and their colonies became the
totem kins within the phratries.
We are not told why the original horde was disrupted into two
hostile and intermarrying "clans": we especially wonder why
the horde, if it wanted an animal god, did not choose one animal
for the whole community; and we may suspect that a difference
of taste in animal " gods " caused the hostility of the two clans.
Nor do we see why, if things occurred thus, the totem kins
should not represent twenty or thirty differences of religious
taste, in the original horde, as to the choice of animal gods.
If the horde was going to vary in opinion, it is unlikely that only
two factions put forward animal candidates for divinity. Again,
a " clan " (a totem kin, with exogamy and descent derived
through mothers) cannot overflow its territorial area and be
therefore obliged to send out colonies, for such a clan (as Durkheim
himself remarks) has no territorial area to overflow. It is not a
local institution at all.
While these objections cannot but occur, Durkheim does
provide a valid reason for the existence of exogamy. When once
the groups (however they got them) had totems, with the usual
taboos on any sort of use of the totem by his human kinsfolk,
the women of the kin would be tabooed to the men of the same
kin. In marrying a maiden of his own totem, a man inevitably
violates the sanctity of the blood of the totem (L' Annie socio-
logique, i. pp. 47-57. Cf. Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions,
vol. i. pp. 162-166).
Here at last we have a theory which accounts for the " religious
horror " that attaches to the violation of the rule of totemic
exogamy: a mysterious entity, the totem, is hereby offended.
But how did totems, animals, plants and so on, come to be
mystically solidaires with their human namesakes and kinsmen?
We do not observe that Dr Durkheim ever explains why two
divisions of one horde chose each a different animal god, or why
the supposed colonies thrown off by these primary clans deserted
their animal gods for others, or why, and on what principle,
they all chose new " gods," fresh animals, plants and other
objects. His hereditary totem is, in practice, the last thing
that a savage changes. The only case of change on record is a
recent attempt to increase the range of legal marriages in a
waning Australian tribe, on whose lands certain species of
animals are perishing.
Theories based on a supposed primal state of promiscuity
certainly encounter, when explaining the social oganization
of Australian savages, difficulties which they do not
solution, surmount. But Howitt has provided (apparently
without fully realizing the merit of his own suggestions)
a way out of the perplexities caused by the conception of early
mankind dwelling promiscuously in " undivided communes."
The way out is practically to say that, in everyday life, they
lived in nothing of the sort. Howitt writes (Native Tribes of
South-East Australia, p. 173): "A study of the evidence . . .
has led me to the conclusion that the state of society among
the early Australians was that of an ' Undivided Commune.'. . .
It is, however, well to guard this expression. I do not desire
to imply necessarily the existence of complete and continuous
communism between the sexes. The character of the country,
the necessity of moving from one point to another in search of
game and vegetable food, would cause any Undivided Commune,
when it assumed dimensions greater than the immediate locality
could provide with food, to break up into two or more Communes
of the same character. In addition to this it is clear . . . that
in the past as now, individual likes and dislikes must have
existed, so that, admitting the existence of common rights
between the members of the Commune, these rights would remain
in abeyance, so far as the separated parts of the Commune were
concerned. But at certain gatherings ... or on great cere-
monial occasions, all the segments of the original Commune
would reunite," and would behave in the fashion now common in
great licentious festive meetings.
In the eaily ages contemplated, how can we postulate " great
ceremonial occasions " or even peaceful assemblies at fruit-
bearing spots? How can we postulate a surviving Prlmlt i ve
sense of solidarity among the scattered segments of promiscuity
the Commune, obviously very small, owing to lack of faprob-
supplies, and perpetually disintegrated? But, taking aWe '
the original groups, as very small, and as ruled by likes and
dislikes, by affection and jealousy, we are no longer concerned
with a promiscuous horde, but with a little knot of human beings,
in whom love, parental affection and the jealousy of sires, would
promptly make discriminations between this person and that
person, as regards sexual privileges. Thus we have edged away
from the hypothesis of the promiscuous indiscriminating horde
to the opinion of Darwin. " We may conclude," he says, " from
what we know of the jealousy of all male quadrupeds, armed as
many of them are with special weapons for battling with their
rivals, that promiscuous intercourse in a state of Nature is
extremely improbable. . . . The most probable view is that Man
originally lived in small communities, each (man) with a single
wife, or, if powerful, with several, whom he jealously guarded
against all other men." But, in a community of this early type,
to guard women jealously would mean constant battle, at least
when Man became an animal who makes love all the year round.
So Darwin adds: " Or man may not have been a social animal,
and yet have lived with several wives, like the Gorilla, for all
the natives agree that but one adult male is seen in a band;
when the young male grows up a contest takes place for the y
mastery, and the strongest, by killing or driving out the others,
establishes himself as head of the Community. Younger males,
being thus expelled and wandering about, would, when at last
successful in finding a partner, prevent too close interbreeding
within the limits of the same family " (Descent of Man, ii. pp.
361, 363 (1871)).
Here, then, we have practical Exogamy, as regards unions of
brothers and sisters, among man still brutish, while the Sire is
husband of the whole harem of females, probably unchecked as
regards his daughters.
On this Darwinian text J. J. Atkinson builds his theory of the
evolution of exogamy and of savage society in his Primal Law
(Social Origins and Primal Law, by Lang and Atkinson,
1903). Paternal jealousy "gave birth to Primal Law,
prohibitory of marriage between certain members of a
family or local group, and thus, in natural sequence, led to forced
connubial selection beyond its circle, that is, led to Exogamy . . .
as a habit, not as an expressed law. . . ." The " expressed law "
was necessarily a later development; conditioned by the circum-
stances which produced totemism, and sanctioned, as on Durk-
heim's scheme, by the totemic taboo. Atkinson worked out his
theory by a minute study of customs of avoidance between near
kin by blood or affinity; by observations on the customs of
animals, and by hypotheses as to the very gradual evolution of
human restrictions through many modifications. He also gave
a theory of the " classificatory " system of names for relation-
ships opposed to that of Morgan. The names are based merely
" on reference to relativity of age of a class in relation to the
group." The exogamous moieties of a tribe (phratries) are not
FAMILY
165
the result of a reformatory legislative bisection of the tribe,
but of the existence of " two intermarrying totem clan groups."
The whole treatise, allowing for defects caused by the author's
death before the book was printed, is highly original and in-
genious. The author, however, did not touch on the evolution of
totemism.
9. The following system, as a means of making intelligible the
evolution of Australian totemic society, is proposed by the
present writer. We may suggest that men originally
lived in the state of " the Cyclopean family " of
Atkinson; that is, in Darwin's " family group," con-
taining but one adult male, with the females, the adolescent
males being driven out, to find each a female mate, or mates,
elsewhere if they can. With increase of skill, improvements in
implements and mitigation of ferocity, such groups may become
larger, in a given area, but men may retain the habit of seeking
mates outside the limits of the group of contiguity; the " avoid-
ance " of brothers and sisters may already have arisen. Among
the advanced Arunta, now, a man may speak freely to his elder
sisters; to younger sisters, or "tribal sisters," he may not speak,
" or only at such a distance that the features are indistinguish-
able." This archaic rule of avoidance would be a step facilitating
the permission to adult males to dwell in their paternal group,
avoiding their sisters. Such groups, whether habitually exoga-
mous or not, will require names for each other, and various
reasons would yield a preference to names derived from animals.
These are easily signalled in gesture language; are easily
presented in pictographs and tattooing; are even now, among
savages and boys, the most usual sort of personal nicknames;
and are widely employed as group names of villagers in European
folk-lore. Among European rustics such group sobriquets are
usual, but are resented. The savage, with his ideas of the equality
or superiority of animals to himself, sees nothing to resent in an
animal sobriquet, and the names, originally group sobriquets,
would not find more difficulty in being accepted than " Whig,"
" Tory," " Huguenot," " Cavalier," " Christian," " Cameronian,"
all of them originally nicknames given from without. Again,
" Wry Nose " and " Crooked Mouth " are derisive nicknames,
but they are the translations of the ancient Celtic clan names
Cameron and Campbell. The nicknames " Naked Dogs,"
" Liars," " Buffalo Dung," " Men who do not laugh," " Big
Topknots," have been thoroughly accepted by the " gentes "
of the Blackfoot Indians, now passing out of Totemism (Grinnell,
Blackfoot Lodge Tales, pp. 208-225).
As Howitt writes, " the assumption of the names of objects
by men must in fact have been the origin of totemism." Howitt
does not admit the theory that the totem names came to arise
in this way, but this way is a vera causa. Names must be given
either from within or from without. A group, in savagery,
has no need of a name for itself; " we " are " we," or are
" The Men "; for all other adjacent groups names are needed.
The name of one totem, Thaballa, " The Laughing Boy " totem,
among the Warramunga and another tribe, is quite trans-
parently a nickname, as is Karti, " The Grown-up Men " (Spencer
and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 207).
There is nothing, prima facie, which renders this origin of
animal, plant and other such names for early savage groups
at all improbable. They would not even be resented, as now are
the animal names for villagers in the Orkneys, the Channel
Islands, France, Cornwall and in ancient Israel (for examples
see Social Origins, pp. 295-301). The names once accepted,
and their origin forgotten, would be inevitably regarded as
implying a mystic rapport between the bestial and the human
namesakes, Crow, Eagle Hawk, Grub, Bandicoot, Opossum,
Emu, Kangaroo and so on (see NAME). On this subject it is
enough to cite J. G. Frazer, in The Golden Bough (2nd ed.,
vol. i. pp. 404-446). Here will be found a rich and satisfactory
collection of proof that community of name implies mystic
rapport. Professor Rhys is quoted for the statement that
probably " the whole Aryan race believed at one time not only
that the name was a part of the man, but that it was that part
of him which is termed the soul." In such a mental stage the
men " Crows " identify themselves with the actual Crow species:
the birds are now " of their flesh," are fabled to be their ancestors,
or the men have been evolved out of the birds. The Crow is
sacro-sanct, a friend and protector, and a centre of taboos,
one of which is the prohibition preventing a Crow man from
intercourse with a Crow woman, " however far apart their
hunting grounds may have been." All men and women Crows
are recognized as brothers and sisters in the Crow, and are not
intermarriageable.
On these lines the prohibition to infringe the totem taboo
by marriage within the totem name is intelligible, but the
system of phratries has yet to be accounted for. It is obvious
that the names could only have been given originally to local
groups: the people who held this or that local habitation
received the name. Suppose that the rule of each such group,
or heart circle, had been " no marriage within the local group
or camp," as in Atkinson's scheme. When the groups accept
their new names, the rule becomes, " no marriage within local
group Eagle Hawk, group Crow," and so on. So far the animal
giving the group name may not yet have become a revered
totem. The result of the rule would inevitably be, in three or
four generations, that in groups Crow or Eagle Hawk, there were
no Crows or Eagle Hawks by descent, if the children took the
names of descent from their mothers; for the sake of differentia-
tion: the Ant woman's children in local group Crow being Ants,
the Grub woman's children being Grubs, the Eagle Hawk
woman's children being Eagle Hawks, all in local group Crow,
and inheriting the names of the local groups whence their mothers
were brought into local group Crow.
By this means (indicated first by McLennan) each member of a
local group would have a local group name, say Eagle Hawk,
and a name by female descent, say Kangaroo, in addition, as now,
to his or her personal name. In this way, all members of each
local group would find, in any other local group, people of his
name of descent, and, as the totem belief grew to maturity,
kinsmen of his in the totem. When this fact was realized, it
would inevitably make for peace among all contiguous groups.
In place of taking women by force, at the risk of shedding
kindred blood, peaceful betrothals between men and women of
different local group names and of different names by descent
could be arranged. Say that local groups Eagle Hawk and Crow
took the lead in this arrangement of alliance and connubium,
and that (as they would naturally flourish in the strength con-
ferred by union) the other local groups came into it, ranging
themselves under Eagle Hawk and Crow, we should have the
existing primitive type of organization: Local Groups Eagle
Hawk (Mukwara) and Crow (Kilpara) would have become the
widely diffused phratries, Mukwara and Kilpara, with all the
totem kins within them.
But, on these lines, some members of any totem kin, say Cat,
would be in phratry Eagle Hawk, some would be in phratry
Kilpara as now (for the different reason already indicated)
among the Arunta. Such persons were in a quandary. By
phratry law, as being in opposite phratries, a Cat in Eagle Hawk
phratry could marry a Cat in Crow phratry. But, by totem law,
this was impossible. To avoid the clash of law, all Cats had to
go into one phratry or the other, either into Eagle Hawk or
into Crow.
Two whole totem kins were in the same unhappy position.
The persons who were Eagle Hawks by descent could not be in
Eagle Hawk local group, now phratry, as we have already shown.
They were in Crow phratry, they could not, by phratry law,
marry in their own phratry, and to marry in Eagle Hawk was
to break the old law, " no marriage within the local group name."
Their only chance was to return to Eagle Hawk phratry, while
Crow totem kin went into Crow phratry, and thus we often find,
in fact, that in Australian phratries Mukwara (Eagle Hawk)
there is a totem kin Eagle Hawk, and in Kilpara phratry (Crow)
there is a totem kin Crow. This arrangement the totem kin
within the phratry of its own name has long been known to
exist in America. The Thlinkets have Raven phratry, with
totem kins Raven, Frog, Goose, &c., and Wolf phratry, with
i66
FAMINE
totem kins Wolf, Bear, Eagle, &c. (Frazer, Totemism, pp. 61, 62
(1887)). In Australia the fact has hitherto escaped observa-
tion, because so many phratry names are not translated, while,
though Mukwara and Kilpara are translated, the Eagle Hawk
and Crow totem kins within them bear other names for the same
birds, more recent names, or tribal native names, such as Biliari
and Waa, while Mukwara and Kilpara may have been names
borrowed, within the institution of phratries, from some alien
tribe now perhaps extinct.
We have now sketched a scheme explanatory of the most
primitive type of social organization in Australia. The tendency
is for phratries first to lose the meanings of their names, and,
next, for their names to lapse into oblivion, as among the Arunta;
the work of regulating marriage being done by the opposed
Matrimonial Classes.
These classes are obviously an artificial arrangement, intended
to restrict marriage to persons on the same level as generations.
The meanings of the class names are only known with certainty
in two cases, and then are names of animals, while there is
reason to suspect that animal names occur in four or five of
the eight class-names which, in different dialect forms, prevail
in central and northern Australia. Conceivably the new class
regulations made use of the old totemic machinery of nomen-
clature. But until Australian philologists can trace the original
meanings of Class names, further speculation is premature.
10. Much might be said about the way out of totemism.
When once descent and inheritance are traced through males,
the social side of totemism begins to break up. One
Breaking way out j s t jj e Arunta way, where totems no longer
"otemisrn. designate kinships. In parts of America totems are
simply fading into heraldry, or into magical societies,
while the " gentes," once totemic, have acquired new names,
often local, as among the Sioux, or mere sobriquets, as among
the Blackfeet. In Melanesia the phratries, whether named or
nameless, have survived, while the totems have left but a few
traces which some consider disputable (Social Origins, pp. 176-
184). Among the Bantu of South Africa the tribes have sacred
animals (Siboko), which may be survivals of the totems of the
chief local totem group, with male descent in the tribe, the whole
of which now bears the name of the sacred animal. Even in
Australia, among tribes where there is reckoning of descent
in the male line, and where there are no matrimonial classes,
the tendency is for totems to dwindle, while exogamy becomes
local, the rule being to marry out of the district, not out of the
kin (Howitt, Native Tribes of South- East Australia, pp. 270-272;
cf. pp. i35- J 37)-
The problem as to why, among savages all on the same low
level of material culture, one tribe derives descent through
women, while its nearest neighbouring tribe, with ceremonies,
rites, beliefs and myths like its own, and occupying lands of
similar character in a similar climate, traces descent through
men, seems totally insoluble. Again, we find that the civilized
Lycians, as described by Herodotus (book i. ch. 173), reckoned
lineage in the female line, while the naked savages of north
and central Australia reckon in the male line. Our knowledge
does not enable us to explain the change from female to male
tracing of lineage. Yet the change was essential for the formation
of the family system of civilized life. The change may be observed
taking place in the region of North-West America peopled by the
Thlinket, Haida and Salish tribes; the first are pure totemists,
the last have arrived, practically, in the south, at the modern
family, while a curious intermediate stage pervades the inter-
jacent region.
The best authority on the Family developed in different shapes
in North-West America is Charles Hill-Tout (cf. " Origin of the
Totemism of the Aborigines of British Columbia," Transactions
of the Royal Society of Canada, vol. vii. sect, n, 1901). He,
like many American and some English and continental students,
applies the term " totem " not only to the hereditary totem of
the exogamous kin, but to the animal familiars of individual
men or women, called tnanitus, naguals, nyarongs and yunbeai,
among North American Indians, in South America, in Borneo
and in the Euahlayi tribe of New South Wales. These animal
familiars are chosen by individuals, obeying the monition of
dreams, or are assigned to them at birth, or at puberty, by the
tribal magicians. It has often been suggested that totemism
arose when the familiar of an individual became hereditary
among his descendants. This could not occur under a system
of reckoning descent and inheriting the kin name through
women, but as a Tsimshian myth says that a man's sister
adopted his animal familiar, the bear, and transmitted it to her
offspring, Hill-Tout supposes that this may have been the origin
of totemism in tribes with reckoning of descent in the female
line. Instances, however, are not known to exist in practice,
and myths are mere baseless savage hypotheses.
Exogamy, in his opinion, is the result of treaties of political
alliance with exclusive interccmnubium between two sets of kins-
folk by blood, totemism being a mere accidental concomitant.
This theory evades the difficulties raised by the hypothesis of
deliberate reformatory legislation introducing the bisection of
the tribe into exogamous societies.
AUTHORITIES. The study of the History of the Family has been
subject to great fluctuation of opinion, as unexpected evidence has
kept pouring in from many quarters. The theory of primal promis-
cuity, which in 1870 succeeded to Sir Henry Maine's patriarchal
theory, has endured many attacks, and there is a tendency to return,
not precisely to the " patriarchal theory," but to the view that the
jealousy of the Sire of the " Cyclopean family," or "Gorilla family"
indicated by Darwin, has had much to do with laying the bases of
" primal law." The whole subject has been especially studied by
English-speaking writers, as the English and Americans are brought
most into contact with the most archaic savage societies. Among
foreigners, in addition to Starcke, Westermarck and Durkheim,
already cited, may be mentioned Professor J. Kohler, Zur Ur-
geschichte der Ehe (Stuttgart, 1897). Professor Kohler is in favour
of a remote past of "collective marriage," indicated, as in Morgan's
hypothesis, by the existing savage names of relationships, which are
expressive of relations of consanguinity. E. S. Hartland (Primi-
tive Paternity, 1910) discusses myths of supernatural birth in
relation to the history of the Family.
A careful and well-reasoned work by Herr Cunow (Die Verwandt-
schafts Organisationen der Australneger, Stuttgart, 1894) deals with
the Matrimonial Classes of Australian tribes. Cunow supposes that
descent was originally reckoned in the male line, and that tribes
with this organization (such as the Narrinyeri) are the more primitive.
In this opinion he has few allies: and on the origin of Exogamy he
seems to possess no definite ideas. Pikler's Ur sprung des Totemismus
(Berlin, 1900) explains Totemism as arising from the need of names
for early groups of nien: names which could be expressed in picto-
graphs and tattooing, to which we may add " gesture language."
This is much akin to the theory which we have already suggested,
though Pikler seems to think that the pictograph (say of a Crow or an
Eagle Hawk) was prior to the group name. But, he remarks, like
Howitt, " the germ of Totemism is the naming " ; and the com-
munity of name between the animal species and the human group
led to the belief that there was an important connexion between the
men and their name-giving animal.
Other useful sources of information are the annual Reports of the
Bureau of Ethnology (Washington), the Journal of the Institute of
the Anthropological Society, Folk Lore (the organ of the Folk Lore
Society), and Durkheim's L'Annee sociologique. Tabou et totemisme
a Madagascar, by M. A. van Gennep (Leroux, Paris, 1904) is a
valuable contribution to knowledge.
For India, where vestiges of totemism linger in the hill tribes,
see Risley and Crooke, Tribes and Castes, vols. i., ii., iii.,iv. ; and
Crooke, Popular Religion; also Crooke in J.A.I. (N.S.), vol. i.
pp. 232-244. (A. L.)
FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger), extreme and general scarcity of
food, causing distress and deaths from starvation among the
population of a district or country. Famines have caused wide-
spread suffering in all countries and ages. A list of the chief
famines recorded by history is given farther on. The causes of
famine are partly natural and partly artificial. Among the
natural causes may be classed all failures of crops due to excess
or defect of rainfall and other meteorological phenomena, or
to the ravages of insects and vermin. Among the artificial
causes may be classed war and economic errors in the production,
transport and sale of food-stuffs.
The natural causes of famine are still mainly outside our
control, though science enables agriculturists to combat them
more successfully, and the improvement in means of transport
allows a rich harvest in one land to supplement the defective
FAMINE
167
crops in another. In tropical countries drought is the commonest
cause of a failure in the harvest, and where great droughts
are not uncommon as in parts of India and Australia the
hydraulic engineer comes to the rescue by devising systems of
water-storage and irrigation. It is less easy to provide against
the evils of excessive rainfall and of frost, hail and the like.
The experience of the French in Algiers shows that it is possible
to stamp out a plague of locusts, such as is the greatest danger to
the farmer in many parts of Argentina. But the ease with which
food can nowadays be transported from one part of the world to
another minimizes the danger of famine from natural causes, as
we can hardly conceive that the whole food-producing area of
the world should be thus affected at once.
The artificial causes of famine have mostly ceased to be
operative on any large scale. Chief among them is war, which
may cause a shortage of food - supplies, either by its direct
ravages or by depleting the supply of agricultural labour. But
only local famines are likely to arise from this cause. Legislative
interference with agricultural operations or with the distribution
of food-supplies, currency restrictions and failure of transport,
which have all caused famines in the past, are unlikely thus to
operate again; nor is it probable that the modern speculators
who attempt to make " corners " in wheat could produce the
evil effects contemplated in the old statutes against forestallers
and regrators.
Such local famines as may occur in the 2oth century will
probably be attributable to natural causes. It is impossible to
regulate the rainfall of any district, or wholly to supply its
failure by any system of water-storage. Irrigation is better
able to bring fertility to a naturally arid district than to avert
the failure of crops in one which is naturally fertile. The true
palliative of famine is to be found in the improvement of methods
of transport, which make it possible rapidly to convey food from
one district to another. But the efficiency of this preventive
stops short at the point of saving human life. It cannot prevent
a rise in prices, with the consequent suffering among the poor.
Still, every year makes it less likely that the world will see a
renewal of the great famines of the past, and it is only the
countries where civilization is still backward that are in much
danger of even a local famine.
Great Famines. Amongst the great famines of history may be
named the following:
n.c. 436 Famine at Rome, when thousands of starving
people threw themselves into the Tiber.
A. 0.42 Great famine in Egypt.
650 Famine throughout India.
879 Universal famine.
941, 1022 Great famines in India, in which entire provinces
and 1033 were depopulated and man was driven to canni-
balism.
1005 Famine in England.
1016 Famine throughout Europe.
10641072 Seven years' famine in Egypt.
11481159 Eleven years' famine in India.
1162 Universal famine.
1344-1345 Great famine in India, when the Mogul emperor
was unable to obtain the necessaries for his house-
hold. The famine continued for years and
thousands upon thousands of people perished of
want.
13961407 The Durga Devi famine in India, lasting twelve
years.
1 586 Famine in England which gave rise to the Poor Law
system.
1661 Famine in India, when not a drop of rain fell for
two years.
1769-1770 Great famine in Bengal, when a third of the popu-
lation (10,000,000 persons) perished.
1783 The Chalisa famine in India, which extended from
the eastern edge of the Benares province to
Lahore and Jammu.
1790-1792 The Doji Bara, or skull famine, in India, so-called
because the people died in such numbers that
they could not be buried. According to tradition
this was one of the severest famines ever known.
It extended over the whole of Bombay into
Hyderabad and affected the northern districts of
Madras. Relief works were first opened during
this famine in Madras.
A.D. 1838 Intense famine in North-West Provinces (United
Provinces) of India; 800,000 perished.
1846-1847 Famine in Ireland, due to the failure of the potato-
crop. Grants were made by parliament amount-
ing to 10,000,000.
1861 Famine in North-West India.
1866 Famine in Bengal and Orissa ; one million perished.
1869 Intense famine in Rajputana; one million and a
half perished. The government initiated the
policy of saving life.
1874 Famine in Behar, India. Government relief in
excess of the needs of the people.
1876-1878 Famine in Bombay, Madras and Mysore; five
millions perish. Relief insufficient.
1877-1878 Severe famine in north China. Nine and a half
millions said to have perished.
1887-1889 Famine in China.
18911892 Famine in Russia.
1897 Famine in India. Government policy of saving' life
successful. Mansion House fund 550,000.
18991901 Famine in India. One million people perished.
Estimated loss to India 50,000,000. The govern-
ment spent 10,000,000 on relief, and at one time
there were 4,500,000 people on the relief works.
1905 Famine in Russia.
Famines in India. Owing to its tropical situation and its
almost entire dependence upon the monsoon rains, India is
more liable than any other country in the world to crop failures,
which upon occasion deepen into famine. Every year sufficient
rain falls in India to secure an abundant harvest if it were
evenly distributed over the whole country; but as a matter of
fact the distribution is so uneven and so uncertain that every
year some district suffers from insufficient rainfall. In fact,
famine is, to all intents and purposes, endemic in India, and is a
problem to reckon with every year in some portion of that vast
area. The people depend so entirely upon agriculture, and the
harvest is so entirely destroyed by a single monsoon failure,
that wherever a total failure occurs the landless labourer is
immediately thrown out of work and remains out of work for
the whole year. The question is thus one of lack of employment,
rather than lack of food. The food is there, perhaps at a slightly
enhanced price, but the unemployed labourer has no money to
buy it. The problem is very much the same as that met by the
British Poor Law system. Every year in England a poor rate
of some 22,000,000 is expended for a population of 40 millions;
while it is only in an exceptional year in India that 10,000,000
are spent on a population of 300 millions.
Famines seem to recur in India at periodical intervals, which
have been held to be in some way dependent on the sun-spot
period. Every five or ten years the annual scarcity widens
its area and becomes a recognized famine; every fifty or a
hundred years whole provinces are involved, loss of life becomes
widespread, and a great famine is recorded. In the 140 years
since Warren Hastings initiated British rule in India, there have
been nineteen famines and five severe scarcities. For the period
preceding British rule the records have not been so well pre-
served, but there is ample evidence to show that famine was just
as frequent in its incidence and infinitely more deadly in its
effects under the native rulers of India. In the great Bengal
famine of 1769-1770, which occurred shortly after the foundation
of British rule, but while the native officials were still in power,
a third of the population, or ten millions out of thirty millions,
perished. From this it may be guessed what occurred in the
centuries under Mogul rule, when for years there was no rain,
when famine lasted for three, four or twelve years, and entire
cities were left without an inhabitant. In the famine of 1901,
the worst of recent years, the loss of life in British districts was
3% of the population affected, as against 33% in the Bengal
famine of 1770.
The native rulers of India seem to have made no effort to
relieve the sufferings of their subjects in times of famine; and
even down to 1866 the British government had no settled
famine policy. In that year the Orissa famine awakened the
public conscience, and the commission presided over by Sir
George Campbell laid down the lines upon which subsequent
famine-relief was organized. In the Rajputana famine of 1869
the humane principle of saving every possible life was first
i68
FAN
enunciated. In the Behar famine of 1874 this principle was even
carried to an extreme, the cost was enormous, and the people
were in danger of being pauperized. The resulting reaction
caused a regrettable loss of life in the Madras and Bombay
famine of 1876-1878; and the Famine Commission of 1880,
followed by those of 1898 and 1901, laid down the principle that
every possible life must be saved, but that the wages on relief
works must be so regulated in relation to the market rate of
wages as not to undermine the independence of the people. The
experience gained in the great famines of 1898 and 1901 has been
garnered by these commissions, and stored up in the " famine
codes " of each separate province, where rules are provided for
the treatment of famine directly a crop failure is seen to be
probable. The first step is to open test works; and directly
they show the necessity, regular relief works are established,
in which the people may earn enough to keep them from starva-
tion, until the time comes to sow the next crop.
As a result of the severe famine of 1878-1879, Lord Lytton's
government instituted a form of insurance against famine known
as the Famine Insurance Grant. A sum of Rs. 1,500,000 was
to be yearly set aside for purposes of famine relief. This scheme
has been widely misunderstood; it has been assumed that an
entirely separate fund was created, and that in years when
the specified sum was not paid into this fund, the purpose of the
government was not carried out. But Sir John Strachey,
the author of the scheme, explains in his book on India that
the original intention was nothing more than the annual applica-
tion of surplus revenue, of the indicated amount, to purposes
of famine relief; and that when the country was free from
famine, this sum should be regularly devoted to the discharge
of debt, or to the prevention of debt which would otherwise
have been incurred for the construction of railways and canals.
The sum of ij crores is regularly set aside for this purpose,
and is devoted as a rule to the construction of protective irriga-
tion works, and for investigating and preparing new projects
falling under the head of protective works.
The measures by which the government of India chiefly
endeavours to reduce the liability of the country to famine are
the promotion of railways; the extension of canal and well
irrigation; the reclamation of waste lands, with the establish-
ment of fuel and fodder reserves; the introduction of agricultural
improvements; the multiplication of industries; emigration;
and finally the improvement where necessary of the revenue and
rent systems. In times of famine the function of the railways
in distributing the grain is just as important as the function of the
irrigation-canals in increasing the amount grown. There is
always enough grain within the boundaries of India for the needs
of the people; the only difficulty is to transport it to the tract
where it is required at a particular moment. Owing to the ex-
tension of railways, in the famines of 1898 and 1901 there was
never any dearth of food in any famine-stricken tract; and the
only difficulty was to find enough rolling-stock to cope with the
demand. Irrigation protects large tracts against famine, and
has immensely increased the wheat output of the Punjab; the
Irrigation Commission of 1903 recommended the addition of 65
million acres to the irrigated area of India, and that recommenda-
tion is being carried out at an annual cost of ij millions sterling
for twenty years, but at the end of that time the list of works
that will return a lucrative interest on capital will be practically
exhausted. Local conditions do not make irrigation everywhere
possible.
As five-sixths of the whole population of India are dependent
upon the land, any failure of agriculture becomes a national
calamity. If there were more industries and manufactures in
India, the dependence on the land would not be so great and the
liability to lack of occupation would not be so uniform in any
particular district. The remedy for this is the extension of
factories and home industries; but European capital is difficult
to obtain in India, and the native capitalist prefers to hoard his
rupees. The extension of industries, therefore, is a work of time.
It is sometimes alleged by native Indian politicians that famines
are growing worse under British rule, because India is becoming
exhausted by an excessive land revenue, a civil service too
expensive for her needs, military expenditure on imperial objects,
and the annual drain of some 15,000,000 for " home charges."
The reply to this indictment is that the British land revenue is
16,000,000 annually, whereas Aurangzeb's over a smaller area,
allowing for the difference in the value of the rupee, was
110,000,000; though the Indian Civil Service is expensive,
its cost is more than covered by the fact that India, under
British guarantee, obtains her loans at 3j% as against 10%
or more paid by native rulers; though India has a heavy military
burden, she pays no contribution to the British navy, which
protects her seaboard from invasion; the drain of the home
charges cannot be very great, as India annually absorbs 6 millions
sterling of the precious metals; in 1899-1900, a year of famine,
the net imports of gold and silver were 130 millions. Finally,
it is estimated by the census commissioners that in the famine of
1901 three million people died in the native states and only one
million in British territory.
See Cornelius Walford, " On the Famines of the World, Past and
Present" (Journal of the Statistical Society, 1878-1879); Romesh
C. Dutt, Famines in India (1900); Robert Wallace, Famine in
India (1900); George Campbell, Famines in India (1769-1788);
Chronological List of Famines for all India (Madras Administration
Report, 1885); J. C. Geddes, Administrative Experience in Former
Famines (1874) ; Statistical Atlas of India (1895) ; F. H. S. Mere-
wether, Through the Famine Districts of India (1898) ; G. W. Forrest,
The Famine in India (1898); E. A. B. Hodgetts, In the Track of the
Russian Famine (1892); W. B. Steveni, Through Famine-stricken
Russia (1892); Vaughan Nash, The Great Famine (1900); Lady
Hope, Sir Arthur Cotton (1900); Lord Curzon in India (1905);
T. W. Holderness, Narrative of the Famine of 1896-1897 (c. 8812 of
1898); the Indian Famine Commission reports of 1880, 1898 and
1900; report of the Indian Irrigation Commission (1901-1903);
C. W. McMinn, Famine Truths, Half-Truths, Untruths (1902);
Theodore Morison, Indian Industrial Organization (1906).
FAN (Lat. vannus; Fr. iventaif), in its usually restricted
meaning, a light implement used for giving motion to the air
in order to produce coolness to the face; the word is, however,
also applied to the winnowing fan, for separating chaff from
grain, and to various engineering appliances for ventilation, &c.
Ventilabrum and flabellum are names under which ecclesiastical
fans are mentioned in old inventories. Fans for cooling the face
have been in use in hot climates from remote ages. A bas-relief
in the British Museum represents Sennacherib with female
figures carrying feather fans. They were attributes of royalty
along with horse-hair fly-flappers and umbrellas. Examples
may be seen in plates of the Egyptian sculptures at Thebes
and other places, and also in the ruins of Persepolis. In the
museum of Boulak, near Cairo, a wooden fan handle showing
holes for feathers is still preserved. It is from the tomb of Amen-
hotep, of the i8th dynasty, I7th century B.C. In India fans
were also attributes of men in authority, and sometimes sacred
emblems. A heart-shaped fan, with an ivory handle, of unknown
age, and held in great veneration by the Hindus, was given to
King Edward VII. when prince of Wales. Large punkahs or
screens, moved by a servant who does nothing else, are in
common use in hot countries, and particularly India.
Fans were used in the early middle ages to keep flies from the
sacred elements during the celebrations of the Christian mysteries.
Sometimes they were round, with bells attached of silver or
silver gilt. Notices of such fans in the ancient records of St
Paul's, London, Salisbury cathedral and many other churches
exist still. For these purposes they are no longer used in the
Western church, though they are retained in some Oriental rites.
The large feather fans, however, are still carried in the state
processions of the supreme pontiff in Rome, though not used
during the celebration of the mass. The fan of Queen Theodo-
linda (7th century) is still preserved in the treasury of the
cathedral of Monza. Fans made part of the bridal outfit, or
mundus muliebris, of Roman ladies.
Folding fans had their origin in Japan, and were imported
thence to China. They were in the shape still used a segment
of a circle of paper pasted on a light radiating framework of
bamboo, and variously decorated, some in colours, others of
white paper on which verses or sentences are written. It is a
FANCY FANG
169
compliment in China to invite a friend or distinguished guest
to write some sentiment on your fan as a memento of any special
occasion, and this practice has continued. A fan that has some
celebrity in France was presented by the Chinese ambassador to
the comtesse de Clauzel at the coronation of Napoleon I. in
1804. When a site was given in 1635, on an artificial island,
for the settlement of Portuguese merchants in Nippo in Japan,
the space was laid out in the form of a fan as emblematic of an
object agreeable for general use. Men and women of every rank
both in China and Japan carry fans, even artisans using them
with one hand while working with the other. In China they are
often made of carved ivory, the sticks being plates very thin and
sometimes carved on both sides, the intervals between the carved
parts pierced with astonishing delicacy, and the plates held
together by a ribbon. The Japanese make the two outer guards
of the stick, which cover the others, occasionally of beaten iron,
extremely thin and light, damascened with gold and other metals.
Fans were used by Portuguese ladies in the I4th century,
and were well known in England before the close of the reign
of Richard II. In France the inventory of Charles V. at the end
of the i4th century mentions a folding ivory fan. They were
brought into general use in that country by Catherine de'
* Medici, probably from Italy, then in advance of other countries
in all matters of personal luxury. The court ladies of Henry
VIII. 's reign in England were used to handling fans. A lady in
the "Dance of Death" by Holbein holds a fan. Queen Elizabeth
is painted with a round feather fan in her portrait at Gorham-
bury; and as many as twenty-seven are enumerated in her
inventory (1606). Coryat, the English traveller, in 1608 describes
them as common in Italy. They also became of general use
from that time in Spain. In Italy, France and Spain fans had
special conventional uses, and various actions in handling them
grew into a code of signals, by which ladies were supposed to
convey hints or signals to admirers or to rivals in society. A
paper in the Spectator humorously proposes to establish a
regular drill for these purposes.
The chief seat of the European manufacture of fans during
the 1 7th century was Paris, where the sticks or frames, whether
of wood or ivory, were made, and the decorations painted on
mounts of very carefully prepared vellum (incorrectly called
chicken skin) a material stronger and tougher than paper,
which breaks at the folds. Paris makers exported fans unpainted
to Madrid and other Spanish cities, where they were decorated
by native artists. Many were exported complete; of old fans
called Spanish a great number were in fact made in France.
Louis XIV. issued edicts at various times to regulate the manu-
facture. Besides fans mounted with parchment, Dutch fans of
ivory were imported into Paris, and decorated by the heraldic
painters in the process called " Vernis Martin," after a famous
carriage painter and inventor of colourless lac varnish. Fans of
this kind belonging to Queen Victoria and the baroness de
Rothschild were exhibited in 1870 at Kensington. A fan of the
date of 1660, representing sacred subjects, is attributed to
Philippe de Champagne, another to Peter Oliver in England in
the i yth century. Cano de Arevalo, a Spanish painter of the
1 7th century, devoted himself to fan painting. Some harsh
expressions of Queen Christina to the young ladies of the French
court are said to have caused an increased ostentation in the
splendour of their fans, which were set with jewels and mounted
in gold. Rosalba Camera was the name of a fan painter of
celebrity in the i7th century. Le Brun and Romanelli were
much employed during the same period. Klingstet, a Dutch
artist, enjoyed a considerable reputation in the latter part of
the i7th and the first thirty years of the i8th century.
The revocation of the edict of Nantes drove many fan-makers
out of France to Holland and England. The trade in England
was well established under the Stuart sovereigns. Petitions
were addressed by the fan-makers to Charles II. against the im-
portation of fans from India, and a duty was levied upon such
fans in consequence. This importation of Indian fans, according
to Savary, extended also to France. During the reign of Louis
XV. carved Indian and China fans displaced to some extent those
formerly imported from Italy, which had been painted on
swanskin parchment prepared with various perfumes.
During the i8th century all the luxurious ornamentation of
the day was bestowed on fans as far as they could display it.
The sticks were made of mother-of-pearl or ivory, carved with
extraordinary skill in France, Italy, England and other countries.
They were painted from designs of Boucher, Watteau, Lancret
and other " genre " painters; Hebert, Rau, Chevalier, Jean
Boquet, Mme. Verite, are known as fan-painters. These fashions
were followed in most countries of Europe, with certain national
differences. Taffeta and silk, as well as fine parchment, were
used for the mounts. Little circles of glass were let into the
stick to be looked through, and small telescopic glasses were
sometimes contrived at the pivot of the stick. They were
occasionally mounted with the finest point lace. An interesting
fan (belonging to Madame de Thiac in France), the work of Le
Flamand, was presented by the municipality of Dieppe to Marie
Antoinette on the birth of her son the dauphin. From the time
of the Revolution the old luxury expended on fans died out.
Fine examples ceased to be exported to England and other
countries. The painting on them represented scenes or per-
sonages connected with political events. At a later period fan
mounts were often prints coloured by hand. The events of the
day mark the date of many examples found in modern collections.
Among the fan-makers of modern days the names of Alexandre,
Duvelleroy, Fayet, Vanier became well known in Paris; and
the designs of Charles Conder (1868-1909) have brought his
name to the front in this art. Painters of distinction often
design and paint the mounts, the best designs being figure
subjects. A great impulse was given to the manufacture and
painting of fans in England after the exhibition which took place
at South Kensington in 1870. Modern collections of fans take
their date from the emigration of many noble families from
France at the time of the Revolution. Such objects were given
as souvenirs, and occasionally sold by families in straitened
circumstances. A large number of fans of all sorts, principally
those of the i8th century, French, English, German, Italian,
Spanish, &c., have been bequeathed to the South Kensington
(Victoria and Albert) Museum.
The sticks of folding fans are called in French brins, the two
outer guards panaches, and the mount feuille.
See also Blondel, Histoire des eventails (1875); Octave Uzanne,
L'evenlail (1882); and especially G. Wooliscroft Rhead, History of
the Fan (1909). (J. H. P.*)
FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the i.5th century, of
" fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr.fantasie, modern
fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. <t>a.VTaaia, <t>a.vra.tiv ,
<t>aiveiv, to show), display, showing forth, as a philosophical
term, the presentative power of the mind. The word " fancy "
and the older form " fantasy," which is now chiefly used poetic-
ally, was in its early application synonymous with imagination,
the mental faculty of creating representations or images of
things not present to the senses; it is more usually, in this sense,
applied to the lighter forms of the imagination. " Fancy " also
commonly means inclination, whim, caprice. The more learned
form " phantasy," as also such words as " phantom " and
" phantasm," is chiefly confined to visionary imaginings.
FANG (FAN, FANWE, PANWE, PAHOUIN, PAOUEN, MPANGWE),
a powerful African people occupying the Gabun district north
of the Ogowe river in French Congo. Their name means " men."
They call themselves Pa n we, Fa"we and Fa n with highly
nasalized n. They are a finely-made race of chocolate colour;
some few are very dark, but these are of slave origin. They have
bright expressive oval faces with prominent cheek-bones. Many
of them file their teeth to points. Their hair, which is woolly, is
worn by the women long, reaching below the nape of the neck.
The men wear it in a variety of shapes, often building it up over'
a wooden base. The growth of the hair appears abundant, but
that on the face is usually removed. Little clothing is worn;
the men wear a bark waist-cloth, the women a plantain girdle,
sometimes with a bustle of dried grass. A chief wears a leopard's
skin round the shoulders. Both sexes tattoo and paint the body,
170
FANO FANSHAWE
and delight in ornaments of every kind. The men, whose sole
occupations are fighting and hunting, all carry arms muskets,
spears ior throwing and stabbing, and curious throwing-knives
with blades broader than they are long. Instead of bows and
arrows they use crossbows made of ebony, with which they hunt
apes and birds. In battle the Fang used to carry elephant hide
shields; these have apparently been discarded.
When first met by T. E. Bowdich (1815) the Paamways, as he
calls the Fang, were an inland people inhabiting the hilly plateaus
north of the Ogowe affluents. Now they have become the
neighbours of the Mpongwe (q.v.) of Glass and Libreville on the
Komo river, while south of the Gabun they have reached the sea
at several points. Their original home is probably to be placed
somewhere near the Congo. Their language, according to Sir
R. Burton, is soft and sweet and a contrast to their harsh voices,
and the vocabularies collected prove it to be of the Bantu-
Negroid linguistic family. W. Winwood Reade (Sketch Book, i.
p. 108) states that " it is like Mpongwe (a pure Bantu idiom)
cut in half; for instance, njina (gorilla) in Mpongwe is nji in
Fan." The plural of the tribal name is formed in the usual
Bantu way, Ba-Fang.
Morally the Fang are superior to the negro. Mary Kingsley
writes: " The Fan is full of fire, temper, intelligence and go, very
teachable, rather difficult to manage, quick to take offence, and
utterly indifferent to human life." This latter characteristic
has made the Fang dreaded by all their neighbours. They are
noted cannibals, and ferocious in nature. Prisoners are badly
treated and are often allowed to starve. The Fang are always
fighting, but the battles are not bloody. After the fall of two
or three warriors the bodies are dragged off to be devoured, and
their friends disperse. Burton says that their cannibalism is
limited to the consumption of slain enemies; that the sick are
not devoured; and that the dead are decently buried, except
slaves, whose bodies are thrown into the forest. Mary Kingsley,
on the other hand, believed their cannibalism was not limited.
She writes: " The Fan is not a cannibal for sacrificial motives,
like the negro. He will eat his next door neighbour's relation and
sell his own deceased to his next door neighbour in return, but
he does not buy slaves and fatten them up for his table as some
of the middle Congo tribes do. He has no slaves, no prisoners
of war, no cemeteries, so you must draw your own conclusions."
Among certain tribes the aged alone are permitted to eat human
flesh, which is taboo for all others. There is no doubt that the
cannibalism of the Fang is diminishing before the advance of
civilization. Apart from their ferocity, the Fang are an agreeable
and industrious people. They are skilful workers in iron and
have a curious coinage called bikii, little iron imitation axeheads
tied up in bundles called ntet, ten to a bundle; these are used
chiefly in the purchase of wives. They are energetic traders and
are skilled in pottery and in gardening. Their religion appears
to be a combination of primitive animism and ancestor worship,
with a belief in sympathetic magic.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Paul du Chaillu, Explorations in Equatorial
Africa (1861) ; Sir R. Burton, " A Day with the Fans," Transactions
of Ethnological Society, new series, vols. 3-4; Mary Kingsley, Travels
in West Africa (1897); Oscar Lenz, Skizzen aus West Africa (1878);
R. E. Dennett, Notes on the Folklore of the Fjort (1898); William
Winwood Reade, The African Sketch Book (1873); and (chiefly)
A. L. Bennett, " Ethnographical Notes on the Fang," Journ. Anthr.
Inst. N.S., ii. p. 66, and L. Martron in Anthropos, t. i. (1906), fasc. 4.
FANO (anc. Fanum Forlunae, q.v.), a town and episcopal see
of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino,
8 m. S.E. of the former by rail, and 46 ft. above sea-level, on
the N.E. coast of Italy. Pop. (1901), town 10,535, commune
24,730. The cathedral has a i3th century portal, but the interior
is unimportant. The vestibule of S. Francesco contains the
tombs of some members of the Malatesta family. S. Croce and
3. Maria Nuova contain works by Giovanni Santi, the father of
Raphael; the latter has also two works by Perugino, the predella
of one of which is attributed to Raphael. S. Agostino contains
a painting of S. Angelo Custode (" the Guardian Angel "), which
is the subject of a poem by Robert Browning. The fine Gothic
Palazzo della Ragione (1299) has been converted into a theatre.
The palace of the Malatesta, with fine porticos and Gothic
windows, was much damaged by an earthquake in 1874. S.
Michele, built against the arch of Augustus, is an early Renais-
sance building (1475-1490), probably by Matteo Nuzio of Fano,
with an ornate portal. The facade has an interesting relief
showing the colonnade added by Constantine as an upper storey
to the arch of Augustus and removed in 1463.
Fano in the middle ages passed through various political
vicissitudes, and in the i4th century became subject to the
Malatesta. In 1458 Pius II. added it to the states of the Church.
Julius II. established here in 1514 the first printing press with
movable Arabic type. The harbour was restored by Paul V.
but is now unimportant.
FANSHAWE, SIR RICHARD, Bart. (1608-1666), English poet
and ambassador, son of Sir Henry Fanshawe, remembrancer of
the exchequer, of Ware Park, Hertfordshire, and of Elizabeth,
daughter of Thomas Smith or Smythe, was born early in June
1608, and was educated in Cripplegate by the famous school-
master, Thomas Farnaby. In November 1623 he was admitted
fellow-commoner of Jesus College, Cambridge, and in January
1626 he entered the Inner Temple; but the study of the law
being distasteful to him, he travelled in France and Spain.
On his return, an accomplished linguist, in 1635, he was appointed
secretary to the English embassy at Madrid under Lord Aston.
At the outbreak of the Civil War he joined the king, and while at
Oxford in 1644 married Anne, daughter of Sir John Harrison of
Balls, Hertfordshire. About the same time he was appointed
secretary at war to the prince of Wales, with whom he set out
in 1645 for the western counties, Scilly, and afterwards Jersey.
He compounded in 1646 with the parliamentary authorities,
and was allowed to live in London till October 1647, visiting
Charles I. at Hampton Court. In 1647 he published his transla-
tion of the Pastor Fido of Guarini, which he reissued in 1648
with the addition of several other poems, original and translated.
In 1648 he was appointed treasurer to the navy under Prince
Rupert. In November of this year he was in Ireland, where he
actively engaged in the royalist cause till the spring of 1650,
when he was despatched by Charles II. on a mission to obtain
help from Spain. This was refused, and he joined Charles in
Scotland as secretary. On the and of September 1650 he had
been created a baronet. He accompanied Charles in the expedi-
tion into England, and was taken prisoner at the battle of
Worcester on the 3rd of September 1651. After a confinement
of some weeks at Whitehall, he was allowed, with restrictions,
and under the supervision of the authorities, to choose his own
place of residence. He published in 1652 his Selected Parts of
Horace, a translation remarkable for its fidelity, felicity and
elegance. In 1654 he completed translations of two of the
comedies of the Spanish poet Antonio de Mendoza, which were
published after his death, Querer per solo querer: To Love only
for Love's Sake, in 1670, and Fiestas de Aranjuez in 1671. But
the great labour of his retirement was the translation of the
Lusiad, by Camoens, published in 1655. It is in ottava rima,
with the translation prefixed to it of the Latin poem Furor
Petroniensis. In 1658 he published a Latin version of the
Faithful Shepherdess of Fletcher.
In April 1659 Fanshawe left England for Paris, re-entered
Charles's service 'and accompanied him to England at the
Restoration, but was not offered any place in the administration.
In 1661 he was returned to parliament for the university of
Cambridge, and the same year was sent to Portugal to negotiate
the marriage between Charles II. and the infanta. In January
1662 he was made a privy councillor of Ireland, and was appointed
ambassador again to Portugal in August, where he remained till
August 1663. He was sworn a privy councillor of England on
the ist of October. In January 1664 he was sent as ambassador
to Spain, and arrived at Cadiz in February of that year. He
signed the first draft of a treaty on the 1 7th of December, which
offered advantageous concessions to English trade, but of which
one condition was that it should be confirmed by his government
before a certain date. In January 1666 Fanshawe went to Lisbon
to procure the adherence of Portugal to this agreement. He
FANTAN FANTI
171
returned to Madrid, having failed in his mission, and was almost
immediately recalled by Clarendon on the plea that he had
exceeded his instructions. He died very shortly afterwards
before leaving Madrid, on the 26th of June 1666. He had a
family of fourteen children, of whom five only survived him,
Richard, the youngest, succeeding as second baronet and dying
unmarried in 1694.
As a translator, whether from the Italian, Latin, Portuguese
or Spanish, Fanshawe has a considerable reputation. His
Pastor Fido and his Lusiad have not been superseded by later
scholars, and his rendering of the latter is praised by Southey
and Sir Richard Burton. As an original poet also the few verses
he has left are sufficient evidence of exceptional literary talent.
AUTHORITIES. Memoirs of Lady Fanshawe, written in 1676 and
published 1829 (from an inaccurate transcript); these were re-
printed from the original manuscript and edited by H. C. Fanshawe
(London, 1907) ; article in the Diet. of Nat. Biography and authorities
there quoted; Biographia Brit. (Kippis); Original Letters of Sir
R. F. (2 vols., 1724), the earlier edition of 1702 with portrait being
only vol. i. of this edition ; Notes Genealogical and Historical of the
Fanshawe Family (1868-1872); funeral sermon by H. Bagshaw;
Nicholas Papers (Camden Society) ; Quarterly Review, xxvii. I ;
Macmillan's Mag. Ivii. 279; Camoen's Life and Lusiads, by Sir F.
Burton, i. 135; Clarendon's State Papers, Calendars of State Papers,
Autobiography and Hist, of the Rebellion; Athenaeum (1883), i. 12 1 ;
Add. MSS. British Museum, 15,228 (poems); Harl. MSS. Brit.
Mus. 7010 (letters). (P. C. Y.)
FANTAN, a form of gambling highly popular among the
Chinese. The game is simple. A square is marked in the centre
of an ordinary table, or a square piece of metal is laid on it,
the sides being marked i, 2, 3 and 4. The banker puts on the
table a double handful of small coins in China " cash " or
similar articles, which he covers with a metal bowl. The players
bet on the numbers, setting their stakes on the side of the square
which bears the number selected. When all have staked, the
bowl is removed, and the banker or croupier with a small stick
removes coins from the heap, four at a time, till the final batch
is reached. If it contains four coins, the backer of No. 4 wins;
if three, the backer of No. 3 wins, and so on. Twenty-five per
cent is deducted from the stake by the banker, and the winner
receives five times the amount of his stake thus reduced. In
Macao, the Monte Carlo of China, play goes on day and night,
every day of the week, and bets can be made from 5 cents to
500 dollars, which are the limits.
Fantan is also the name of a card game, played with an
ordinary pack, by any number of players up to eight. The
deal decided, the cards are dealt singly, any that are left over
forming a stock, and being placed face downwards on the table.
Each player contributes a fixed stake or " ante." The first
player can enter if he has an ace; if he has not he pays an " ante "
and takes a card from the stock; the second player is then
called upon and acts similarly till an ace is played. This (and
the other aces when played) is put face upwards on the table,
and the piles are built up from the ace to the king. The pool
goes to the player who first gets rid of all his cards. If a player
fails to play, having a playable card, he is fined the amount
of the ante for every card in the other players' hands.
FANTASIA (Italian for " fantasy," a causing to be seen,
from Greek, </><HWC, to show), a name in music sometimes loosely
used for a composition which has little structural form, and
appears to be an improvization; and also for a combination or
medley of familiar airs connected together with original passages
of more or less brilliance. The word, however, was originally
applied to more formal compositions, based on the madrigal,
for several instruments. Fantasias appear as distinct com-
positions in Bach's works, and also joined to a fugue, as iri the
" Great Fantasia and Fugue " in A minor, and the " Fantasia
cromatica " in D minor. Brahms used the name for his shorter
piano pieces. It is also applied to orchestral compositions " not
long enough to be called symphonic poems and not formal
enough to be called overtures " (Sir C. Hubert Parry, in Grove's
Dictionary of Music, ed. 1906). The Italian word is still used in
Tunis, Algeria and Morocco, with the meaning of " showing
off," for an acrobatic exhibition of horsemanship by the Arabs.
The riders fire their guns, throw them and their lances into the
air, and catch them again, standing or kneeling in the saddle,
all at a full gallop.
FANTI, MANFREDO (1806-1865), Italian general, was born
at Carpi and educated at the military college of Modena. In
1831 he was implicated in the revolutionary movement organized
by Giro Menotti (see FRANCIS IV., of Modena), and was con-
demned to death and hanged in effigy, but escaped to France,
where he was given an appointment in the French corps of
engineers. In 1833 he took part in Mazzini's abortive attempt
to invade Savoy, and in 1835 he went to Spain to serve in Queen
Christina's army against the Carlists. There he remained for
thirteen years, distinguishing himself in battle and rising to a
high staff appointment. But on the outbreak of the war between
Piedmont and Austria in 1848 he hurried back to Italy, and
although at first his services were rejected both by the Pied-
montese government and the Lombard provisional government,
he was afterwards given the command of a Lombard brigade.
In the general confusion following on Charles Albert's defeat
on the Mincio and his retreat to Milan, where the people rose
against the unhappy king, Fanti's courage and tact saved the
situation. He was elected member of the Piedmontese chamber
in 1849, and on the renewal of the campaign he again commanded
a Lombard brigade under General Ramorino. After the Pied-
montese defeat at Novara (23rd of March) peace was made,
but a rising broke out at Genoa, and Fanti with great difficulty
restrained his Lombards from taking part in it. But he was
suspected as a Mazzinian and a soldier of fortune by the higher
Piedmontese officers, and they insisted on his being court-
martialled for his operations under Ramorino (who had been
jtried and shot). Although honourably acquitted, he was not
employed again until the Crimean expedition of 1855. In the
second Austrian war in 1859 Fanti commanded the and division,
and contributed to the victories of Palestro, Magenta and San
Martino. After the peace of Villafranca he was sent to organize
the army of the Central Italian League (composed of the pro-
visional governments of Tuscany, Modena, Parma and Romagna) ,
and converted it in a few months into a well-drilled body of
45,000 men, whose function was to be ready to intervene in the
papal states on the outbreak of a revolution. He showed
statesmanlike qualities in steering a clear course between
the exaggerated prudence of Baron Ricasoli, who wished to
recall the troops from the frontier, and the impetuosity of
Garibaldi, his second-in-command, who was anxious to invade
Romagna prematurely, even at the risk of Austrian intervention.
Fanti's firmness led to Garibaldi's resignation. In January
1860 Fanti became minister of war and marine under Cavour,
and incorporated the League's army in that of Piedmont. In
the meanwhile Garibaldi had invaded Sicily with his Thousand,
and King Victor Emmanuel decided at last that he too must
intervene; Fanti was given the chief command of a strong
Italian force which invaded the papal states, seized Ancona
and other fortresses, and defeated the papal army at Castel-
fidardo, where the enemy's commander, General Lamoriciere,
was captured. In three weeks Fanti had conquered the Marche
and Umbria and taken 28,000 prisoners. When the army entered
Neapolitan territory the king took the chief command, with
Fanti as chief of the staff. After defeating a large Neapolitan
force at Mola and organizing the siege operations round Gaeta,
Fanti returned to the war office at Turin to carry out important
army reforms. His attitude in opposing the admission of
Garibaldi's 7000 officers into the regular army with their own
grades made him the object of great unpopularity for a time,
and led to a severe reprimand from Cavour. On the death of
the latter (7th of June 1861) he resigned office and took command
of the VII. army corps. But his health had now broken down,
and after four years' suffering he died in Florence on the 5th of
April 1865. His lose was greatly felt in the war of 1866.
See Carandini, Vita di M. Fanti (Verona, 1872) ; A. Di Giorgio,
II Generate M. Fanti (Florence, 1906). (L.V.*)
FANTI, a nation of Negroes, inhabiting part of the seaboard
of the Gold Coast colony, British West Africa, and about 20^000
172
FANTIN-LATOUR FARABI
sq. m. of the interior. They number about a million. They have
many traditions of early migrations. It seems probable that the
Fanti and Ashanti were originally one race, driven from the
north-east towards the sea by more powerful races, possibly the
ancestors of Fula and Hausa. There are many words in Fanti
for plants and animals not now existing in the country, but
which abound in the Gurunsi and Moshi countries farther north.
These regions have been always haunted by slave-raiders, and
possibly these latter may have influenced the exodus. At any
rate, the Fanti were early driven into the forests from the open
plains and slopes of the hills. The name Fanti, an English version
of Mfantsi, is supposed to be derived from fan, a wild cabbage,
and ti, di or dz, to eat; the story being that upon the exile of the
tribe the only available food was some such plant. They are
divided into seven tribes, obviously totemic, and with rules as
to exogamy still in force, (i) Kwonna, buffalo; (2) Elchwi,
leopard; (3) Eso, bush-cat; (4) Nitchwa, dog; (5) Nnuna,
parrot; (6) Ebradzi, lion; and (7) Abrutu, corn-stalk; these
names are obsolete, though the meanings are known. The tribal
marks are three gashes in front of the ear on each side in a line
parallel to the jaw-bone. The Fanti language has been associated
by A. B. Ellis with the Ashanti speech as the principal descendant
of an original language, possibly the Tshi (pronounced Tchwi),
which is generally considered as the parent of Ashanti, Fanti,
Akim, Akwapim and modern Tshi.
The average Fanti is of a dull brown colour, of medium height,
with negroid features. Some of the women, when young, are
quite pretty. The women use various perfumes, one of the most
usual being prepared from the excrement of snakes. There are
no special initiatory rites for the youthful Fanti, only a short
seclusion for girls when they reach the marriageable age %
Marriage is a mere matter of sale, and the maidens are tricked
out in all the family finery and walk round the village to indicate
that they are ready for husbands. The marriages frequently
end in divorce. Polygamy is universally practised. The care of
the children is left exclusively to the mothers, who are regarded
by the Fanti with deep veneration, while little attention is paid
to the fathers. Wives never eat with their husbands, but always
with the children. The rightful heir in native law is the eldest
nephew, i.e. the eldest sister's eldest son, who invariably inherits
wives, children and all property. As to tenure of land, the source
of ownership of land is derived from the possession of the chief's
" stool," which is, like the throne of a king, the symbol of
authority, and not even the chief can alienate the land from the
stool. Females may succeed to property, but generally only
when the. acquisition of such property is the result of their
succeeding to the stool of a chief. The Fanti are not permanent
cultivators of the soil. Three or at most five years will cover
the period during which land is continuously cultivated. The
commonest native dishes are palm-oil chop, a bowl of palm oil,
produced by boiling freshly ground palm nuts, in which a fowl
or fish is then cooked; and fufu, " white," a boiled mash of
yams or plantains. The Fanti have a taste for shark-flesh,
called locally " stink-fish." It is sliced up and partly sun-dried,
and is eaten in a putrid state. The Fanti are skilful sailors
and fishermen, build excellent canoes, and are expert weavers.
Pottery and goldsmithery are trades also followed. Their
religion is fetishism, every Fanti having his own " fetish " or
familiar spirit, but there is a belief in a beneficent Creative Being.
Food is offered the dead, and a ceremony of purification is said
to be indulged in at funerals, the bearers and mourners plunging
into the sea or river after the interment.
See Journal of Anthropological Institute of Great Britain, vol. 26,
pp. 128 et seq.; A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold
Coast (London, 1887).
FANTIN-LATOUR, IGNACE HENRI JEAN THEODORE
(1836-1904), French artist, was born at Grenoble on the i4th of
January 1836. He studied first with his father, a pastel painter,
and then at the drawing school of Lecoq de Boisbaudran, and
later under Couture. He was the friend of Ingres, Dalacroix,
'Corot, Courbet and others. He exhibited in the Salon of 1861,
and many of his more important canvases appeared on its walls
in later years, though 1863 found him with Harpignies, Manet,
Legros and Whistler in the Salon des Refuses. Whistler intro-
duced him to English artistic circles, and he lived for some time
in England, many of his portraits and flower pieces being in
English galleries. He died on the 28th of August 1904. His
portrait groups, arranged somewhat after the manner of the
Dutch masters, are as interesting from their subjects as they are
from the artistic point of view. " Hommaged Delacroix " showed
portraits of Whistler and Legros, Baudelaire, Champfleury and
himself; " Un Atelier a Batignolles " gave portraits of Monet,
Manet, Zola and Renoir, and is now in the Luxembourg; " Un
Coin de table " presented Verlaine, Rimbaud, Camille Peladan
and others; and " Autour du Piano " contained portraits of
Chabrier, DTndy and other musicians. His paintings of flowers
are perfect examples of the art, and form perhaps the most
famous section of his work in England. In his later years he
devoted much attention to lithography, which had occupied
him as early as 1862, but his examples were then considered so
revolutionary, with their strong lights and black shadows, that
the printer refused to execute them. After " L' Anniversaire "
in honour of Berlioz in the Salon of 1876, he regularly exhibited
lithographs, some of which were excellent examples of delicate
portraiture, others being elusive and imaginative drawings
illustrative of the music of Wagner (whose cause he championed
in Paris as early as 1864), Berlioz, Brahms and other composers.
He illustrated Adolphe Jullien's Wagner (1886) and Berlioz
(1888). There are excellent collections of his lithographic work
at Dresden, in the British Museum, and a practically complete
set given by his widow to the Louvre. Some were also exhibited
at South Kensington in 1898-1899, and at the Dutch gallery
in 1904.
A catalogue of the lithographs of Fantin-Latour was drawn up
by Germain Hediard in Les Mattres de la lithographic (1898-1899).
A volume of reproductions, in a limited edition, was published
(Paris, 1907) as L'(Euvre lithographique de Fantin-Latour. See A.
Jullien, Fantin-Latour, sa vie et ses amities (Paris, 1909).
FANUM FORTUNAE (mod. Fano), an ancient town of Umbria,
Italy, at the point where the Via Flaminia reaches the N.E.
coast of Italy. Its name shows that it was of Roman origin,
but of its foundation we know nothing. It is first mentioned,
with Pisaurum and Ancona, as held by Julius Caesar in 49 B.C.
Augustus planted a colony there, and round it constructed a
wall (of which some remains exist), as is recorded in the inscrip-
tion on the triple arch erected in his honour at the entrance to
the town (A.D. o/-io), which is still standing. Vitruvius tells
us that there was, during Augustus's lifetime, a temple in his
honour and a temple of Jupiter, and describes a basilica of which
he himself was the architect. The arch of Augustus bears a
subsequent inscription in honour of Constantine, added after
his death by L. Turcius Secundus, corrector Flaminiae et Piceni,
who also constructed a colonnade above the arch. Several
Roman statues and heads, attributable to members of the Julio-
Claudian dynasty, were found in the convent of S. Filippo in
1899. These and other objects are now in the municipal museum
(E. Brizio in Notizie degli scavi, 1899, 249 seq.). Of the temple
of Fortune from which the town took its name no traces have
been discovered. (T. As.)
FAN VAULT, in architecture, a method of vaulting used in the
Perpendicular style, of which the earliest example is found in
the cloisters of Gloucester cathedral, built towards the close of
the 1 4th century. The ribs are all of one curve and equidistant,
and their divergency, resembling that of an open fan, has
suggested the name. One of the finest examples, though of later
date (1640), is the vault over the staircase of Christ Church,
Oxford. For the origin of its development see VAULT.
FARABI [Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Tarkhan ul-Farabi] (ca.
870-950), Arabian philosopher, was born of Turkish stock at
Farab in Turkestan, where also he spent his youth. Thence he
journeyed to Bagdad, where he learned Arabic and gave himself
to the study of mathematics, medicine and philosophy, especially
the works of Aristotle. Later he went to the court of the
Hamdanid Saif addaula, from whom he received a warm welcome
and a small pension. Here he lived a quiet if not an ascetic life.
FARADAY
He died in Damascus, whither he had gone with his patron.
His works are very clear in style, though aphoristic rather than
systematic in the treatment of subjects. Unfortunately the
success of Avicenna seems to have led to the neglect of much
of his work. In Europe his compendium of Aristotle's Rhetoric
was published at Venice, 1484. Two of his smaller works appear
in Alpharabii opera omnia (Paris, 1638), and two are translated
in F. A. Schmolders' Documenta philosophiae Arabum (Bonn,
1836). More recently Fr. Dieterici has published at Leiden:
Alfarabi's philosophische Abhandlungen (1890; German trans.
1892); Alfarabi's Abhandlung des Muslerstaats (1895; German
trans, with an essay " Uber den Zusammenhang der arabischen
und griechischen Philosophic," 190x3); Die Staatsleitung von
Alfarabi in German, with an essay on " Das Wesen der arabischen
Philosophic " (1904).
For Farabi's life see McG. de Slane's translation of Ibn Khallikan
(vol. 3, pp. 307 ff.) ; and for further information as to his works
M. Steinschneider's article in the Memoires de V Academic (St Peters-
burg, serie 7, torn. 13, No. 4, 1869); and C. Brockelmann's Gesch.
der arab. Litteratur, vol. i. (Weimar, 1 898) , pp. 210-213. (G. W. T.)
FARADAY, MICHAEL (1791-1867), English chemist and
physicist, was born at Newington, Surrey, on the 22nd of Sep-
tember 1791. His parents had migrated from Yorkshire to
London, where his father worked as a blacksmith. Faraday him-
self became apprenticed to a bookbinder. The letters written
to his friend Benjamin Abbott at this time give a lucid account
of his aims in life, and of his methods of self-culture, when his
mind was beginning to turn to the experimental study of nature.
In 1812 Mr Dance, a customer of his master, took him to hear
four lectures by Sir Humphry Davy. Faraday took notes of
these lectures, and afterwards wrote them out in a fuller form.
Under the encouragement of Mr Dance, he wrote to Sir H. Davy,
enclosing these notes. " The reply was immediate, kind and
favourable." He continued to work as a journeyman bookbinder
till the ist of March 1813, when he was appointed assistant in
the laboratory of the Royal Institution of Great Britain on the
recommendation of Davy, whom he accompanied on a tour
through France, Italy and Switzerland from October 1813 to
April 1815. He was appointed director of the laboratory in
1825; and in 1833 he was appointed Fullerian professor of
chemistry in the institution for life, without the obligation to
deliver lectures. He thus remained in the institution for fifty-
four years. He died at Hampton Court on the 2$th of August
1867.
Faraday's earliest chemical work was in the paths opened by
Davy, to whom he acted as assistant. He made a special study
of chlorine, and discovered two new chlorides of carbon. He
also made the first rough experiments on the diffusion of gases,
a phenomenon first pointed out by John Dalton, the physical
importance of which was more fully brought to light by Thomas
Graham and Joseph Loschmidt. He succeeded in liquefying
several gases; he investigated the alloys of steel, and produced
several new kinds of glass intended for optical purposes. A
specimen of one of these heavy glasses afterwards became
historically important as the substance in which Faraday
detected the rotation of the plane of polarization of light when the
glass was placed in the magnetic field, and also as the substance
which was first repelled by the poles of the magnet. He also
endeavoured with some success to make the general methods
of chemistry, as distinguished from its results, the subject of
special study and of popular exposition. See his work on
Chemical Manipulation.
But Faraday's chemical work, however important in itself,
was soon completely overshadowed by his electrical discoveries.
The first experiment which he has recorded was the construction
of a voltaic pile with seven halfpence, seven disks of sheet zinc,
and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water. With this
pile he decomposed sulphate of magnesia (first letter to Abbott,
July 12, 1812). Henceforward, whatever other subjects might
from time to time claim his attention, it was from among electrical
phenomena that he selected those problems to which he applied
.the full force of his mind, and which he kept persistently in view,
even when year after year his attempts to solve them had been
baffled.
His first notable discovery was the production of the con-
tinuous rotation of magnets and of wires conducting the electric
current round each other. The consequences deducible from
the great discovery of H. C. Oersted (2ist July 1820) were still
in 1821 apprehended in a somewhat confused manner even by
the foremost men of science. Dr W. H. Wollaston indeed had
formed the expectation that he could make the conducting wire
rotate on its own axis, and in April 1821 he came with Sir H.
Davy to the laboratory of the Royal Institution to make an
experiment. Faraday was not there at the time, but coming in
afterwards he heard the conversation on the expected rotation
of the wire.
In July, August and September of that year Faraday, at the
request of R. Phillips, the editor of the Annals of Philosophy,
wrote for that journal an historical sketch of electro-magnetism,
and he repeated almost all the experiments he described. This
led him in the beginning of September to discover the method
of producing the continuous rotation of the wire round the
magnet, and of the magnet round the wire. He did not succeed
in making the wire or the magnet revolve on its own axis. This
first success of Faraday in electro-magnetic research became the
occasion of the most painful, though unfounded, imputations
against his honour. Into these we shall not enter, referring the
reader to the Life of Faraday, by Dr Bence Jones.
We may remark, however, that although the fact of the tan-
gential force between an electric current and a magnetic pole
was clearly stated by Oersted, and clearly apprehended by
A. M. Ampere, Wollaston and others, the realization of the
continuous rotation of the wire and the magnet round each other
was a scientific puzzle requiring no mean ingenuity for its original
solution. For on the one hand the electric current always forms
a closed circuit, and on the other the two poles of the magnet have
equal but opposite properties, and are inseparably connected,
so that whatever tendency there is for one pole to circulate
round the current in one direction is opposed by the equal
tendency of the other pole to go round the other way, and thus
the one pole can neither drag the other round and round the wire
nor yet leave it behind. The thing cannot be done unless we
adopt in some form Faraday's ingenious solution, by causing
the current, in some part of its course, to divide into two channels,
one on each side of the magnet, in such a way that during the
revolution of the magnet the current is transferred from the
channel in front of the magnet to the channel behind it, so that
the middle of the magnet can pass across the current without
stopping it, just as Cyrus caused his army to pass dryshod over
the Gyndes by diverting the river into a channel cut for it in
his rear.
We must now go on to the crowning discovery of the induction
of electric currents.
In December 1824 he had attempted to obtain an electric
current by means of a magnet, and on three occasions he had
made elaborate but unsuccessful attempts to produce a current
in one wire by means of a current in another wire or by a magnet.
He still persevered, and on the 2gth of August 1831 he obtained
the first evidence that an electric current can induce another
in a different circuit. On the 23rd of September he writes to
his friend R. Phillips: " I am busy just now again on electro-
magnetism, and think I have got hold of a good thing, but can't
say. It may be a weed instead of a fish that, after all my labour,
I may at last pull up." This was his first successful experiment.
In nine more days of experimenting he had arrived at the results
described in his first series of " Experimental Researches " read
to the Royal Society on the 24th of November 1841. By the
intense application of his mind he had thus brought the new
idea, in less than three months from its first development, to a
state of perfect maturity.
During his first period of discovery, besides the induction of
electric currents, Faraday established the identity of the electri-
fication produced in different ways; the law of the definite
electrolytic action of the current; and the fact, upon which he
FARADAY
laid great stress, that every unit of positive electrification is
related in a definite manner to a unit of negative electrification
so that it is impossible to produce what Faraday called " an
absolute charge of electricity " of one kind not related to an
equal charge of the opposite kind. He also discovered the
difference of the capacities of different substances for taking
part in electric induction. Henry Cavendish had before 1773
discovered that glass, wax, rosin and shellac have higher specific
inductive capacities than air, and had actually determined the
numerical ratios of these capacities, but this was unknown both
to Faraday and to all other electricians of his time, since Caven-
dish's Electrical Researches remained unpublished till 1879.
The first period of Faraday's electrical discoveries lasted ten
years. In 1841 he found that he required rest, and it was not til]
1845 that he entered on his second great period of research, in
which he discovered the effect of magnetism on polarized light,
and the phenomena of diamagnetism.
Faraday had for a long time kept in view the possibility of
using a ray of polarized light as a means of investigating the
condition of transparent bodies when acted on by electric and
magnetic forces. Dr Bence Jones (Life of Faraday, vol. i. p. 362)
gives the following note from his laboratory book on the loth of
September 1822 :
" Polarized a ray of lamplight by reflection, and endeavoured to
ascertain whether any depolarizing action (was) exerted on it by
water placed between the poles of a voltaic battery in a glass cistern ;
one Wollaston's trough used; the fluids decomposed were pure
water, weak solution of sulphate of soda, and strong sulphuric acid ;
none of them had any effect on the polarized light, either when
out of or in the voltaic circuit, so that no particular arrangement
of particles could be ascertained in this way."
Eleven years afterwards we find another entry in his notebook
on the 2nd of May 1833 (Life, by Dr Bence Jones, vol. ii. p. 29).
He then tried not only the effect of a steady current, but the
effect on making and breaking contact.
" I do not think, therefore, that decomposing solutions or sub-
stances will be found to have (as a consequence of decomposition or
arrangement for the time) any effect on the polarized ray. Should
now try non-decomposing bodies, as solid nitre, nitrate of silver,
borax, glass, &c., whilst solid, to see if any internal state induced,
which by decomposition is destroyed, i.e. whether, when they can-
not decompose, any state of electrical tension is present. My borate
of glass good, and common electricity better than voltaic."
On the 6th of May he makes further experiments, and con-
cludes: " Hence I see no reason to expect that any kind of
structure or tension can be rendered evident, either in decom-
posing or non-decomposing bodies, in insulating or conducting
states."
At last, in 1845, Faraday attacked the old problem, but this
time with complete success. Before we describe this result we
may mention that in 1862 he made the relation between magnet-
ism and light the subject of his very last experimental work.
He endeavoured, but in vain, to detect any change in the lines
of the spectrum of a flame when the flame was acted on by a
powerful magnet.
This long series of researches is an instance of his persistence.
His energy is shown in the way in which he followed up his
discovery in the single instance in which he was successful.
The first evidence which he obtained of the rotation of the plane
of polarization of light under the action of magnetism was on
the i3th of September 1845, the transparent substance being
his own heavy glass. He began to work on the aoth of August
1845 on polarized light passing through electrolytes. After
three days he worked with common electricity, trying glass,
heavy optical glass, quartz, Iceland spar, all without effect, as on
former trials. On the i3th of September he worked with lines
of magnetic force. Air, flint, glass, rock-crystal, calcareous spar
were examined, but without effect.
" Heavy glass was experimented with. It gave no effects when
the same magnetic poles or the contrary poles were on opposite sides
(as respects the course of the polarized ray), nor when the same
poles were on the same side either with the constant or intermitting
current. But when contrary magnetic poles were on the same side
there was an effect produced on the polarized ray, and thus magnetic
force and light were proved to have relations to each other. This
fact will most likely prove exceedingly fertile, and of great value in
the investigation of the conditions of natural force."
^ He immediately goes on to examine other substances, but with
" no effect," and he ends by saying, " Have got enough for
to-day." On the i8th of September he " does an excellent day's
work." During September he had four days of work, and in
October six, and on the 6th of November he sent in to the Royal
Society the nineteenth series of his " Experimental Researches,"
in which the whole conditions of the phenomena are fully speci-
fied. The negative rotation in ferro-magnetic media is the only
fact of importance which remained to be discovered afterwards
(by M. E. Verdet in 1856).
But his work for the year was not yet over. On the 3rd of
November a new horseshoe magnet came home, and Faraday
immediately began to experiment on the action in the polarized
ray through gases, but with no effect. The following day he
repeated an experiment which had given no result on the 6th of
October. A bar of heavy glass was suspended by silk between
the poles of the new magnet. " When it was arranged, and had
come to rest, I found I could affect it by the magnetic forces
and give it position." By the 6th of December he had sent
in to the Royal Society the twentieth, and on the 24th of
December the twenty-first, series of his " Researches," in which
the properties of diamagnetic bodies are fully described. Thus-
these two great discoveries were elaborated, like his earlier one,
in about three months.
The discovery of the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarized
light, though it did not lead to such important practical applica-
tions as some of Faraday's earlier discoveries, has been of the
highest value to science, as furnishing complete dynamical
evidence that wherever magnetic force exists there is matter,
small portions of which are rotating about axes parallel to the
direction of that force.
We have given a few examples of the concentration of his
efforts in seeking to identify the apparently different forces of
nature, of his far-sightedness in selecting subjects for investiga-
tion, of his persistence in the pursuit of what he set before him,
of his energy in working out the results of his discoveries, and
of the accuracy and completeness with which he made his final
statement of the laws of the phenomenon.
These characteristics of his scientific spirit lie on the surface
of his work, and are manifest to all who read his writings. But
there was another side of his character, to the cultivation of
which he paid at least as much attention, and which was reserved
for his friends, his family and his church. His letters and his
conversation were always full of whatever could awaken a
healthy interest, and free from anything that might rouse ill-
feeling. When, on rare occasions, he was forced out of the region
of science into that of controversy, he stated the facts and let
them make their own way. He was entirely free from pride
and undue self-assertion. During the growth of his powers he
always thankfully accepted a correction, and made use of every
expedient, however humble, which would make his work more
effective in every detail. When at length he found his memory
failing and his mental powers declining, he gave up, without
ostentation or complaint, whatever parts of his work he could
no longer carry on according 'to his own standard of efficiency.
When he was no longer able to apply his mind to science, he
remained content and happy in the exercise of those kindly
feelings and warm affections which he had cultivated no less
carefully than his scientific powers.
The parents of Faraday belonged to the very small and isolated
Jhristian sect which is commonly called after Robert Sandeman.
Faraday himself attended the meetings from childhood; at the
age of thirty he made public profession of his faith, and during
two different periods he discharged the office of elder. His
opinion with respect to the relation between his science and his
religion is expressed in a lecture on mental education delivered
in 1854, and printed at the end of his Researches in Chemistry
and Physics.
" Before entering upon the subject, I must make one distinction
which, however it may appear to others, is to me of the utmost
mportance. High as man is placed above the creatures around
FARAH FAREHAM
175
him, there is a higher and far more exalted position within his
view; and the ways are infinite in which he occupies his thoughts
about the fears, or hopes, or expectations of a future life. I believe
that the truth of that future cannot be brought to his knowledge
by any exertion of his mental powers, however exalted they may
be; that it is made known to him by other teaching than his own,
and is received through simple belief of the testimony given. Let
no one suppose for an instant that the self-education I am about to
commend, in respect of the things of this life, extends to any con-
siderations of the hope set before us, as if man by reasoning could
find out God. It would be improper here to enter upon this sub-
ject further than to claim an absolute distinction between religious
and ordinary belief. I shall be reproached with the weakness of
refusing to apply those mental operations which I think good in
respect of high things to the very highest. I am content to bear
the reproach. Yet even in earthly matters I believe that ' the in-
visible things of Him from the creation of the world are clearly
seen, being understood by the things that are made, even His
eternal power and Godhead'; and I have never seen anything
incompatible between those things of man which can be known by
the spirit of man which is within him and those higher things con-
cerning his future, which he cannot know by that spirit."
Faraday gives the following note as to this lecture:
" These observations were delivered as a lecture before His Royal
Highness the Prince Consort and the members of the Royal Insti-
tution on the 6th of May 1854. They are so immediately connected
in their nature and origin witn my own experimental life, considered
either as cause or consequence, that I have thought the close of
this volume not an unfit place for their reproduction."
As Dr Bence Jones concludes
" His standard of duty was supernatural. It was not founded on
any intuitive ideas of right and wrong, nor was it fashioned upon
any outward experiences of time and place, but it was formed
entirely on what he held to be the revelation of the will of God in
the written word, and throughout all his life his faith led him to
act up to the very letter of it."
Published Works. Chemical Manipulation, being Instructions to
Students in Chemistry (i vol., John Murray, 1st ed. 1827, and 1830,
3rd 1842); Experimental Researches in Electricity, vols. i. and ii.,
Richard and John Edward Taylor, vols. i. and ii. (1844 and 1847) ;
vol. iii. (1844) ; vol. iii. Richard Taylor and William Francis (1855) ;
Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics, Taylor and
Francis (1859) ; Lectures on the Chemical History of a Candle (edited
by W. Crookes) (Griffin, Bohn & Co., 1861); On the Various Forces
in Nature (edited by W. Crookes) (Chatto & Windus, no date).
BIOGRAPHIES. Faraday as a Discoverer, by John Tyndall (Long-
mans, 1st ed. 1868, 2nd ed. 1870) ; The Life and Letters o/ Faraday,
by Dr Bence Jones, secretary of the Royal Institution, in 2 vols.
(Longmans, 1870); Michael Faraday, by J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D.,
(Macmillan, 1872); Michael Faraday; his Life and Work,
F.R.
by S. P. Thompson (1898).
G- C. M.)
FARAH, a river of Afghanistan. It rises in the southern
slopes of Siah-Koh, which forms the southern wall of the valley
of Herat, and after a south-westerly course of about 200 m. falls
into the Seistan Hamun. At the town of Farah it has a width
of 1 50 yds. in the dry season with 2 ft. of water and a clear swift
stream. It is liable to floods, when it becomes impassable for
weeks. The lower valley of the Farah Rud is fertile and well
cultivated.
FARAH, a town of Afghanistan. It is situated on the river
that bears its name on the main road between Herat and
Kandahar, 160 m. S. of Herat and 225 m. W. of Kandahar.
It is a place of some strategical importance, as it commands the
approaches to India and Seistan from Herat. The town (2460 ft.
above sea-level) is a square walled enclosure standing in the
middle of the plain, surrounded with a walled rampart. Owing
to its unhealthiness it is now almost deserted, being only occupied
by the Afghan regiment quartered there. It is a place of great
antiquity, being probably the Phra mentioned by Isidore of
Charax in the ist century A.D. It was sacked by the armies of
Jenghiz Khan, and the survivors transported to a position
farther north, where there are still great ruins. The population
returned to the original site after the destruction of the medieval
city by Shah Abbas, and the city prospered again until its bloody
siege by Nadir Shah. Subsequently under constant attacks it
declined, and in 1837 the population amounting to 6000 was
carried off to Kandahar. The sole industry of the town at
present is the manufacture of gunpowder. In the districts east
of Farah are to be found the most fanatical of the Durani Afghan
tribes.
FARAZDAQ [Hammam ibn Ghalib ibn Sa'sa', known as
al-Farazdaq] (ca. 64i-c<z. 728), Arabian poet, was born at Basra.
He was of the Darim, one of the most respected divisions of
the bani Tamlm, and his mother was of the tribe of Dabba.
His grandfather Sa'sa' was a Bedouin of great repute, his father
Ghalib followed the same manner of life until Basra was founded,
and was famous for his generosity and hospitality. At the age
of fifteen Farazdaq was known as a poet, and though checked for
a short time by the advice of the caliph Ali to devote his attention
to the study of the Koran, he soon returned to making verse.
In the true Bedouin spirit he devoted his talent largely to satire
and attacked the bani Nahshal and the bani Fuqaim. When
Ziyad, a member of the latter tribe, became governor of Basra,
the poet was compelled to flee, first to Kufa, and then, as he
was still too near Ziyad, to Medina, where he was well received
by Sa'ld ibn ul-AsI. Here he remained about ten years, writing
satires on Bedouin tribes, but avoiding city politics. But he
lived a prodigal life, and his amorous verses led to his expulsion
by the caliph Merwan I. Just at that time he learned of the
death of Ziyad and returned to Basra, where he secured the
favour of Ziyad's successor 'Obaidallah ibn Ziyad. Much of his
poetry was now devoted to his matrimonial affairs. He had
taken advantage of his position as guardian and married his
cousin Nawar against her will. She sought help in vain from
the court of Basra and from various tribes. All feared the poet's
satires. At last she fled to Mecca and appealed to the pretender
"Abdallah ibn Zobair, who, however, succeeded in inducing her
to consent to a confirmation of the marriage. Quarrels soon
arose again. Farazdaq took a second wife, and after her death
a third, to annoy Nawar. Finally he consented to a divorce
pronounced by Hasan al-Basrl. Another subject occasioned a
long series of verses, namely his feud with his rival Jarir (q.v.)
and his tribe the bani Kulaib. These poems are published as
the Naka'id of Jarir and al-Farazdaq (ed. A. A. Sevan, Leiden,
1906 ff.). In political life Farazdaq was prevented by fear from
taking a large part. He seems, however, to have been attached
to the house of Ah'. During the reign of Moawiya I. he avoided
politics, but later gave his allegiance to 'Abdallah ibn Zobair.
The fullest account of his life is contained in J. Hell's Das Leben
Farazdaq nach seinen Gedichten (Leipzig, 1903) ; Arabian stories of
him in the Kitab ul-Aghani and in Ibn Khallikan. A portion of his
poems was edited with French translation by R. Boucher (Paris,
1870); the remainder have been published by J. Hell (Munich,
1900). (G. W. T.)
FARCE, a form of the comic in dramatic art, the object of
which is to excite laughter by ridiculous situations and incidents
rather than by imitation with intent to ridicule, which is the
province of burlesque, or by the deh'neation of the play of
character upon character, which is that of comedy. The history
of the word is interesting. Its ultimate origin is the Latin/oraVe,
to stuff, and with the meaning of " stuffing " or forcemeat it
appears in old cookery books in English. In medieval Latin
farsa and farsia were applied to the expansion of the Kyrie
eleison in litanies, &c., by interpolating words and phrases be-
tween those two words; later, to words, phrases and rhymed
verses, sometimes in the vernacular, also interpolated in various
parts of the service. The French farce, the form to which we
owe our word, was originally the " gag " that the actors in the
medieval drama inserted into their parts, generaUy to meet
the popular demand for a lightening of humour or buffoonery.
It has thus been used for the lighter form of comic drama (see
DRAMA), and also figuratively for a piece of idle buffoonery,
sham, or mockery.
FAREHAM, a market town in the Fareham parliamentary
division of Hampshire, England, 76 m. S.W. from London by the
London & South Western railway. Pop. of urban district (IQOI)
8246. It lies at the head of a creek opening into the north-
western corner of Portsmouth harbour. The principal industries
are the manufacture of sackings, ropes, bricks, coarse earthen-
ware, terra-cotta, tobacco-pipes and leather. Fareham has a
considerable trade in corn, timber and coal; the creek being
accessible to vessels of 300 tons. Three miles E. of Fareham,
on Portsmouth harbour, are the interesting ruins of Porchester
FAREL FAREY
Castle, an extensive walled enclosure retaining its Norman keep,
and exhibiting in its outer walls considerable evidence of Roman
workmanship; Professor Haverfield, however, denies that it
occupies the site of the Roman Portus Magnus. The church of
St Mary has some fine Norman portions. It belonged to an
Augustinian priory founded by Henry I. At Titchfield, 3 m.
W. of Fareham, are ruins of the beautiful Tudor mansion, Place
House, built on the site of a Premonstratensian abbey of the
1 3th century, of which there are also fragments.
The fact that Fareham (Fernham, Ferham) formed part of
the original endowment of the see of Winchester fixes its existence
certainly as early as the 9th century. It is mentioned in the
Domesday Survey as subject to a reduced assessment on account
of its exposed position and liability to Danish attacks. There
is evidence to show that Fareham had become a borough before
1 264, but no charter can be found. It was a mesne borough held
of the bishop of Winchester, but it is probable that during the
1 8th century the privileges of the burgesses were allowed to lapse,
as by 1835 it had ceased to be a borough. Fareham returned two
members to the parliament of 1306, but two years later it peti-
tioned against representation on the ground of expense. A fair
on the 3ist of October and the two following days was held under
grant of Henry III. The day appears to have been afterwards
changed to the 2gth of June, and in the i8th century was mainly
important for the sale of toys. It was abolished in 1871. Fare-
ham owed its importance in medieval times to its facilities for
commerce. It was a free port and had a considerable trade in
wool and wine. Later its shipping declined and in the i6th
century it was little more than a fishing village. Its commercial
prosperity in modern times is due to its nearness to Portsmouth.
FAREL, GUILLAUME (1480-1565), French reformer, was
born of a noble family near Gap in Dauphinfi in 1489. His
parents meant him for the military profession, but his bent
being for study he was allowed to enter the university of Paris.
Here he came under the influence of Jacobus Faber (Stapulensis),
on whose recommendation he was appointed professor in the
college of Cardinal Lemoine. In 1521, on the invitation of
Bishop Briconnet, he repaired to Meaux, and took part in
efforts of reform within the Roman communion. The persecuting
measures of 1523, from which Faber found a refuge at Meaux,
determined Farel to leave France. Oecolampadius welcomed
him to Basel, where in 1524 he put forth thirteen theses sharply
antagonizing Roman doctrine. These he defended with great
ability, but with so much heat that Erasmus joined in demanding
his expulsion from the city. He thought of going to Wittenberg,
but his first halt was at Strassburg, where Bucer and Capito
received him kindly. At the call of Duke Ulrich of Wurttemberg
he went as preacher to Montbeliard. Displaying the same
qualities which had driven him from Basel, he was forced to
leave Montbeliard in the spring of 1525.
He retraced his steps to Strassburg and Basel; and, at the end
of 1526, obtained a preacher's post at Aigle, then a dependency
of Bern. Deeming it wise to suppress his name, he adopted the
pseudonym Ursinus, with reference to his protection by Bern.
Despite strenuous opposition by the monastic orders, he obtained
in 1528 a licence from the authorities to preach anywhere within
the canton of Bern. He extended his labours to the cantons
of Neuchatel and Vaud. His vehement missionary addresses
were met by mob violence, but he persevered with undaunted
zeal. In October 1530 he broke into the church of Neuchatel
with an iconoclastic mob, thus planting the Reformation in that
city. In 1532 he visited the Waldenses. On the return journey
he halted at Geneva, then at a crisis of political and religious
strife. On the 3Oth of June 1532 the council of two hundred
had ordained that in every church and cloister of the city " the
pure Gospel " should be preached; against this order the bishop's
vicar led the opposition. Reaching Geneva in October 1532,
Farel (described in a contemporary monastic chronicle as " un
ch6tif malheureux predicant, nomme maistre Guillaume ") at
once began to preach in a room of his lodging, and soon attracted
" un grand nombre de gens qui estoient advertis de sa venue et
deja infects de son heresie." Summoned before the bishop's
vicar, his trial was a scene of insult and clamour, ending in his
being violently thrust from the court and bidden to leave the
city within three hours. He escaped with difficulty to Orbe by
boat. Through the intervention of the government of Bern,
liberty of worship was granted on the 28th of March 1533 to the
Reformation party in Geneva. Farel, returning, achieved in a
couple of years a complete supremacy for his followers. On
New Year's Day 1534 the bishop interdicted all preaching un-
authorized by himself, and ordered the burning of all Protestant
Bibles. This was the signal for public disputations in which
Farel took the leading part on the Reformation side, with the
result that by decree of the 27th of August 1535 the mass was
suppressed and the reformed religion established. Calvin, on
his way to Basel for a life of study, touched at Geneva, and
by the importunity of Farel was there detained to become the
leader of the Genevan Reformation. The severity of the discip-
linary measures which followed procured a reaction under which
Farel and Calvin were banished the city in 1538. Farel was
called to Neuchatel in July 1538, but his position there was
made untenable, though he remained at his post during a visita-
tion of the plague. When (1541) Calvin was recalled to Geneva,
Farel also returned; but in 1542 he went to Metz to support
the Reformation there. It is said that when he preached in the
Dominican church of Metz, the bells were rung to drown his
voice, but his voice outdid the bells, and on the next occasion
he had three thousand hearers. His work was checked by the
active hostility of the duke of Lorraine, and in 1544 he returned
to Neuchatel. No one was more frequently and confidentially
consulted by Calvin. When the trial of Servetus was in progress
( I 553)i Calvin was anxious for Farel's presence, but he did not
arrive till sentence had been passed. He accompanied Servetus
to the stake, vainly urging him to a recantation at the last
moment. A coolness with Calvin was created by Farel's marriage ,
at the age of sixty-nine, with a refugee widow from Rouen, of
unsuitable age. By her, six years later, he had one son, who
died in infancy. The vigour and fervency of his preaching were
unabated by length of years. Calvin's death, in 1564, affected
him deeply. Yet in his last year he revisited Metz, preaching
amid great enthusiasm, with all his wonted fire. The effort was
too much for him; he left the church exhausted, took to his
bed, and died at Metz on the i3th of September 1565.
Farel wrote much, but usually in haste, and for an immediate
purpose. He takes no rank as a scientific theologian, being a
man of activity rather than of speculation or of much insight.
His Sommaire was re-edited from the edition of 1534 by J. G.
Baum in 1867. Others of his works (all in French) were his
treatise on purgatory (1534), on the Lord's Prayer (1543), on the
Supper (1555). He " was remarkable for boldness and energy
both in preaching and prayer " (M. Young, Life of Pahario).
As an orator, he was denunciatory rather than suasive; thus
while on the one hand he powerfully impressed, on the other
hand he stimulated opposition. A monument to him was
unveiled at Neuchatel on the 4th of May 1876.
Lives of Farel are numerous; it may suffice to mention C. Ancillon,
Vie de G. Farel (1691); the article in Bayle; M. Kirchhofer, Das
Leben W. Farels (1831-1833); Ch. Schmidt, fcludes sur Farel (1834);
F. Bevan, W. Farel (1893) ; J. J. Herzog, in Herzog-Hauck's Realency-
klopddie (1898). (A. Go.*)
FAREY, JOHN (1766-1826), English geologist, was born at
Woburn in Bedfordshire in 1766. He was educated at Halifax
in Yorkshire, and showed such aptitude in mathematics, drawing
and surveying, that he was brought under the notice of John
Smeaton (1724-1792). In 1792 he was appointed agent to the
duke of Bedford for his Woburn estates. After the decease of
the duke, Farey in 1802 removed to London, and settled there
as a consulting surveyor and geologist. That he was enabled
to take this step was due largely to his acquaintance with
William Smith (q.v.), who in 1801 had been employed by the
duke of Bedford in works of draining and irrigation. The duke,
appreciating Smith's knowledge of the strata, commissioned
him in 1802 to explore the margin of the chalk-hills south of
Woburn in order to determine the true succession of the strata;
and he instructed Farey to accompany him. Farey has remarked
FARGO FARIBAULT
177
that Smith was his " Master and Instructor in Mineral Survey-
ing," and his subsequent publications show how well he had
profited by the teachings he received. Farey prepared the
General View of the Agriculture and Minerals of Derbyshire in
twovols. (1811-1813) for the Board of Agriculture. In the first
of these volumes (1811) he gave an able account of the upper
part of the British series of strata, and a masterly exposition of
the Carboniferous and other strata of Derbyshire. In this classic
work, and in a paper published in the Phil. Mag. vol. li. 1818,
p. 173, on " Mr Smith's Geological Claims stated," he zealously
called attention to the importance of the discoveries of William
Smith. Farey died in London on the 6th of January 1826.
See Biographical Notice, by W. S. Mitchell, in Geol. Mag. 1873,
P-25-
FARGO, WILLIAM GEORGE (1818-1881), pioneer American
expressman, was born in Pompey, New York, on the 2oth of
May 1818. From the age of thirteen he had to support himself,
obtaining little schooling, and for several years he was a clerk
in grocery stores in Syracuse. He became a freight agent for
the Auburn & Syracuse railway company at Auburn in 1841,
an express messenger between Albany and Buffalo a year later,
and in 1843 a resident agent in Buffalo. In 1844 he organized,
with Henry Wells (1805-1878) and Daniel Dunning, the first
express company (Wells & Co. ; after 1845 Livingston & Fargo)
to engage in the carrying business west of Buffalo. The lines
of this company (which first operated only to Detroit, via
Cleveland) were rapidly extended to Chicago, St Louis, and other
western points. In March 1850, when through a consolidation
of competing lines the American Express Company was organized,
Wells became president and Fargo secretary. In 1851, with
Wells and others, he organized the firm of Wells, Fargo &
Company to conduct an express business between New York and
San Francisco by way of the Isthmus of Panama and on the
Pacific coast, where it long had a virtual monopoly. In 1861
Wells, Fargo & Co. bought and reorganized the Overland Mail
Co., which had been formed in 1857 to carry the United States
mails, and of which Fargo had been one of the original promoters.
From 1862 to 1866 he was mayor of Buffalo, and from 1868 to his
death, in Buffalo, on the 3rd of August 1881, he was president
of the American Express Company, with which in 1868 the Mer-
chants Union Express Co. was consolidated. He was a director
of the New York Central and of the Northern Pacific railways.
FARGO, a city and the county-seat of Cass county, North
Dakota, U.S.A., about 254 m. W. of Duluth, Minnesota. Pop.
(1890) 5664; (1900) 9589, of whom 2564 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 14,331. It is served by the Northern Pacific,
the Great Northern, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul
railways. The city is situated on the W. bank of the Red river
of the North, which in 1909 had a navigable depth of only
about 2 ft. from Fargo to Grank Forks, and the navigation of
which was obstructed at various places by fixed bridges. In
the city are Island and Oakgrove parks, the former of which
contains a statue (erected by Norwegians in 1908) of Henrik
Arnold Wergeland, the Norwegian poet. Fargo is the seat of the
North Dakota agricultural college (coeducational), founded in
1890 under the provisions of the Federal " Morrill Act " of
1862; it receives both Federal and state support (the former
under the Morrill Act of 1890), and in connexion with it
a United States Agricultural Experiment Station is main-
tained. In 1907-1908 the college had 988 students in the
regular courses (including the students in the Academy), 117
in the summer course in steam engineering, and 68 in corre-
spondence courses. At Fargo, also, are Fargo College (non-
sectarian, 1887; founded by Congregationalists) , which has a
college department, a preparatory department, and a conserva-
tory of music, and in 1908 had 310 students, of whom 211
were in the conservatory of music; the Oak Grove Lutheran
ladies' seminary (1906) and the Sacred Heart Academy (Roman
Catholic). The city is the see of both a Roman Catholic bishop
and a Protestant Episcopal bishop; and it is the centre of
masonic interests in the state, having a fine masonic temple.
There are a public library and a large Y.M.C.A. building. St
John's hospital is controlled by Roman Catholic sisters, and
St Luke's hospital by the Lutheran Church. Fargo is in a
rich agricultural (especially wheat) region, is a busy grain-trading
and jobbing centre, is one of the most important wholesale
distributing centres for agricultural implements and machinery
in the United States, and has a number of manufactures, notably
flour. The total value of the city's factory products in 1905
was $1,160,832. Fargo, named in honour of W. G. Fargo of
the Wells Fargo Express Company, was first settled as a tent
city in 1871, when the Red river was crossed by the Northern
Pacific, but was not permanently settled until after the extinction
in 1873 of the Indian title to the reservation on which it was
situated. It was chartered as a city in 1875. The Milwaukee
railway was completed to Fargo in 1884. In June 1893 a large
part of the city was destroyed by fire, the loss being more than
$3,000,000.
FARIA Y SOUSA, MANUEL DE (1590-1649), Spanish and
Portuguese historian and poet, was born of an ancient Portuguese
family, probably at Pombeiro, on the i8th of March 1590,
attended the university of Braga for some years, and when about
fourteen entered the service of the bishop of Oporto. With the
exception of about four years from 1631 to 1634, during which
he was a member of the Portuguese embassy in Rome, the greater
part of his later life was spent at Madrid, and there he died, after
much suffering, on the 3rd of June 1649. He was a laborious,
peaceful man; and a happy marriage with Catharina Machado,
the Albania of his poems, enabled him to lead a studious domestic
life, dividing his cares and affections between his children and
his books. His first important work, an Epitome de las historias
Portuguezas (Madrid, 1628), was favourably received; but some
passages in his enormous commentary upon Os Lusiadas, the
poem of Luis de Camoens, excited the suspicion of the inquisitors,
caused his temporary incarceration, and led to the permanent
loss of his official salary. In spite of the enthusiasm which is
said to have prescribed to him the daily task of twelve foh'o
pages, death overtook him before he had completed his greatest
enterprise, a history of the Portuguese in all parts of the world.
Several portions of the work appeared at Lisbon after his death,
under the editorship of Captain Faria y Sousa: Europa Portu-
gueza (1667, 3 vols.); Asia Portugueza (1666-1675, 3 vols.);
Africa Portugueza (1681). As a poet Faria y Sousa was nearly
as prolific; but his poems are vitiated by the prevailing Gon-
gorism of his time. They were for the most part collected in the
Noches claras (Madrid, 1624-1626), and the Fuente de Aganipe,
of which four volumes were published at Madrid in 1644-1646.
He also wrote, from information supplied by P. A. Semmedo,
Imperio de China i cultura evangelica en il (Madrid, 1642); and
translated and completed the NobUiario of the count of
Barcellos.
There are English translations by J. Stevens of the History of
Portugal (London, 1698), and of Portuguese Asia (London, 1695).
FARIBAULT, a city and the county-seat of Rice county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Cannon river, at the mouth of the
Straight river, about 45 m. S. of St Paul. (Pop. 1890) 6520;
(1900) 7868, of whom 1586 were foreign-born; (1905) 8279;
(1910) 9001. Faribault is served by the Chicago Great Western,
the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific railways. The city is attractively situated near a lake
region widely known for its summer resorts. Faribault is the
seat of the Minnesota institute for defectives, embracing the
state school for the deaf (1863), the state school for the blind
(1874), and the state school for the feeble-minded (1879); of
three institutions under control of the Protestant Episcopal
Church the Seabury divinity school (incorporated 1860),
the Shattuck school (1867; incorporated in 1905), a military
school for boys, and St Mary's hall (1866), a school for girls,
founded by Bishop Whipple; and of the Roman Catholic
(Dominican) Bethlehem Academy for girls. In the city are
the cathedral of our Merciful Saviour (1868-1869), the first
Protestant Episcopal church in the United States built and used
as a cathedral from its opening; and the hospital and nurses'
training school of the Minnesota District of the Evangelical
178
FARIDKOT FARID UD-DIN 'ATTAR
Synod. The city has a public library, and owns and operates
its own water-supply system. There is a good water power,
and among the city's manufactures are flour, beer, shoes,
furniture, rattan-ware, warehouse trucks, canned goods, cane
syrup, waggons and carriages, gasolene engines, wind-mills,
pianos and woollen goods. Faribault, named in honour of Jean
Baptiste Faribault, a French fur-trader and pioneer who made
his headquarters in the region in the latter part of the i8th
century, was permanently settled about 1848, and was chartered
as a city in 1872. A French millwright, N. La Croix, introduced
here, about 1860, a new process of making flour, which revolu-
tionized the industry in the United States, but his mill was soon
destroyed by flood and he removed to Minneapolis, where the
process was first successful on a large scale. Faribault was for
many years the home of Bishop Henry Benjamin Whipple
(1822-1901), the pioneer bishop (1859-1901) of the Protestant
Episcopal Church in Minnesota, famous for his missionary work
among the Indians.
FARIDKOT, a native state of India in the Punjab. It ranks
as one of the Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence
in 1809. Its area is 642 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was
124,912. It is bounded on the W. and N.E. by the British district
of Ferozepore, and on the S. by Nabha state. During the Sikh
wars in 1845 the chief, Raja Pahar Singh, exerted himself in the
British cause, and was rewarded with an increase of territory.
In the Mutiny of 1857, too, his son and successor, Wazir Singh,
did good service by guarding the Sutlej ferries, and in attacking
a notorious rebel, whose stronghold he destroyed. The esti-
mated gross revenue is 28,300; there is no tribute. The
territory is traversed by the Rewari-Ferozepore railway, and also
crossed by the Fazilka line, which starts from Kotkapura, the
old capital. It is irrigated by a branch of the Sirhind canal.
The town of Faridkot has a railway station, 84 m. from
Lahore.
FARIDPUR, or FURREEDPORE, a town and district of British
India, in the Dacca division of eastern Bengal and Assam.
The town, which has a railway station, stands on an old channel
of the Ganges. Pop. (1901) 11,649. There are a Baptist mission
and a government high school. The district comprises an area
of 2281 sq. m. The general aspect is flat, tame and uninteresting,
although in the northern tract the land is comparatively high,
with a light sandy soil, covered with water during the rainy
season, but dry during the cold and hot weather. From the
town of Faridpur the ground slopes, until in the south, on the
confines of Backergunje, it becomes one immense swamp, never
entirely dry. During the height of the inundations the whole
district may be said to be under water. The villages are built
on artificially raised sites, or the high banks of the deltaic streams.
Along many of the larger rivers the line of hamlets is unbroken
for miles together, so that it is difficult to say where one ends
and another begins. The huts, however, except in markets and
bazaars, are seldom close together, but are scattered amidst small
garden plots, and groves of mango, date and betel-nut trees.
The plains between the villages are almost invariably more or
less depressed towards the centre, where usually a marsh, or
lake, or deep lagoon is found. These marshes, however, are
gradually filling up by the silt deposited from the rivers; in
the north of the district there now only remain two or three
large swamps, and in them the process may be seen going on.
The climate of Faridpur is damp, like that of the other districts
of eastern Bengal; the average annual rainfall is 66 in. and the
average mean temperature 76-9 F.
The principal rivers of Faridpur are the Ganges, the Arial
Khan and the Haringhata. The Ganges, or Padma as it is
locally called, touches the extreme north-west corner of the
district, flows along its northern boundary as far as Goalanda,
where it receives the waters of the Jamuna or main stream of the
Brahmaputra, and whence the united stream turns southwards
and forms the eastern boundary of the district. The river is
navigable by large cargo boats throughout the year, and has an
average breadth during the rainy season of 1600 yds. Rice is
the great crop of the district. In 1901 the population was
1,937,646, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. The north
of the district is crossed by the line of the Eastern Bengal railway
to Goalanda, the port of the Brahmaputra steamers, and a
branch runs to Faridpur town. But most of the trade is con-
ducted by river.
FARlD UD-DiN 'ATTAR, or FERID EDDIN-ATHAR (1119-
1229), Persian poet and mystic, was born at Nishapur, 513 A.H.
(1119 A.D.), and was put to death 627 A.H. (1229 A.D.), thus having
reached the age of no years. The date of his death is, however,
variously given between the years 1193 and 1235, although
the majority of authorities support 1229; it is also probable
that he was born later than 1119, but before 1150. His real name
was Abu Talib (or Abu Hamid) Mahommed ben Ibrahim, and
Farid ud-dln was simply an honourable title equivalent to Pearl
of Religion. He followed for a time his father's profession of
druggist or perfumer, and hence the name 'Attar (one who sold
'itr, otto of roses; hence, simply, dealer in drugs), which he
afterwards employed as his poetical designation. According to
the account of Dawlatshah, his interest in the great mystery
of the higher life of man was awakened in the following way.
One day a wandering fakir gazed sadly into his shop, and,
when ordered to be gone, replied: "It is nothing for me to go;
but I grieve for thee, O druggist, for how wilt thou be able to
think of death, and leave all these goods of thine behind thee? "
The word was in season; and Mahommed ben Ibrahim the
druggist soon gave up his shop and began to study the mystic
theosophy of the Sufis under Sheik Rukneddin. So thoroughly
did he enter, into the spirit of that religion that he was before
long recognized as one of its principal representatives. He
travelled extensively, visited Mecca, Egypt, Damascus and India,
and on his' return was invested with the Sufi mantle by Sheik
Majd-ud-din of Bagdad. The greater portion of his life was spent
in the town of Shadyakh, but he is not unfrequently named
Nishapuri, after the city of his boyhood and youth. The story
of his death is a strange one. Captured by a soldier of Jenghiz
Khan, he was about to be sold for a thousand dirhems, when he
advised his captor to keep him, as doubtless a larger offer would
yet be made; but when the second bidder said he would give
a bag of horse fodder for the old man, he asserted that he was
worth no more, and had better be sold. The soldier, irritated
at the loss of the first offer, immediately slew him. A noble tomb
was erected over his grave, and the spot acquired a reputation
for sanctity. Farid was a voluminous writer, and left no fewer
than 120,000 couplets of poetry, though in his later years he
carried his asceticism so far as to deny himself the pleasures of
poetical composition. His most famous work is the Mantik
uttair, or language of birds, an allegorical poem containing a
complete survey of the life and doctrine of the Sufis. It is ex-
tremely popular among Mahommedans both of the Sunnite and
Shiite sects, and the manuscript copies are consequently very
numerous. The birds, according to the poet, were tired of a
republican constitution, and longed for a king. As the lapwing,
having guided Solomon through the desert, best knew what
a king should be, he was asked whom they should choose. The
Simorg in the Caucasus, was his reply. But the way to the
Caucasus was long and dangerous, and most of the birds excused
themselves from the enterprise. A few, however, set out;
but by the time they reached the great king's court, their
number was reduced to thirty. The thirty birds (si morg), wing-
weary and hunger-stricken, at length gained access to their
chosen monarch the Si morg; but only to find that they strangely
lost their identity in his presence that they are he, and he is
they. In such strange fashion does the poet image forth the
search of the human soul after absorption into the divine.
The text of the Mantifi uttair was published by Garcin de Tassy in
1857, a summary of its contents having already appeared as La
Poesie philosophique et religieuse chez les Persons in 1856; this was
succeeded by a complete translation in 1863. Among Farid ud-dln's
other works may be mentioned his Pandndma (Book of Counsel), of
which a translation by Silvestre de Sacy appeared in 1819; Bulbul
Nama (Book of the Nightingale) ; Wasalet Nama (Book of Con-
junctions); Khusru va Gul (The King and the Rose); and Tadh-
kiratu I Awliya (Memoirs of the Saints) (ed. R. A. Nicholson in
FARINA FARINI
179
Persian Historical Texts') . See Sir Gore Ouseley , Biographical Notices
of Persian Poets (1846), p. 236; Von Hammer Purgstall, Geschichte
der schonen Redekunste Persiens (Vienna, 1818), p. 140; the Oriental
Collections, ii. (London, 1798), pp. 84, 124, containing translations
of part of the Pandndma; E. H. Palmer, Oriental Mysticism (1867);
E. G. Browne, Literary History of Persia (1906).
FARINA, SALVATORE (1846- ), Italian novelist, was
born in Sardinia, and after studying law at Turin and Pavia
devoted himself to a literary life at Milan. Farina has often
been compared as a sentimental humorist with Dickens, and his
style of writing has given him a special place in modern Italian
fiction. His masterpiece is // Signer lo (1880), a delightful
portrait of an egoist; Don Chisciottino, Amore bendato, Capelli
biondi, Oro nascoslo, II Tesoro di Donnina, Amore a cent' occhi,
Mio figlio, II numero ij, are some of his other volumes.
FARINATO, PAOLO (1522-1606), Italian painter and archi-
tect, was a native of Verona. He is sometimes named Farinato
degli Uberti, as he came from the ancient Florentine stock to
which the Ghibelline leader Farinata degli Uberti, celebrated in
Dante's Commedia, belonged. He flourished at the same time
that the art of Verona obtained its greatest lustre in the works
of Paolo Cagliari (Paul Veronese), succeeded by other members
of the Cagliari family, of whom most or all were outlived by
Farinato. He was instructed by Niccolo Giolfino, and probably
by Antonio Badile and Domenico del Riccio (Brusasorci).
Proceeding to Venice, he formed his style partly on Titian and
Giorgione, though he was never conspicuous as a colourist, and
in form he learned more from the works of Giulio Romano. His
nude figures show knowledge of the antique; he affected a
bronzed tone in the complexions, harmonizing with the general
gravity of his colour, which is more laudable in fresco than in
oil-painting. Vasari praised his thronged compositions and
merit of draughtsmanship. His works are to be found not only
in Venice and principally in Verona, but also in Mantua, Padua
and other towns belonging or adjacent to the Venetian territory.
He was a prosperous and light-hearted man, and continually
progressed in his art, passing from a comparatively dry manner
into a larger and bolder one, with much attraction of drapery
and of landscape. The " Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes,"
painted in the church of S. Giorgio in Verona, is accounted his
masterpiece; it was executed at the advanced age of seventy-
nine, and is of course replete with figures, comprising those of
the painter's own family. A saloon was painted by him in
S. Maria in Organo, in the same city, with the subjects of
" Michael expelling Lucifer " and the "Massacre of the Inno-
cents "; in Piacenza is a " St Sixtus "; in Berlin a " Presenta-
tion in the Temple "; and in the communal gallery of Verona one
of his prime works, the " Marriage of St Catherine." Farinato
executed some sculptures, and various etchings of sacred and
mythologic subjects; his works of all kinds were much in
request, including the wax models which he wrought as studies
for his painted figures. He is said to have died at the same hour
as his wife. His son Orazio was also a painter of merit.
FARINELLI (1705-1782), whose real name was CARLO
BROSCHI, one of the most extraordinary singers that ever lived,
was born on the 24th of January 1705, at Naples. He was the
nephew of Cristiano Farinelli, the composer and violinist, whose
name he took. Having been prepared for the career of a soprano,
he soon acquired, under the instruction of N. A. Porpora, a
voice of marvellous beauty, and became famous throughout
southern Italy as il ragazzo (the boy). In 1722 he made his first
appearance at Rome in his master's Eumene, creating the
greatest enthusiasm by surpassing a popular German trumpet-
player, for whom Porpora had written an obligate to one of the
boy's songs, in holding and swelling a note of prodigious length,
purity and power, and in the variations, roulades and trills which
he introduced into the air. In 1724 he appeared at Vienna, and
at Venice in the following year, returning to Naples shortly
afterwards. He sang at Milan in 1726, and at Bologna in 1727,
where he first met and acknowledged himself vanquished by
the singer Antonio Bernacchi (b. 1700), to whose instruction he
was much indebted. With ever-increasing success and fame
Farinelli appeared in nearly all the great cities of Italy; and
returned a third time to Vienna in 1731. He now modified his
style, it is said on the advice of Charles VI., from mere bravura
of the Porpora school to one of pathos and simplicity. He
visited London in 1734, arriving in time to lend his powerful
support to the faction which in opposition to Handel had set
up a rival opera with Porpora as composer and Senesino as
principal singer. But not even his aid could make the under-
taking successful. His first appearance at the Lincoln's Inn
Fields theatre was in Arlaserse, much of the music of which was
by his brother, Riccardo Broschi. His success was instantaneous,
and the prince of Wales and the court loaded him with favours
and presents. Having spent three years in England, Farinelli
set out for Spain, staying a few months on the way in France,
where he sang before Louis XV. In Spain, where he had only
meant to stay a few months, he ended by passing nearly twenty-
five years. His voice, employed by the queen to cure Philip V.
of his melancholy madness, acquired for him an influence with
that prince which gave him eventually the power, if not the
name, of prime minister. This power he was wise and modest
enough to use discreetly. For ten years, night after night, he
had to sing to the king the same six songs, and never anything
else. Under Ferdinand VI. he held a similar position, and was
decorated (1750) with the cross of Calatrava. He utilized his
ascendancy over this king by persuading him to establish
an Italian opera. After the accession of Charles III. Farinelli
retired with the fortune he had amassed to Bologna, and spent
the remainder of his days there in melancholy splendour, dying
on the i5th of July 1782. His voice was of large compass,
possessing seven or eight notes more than those of ordinary
singers, and was sonorous, equal and clear; he also possessed a
great knowledge of music.
FARINGDON, properly GREAT FARINGDON, a market town
in the Abingdon parliamentary division of Berkshire, England,
17 m. W.S.W. of Oxford by road. Pop. (1901) 2900. It lies on
the slope of a low range of hills which borders the valley of the
Thames on the south. It is the terminus of a branch of the Great
Western railway from Uffington. The church of All Saints is a
large cruciform building with low central tower. Its period is
mainly Transitional Norman and Early English, and though
considerably altered by restoration it contains some good details,
with many monuments and brasses. Faringdon House, close to
the church, was built by Henry James Pye (1745-1813), poet
laureate from 1790 to 1813, who also caused to be planted the
conspicuous group of fir-trees on the hill east of the town called
Faringdon Clump, or locally (like other similar groups) the
Folly. The trade of Faringdon is agricultural.
FARINI, LUIGI CARLO (1812-1866), Italian statesman and
historian, was born at Russi, near Ravenna, on the 22nd of
October 1812. After completing a brilliant university course
at Bologna, which he interrupted to take part in the revolution
of 1831 (see CARBONARI), he practised as a physician at Russi
and at Ravenna. He acquired a considerable reputation, but
in 1843 his political opinions brought him under the suspicion
of the police and caused his expulsion from the papal states.
He resided successively in Florence and Paris, and travelled
about Europe as private physician to Prince Jerome Bonaparte,
but when Pius IX. was elected to the Holy See and began his
reign with apparently Liberal and nationalist tendencies, Farini
returned to Italy and was appointed secretary-general to G.
Recchi, the minister of the interior (March 1848). But he held
office for little more than a month, since like all the other Italian
Liberals he disapproved of the pope's change of front in refusing
to allow his troops to fight against Austria, and resigned with the
rest of the ministry on the 2pth of April. Pius, wishing to
counteract the effect of this policy, sent Farini to Charles Albert,
king of Sardinia, to hand over the command of the papal con-
tingent to him. Elected member of parliament for Faenza, he
was again appointed secretary to the ministry of the interior in
the Mamiani cabinet, and later director-general of the public
health department. He resigned office on the proclamation of
the republic after the flight of the pope to Gaeta in 1849, resumed
it for a while when Pius returned to Rome with the protection
i8o
FARM FARM-BUILDINGS
of French arms, but when a reactionary and priestly policy was
instituted, he went into exile and took up his residence at Turin.
There he became convinced that it was only through the House
of Savoy that Italy could be liberated, and he expounded his
views in Cavour's paper // Risorgimento, in La Frusta and //
Piemonte, of which latter he was at one time editor. He also
wrote his chief historical work, Lo Slato Romano dal 1815 al 1850,
in four volumes (Turin, 1 850) . In 1 85 1 he was appointed minister
of public instruction in the D'Azeglio cabinet, an office which he
held till May 1852. As a member of the Sardinian parliament
and as a journalist Farini was one of the staunchest supporters
of Cavour (q.v.), and strongly favoured the proposal that Pied-
mont should participate in the Cimean War, if indeed he was
not actually the first to suggest that policy (see G. B. Ercolani's
letter in E. Parri's memoir of Farini). In 1856 and 1857 he pub-
lished two letters to Mr Gladstone on Italian affairs, which created
a sensation, while he continued to propagate his views in the
Italian press. When on the outbreak of the war of 1859
Francis V., duke of Modena, was expelled and a provisional
government set up, Farini was sent as Piedmontese commissioner
to that city; but although recalled after the peace of Villafranca
he was determined on the annexation of central Italy to Pied-
mont and remained behind, becoming a Modenese citizen and
dictator of the state. He negotiated an alliance with Parma,
Romagna and Tuscany, when other provisional governments
had been established, and entrusted the task of organizing an
army for this central Italian league to General Fanti (q.v.).
Annexation to Piedmont having been voted by plebiscite and the
opposition of Napoleon III. having been overcome, Farini
returned to Turin, when the king conferred on him the order of
the Annunziata and Cavour appointed him minister of the
interior (June 1860), and subsequently viceroy of Naples; but
he soon resigned on the score of ill-health. Cavour died in 1861,
and the following year Farini succeeded Rattazzi as premier,
in which office he endeavoured to carry out Cavour's policy.
Over-exertion, however, brought on softening of the brain, which
compelled him to resign office on the 24th of March 1863, and
ultimately resulted in his death on the ist of August 1866. He
was buried at Turin, but in 1878 his remains were removed to
his native village of Russi.
His son Domenico Farini had a distinguished political career
and was at one time president of the chamber.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Several letters from Farini to Mr Gladstone and
Lord John Russell were reprinted in a Memoire sur les affaires d' Italic
('859), and a collection of his political correspondence was pub-
lished under the title of Lettres sur les affaires d' Italic (Paris, 1860).
His historical work was translated into English in part by Mr Glad-
stone and in part under his superintendence. See E. Parri, Luigi
Carlo Farini (Rome, 1878); L. Carpi in II Riforgimento Italiano,
vol. iv. (Milan, 1888); and G. Finali s article, " II 27 Aprile 1859,"
in the Nuova Antologia for the i6th of May 1903. (L. V.*)
FARM, in the most generally used sense, a portion of land
leased or held for the purpose of agriculture; hence " farming "
is equivalent to the pursuit of agriculture, and " farmer " to
an agriculturist. This meaning is comparatively modern. The
origin of the word has perhaps been complicated by an Anglo-
Saxon feorm, meaning provisions or food supply, and more
particularly a payment of provisions for the sustenance of the
king, the cyninges feorm. In Domesday this appears as a food
rent: firma unius noctis or diet. According to the New English
Dictionary there is no satisfactory Teutonic origin for the word.
It has, however, been sometimes connected with a word which
appears in the older forms of some Teutonic languages, meaning
" life." The present form " farm " certainly comes, through
the French ferme, from the medieval Lat. firma (firmus, fixed),
a fixed or certain payment in money or kind. The Anglo-Saxon
feorm may be not an original Teutonic word but an early adapta-
tion of the Latin. The feorm, originally a tax, seems, as the king
" booked " his land, to have become a rent (see F. W. Maitland,
Domesday Book and After, 1897, p. 236 ff., and J. H. Round,
Feudal England, 1895, p. 109 ff.). The word firma is thus used
of the composition paid by the sheriff in respect of the dues
to be collected from the shire. From the use of the word for the
fixed sum paid as rent for a portion of land leased for cultivation,
" farm " was applied to the land itself, whether held on lease or
otherwise, and always with the meaning of agricultural land.
The aspect of the fixity of the sum paid leads to a secondary
meaning, that of a certain sum paid by a taxable person, com-
munity, state, &c., in respect of the taxes or dues that will be
imposed, or to such a sum paid as a rent by a contractor for the
right of collecting such taxes. This method of indirect collection
of the revenue by contractors instead of directly by the officials
of the state is that known as " farming the taxes." The system
is best known through the publicani of Rome, who formed
companies or syndicates to farm not only the indirect taxation
of the state, but also other sources of the state revenues, such
as mines, fisheries, &c. (see PUBLICANI).
In monarchical Europe, which grew out of the ruins of the
Roman empire, the revenue was almost universally farmed,
but the system was gradually narrowed down until only indirect
taxes became the subject of farming. France from the i6th to
the 1 8th centuries is the most interesting modern example.
Owing to the hopeless condition of its revenues, the French
government was continually in a state of anticipating its resources,
and was thus entirely in the hands of financiers. In 1681 the
indirect taxes were farmed collectively to a single company of
forty capitalists (ferme generate), increased to sixty in 1755, and
reduced to the original number in 1780. These farmers-general
were appointed by the king for six years, and paid an annual fixed
sum every year in advance. The taxes which theyj collected
were the customs (douanes or traites), the gabelle or salt tax,
local taxes or octrois (entrees, &c.), and various smaller taxes.
They were under the management of a controller-general, who
had a central office in Paris. The office of farmer-general was
the object of keen competition, notwithstanding that the
successful candidates had to share a considerable part of the
profits of the post with ministers, courtiers, favourites, and
even the sovereign, in the shape of gifts (croupes) and pensions.
The rapacity of the farmers-general was proverbial, and the loss
to the revenue by the system was great, while very considerable
hardships were inflicted on the poorer contributors by the
unscrupulous methods of collection practised by the underlings
of the farmers. In addition, the unpopular nature of the taxes
caused deep discontent, and the detestation in which the farmers-
general were held culminated in the execution of thirty-two of
them during the French Revolution and the sweeping away
of the system.
See also AGRICULTURE, DAIRY AND DAIRY-FARMING, FRUIT AND
FLOWER FARMING, &c.
FARM BUILDINGS. The best laying out of a farm, and the
construction of its buildings, are matters which, from the variety
of needs and circumstances, involve practical considerations
and expert knowledge, too detailed in their nature for more than
a brief reference in this work. It may be said generally that the
best aspect for farm buildings is S. or S.S.E., and with a view to
easy disposal of drainage they should be built on a slight slope.
The supply of water, whether it be provided from wells by engine
or windmill power, by hydraulic rams or other means, is a prime
consideration, and it should if possible be laid on at different
suitable points or at any rate the central source of supply should
be in the most accessible and convenient place as regards stables
and cow-sheds. The buildings should be constructed on or within
easy distance of the public road, in order to save the upkeep
of private roads, and should be as near as possible to the centre
of the farm. On mixed farms of ordinary size (200 to 500
acres) the building may be advantageously planned in one
rectangular block, the stock-yards being placed in the centre
separated by the cow-sheds, and surrounded by the cart -sheds,
stables, stores and barn, cattle-boxes, piggeries and minor
buildings. On farms of larger size and on dairy farms special
needs must be taken into account, while in all cases the local
methods of farming must influence the grouping and arrangement
of the steading.
For a more detailed treatment of the subject reference may be
made to the following works: S. Taylor, Modern Homesteads:
FARMER FARMERS' MOVEMENT
181
a Treatise on the Designing of Farm Buildings (London, 1905) ; A. D.
Clarke, Modern Farm Buildings (London, 1899); P. Roberts, The
Farmstead, in the " Rural Science Series " (New York, 1900), and
articles in the Standard Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, vol. 3, and in the
Cyclopaedia of American Agriculture, vol. I.
FARMER, RICHARD (1735-1797), Shakespearian com-
mentator, the son of a rich maltster, was born at Leicester on
the 28th of August 1735. He was educated at the free grammar
school of his native town, and at Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
He graduated in 1757 a senior optime; three years later he
proceeded M.A. and became classical tutor, and in 1775 master
of his college, in succession to William Richardson, the bio-
grapher of the English bishops. In the latter year also he was
appointed vice-chancellor, and three years afterwards chief
librarian of the university. In 1780 he was appointed to a
prebendal stall in Lichfield, and two years later to one at Canter-
bury; but the second office he exchanged in 1788 for that of a
canon residentiary of St Paul's. Cambridge, where he usually
resided, was indebted to him for improvements in lighting,
paving and watching; but perhaps London and the nation have
less reason to be grateful for his zealous advocacy of the custom
of erecting monuments to departed worthies in St Paul's. In
1765 he issued a prospectus for a history of the town of Leicester;
but this work, based on materials collected by Thomas Staveley,
he never even began; it was carried out by the learned printer
John Nichols. In 1766 he published his famous Essay on the
Learning of Shakespeare, in which he proved that the poet's
acquaintance with ancient and modern Continental literature
was exclusively derived from translations, of which he copied
even the blunders. " Shakespeare," he said, " wanted not the
stilts of language to raise him above all other men." " He came
out of nature's hand, like Pallas out of Jove's head, at full
growth and mature." " One might," he said by way of ridicul-
ing the Shakespearian criticism of the day " with equal wisdom,
study. the Talmud for an exposition of Tristram Shandy." The
essay fully justifies the author's description of himself in the
preface to the second edition: " I may consider myself as the
pioneer of the commentators; I have removed a deal of learned
rubbish, and pointed out to them Shakespeare's track in the
very pleasant paths of nature." Farmer died at Cambridge
, on the 8th of September 1797. He was, it appears, twice offered
a bishopric by Pitt, but declined the preferment. Farmer was
immensely popular in his own college, and loved, it was said,
above all other things, old port, old clothes and ok| books.
FARMERS' MOVEMENT, in American political history, the
general name for a movement between 1867 and 1896 remarkable
for a radical socio-economic propaganda that came from what
was considered the most conservative class of American society.
In this movement there were three periods, popularly known as
Granger, Alliance and Populist.
The GRANGE, or Order of the Patrons of Husbandry (the latter
the official name of the national organization, while the former
was the name of local chapters, including a supervisory National
Grange at Washington), was a secret order founded in 1867 to
advance the social needs and combat the economic backwardness
of farm life. It grew remarkably in 1873-1874, and in the latter
year attained a membership of perhaps 800,000. In the causes
of its growth much broader than those that issued in the
financial crisis of 1873 a high tariff, railway freight-rates and
other grievances were mingled with agricultural troubles like
the fall of wheat prices and the increase of mortgages. The
condition of the farmer seemed desperate. The original objects
of the Grange were primarily educational, but these were soon
overborne by an anti-middleman, co-operative movement.
Grange agents bought everything from farm machinery to
women's dresses; hundreds of grain elevators and cotton and
tobacco warehouses were bought, and even steamboat lines;
mutual insurance companies were formed and joint-stock stores.
Nor was co-operation limited to distributive processes; crop-
reports were circulated, co-operative dairies multiplied, flour-
mills were operated, and patents were purchased, that the Grange
might manufacture farm machinery. The outcome in some
states was ruin, and the name Grange became a reproach.
Nevertheless these efforts in co-operation were exceedingly
important both for the results obtained and for their wider
significance. Nor could politics be excluded, though officially
tatooed; for economics must be considered by social idealists,
and economics everywhere ran into politics. Thus it was with
the railway question. Railways had been extended into frontier
states; there were heavy crops in sparsely settled regions where
freight-rates were high, so that given the existing distributive
system there were " over production " and waste; there was
notorious stock manipulation and discrimination in rates; and
the farmers regarded " absentee ownership " of railways by
New York capitalists much as absentee ownership of land has
been regarded in Ireland. The Grange officially disclaimed
enmity to railways; but though the organization did not attack
them, the Grangers through political "farmers' clubs" and
the like did. About 1867 began the efforts to establish
regulation of the railways, as common-carriers, by the states.
Such laws were known as " Granger laws," and their general
principles, soon endorsed (1876) by the Supreme Court of the
United States, have become an important chapter in the laws
of the land. In a declaration of principles in 1874 Grangers
were declared to be " not enemies of railroads," and their cause
to stand for " no communism, no agrarianism." To conserva-
tives, however, co-operation seemed communism, and " Grange
laws" agrarianism; and thus in 1873-1874 the growth' of the
movement aroused extraordinary interest and much uneasiness.
In 1874 the order was reorganized, membership being limited to
persons directly interested in the farmers' cause (there had been
a millionaire manufacturers' Grange on Broadway), and after
this there were constant quarrels in the order; moreover, in
1875 the National Grange largely lost control of the state Granges,
which discredited the organization by their disastrous co-opera-
tion ventures. Thus by 1876 it had already ceased to be of
national political importance. About 1880 a renascence began,
particularly in the Middle States and New England; this
revival was marked by a recurrence to the original social and
educational objects. The national Grange and state Granges
(in all, or nearly all, of the states) were still active in 1909,
especially in the old cultural movement and in such economic
movements notably the improvement of highways as most
directly concern the farmers. The initiative and- referendum,
and other proposals of reform politics in the direction of a
democratic advance, also enter in a measure into their
propaganda.
The ALLIANCE carried the movement farther into economics.
The " National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union," formed
in 1889, embraced several originally independent organizations
formed from 1873 onwards; it was largely confined to the South
and was secret. The " National Farmers' Alliance," formed in
1880, went back similarly to 1877, was much smaller, Northern
and non-secret. The " Colored Farmers' National Alliance and
Co-operative Union " (formed 1888, merged in the above
" Southern " Alliance in 1890) was the second greatest organiza-
tion. With these three were associated many others, state and
national, including an annual, non-partisan, deliberative and
advisory Farmers' National Congress. The Alliance movement
reached its greatest power about 1890, in which year twelve
national farmers' organizations were represented in conventions
in St Louis, and the six leading ones alone probably had a
membership of 5,ooo,ooo. 1
As with the Grange, so in the ends and declarations of the
whole later movement, concrete remedial legislation for agri-
cultural or economic ills was mingled with principles of vague
radical tendency and with lofty idealism. 2 Among the principles
1 Membership usually included males or females above 16 years
of age.
2 Thus, the " Southern " Alliance in 1890 (the chief platforms were
the one at Ocala, Florida, and that of 1889 at St Louis, in con-
junction with the Knights of Labor) declared its principles to be:
" (i) To labour for the education of the agricultural classes in the
science of economical government in a strictly non-partisan way,
and to bring about a more perfect union of such classes. (2) To
182
FARNABY FARNBOROUGH
advocated about 1890, practically all the great organizations
demanded the abolition of national banks, the free coinage of
silver, a " sufficient " issue of government paper money, tariff
revision, and a secret ballot (the last was soon realized); only
less commonly demanded were an income tax, taxation of
evidence of debt, and government loans on lands. All of these
were principles of the two great Alliances (the Northern and the
Southern), as were also pure food legislation, abolition of land-
holding by aliens, reclamation of unused or unearned land grants
(to railways, e.g.), and either rigid federal regulation of railways
and other means of communication or government ownership
thereof. The " Southern " Alliance put in the forefront a " sub-
treasury " scheme according to which cheap loans should be
made by government from local sub-treasuries on non-perishable
farm products (such as grain and cotton) stored in government
warehouses; while the " Northern " Alliance demanded restric-
tion of the liquor traffic and (for a short time) woman suffrage.
Still other issues were a modification of the patent laws (e.g. to
prevent the purchase of patents to stifle competition), postal
currency exchange, the eight-hour day, inequitable taxation,
the single-tax on land, " trusts," educational qualification for
suffrage, direct popular election of federal judges, of senators,
and of the president, special-interest lobbying, &c.
In 1880-1890 the political (non-partisan) movement developed
astonishing strength; it captured the Republican stronghold of
Kansas, brought the Democratic Party to vassalage in South
Carolina, revolutionized legislatures even in conservative states
like Massachusetts, and seemed likely completely to dominate
the South and West. All its work in the South was accomplished
within the old-party organizations, but in 1890 the demand
became strong for an independent third party, for which various
consolidations since 1887 had prepared the way, and by 1892
a large part of the strength of the farmers' organizations, with
that of various industrial and radical orders, was united in the
People's Party (perhaps more generally known as the POPULIST
Party), which had its beginnings in Kansas in 1890, and received
national organization in 1892. This party emphasized free
silver, the income tax, eight-hour day, reclamation of land
grants, government ownership of railways, telephones and
telegraphs, popular election of federal senators, and the initiative
and referendum. In the presidential election of 1892 it cast
1,041,021 votes (in a total of 12,036,089), and elected 22 presi-
dential electors, the first chosen by any third party since 1856.
In 1896 the People's Party " fused " with the Democratic Party
(q.v.) in the presidential campaign, and again in 1900; during
this period, indeed, the greatest part of the People's Party was
reabsorbed into the two great parties from which its membership
had originally been drawn; in some northern states apparently
largely into the Republican ranks, but mainly into the Democratic
Party, to which it gave a powerful radical impulse.
The Farmers' movement was much misunderstood, abused
and ridiculed. It accomplished a vast amount of good. The
movement and especially the Grange, for on most important
points the later movements only followed where it had led
contributed the initial impulse and prepared the way for the
establishment of travelling and local rural libraries, reading
courses, lyceums, farmers' institutes (a steadily increasing in-
fluence) and rural free mail delivery (inaugurated experimentally
in 1896 and adopted as part of the permanent postal system of
the country in 1902); for agricultural exhibits and an improved
agricultural press; for encouragement to and increased profit
from the work of agricultural colleges, the establishment (1885)
and great services of the United States Department of Agri-
demand equal rights to all, and special privileges to none. (3) To
endorse the motto: ' In things essential, unity; in all things,
charity.' (4) To develop a better state, mentally, morally, socially
and financially. . . . (6) To suppress personal, local, sectional and
national prejudices." For the Southern farmer a chief concrete evil
was the pre-crop mortgages by which cotton farmers remained in
debt to country merchants; in the North the farmer attacked a
wide range of " capitalistic " legislation that hurt him, he believed,
for the benefit of other classes notably legislation sought by
railways.
culture, in short, for an extraordinary lessening of rural isolation
and betterment of the farmers' opportunities; for the irrigation
of the semi-arid West, adopted as a national policy in 1902, the
pure-food laws of 1906, the interstate-commerce law of 1887, the
railway-rate laws of 1903 and 1906, even the great Bureau of
Commerce-and-Labor law of 1903, and the Anti-trust laws of
1903 and later. The Alliance and Populist movements were
bottomed on the idea of " ethical gains through legislation."
In its local manifestations the whole movement was often
marked by eccentric ideas, narrow prejudices and weaknesses
in economic reasoning. It is not to be forgotten that owing
to the movement of the frontier the United States has always
been " at once a developed country and a primitive one. The
same political questions have been put to a society advanced
in some regions and undeveloped in others. ... On specific
political questions each economic area has reflected its peculiar
interests" (Prof. F. J. Turner). That this idea must not,
however, be over-emphasized, is admirably enforced by observing
the great mass of farmer radicalism that has, since about 1896,
become an accepted Democratic and Republican principle over
the whole country. The Farmers' movement was the beginning
of widespread, effective protest against " the menace of privilege"
in the United States.
American periodicals, especially in 1890-1892, are particularly
informing on the growth of the movement; see F. M. Drew in
Political Science Quarterly (1891), vi. p. 282; C. W. Pierson in
Popular Science Monthly (1888), xxxii. pp. 199, 368; C. S. Walker
and F. J. Foster in Annals of American Academy (1894), iv. p. 790;
Senator W. A. Peffer in Cosmopolitan (1890), x. p. 694; and on
agricultural discontent, Political Science Quarterly, iv. (1889), p. 433,
by W. F. Mappin; v. (1890), p. 65, by J. P. Dunn; xi. (1896), pp. 433,
601, xii. (1897), p. 93, and xiv. (1899), p. 444, by C. F. Emenck;
Prof. E. W. Bemis in Journal of Political Economy (1893), i. p. 193;
A. H. Peters in Quarterly Journal of Economics (1890), iv. p. 18;
C. W. Davis in Forum (1890), ix. pp. 231, 291, 348.
FARNABY (or FARNABIE), THOMAS (c. 1575-1647), English
grammarian, was the son of a London carpenter; his grandfather,
it is said, had been mayor of Truro, his great-grandfather an
Italian musician. Between 1590 and 1595 he appears succes-
sively as a student of Merton College, Oxford, a pupil in a Jesuit
college in Spain, and a follower of Drake and Hawkins. After
some military service in the Low Countries " he made shift,"
says Wood, " to be set on shore in the western part of England;
where, after some wandering to and fro under the name of Tho.
Bainrafe, the anagram of his sirname, he settled at Martock,
in Somersetshire, and taught the grammar school there for some
time with success. After he had gotten some feathers at Martock,
he took his flight to London," and opened a school in Goldsmiths'
Rents, Cripplegate. From this school, which had as many as
300 pupils, there issued, says Wood, " more churchmen and
statesmen than from any school taught by one man in England."
In the course of his London career " he was made master of arts
of Cambridge, and soon after incorporated at Oxon." Such was
his success that he was enabled to buy an estate at Otford near
Sevenoaks, Kent, to which he retired from London in 1636, still,
however, carrying on his profession of schoolmaster. In course
of time he added to his Otford estate and bought another near
Horsham in Sussex. In politics he was a royalist; and, suspected
of participation in the rising near Tunbridge, 1643, he was
imprisoned in Ely House, Holborn. He died at Sevenoaks on
the 1 2th of June 1647.
The details of his life were derived by Anthony a Wood from
Francis, Farnaby's son by a second marriage (see Wood's Alhenae
Oxonienses, ed. Bliss, iii. 213). His works chiefly consisted of anno-
tated editions of Latin authors Juvenal, Persius, Seneca, Martial,
Lucan, Virgil, Ovid and Terence, which enjoyed extraordinary
popularity. His Systema grammaticum was published in London
in 1641. On the 6th of April 1632, Farnaby was presented with a
royal patent granting him, for the space of twenty-one years, the
sole right of printing and publishing certain of his works.
FARNBOROUGH, THOMAS ERSKINE MAY, BARON (1815-
1886), English Constitutional historian, was born in London
on the 8th of February 1815 and educated at Bedford grammar
school. In 1831 he was nominated by Manners Sutton, speaker
of the House of Commons, to the post of assistant librarian, so
that his long connexion with parliament began in his youth.
FARNBOROUGH FARNESE
183
He studied for the bar, and was called at the Middle Temple in
1838. In 1844 he published the first edition of his Treatise on
the Law, Privilege, Proceedings and Usage of Parliament. This
work, which has passed through many editions, is not only an
invaluable mine of information for the historical student, but it is
known as the text -book of the law by which parliament governs
its proceedings. In 1846 Erskine May was appointed examiner
of petitions for private bills, and the following year taxing-
master of the House of Commons. He published his Remarks
to Facilitate Public Business in Parliament in 1849; a work
On the Consolidation of Election Laws in 1850; and his Rules,
Orders and Forms of the House of Commons was printed by
command of the House in 1854. In 1856 he was appointed clerk
assistant at the table of the House of Commons. He received
the companionship of the Bath in 1860 for his parliamentary
services, and became a knight commander in 1866. His im-
portant work, The Constitutional History of England since the
Accession of George III. (1760-1860), was published in 1861-
1863, and it received frequent additions in subsequent editions.
In 1871 Sir Erskine May was appointed clerk of the House of
Commons. His Democracy in Europe: a History appeared in
1877, but it failed to take the same rank in critical esteem as his
Constitutional History. He retired from the post of clerk to the
House of Commons in April 1886, having for fifteen years
discharged the onerous duties of the office with as much know-
ledge and energy as unfailing tact and courtesy. Shortly after
his retirement from office he was raised to the peerage under the
title of Baron Farnborough of Farnborough, in the county of
Southampton, but he only survived to enjoy the dignity for a
few days. He died in London on the 1 7th of May 1886, and as he
left no issue the title became extinct.
FARNBOROUGH, an urban district in the Basingstoke
parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 33 m. S.W. by W.
from London, on the London & South Western and the South
Eastern & Chatham railways. Pop. (1901) 11,500 (including
5070 military) . The church of St Peter ranges from Early English
to Perpendicular in style. St Michael's Catholic memorial
church, erected in 1887 by the ex-empress Eugenie, contains the
remains of Napoleon III. and the prince imperial. An adjoining
abbey is occupied by Benedictine fathers of the French congrega-
tion; the convent is a ladies' boarding-school. Aldershot North
Camp is within the parish.
FARNE ISLANDS [also FEARNE, FERN, or THE STAPLES], a
group of rocky islands and reefs off the coast of Northumberland,
England, included in that county. In 1901 they had only eleven
inhabitants. They extend in a line of some 6 m. in a north-
easterly direction from the coast, on which the nearest villages
are Bamborough and North Sunderland. The Fairway, 15 m.
across, separates the largest island, Fame, or House, from the
mainland. Fame is 16 acres in area, and has precipitous cliffs
up to 80 ft. in height on the east, but the shore is otherwise low.
The other principal islets are Staple, Brownsman, North and
South Wamses, Longstone and Big Harcar. On Farne is a small
ancient chapel, with a square tower near it built for purposes of
defence in the isth century. The chapel is believed to occupy
the site of St Cuthbert's hermitage, whither he retired from the
priory on the neighbouring Holy Island or Lindisfarne. He
was with difficulty persuaded to leave it on his elevation to the
bishopric of Lindisfarne, and returned to it to die (687). Long-
stone rock, with its lighthouse, is famous as the scene of the
bravery of Grace Darling in rescuing some of the survivors of
the wreck of the " Forfarshire " (1838). The rocks abound in
sea-birds, including eider duck.
FARNESE, the name of one of the most illustrious and powerful
Italian families, which besides including eminent prelates,
statesmen and warriors among its members, ruled the duchy
of Parma for two centuries. The early history of the family is
involved in obscurity, but they are first heard of as lords of
Farneto or Farnese, a castle near the lake of Bolsena, and they
played an important part as consuls and signori of Orvieto.
They seem to have always been Guelphs, and in the civil
broils of Orvieto they sided with the Monaldeschi faction against
the Ghibelline Filippeschi. One Pietro Farnese commanded
the papal armies under Paschal II. (1090-1118); another
Pietro led the Florentines to victory against the Pisans in 1363.
Ranuccio Farnese served Eugene IV. so well that the pope
endowed him with large fiefs, and is reported to have said, " The
Church is ours because Farnese has given it back to us."
The family derived further advantages at the time of Pope
Alexander VI., who was the lover of the beautiful Giulia Farnese,
known as Giulia Bella, and created her brother Alessandro
a cardinal (1493). The latter was elected pope as Paul III. in
1534, and it is from that moment that the great importance of
the family dates. An unblushing nepotist, he alienated immense
fiefs belonging to the Holy See in favour of his natural children.
Of these the most famous was Pierluigi Farnese (1503-1547),
who served in the papal army in various compaigns, but also
took part in the sack of Rome in 1527. On his father's elevation
to the papacy he was made captain-general of the Church, and
received the duchy of Castro in the Maremma, besides Frascati,
Nepi, Montalto and other fiefs. A shameless rake and a man
of uncontrollable temper, his massacre of the people of Perugia
after a rebellion in 1540 and the unspeakable outrage he com-
mitted on the bishop of Fano are typical of his character. In
1545 his father conferred on him the duchy of Parma and
Piacenza, which likewise belonged to the Holy See, and his rule
proved cruel and tyrannical. He deprived the nobles of their
privileges, and forced them to dwell in the towns, but to some
extent he improved the conditions of the lower classes. Pierluigi
being an uncompromising opponent of the emperor Charles V.,
Don Ferrante Gonzaga, the imperial governor of Milan, was
ever on the watch for a pretext to deprive him of Piacenza,
which the emperor greatly coveted. When the duke proceeded
to build a castle in that town in order to overawe its inhabitants,
the nobles were furiously indignant, and a plot to murder him
was organized by the marquis Anguissola and others with the
support both of Gonzaga and of Andrea Doria (?..), Charles's
admiral, who wished to be revenged on Pierluigi for the part he
had played in the Fiesco conspiracy (see FIESCO). The deed
was done while the duke was superintending the building of the
above-mentioned citadel, and his corpse was flung into the street
(December zoth, 1 547) . Piacenza was thereupon occupied by the
imperialists.
Pierluigi had several children, for all of whom Paul made
generous provision. One of them, Alessandro (1520-1589), was
created cardinal at the age of fourteen; he was a man of learning
and artistic tastes, and lived with great splendour surrounded
by scholars and artists, among whom were Annibal Caro, Paolo
Giovio, Mons. Delia Casa, Bembo, Vasari, &c. It was he who
completed the magnificent Farnese palace in Rome. He dis-
played diplomatic ability on various missions to foreign courts,
but failed to get elected to the papacy.
Orazio, Pierluigi's third son, was made duke of Castro when
his father became duke of Parma, and married Diane, a natural
daughter of Henry II. of France. Ottavio, the second son (1521-
1586), married Margaret, the natural daughter of Charles V. and
widow of Alessandro de' Medici, at the age of fifteen, she being
a year older; at first she disliked her youthful bridegroom, but
when he returned wounded from the expedition to Algiers in
1541 her aversion was turned to affection (see MARGARET OF
AUSTRIA). Ottavio had been made lord of Camerino in 1540,
but he gave up that fief when his father became duke of Parma.
When, on the murder of the latter in 1547, Piacenza was occupied
by the imperialists, Paul determined to make an effort to regain
the city; he set aside Ottavio's claims to the succession of
Parma, where he appointed a papal legate, giving him back
Camerino in exchange, and then claimed Piacenza of the emperor,
not for the Farnesi, but for the Church. But Ottavio would not
be put off; he attempted to seize Parma by force, and having
failed, entered into negotiations with Gonzaga. This unnatural
rebellion on the part of one grandson, combined with the fact
that it was supported by the other grandson, Cardinal Alessandro,
hastened the pope's death, which occurred on the loth of
November 1 549. During the interregnum that followed Ottavio
184
FARNESE, ALEXANDER
again tried to induce the governor of Parma to give up the city
to him, but met with no better success; however, on the election
of Giovan Maria Ciocchi (Julius III.) the duchy was conferred
on him (1551). This did not end his quarrel with the emperor,
for Gonzaga refused to give up Piacenza and even threatened
to occupy Parma, so that Ottavio was driven into the arms of
France. Julius, who was anxious to be on good terms with
Charles on account of the council of Trent which was then sitting,
ordered Farnese to hand Parma over to the papal authorities
once more, and on his refusal hurled censures and admonitions
at his head, and deprived him of his Roman fiefs, while Charles
did the same with regard to those in Lombardy. A French army
came to protect Parma, war broke out, and Gonzaga at once laid
siege to the city. But the duke came to an arrangement with his
father-in-law, by which he regained Piacenza and his other fiefs
The rest of his life was spent quietly at home, where the modera-
tion and wisdom of his rule won for him the affection of his people.
At his death in 1586 he was succeeded by his son Alessandro
Farnese (1545-1592), the famous general of Philip II. of Spain,
who spent the whole of his reign in the Flemish wars.
The first years of the reign of his son and successor Ranuccio I.
(1569-1622), who had shown much spirit in a controversy with
Pope Sixtus V., were uneventful, but in 1611 a conspiracy was
formed against him by a group of discontented nobles supported
by the dukes of Modena and Mantua. The plot was discovered
and the conspirators were barbarously punished, many being
tortured and put to death, and their estates confiscated.
Ranuccio was a reserved and gloomy bigot; he instituted savage
persecutions against supposed witches and heretics, and lived
in perpetual terror of plots. His eldest son Alessandro being
deaf and dumb, the succession devolved on his second son
Odoardo (1612-1646), who fought on the French side in the war
against Spain. His failure to pay the interest of the money
borrowed in Rome, and the desire of Urban VIII. to obtain
Castro for his relatives the Barberini (<?..), resulted in a war
between that pope and Odoardo. His son and successor Ra-
nuccio II. (1630-1694) also had a war with the Holy See about
Castro, which was eventually razed to the ground. His son
Francesco Maria (1678-1727) suffered from the wars between
Spain and Austria, the latter's troops devastating his territory;
but although this obliged him to levy some burdensome taxes,
he was a good ruler and practised economy in his administration.
Having no children, the succession devolved at his death on
his brother Antonio (1670-1731), who was also childless. The
powers had agreed that at the death of the latter the duchy
should pass to Don Carlos of Bourbon, son of King Philip V.
of Spain by Elisabetta Farnese (1692-1766), granddaughter of
Ranuccio II. Antonio died in 1731, and with him the line of
Farnese came to an end.
The Palazzo Farnese in Rome, one of the finest specimens of
Roman Renaissance architecture, was begun under Paul III.,
while he was cardinal, by Antonio da San Gallo, and completed
by his nephew Cardinal Alessandro under the direction of
Michelangelo (1526). It was inherited by Don Carlos, afterwards
king of Naples and Spain, and most of the pictures were removed
to Naples. It now contains the French embassy to the Italian
court, as well as the French school of Rome.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. Odorici gives a detailed history of the family
in P. Litta's Famiglie celebri italiane, vol. x. (Milan, 1868), to which
an elaborate bibliography is appended, including manuscript
sources; a more recent bibliography is S. Lottici and G. Sitti,
Bibliografia generate per la storia parmense (Parma, 1904) ; much
information will be found in A. von Reumont's Geschichte der Stadt
Rom, vol. iii. (Berlin, 1868), and in F. Gregorovius's Geschichte der
Stadt Rom (Stuttgart, 1872). (L. V.*)
FARNESE, ALEXANDER (1545-1592), duke of Parma,
general, statesman and diplomatist, governor-general of the
Netherlands under Philip II. of Spain, was born at Rome on the
27th of August 1545, and died at the abbey of St Waast, near
Arras, on the 3rd of December 1592. He was the son of Ottavio
Farnese, duke of Parma, and Margaret of Austria, natural
daughter of Charles V. He accompanied his mother to Brussels
when she was appointed governor of the Netherlands, and in
1565 his marriage with the princess Maria of Portugal was cele-
brated in Brussels with great splendour. Alexander Farnese had
been brought up in Spain with his cousin, the ill-fated Don
Carlos, and his uncle Don John of Austria, both of whom were
about the same age as himself, and after his marriage he took
up his residence at once at the court of Madrid. He fought with
much personal distinction under the command of Don John in
1571 at the battle of Lepanto. It was seven years, however,
before he had again an opportunity for the display of his great
military talents. In the meantime the provinces of the Nether-
lands had revolted against the arbitrary and oppressive Spanish
rule, and Don John of Austria, who had been sent as governor-
general to restore order, had found himself helpless in face of
the superior talent and personal influence of the prince of Orange,
who had succeeded in uniting all the provinces in common
resistance to the civil and religious tyranny of Philip. In the
autumn of 1577 Farnese was sent to join Don John at the head
of reinforcements, and it was mainly his prompt decision at a
critical moment that won the battle of Gemblours (1578).
Shortly afterwards Don John, whose health had broken down
through disappointment and ill-health, died, and Farnese was
appointed to take his place.
It is scarcely possible to exaggerate the difficulties with which
he found himself confronted, but he proved himself more than
equal to the task. In military ability the prince of Parma was
inferior to none of his contemporaries, as a skilful diplomatist
he was the match even of his great antagonist William the Silent,
and, like most of the leading statesmen of his day, was un-
scrupulous as to the means he employed so long as he achieved
his ends. Perceiving that there were divisions and jealousies
in the ranks of his opponents between Catholic and Protestant,
Fleming and Walloon, he set to work by persuasion, address and
bribery, to foment the growing discord, and bring back the
Walloon provinces to the allegiance of the king. He was success-
ful, and by the treaty of Arras, January 1579, he was able to
secure the support of the " Malcontents," as the Catholic nobles
of the south were styled, to the royal cause. The reply to the
treaty of Arras was the Union of Utrecht, concluded a few weeks
later between the seven northern provinces, who abjured the
sovereignty of King Philip and bound themselves to use all their
resources to maintain their independence of Spanish rule.
Farnese, as soon as he had obtained a secure basis of operations
in Hainaut and Artois, set himself in earnest to the task of re-
conquering Brabant and Flanders by force of arms. Town
after town fell into his power. Tournai, Maastricht, Breda,
Bruges and Ghent opened their gates, and finally he laid siege
to the great seaport of Antwerp. The town was open to the
sea, was strongly fortified, and was defended with resolute
determination and courage by the citizens. They were led by
the famous Philip de Marnix, lord of St Aldegonde, and had the
assistance of an ingenious Italian engineer, by name Gianibelli.
The siege began in 1584 and called forth all the resources of
Farnese's military genius. He cut off all access to Antwerp
from the sea by constructing a bridge of boats across the Scheldt
from Calloo to Oordam, in spite of the desperate efforts of the
besieged to prevent its completion. At last, on the isth of
August 1585, Antwerp was compelled by famine to capitulate.
Favourable conditions were granted, but all Protestants were
required to leave the town within two years. With the fall of
Antwerp, for Malines and Brussels were already in the hands
of Farnese, the whole of the southern Netherlands was brought
once more to recognize the authority of Philip. But Holland
and Zeeland, whose geographical position made them unassailable
except by water, were by the courage and skill of their hardy
seafaring population, with the help of English auxiliaries sent by
Queen Elizabeth, able to defy his further advance.
In 1586 Alexander Farnese became duke of Parma by the
death of his father. He applied for leave to visit his paternal
territory, but Philip would not permit him. He could not replace
him in the Netherlands; but while retaining him in his command
at the head of a formidable army, the king would not give his
sanction to his great general's desire to use it for the reconquest
FARNESE, ELIZABETH FARNHAM
185
of the Northern Provinces. Never was there a better opportunity
than the end of 1586 for an invading army to march through
the country almost without opposition. The misgovernment
and lack of high statesmanship of the earl of Leicester had
caused faction to be rampant in the United Provinces; and on
his return to England he left the country without organized
forces or experienced generals to oppose an advance of a veteran
army under the greatest commander of his time. But Philip's
whole thoughts and energies were already directed to the prepara-
tion of an Invincible Armada for the conquest of England,
and Parma was ordered to collect an enormous flotilla of trans-
ports and to keep his army concentrated and trained for the
projected invasion of the island realm of Queen Elizabeth.
Thus the critical period passed by unused, and when the tempests
had finally dispersed the defeated remnants of the Great Armada
the Dutch had found a general, in the youthful Maurice of
Nassau, worthy to be the rival in military genius even of Alexander
of Parma. Moreover, the accession to the throne of France of
Henry of Navarre had altogether altered the situation of
affairs, and relieved the pressure upon the Dutch by creating a
diversion, and placing Parma and his army between hostile
forces. The ruinous expenditure upon the Great Armada had
also depleted the Spanish treasury and Philip found himself
virtually bankrupt. In 1590 the condition of the Spanish
troops had become intolerable. Farnese could get no regular
supplies of money from the king for the payment of the soldiery,
and he had to pledge his own jewels to meet the demand. A
mutiny broke out, but was suppressed. In the midst of these
difficulties Parma received orders to abandon the task on which
he had spent himself for so many years, and to raise the siege
of Paris, which was blockaded by Henry IV. He left the Nether-
lands on the 3rd of August 1590 at the head of 15,000 troops.
By brilliant generalship he outwitted Henry and succeeded
in relieving Paris; but owing to lack of money and supplies he
was compelled immediately to retreat to the Netherlands,
abandoning on the march many stragglers and wounded, who
were killed by the peasantry, and leaving all the positions he had
taken to be recaptured by Henry.
Again in 1 59 1 , in the very midst of a campaign against Maurice
of Nassau, sorely against his will, the duke of Parma was obliged
to give up the engrossing struggle and march to relieve Rouen.
He was again successful in his object, but was wounded in the
arm before Caudebec, and was finally compelled to withdraw
his army with considerable losses through the privations the
troops had to undergo. He himself was shattered in health by
so many years of continuous campaigning and exposure, and
by the cares and disappointments which had befallen him.
He died at Arras on the 3rd of December 1592, in the forty-
seventh year of his age. The feeling that his immense services
had not won for him either the gratitude or confidence of his
sovereign hastened his end. He was honoured by a splendid
funeral at Brussels, but his body was interred at his own capital
city of Parma. He left two sons, Ranuce, who succeeded him,
and Edward, who was created a cardinal in 1591 by Pope
Gregory XIV. His daughter Margaret married Vincent, duke
of Mantua.
See L. P. Gachard, Correspondence d'Alexandre Farnese, Prince de
Parme, gouverneur general des Pays-Bas, avec Philippe II, 1578-
J 579 (Brussels, 1850); Fra Pietro, Alessandro Farnese, duca di
Parma (Rome, 1836).
FARNESE, ELIZABETH (1692-1766), queen of Spain, born
on the 25th of October 1692, was the only daughter of Odoardo
II., prince of Parma. Her mother educated her in strict seclusion,
but seclusion altogether failed to tame her imperious and am-
bitious temper. At the age of twenty-one ( 1 7 1 4) she was married
by proxy at Parma to Philip V. of Spain. The marriage was
arranged by Cardinal Alberoni (q.v.), with the concurrence of
the Princess des Ursins, the Camerara Mayor. On arriving at
the borders of Spain, Elizabeth was met by the Princess des
Ursins, but received her sternly, and, perhaps in accordance
with a plan previously concerted with the king, at once ordered
her to be removed from her presence and from Spain. Over the
weak king Elizabeth quickly obtained complete influence. This
influence was exerted altogether in support of the policy of
Alberoni, one chief aim of which was to recover the ancient
Italian possessions of Spain, and which actually resulted in the
seizure of Sardinia and Sicily. So vigorously did she enter into
this policy that, when the French forces advanced to the Pyrenees,
she placed herself at the head of one division of the Spanish army.
But Elizabeth's ambition was grievously disappointed. The
Triple Alliance thwarted her plans, and at length in 1720 the
allies made the banishment of Alberoni a condition of peace.
Sicily also had to be evacuated. And finally, all her entreaties
failed to prevent the abdication of Philip, who in 1724 gave up
the throne to his heir, and retired to the palace of La Granja.
Seven months later, however, the death of the young king recalled
him to the throne. During his later years, when he was nearly
imbecile, she directed the whole policy of Spain so as to secure
thrones in Italy for her sons. In 1736 she had the satisfaction
of seeing her favourite scheme realized in the accession of her
son Don Carlos (afterwards Charles III. of Spain) to the throne
of the Two Sicilies and his recognition by the powers in the treaty
of Vienna. Her second son, Philip, became duke of Parma.
Elizabeth survived her husband twenty years, dying in 1766.
See Memoires pour servir a I'histoire d'Espagne sous le regne de
Philippe V, by the Marquis de St Philippe, translated by Maudave
(Paris, 1756); Memoirs of Elizabeth Farnese (London, 1746); and
E. Armstrong, Elizabeth Farnese, the Termagant of Spain (1892).
FARNHAM, a market town in the Guildford parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 375 m. S.W. by W. from London
by the London & South Western railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 6124. It lies on the left bank of the river Wey,
on the southern slope of a hill rising about 700 ft. above the
sea-level. The church of St Andrew is a spacious transitional
Norman and Early English building, with later additions, and
was formerly a chapel of ease to Waverley Abbey, of which a
crypt and fragmentary remains, of Early English date, stand in
the park attached to a modern residence of the same name.
This was the earliest Cistercian house in England, founded in
1128 by William Gifford, bishop of Winchester. The Annales
Waverlienses, published by Gale in his Scriptores and afterwards
in the Record series of Chronicles, are believed to have suggested
to Sir Walter Scott the name of his first novel. Farnham Castle,
on a hill north of the town, the seat of the bishops of Winchester,
was first built by Henry de Blois, bishop of Winchester, and
brother of King Stephen; but it was razed by Henry III. It
was rebuilt and garrisoned for Charles I. by Denham, from
whom it was taken in 1642 by Sir W. Waller; and having been
dismantled, it was restored by George Morley, bishop of Win-
chester (1662-1684). Farnham has a town hall and exchange
in Italian style (1866), a grammar school of early foundation,
and a school of science and art. It was formerly noted for its
cloth manufacture. Hops of fine quality are grown in the
vicinity. William Cobbett was born in the parish (1766), and is
buried in the churchyard of St Andrew's. The neighbouring
mansion of Moor Park was the residence of Sir William Temple
(d. 1699), and Swift worked here as his secretary. Hester
Johnson, Swift's " Stella," was the daughter of Temple's steward,
whose cottage still stands. The town has grown in favour as
a residential centre from the proximity of Aldershot Camp
(3 m. N.E.).
Though there is evidence of an early settlement in the neigh-
bourhood, the town of Farnham (Ferneham) seems to have grown
up round the castle of the bishops of Winchester, who possessed
the manor at the Domesday Survey. Its position at the junction
of the Pilgrim's Way and the road from Southampton to London
was important. In 1205 Farnham had bailiffs, and in 1207 it
was definitely a mesne borough under the bishops of Winchester.
In 1247 the bishop granted the first charter, giving, among other
privileges, a fair on All Saints' Day. The burgesses surrendered
the proceeds of the borough court and other rights in 1365 in
return for respite of the fee farm rent; these were recovered
in 1405 and rent again paid. Bishop Waynflete is said to have
confirmed the original charter in 1452, and in 1566 Bishop Home
i86
FARNWORTH FARQUHAR
granted a new charter by which the burgesses elected 2 bailiffs
and 12 burgesses annually and did service at their own courts
every three weeks, the court leet being held twice a year. In
resisting an attack made by the bishop in 1660 on their right of
toll, the burgesses could only claim Farnham as a borough by
prescription as their charters had been mislaid, but the charters
were subsequently found, and after some litigation their rights
were established. In. the i8th century the corporation, a close
body, declined, its duties being performed by the vestry, and in
1789 the one survivor resigned and handed over the town papers
to the bishop. Farnham sent representatives to parliament in
1311 and 1460, on both occasions being practically the bishop's
pocket borough. In accordance with the grant of 1247 a fair
was held on All Saints' day and also on Holy Thursday; the
former was afterwards held on All Souls' Day. Farnham was
early a market of importance, and in 1216 a royal grant changed
the market day from Sunday to Thursday in each week. It was
famous in the early i7th century for wheat and oats; hop-
growing began in 1597.
FARNWORTH, an urban district in the Radcliffe-cum-
Farnworth parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on
the Irwell, 3 m. S.E. of Bolton by the Lancashire & Yorkshire
railway. Pop. (1901) 25,925. Cotton mills, iron foundries,
brick and tile works, and collieries employ the large industrial
population.
FARO, the capital of a district bearing the same name, in
southern Portugal; at the terminus of the Lisbon-Faro railway,
and on the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 11,789. Faro is an
episcopal see, with a Renaissance cathedral of great size, an
ecclesiastical seminary, and a ruined castle surrounded by
Moorish fortifications. Its broad but shallow harbour is pro-
tected on the south by the long island of Caes, and a number of
sandy islets, which, being constantly enlarged by silt from the
small river Fermoso, render the entrance of large vessels im-
possible. Fishing is an important industry, and fish, with wine,
fruit, cork, baskets and sumach, are the principal articles of
export. Little has been done to develop the mineral resources
of the district, which include tin, lead, antimony and auriferous
quartz. Faro was taken from the Moors by Alphonso III. of
Portugal (1248-1279). It was sacked by the English in 1596,
and nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 1755.
The administrative district of Faro coincides with the ancient
kingdom and province of Algarve (q.v.); pop. (1900) 255,191;
area, 1937 sq. m.
FARO (from Pharaoh, a picture of the Egyptian king appearing
on a card of the old French pack), a game of cards, played with
a full pack. Originally the pack was held in the dealer's left
hand, but nowadays very elaborate and expensive implements
are used. The dealer places the pack, after shuffling and cutting,
in a dealing-box face upwards, and the cards are taken from the
top of the box in couples through a slit in the side. The exposed
card on top is called soda, and the last card left in the box is
in hoc. The implements include counters of various colours
and values, a dealing-box, a case or frame manipulated by a
" case-keeper, "upon which the cards already played are arranged
in sight, a shuffling-board, and score-sheets for the players.
Upon the table is the " lay-out," a complete suit of spades
enamelled on green cloth, upon or near which to place the stakes.
The dealer takes two cards from the box, placing the first one
near it and the second close beside it. Each deal of two cards
is called a turn, and there are twenty-five such, soda and hoc
not counting. The players stake upon any card they please, or
in such manner as to take in several cards, reducing the amount,
but increasing the chances, of winning, as at roulette. The
dealer, having waved the hand, after which no more bets may
be made, deals the turn, and then proceeds to gather in the
stakes won by him, and to pay those he has lost. The chances
as between dealer and punters, or players, are equal, except
that the banker wins half the money staked on the cards of a
turn should they chance to be alike. Faro is played considerably
in parts of the United States, whither it is said to have been
taken from France, where it had a great vogue during the reign
of Louis XIV. Owing to the dishonest methods of many
gambling " clubs " the game is in disrepute.
FARQUHAR, GEORGE (1677-1707), British dramatist, son of
William Farquhar, a clergyman, was born in Londonderry,
Ireland, in 1677. When he was seventeen he was entered as
a sizar at Trinity College, Dublin, under the patronage of Dr
Wiseman, bishop of Dromore. He did not long continue his
studies, being, according to one account, expelled for a profane
joke. Thomas Wilkes, however, states that the abrupt termina-
tion of his studies was due to the death of his patron. He became
an actor on the Dublin stage, but in a fencing scene in Dryden's
Indian Emperor he forgot to exchange his sword for a foil, with
results which narrowly escaped being fatal to a fellow-actor.
After this accident he never appeared on the boards. He had
met Robert Wilks, the famous comedian, in Dublin. Though
he did not, as generally stated, go to London with Wilks, it was
at his suggestion that he wrote his first play, Love and a Bottle,
which was performed at Drury Lane, perhaps through Wilks's
interest, in 1698. He received from the earl of Orrery a lieuten-
ancy in his regiment, then in Ireland, but in two letters of his
dated from Holland in 1700 he says nothing of military service.
His second comedy, The Constant Couple: or a Trip to the
Jubilee (1699), ridiculing the preparations for the pilgrimage
to Rome in the Jubilee year, met with an enthusiastic reception.
Wilks as Sir Harry Wildair contributed substantially to its
success. In 1701 Farquhar wrote a sequel, Sir Harry Wildair.
Leigh Hunt says that Mrs Oldfield, like Wilks, played admirably
well in it, but the original Lady Lurewell was Mrs Verbruggen.
Mrs Oldfield is said to have been the " Penelope " of Farquhar's
letters. In 1702 Farquhar published a slight volume of mis-
cellanies Love and Business; in a Collection of Occasionary
Verse and Epistolary Prose containing, among other things, " A
Discourse on Comedy in reference to the English Stage," in
which he defends the English neglect of the dramatic unities.
" The rules of English comedy," he says, " don't lie in the com-
pass of Aristotle or his followers, but in the pit, box and galleries."
In 1702 he borrowed from Fletcher's Wild Govse Chase, The
Inconstant, or the Way to win Him, in which he followed his original
fairly closely except in the last act. In 1703 he married, in the
expectation of a fortune, but found too late that he was deceived.
It is said that he never reproached his wife, although the marriage
increased his liabilities and the rest of his life was a constant
struggle against poverty. His other plays are: The Stage Coach
(1704), a one-act farce adapted from the French of Jean de la
Chapelle in conjunction with Peter Motteux; The Twin Rivals
(Drury Lane, 1702); The Recruiting Officer (Drury Lane, 1706);
and The Beaux' Stratagem (Haymarket, 1707). The Recruiting
Officer was suggested to him by a recruiting expedition (1705)
in Shropshire, and is dedicated to his " friends round the Wrekin."
The Beaux' Stratagem is the best of all his plays, and long kept
the stage. Genest notes nineteen revivals up to 1828. Two
embarrassed gentlemen travel in the country disguised as master
and servant in the hope of mending their fortune. The play gives
vivid pictures of the Lichfield inn with its rascally landlord,
and of the domestic affairs of the Sullens. Archer, the supposed
valet, whose adventurous spirit secures full play, was one of
Garrick's best parts.
Meanwhile one of his patrons, said to have been the duke of
Ormond, had advised Farquhar to sell out of his regiment, and
had promised to give him a captaincy in his own. Farquhar sold
his commission, but the duke's promise remained unfulfilled.
Before he had finished the second act of The Beaux' Stratagem
he knew that he was stricken with a mortal illness, but it was
necessary to persevere and to be " consumedly lively to the end."
He had received in advance 30 for the copyright from Lintot
the bookseller. The play was staged on the 8th of March, and
Farquhar lived to have his third night, and there was an extra
benefit on the 29th of April, the day of his death. He left his
two children to the care of his friend Wilks. Wilks obtained a
benefit at the theatre for the dramatist's widow, but he seems
to have done little for the daughters. They were apprenticed
to a mantua-maker, and one of them was, as late as 1764, in
FARR FARRAGUT
187
receipt of a pension of 20 solicited for her by Edmund Chaloner,
a patron of Farquhar. She was then described as a maidservant
and possessed of sentiments " fitted to her humble situation."
The plots of Farquhar's comedies are ingenious in conception
and skilfully conducted. He has no pretensions to the brilliance
of Congreve, but his amusing dialogue arises naturally out of the
situation, and its wit is never strained. Sergeant Kite in the
Recruiting Officer, Scrub, Archer and Boniface in The Beaux'
Stratagem are distinct, original characters which had a great
success on the boards, and the unexpected incidents and adven-
tures in which they are mixed up are represented in an irresistibly
comic manner by a man who thoroughly understood the resources
of the stage. The spontaneity and verve with which his ad-
venturous heroes are drawn have suggested that in his favourite
type he was describing himself. His own disposition seems to
have been most lovable, and he was apparently a much gayer
person than the reader might be led to suppose from the " Portrait
of Himself " quoted by Leigh Hunt. The code of morals followed
by these characters is open to criticism, but they are human and
genial in their roguery, and compare far from unfavourably
with the cynical creations of contemporary drama. The advance
which he made on his immediate predecessors in dramatic con-
struction and in general moral tone is more striking when it is
remembered that he died before he was thirty.
Farquhar's dramatic works were published in 1728, 1742 and
1772, and by Thomas Wilkes with a biography in 1775. They were
included in the Dramatic Works of Wycherley, Congreve, Vanbrugh
and Farquhar (1849), with biographical and critical notices, by Leigh
Hunt. See also The Dramatic Works of George Farquhar, with Life
and Notes, by A. C. Ewald (2 vols., 1892) ; The Best Plays of George
Farquhar (Mermaid series, 1906), with biographical and critical
introductions, by William Archer; The Beaux Stratagem, edited
(1898) by H. Macaulay Fitzgibbon for " The Temple Dramatists ";
and D. Schmid, " George Farquhar, sein Leben und seine Original-
Dramen " (1904) in Wiener Beitrdge zur engl. Philol,
FARR, WILLIAM (1807-1883), English statistician, was born
at Kenley, in Shropshire, on the soth of November 1807. When
nineteen he became the pupil of a doctor in Shrewsbury, also
acting as dresser in the infirmary there. He then went to Paris
to study medicine, but after two years returned to London,
where, in 1832, he qualified as L.S.A. Next year he began to
practise, but without very brilliant results, for five years later he
definitely abandoned the exercise of his profession on accepting
the post of compiler of abstracts in the registrar-general's office.
The commissioners for the 1841 census consulted him on several
points, but did not in every case follow his advice. For the next
two decennial censuses he acted as assistant-commissioner;
for that of 1871 he was a commissioner, and he wrote the greater
part of the reports of all. He had an ambition to become
registrar-general; and when that post became vacant in 1879,
he was so disappointed at the selection of Sir Brydges Henniker
instead of himself, that he refused to stay any longer in the
registrar's office. He died of paralysis of the brain a year or two
later, on the I4th of April 1883. A great part of Farr's literary
production is to be found in the papers which, from 1839 to
1880, he wrote for each annual report of the registrar-general
on the cause of the year's deaths in England. He was also the
author of many papers on general statistics and on life-tables
for insurance, some read before the Royal Statistical Society,
of which he was president in 1871 and 1872, some contributed to
the Lancet and other periodicals. A selection from his statistical
writings was published in 1885 under the editorship of Mr Noel
Humphreys.
FARRAGUT, DAVID GLASGOW (1801-1870), first admiral
of the United States navy, was the son of Major George Farragut,
a Catalan by descent, a Minorquin by birth, who had emigrated
to America in 1776, and, after the peace, had married a lady
of Scottish family and settled near Knoxville, in Tennessee;
there Farragut was born on the sth of July 1801. At the early
age of nine he entered the navy, under the protection of his
name-father, Captain David Porter, with whom he served in the
" Essex " during her cruise in the Altantic in 1812, and afterwards
in the Pacific, until her capture by the " Phoebe," in Valparaiso
Bay, on the 28th of March 1814. He afterwards served on board
the " Washington " (74) carrying the broad pennant of Com-
modore Chauncey in the Mediterranean, and pursued his pro-
fessional and other studies under the instruction of the chaplain,
Charles Folsom, with whom he contracted a lifelong friendship.
Folsom was appointed from the " Washington " as U.S. consul
at Tunis, and obtained leave for his pupil to pay him a lengthened
visit, during which he studied not only mathematics, but also
French and Italian, ajid acquired a familiar knowledge of Arabic
and Turkish. He is said to have had a great natural aptitude for
languages and in after years to have spoken several fluently.
After more than four years in the Mediterranean, Farragut
returned to the States in November 1820. He then passed his
examination, and in 1822 was appointed for service in what was
called the " mosquito " fleet, against the pirates, who then
infested the Caribbean Sea. The service was one of great exposure
and privation; for two years and a half, Farragut wrote, he
never owned a bed, but lay down to rest wherever he found the
most comfortable berth. By the end of that time the joint action
of the British and American navies had driven the pirates off
the sea, and when they took to marauding on shore the Spanish
governors did the rest. In 1825 he was promoted to the rank of
lieutenant, whilst serving in the navy yard at Norfolk, where,
with some breaks in sea-going ships, he continued till 1832;
he then served for a commission on the coast of Brazil, and was
again appointed to the yard at Norfolk.
It is needless to trace the ordinary routine of his service step by
step. The officers of the U.S. navy have one great advantage which
British officers are without; when on shore they are not neces-
sarily parted from the service, but are employed in their several
ranks in the differentdockyards,escaping thus not only the private
grievance and pecuniary difficulties of a very narrow half-pay, but
also, what from a public point of view is much more important, the
loss of professional aptitude, and of that skill which comes from
unceasing practice. On the Sth of September 1841 Farragut
was promoted to the rank of commander, and on the I4th of
September 1855 to that of captain.* At this time he was in
charge of the navy yard, Mare Island, California, from which
post he was recalled in 1858, and appointed to the " Brooklyn "
frigate, the command of which he held for the next two years.
When the war of secession broke out in 1861, he was " waiting
orders " at Norfolk. By birth and marriage he was a Southerner,
and the citizens of Norfolk counted on his throwing in his lot
with them; but professional pride, and affection for the flag
under which he had served for more than fifty years, held him
true to his allegiance; he passionately rejected the proposals
of his fellow-townsmen, and as it was more than hinted to him
that his longer stay in Norfolk might be dangerous, he hastily
quitted that place, and offered his services to the government
at Washington. These were at once accepted; he was requested
to sit on the Naval Retiring Board a board then specially
constituted for clearing the navy of unfit or disloyal officers
arid a few months later was appointed to the command, of
the " Western Gulf Blockading Squadron," with the rank of
flag-officer, and ordered to proceed forthwith, in the " Hartford,"
to the Gulf of Mexico, to collect such vessels as could be spared
from the blockade, to proceed up the Mississippi, to reduce the
defences which guarded the approaches to New Orleans, and to
take and hold the city. All this Farragut executed to the letter,
with a skill and caution that won for him the love of his followers,
and with a dash and boldness that gained him the admiration
of the public and the popular name of "Old Salamander."
The passage of the Mississippi was forced on the 24th of April
1862, and New Orleans surrendered on the 26th; this was
immediately followed by the operations against Vicksburg, from
which, however, Farragut was compelled to withdraw, having
relearnt the old lesson that against heavy earthworks, crowning
hills of sufficient height, a purely naval attack is unavailing;
it was not till the following summer, and after a long siege, that
Vicksburg surrendered to a land force under General Grant.
During this time the service on the Mississippi continued both
difficult and irksome; nor until the river was cleared could
i88
FARRANT FARREN, ELIZABETH
Farragut seriously plan operations against Mobile, a port to which
the fall of New Orleans had given increased importance. Even
then he was long delayed by the want of monitors with which
to oppose the ironclad vessels of the enemy. It was the end of
July 1864 before he was joined by these monitors; and on the
5th of August, undismayed by the loss of his leading ship, the
monitor " Tecumseh," sunk by a torpedo, he forced the passage
into the bay, destroyed or captured the enemy's ships, including
the ram " Tennessee " bearing Admiral Buchanan's flag, and
took possession of the forts. The town was not occupied till the
following April, but with the loss of its harbour it ceased to have
any political or strategical importance.
With this Farragut's active service came to an end; for
though in September 1864 he was offered the command of the
force intended for the reduction of Wilmington, the state of his
health, after the labours and anxieties of the past three years,
in a trying climate, compelled him to decline it and to ask to
be recalled. He accordingly returned to New York in December,
and was received with the wildest display of popular enthusiasm.
It was then that the Government instituted the rank of vice-
admiral, previously unknown in the American service. Farragut
was promoted to it, and in July 1866 was further promoted
to the rank of admiral. In 1867, with his flag flying in the
" Franklin," he visited Europe. The appointment was an
honourable distinction without political or naval import:
the " Franklin " was, to all intents, for the time being, a yacht
at Farragut's disposal; and her arrival in the different ports
was the signal for international courtesies, entertainments and
social gaiety. She returned to America in 1868, and Farragut
retired into private life. Two years later, on the i4th of August
1870, he died at Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
Farragut was twice married, and left, by his second wife, a son,
Loyall Farragut, who, in 1878, published a Life of his father " em-
bodying his Journal and Letters." Another Life (1892), by Captain
A. T. Mahan, though shorter, has a greater value from the pro-
fessional point of view, by reason of the critical appreciation of
Farragut's services. (J. K. L.)
FARRANT, RICHARD, composer of English church music,
flourished during the i6th century. Very little is known about
him. Fetis gives 1530 as the date of his birth, but on what
authority does not appear. He became a gentleman of the
Chapel Royal in the reign of Edward VI., but resigned his post
in 1564 on being appointed master of the children of St George's
chapel, Windsor. In this capacity he presented a play before the
queen at Shrovetide 1568, and again at Christmas of the same
year, receiving on each occasion the sum of 6: 13: 4d. In
November 1569 he was reinstated as gentleman of the Chapel
Royal. It is stated by Hawkins (History of Music, vol. iii. 279)
that Farrant was also one of the clerks and organists of St
George's chapel, Windsor, and that he retained these posts till
his death. Many of his compositions are printed in the collections
of Barnard and Boyce. Among the most admired of them are
a service in G minor, and' the anthems " Call to remembrance "
and " Hide not thou thy face." It is doubtful whether Farrant
is entitled to the credit of the authorship of the beautiful anthem
" Lord, for thy tender mercies' sake." No copy of the music
under his name appeared in print till 1800, although it had been
earlier attributed to him. Some writers have named John Hilton,
and others Thomas Tallis, as the composer. From entries
in the Old Check Book of the Chapel Royal (edited for the
Camden Society by Dr Rimbault) it appears that Farrant died,
not in 1585, as Hawkins states, but on the 3oth of November
1580 or 1581.
FARRAR, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1831-1003), English divine,
was born on the 7th of August 1831, in the Fort of Bombay,
where his father, afterwards vicar of Sidcup, Kent, was then a
missionary. His early education was received in King William's
College, Castletown, Isle of Man, a school whose external sur-
roundings are reproduced in his popular schoolboy tale, Eric;
or, Little by Little. In 1847 he entered King's College, London.
Through the influence of F.D. Maurice he was led to the study
of Coleridge, whose writings had a profound influence upon his
faith and opinions. He proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge,
in October 1851, and in the following year took the degree of
B.A. at the university of London. In 1854 he took his degree
as fourth j unior optime, and fourth in the first class of the classical
tripos. In addition to other college prizes he gained the chan-
cellor's medal for the English prize poem on the search for Sir
John Franklin in 1852, the Le Bas prize and the Norrisian prize.
He was elected fellow of Trinity College in 1856.
On leaving the university Farrar became an assistant-master
under G. E. L. Cotton at Marlborough College. In November
1855 he was appointed an assistant-master at Harrow, where he
remained for fifteen years. He was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society in 1864, university preacher in 1868, honorary chaplain
to the queen in 1869 and Hulsean lecturer in 1870. In 1871 he
was appointed headmaster of Marlborough College, and in the
following year he became chaplain-in-ordinary to the queen.
In 1876 he was appointed canon of Westminster and rector of
St Margaret's, Westminster. He took his D.D. degree in 1874,
the first under the new regulations at Cambridge. Farrar began
his literary labours with the publication of his schoolboy story
Eric in 1858, succeeded in the following year by Julian Home
and Lyrics of Life, and in 1862 by St Winifred's; or the World
of School. He had already published a work on The Origin of
Language, and followed it up by a series of works on grammar
and scholastic philology, including Chapters on Language (1865);
Greek Grammar Rules (1865); Greek Syntax (1866); and
Families of Speech (1869). He edited Essays on a Liberal
Education in 1868; and published Seekers after God in the
Sunday Library (1869). It was by his theological works, how-
ever, that Farrar attained his greatest popularity. His Hulsean
lectures were published in 1870 under the title of The Witness of
History to Christ. The Life of Christ, which was published in
1874, speedily passed through a great number of editions,
and is still in much demand. It reveals considerable powers of
imagination and eloquence, and was partly inspired by a personal
knowledge of the sacred localities depicted. In 1877 appeared
In the Days of My Youth, sermons preached in the chapel of
Marlborough College; and during the same year his volume of
sermons on Eternal Hope in which he called in question the
dogma of everlasting punishment caused much controversy
in religious circles and did much to mollify the harsh theology
of an earlier age. There is little doubt that his boldness and
liberality of thought barred his elevation to the episcopate.
In 1879 appeared The Life and Works of St Paul, and this was
succeeded in 1882 by The Early Days of Christianity. Then came
in order of publication the following works: Everyday Christian
Life; or, Sermons by the Way (1887); Lives of the Fathers
(1888); Sketches of Church History (1889); Darkness and Dawn,
a story of the Neronic persecution (1891); The Voice from Sinai
(1892); The Life of Christ as Represented in Art (1894); a work
on Daniel (1895); Gathering Clouds, a tale of the days of
Chrysostom (1896); and The Bible, its Meaning and Supremacy
(1896). Farrar was a copious contributor of articles to various
magazines, encyclopaedias and theological commentaries. In
1883 he was made archdeacon of Westminster and rural dean;
in 1885 he was appointed Bampton lecturer at Oxford, and took
for his subject " The History of Interpretation." He was
appointed dean of Canterbury in 1895. From 1890 to 1895 he
was chaplain to the speaker of the House of Commons, and in
1894 he was appointed deputy-clerk of the closet to Queen
Victoria. He died at Canterbury on the 22nd of March 1903.
As a theologian Farrar occupied a position midway between the
Evangelical party and the Broad Church; while as a somewhat
rhetorical preacher and writer he exerted a commanding influence
over wide circles of readers. He was an ardent temperance and
social reformer, and was one of the founders of the institution
known as the Anglican Brotherhood, a religious band with
modern aims and objects.
See his Life, by his son R. Farrar (1904).
FARREN, ELIZABETH (c. 1759-1829), English actress, was
the daughter of George Farren, an actor. Her first London
appearance was in 1777 as Miss Hardcastle in She Stoops to
Conquer. Subsequent successes established her reputation
FARREN, WILLIAM PARS
189
and she became the natural successor to Mrs Abington when the
latter left Drury Lane in 1782. The parts of Hermione, Olivia,
Portia and Juliet were in her repertory, but her Lady Betty
Modish, Lady Townly, Lady Fanciful, Lady Teazle and similar
parts were her favourites. In 1797 she married Edward, i2th
earl of Derby (1752-1834).
FARREN, WILLIAM (1786-1861), English actor, was born on
the i3th of May 1786, the son of an actor (b. 1725) of the same
name, who played leading r61es from 1784 to 1795 at Covent
Garden. His first appearance on the stage was at Plymouth at
the Theatre Royal, then under the management of his brother,
in Love a la mode. His first London appearance was in 1818 at
Covent Garden as Sir Peter Teazle, a part with which his name
is always associated. He played at Covent Garden every winter
until 1828, and began in 1824 a series of summer engagements
at the Haymarket which also lasted some years. At these two
theatres he played an immense variety of comedy characters.
From 1828 until 1837 he was at Drury Lane, where he essayed a
wider range, including Polonius and Caesar. He was again at
Covent Garden for a few years, and next joined Benjamin
Webster at the Haymarket, as stage-manager as well as actor.
In 1843 at the close of his performance of the title-part in Mark
Lemon's Old Parr, he was stricken with paralysis on the stage.
He was, however, able to reappear the following year, and he
remained at the Haymarket ten years more, though his acting
never again reached its former level. For a time he managed
the Strand, and, 1850-1853, was lessee of the Olympic. During
his later years he confined himself to old men parts, in which
he was unrivalled. In 1855 he made his final appearance at the
Haymarket, as Lord Ogleby in a scene from the Clandestine
Marriage. He died in London on the 24th of September 1861.
In 1825 he had married the actress Mrs Faucit, mother of
Miss Helena Saville Faucit (Lady Martin), and he left two
sons, Henry (1826-1860) and William (1825-1908), both actors.
The former was the father of Ellen [Nellie] Farren (1848-1904),
long famous for boy's parts in Gaiety musical burlesques, in the
days of Edward Terry and Fred Leslie. As Jack Sheppard, and
in similar r&les, she had a unique position at the Gaiety, and
was an unrivalled public favourite. From 1892 her health failed,
and her retirement, coupled with Fred Leslie's death, brought
to an end the type of Gaiety burlesque associated with them.
FARRER, THOMAS HENRY FARRER, IST BARON(i8i9-i89 9 ),
English civil servant and statistician, was the son of Thomas
Farrer, a solicitor in Lincoln's Inn Fields. Born in London on
the 24th of June 1819, he was educated at Eton and Balliol
College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1840. He was called to
the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1844, but retired from practice in the
course of a few years. He entered the public service in 1850 as
secretary to the naval (renamed in 1853 the marine) department
of the Board of Trade. In 1865 he was promoted to be one of
the joint secretaries of the Board of Trade, and in 1867 became
permanent secretary. His tenure of this office, which he held
for upwards of twenty years, was marked by many reforms
and an energetic administration. Not only was he an advanced
Liberal in politics, but an uncompromising Free-trader of the
strictest school. He was created a baronet for his services at the
Board of Trade in 1883, and in 1886 he retired from office.
During the same year he published a work entitled Free Trade
versus Fair Trade, in which he dealt with an economic contro-
versy then greatly agitating the public mind. He had already,
in 1883, written a volume on Tlte State in its Relation to Trade.
In 1889 he was co-opted by the Progressives an alderman of the
London County Council, of which he became vice-chairman in
1890. His efficiency and ability in this capacity were warmly
recognized; but in the course of time divergencies arose
between his personal views and those of many of his colleagues.
The tendency towards socialistic legislation which became
apparent was quite at variance with his principles of individual
enterprise and responsibility. He consequently resigned his
position. In 1893 he was raised to the peerage. From this time
forward he devoted much of his energy and leisure to advocating
his views at the Cobden Club, the Political Economy Club,
on the platform, and in the public press. Especially were his
efforts directed against the opinions of the Fair Trade League,
and upon this and other controversies on economic questions
he wrote able, clear, and uncompromising letters, which left no
doubt that he still adhered to the doctrines of free trade as
advocated by its earliest exponents. In 1898 he published his
Studies in Currency. He died at Abinger Hall, Dorking, on the
1 1 th of October 1 899. He was succeeded in the title by his eldest
son Thomas Cecil (b. 1859).
FARRIER, and FARRIERY (from Lat. ferrarius, a black-
smith, ferrum, iron). Farrier is the name given generally either
to the professional shoer of horses or in a more extended sense
to a practitioner of the veterinary art; and farriery is the term
for his business. Primarily the art of farriery is identical with
that of the blacksmith, in so far as he makes and fixes shoes on
horses (see HORSE-SHOES); he is liable in law for negligence,
as one who holds himself out as skilled; and he has a lien on the
animal for his expenses. William the Conqueror is supposed to
have introduced horse-shoeing into England, and the art had
an important place through the middle ages, the days of chivalry,
and the later developments of equitation. In modern times it
has been closely allied with the general progress in veterinary
science, and in the knowledge of the anatomy and physiology
of the horse's foot and hoof.
See Fisher, The Farrier (1893); Lungwitz, Text-Book of Horse-
shoeing (Eng. trans., 1898). ^
PARS (the name Farsistan is not used), one of the five mam-
likats (great provinces) of Persia, extending along the northern
shore of the Persian Gulf and bounded on the west by Arabistan,
on the north by Isfahan and on the east by Kerman. It lies
between 49 30' and 56 10' E. and 26 20' and 31 45' N. and
has an area of nearly 60,000 sq. m. Fars is the same word as the
Greek Persis, and, originally the name of only a part of the
Persian empire (Iran), has become the name which Europeans
have applied to the whole (see PERSIS). The province is
popularly, but not for administrative purposes, divided according
to climate into germsir and sardslr, or the warm and cold regions.
The former extends from the sea to the central chain of hills
and contains all the lowlands and many mountainous districts,
some of the latter rising to an elevation of between 3000 and
4000 ft. and the sardsir comprises the remaining and northern
districts of the province.
In Arrian's relation of the voyage of Nearchus (Indica, 40),
these two regions are well described. " The first part of Persis
which lies along the Persian Gulf is hot, sandy and barren and
only the date palm thrives there. The other part comprehends
inner Persis lying northwards; it enjoys a pleasant climate and
has fertile and well- watered plains, gardens with trees of all kinds,
rich pasturages and forests abounding with game; with the
exception of the olive all fruits are produced in profusion,
particularly the vine. Horses and other draught animals are
reared in the province, and there are several lakes frequented
by water-fowl, and streams of clear water flow through it, as
for instance the Kyros (Kur) formed by the junction of the Medos
and Araxes."
The mountains of Fars may be considered as a continuation
of the Zagros and run parallel to the shores of the Persian Gulf.
They comprise several ranges which the roads from the sea to
the interior have to cross at right angles, thereby rendering
communication and transport very difficult. The highest of
the mountains of Fars (14,000 ft.) is the Kuh Dina in the north-
western part of the province. Of the rivers of Fars only three
important ones flow into the sea: (i) the Mand (Arrian's Sitakos),
Karaaghach in its upper course; (2) the Shapur or Khisht
river (Granis); (3) the Tab (Oroatis). Some rivers, notably
the Kur (Kyros, Araxes) which flows into the Bakhtegan lake
east of Shiraz, drain into inland depressions or lakes.
The capital of the province is Shiraz, and the subdivision
in districts, the chief places of the districts and their estimated
population, and the number of inhabited villages in each as they
appear in lists dated 1884 and 1905 are shown on the following
page.
FARS
Name of District.
Chief Place or Seat of
Government.
lumber of
inhabited
Villages in
District.
Name.
Popula-
tion.
I
Abadeh Iklid .
Abadeh
4,000
33
2
Abadeh-Tashk . .
Tashk
600
8
3
Abarj
Dashtek
2,000
6
4
Abbasi
(i) Bander Abbasi l
and villages .
Bander Abbasi
10,000
J4
(2) Issln and Tazian
Issin
6
(3) Shamil .
Shamil
1,000
18
(4) Moghistan .
Ziarat
10
(5) Minab .
Minab
4,000
23
5
Afzar
NImdeh
12
6
"Alemrud ....
Sabzpushan
1,000
16
7
Arb'ah (the four)
(i) Deh Rud 1
(2) Deh Ram 1
Deh Ram
1,500
19
(3) Hengam
(4) Rudbal J
8
Ardakan ....
Ardakan
5,000
10
9
Arsinjan ....
Arsinjan
5,000
25
10
Asir
Asir
500
IO
ii
Baiza
Baiza
2,000
55
12
Bidshahr and Juvim .
Bidshahr
3,000
23
13
Bovanat ....
Surian
500
23
14
Darab
Darab
5,000
62
15
Dashti
(i) Bardistan
Bander Dair
1,000
28
(2) Buluk . . .
Bushgan
18
(3) Mandistan .
Kaki
1,500
40
(4) Tassuj
Tang Bagh
500
ii
(5) Shumbeh. . .
Shumbeh
15
16
Dashtistan
(i) Angali . . .
Haftjush
10
(2) Ahrom .
Ahrom
1,500
5
(3) Borazjan.
Borazjan
4,000
19
(4) Bushire 1 . . .
Bushire
25,000
20
(5) Daliki . . .
Daliki
1,500
7
(6) Gonavah.
Gonavah
1,000
12
(7) Hayat Daud .
Bander Rig
1,000
6
(8) Khurmuj
Khurmuj
1,000
5
(9) Rud Hillah . .
Kelat Sukhteh
IO
(10) Shaban Kareh.
Deh Kohneh
27
(n) Tangistan .
Tangistan
1,000
31
(12) Zengeneh .
Samal
750
4
(13) Zirah . . .
Zirah
6
17
Dizkurd ....
Cherkes
500
6
18
Famur
Pagah
300
3
19
Ferrashband .
Ferrashband
1,000
M
20
Fessa
Fessa
5,000
40
21
Firuzabad ....
Firuzabad
4,000
20
22
Gillehdar ....
Gillehdar
1,000
43
23
Humeh of Shiraz .
Zerkan
1,000
89
24
Istahbanat
Istahbanat
10,000
12
25
Jahrum ....
Jahrum
10,000
33
26
Tireh
Ishfayikan
23
27
Kamfiruz ....
Palangeri
34
28
Kamin
Kalilek
ii
29
Kazerun ....
Kazerun
8,000
46
3
Kavar
Kavar
26
3 1
Kir and Karzin .
Kir
1,000
23
3 2
Khafr
Khafr
1,000
41
33
Khajeh
Zanjiran
500
15
34
Khisht
Khisht
2,500
25
35
Khunj
Khunj
1,500
27
36
Kongan ....
Bander Kongan
12
37
Kuh Gilu and Beh-
bahan ....
Behbahan
10,000
182
38
Kurbal
Gavkan
600
67
39
Kuh i Marreh Shikeft
Shikeft
41
40
Kunkuri ....
Kazian
29
41
Laristan
(i) Lar . . . .
Lar
8,000
34
(2) Bikhah Ihsham.
Bairam
ii
(3) Bikhah Fal . .
Ishkenan
10
(4) Jehangiriyeh
(5) Shib Kuh . .
Bastak
Bander Charak
4,000
30
36
(6) Fumistan or Gav-
bandi .
Gavbandi
13
(7) Kauristan .
Kauristan
4
(8) Lingah ' . . .
Bander Lingah
10,000
ii
(9) Mazayijan .
Mazayijan
6
42
Mahur Milati .
Jemalgird
5
1 Are forming separate administrative division of
Ports."
Persian Gulf
Name of District.
Chief Place or S
Governmen
eat of
t.
Number of
inhabited
Name.
Popula-
tion.
Villages in
District.
43
Maimand ....
Maimand
5,ooo
'4
44
Maliki . . . .
Bander Assalu
1,000
2 1 ;
45
Mamasenni (Shulistan)
j
(i) Bekesh 1
8
(2) Javldior Javi
6
(3) Dushmanziaris 1
16
(4) Rustami
Kal'ah Sand
26
(5) Fahlian
7
(6) Kakan
46
Mayin
Mayin
Q
t^\j
47
Mervast and Herat
Mervast
H
48
Mervdasht
(i) Upper Khafrek 1
H
(2) Lower Khafrek X
Fathabad
1,250
16
(3) Mervdasht J
22
49
M eshhedMaderSuliman
Murghab
800
6
50
Niriz
Niriz
9,000
2 4
51
Ramjird ....
Jashian
36
52
Rudan and Ahmedi .
Dehbariz
21
53
Sab'ah (the seven)
(i) Blvunj (Bivanej)
Durz
H
(2) Hasanabad .
Hasanabad
7
(3) Tarom . . .
Tarun
2,000
15
(4) Faraghan . .
Faraghan
1,500
13
(5) Forg ....
Forg
3,000
18
(6) Fin and Guhrah.
Fin
13
(7) Gileh Gah (aban-
Ziaret
1,000
ii
doned)
54
Sarchahan
55
Sarhad Chahar Dungeh
(i) Dasht Uian 1
(2) Dasht Khosro va
Shirin
(3) Dasht Khungasht
(4) Dasht KushkZardj
Kushk Zard
31
56
Sarhad Shesh Nahiyeh
(i) Padina (foot of
Mount Dina).
Khur -i
(2) Henna .
Henna
(3) Samiram.
Samiram
(4) Felard . . .
Felard
24
(5) Vardasht. . .
Germabad
(6)Vank. . . .
Vank J
57
Sarvistan ....
Sarvistan
4,500
23
58
Shiraz (town) in 1884
53,607"
59
Siyakh
Darinjan
i.3
60
Simkan ....
Duzeh
28
The above sixty districts are grouped into eighteen sub-
provinces under governors appointed by the governor-general
of Fars, but the towns of Bushire, Lingah and Bander Abbasi,
together with the villages in their immediate neighbourhood,
form a separate government known as that of the " Persian
Gulf Ports " (Benadir i Khali j i Fars), under a governor appointed
from Teheran. The population of the province has been esti-
mated at 750,000 and the yearly revenue it pays to the state
amounts to about 150,000. Many districts are fertile, but
some, particularly those in the south-eastern part of the province,
do not produce sufficient grain for the requirements of the sparse
population. In consequence of droughts, ravages of locusts
and misgovernment by local governors the province has been
much impoverished and hundreds of villages are in ruins and
deserted. About a third of the population is composed of
turbulent and lawless nomads who, when on the march between
their winter and summer camping grounds, frequently render
the roads insecure and occasionally plunder whole districts,
leaving the inhabitants without means of subsistence.
The province produces much wheat, barley, rice, millet, cotton,
but the authorities every now and then prohibiting the export
of cereals, the people generally sow just as much as they think
will suffice for their own wants. Much tobacco of excellent
quality, principally for consumption in Persia, is also grown
(especially in Fessa, Darab and Jahrom) and a considerable
quantity of opium, much of it for export to China, is produced.
Salt, lime and gypsum are abundant. There are also some oil
1 Persian census in 1884; 25,284 males, 28,323 females.
FARTHING FASCIA
191
wells at Daliki, near Bushire, but several attempts to tap the oil
have been unsuccessful. There are no valuable oyster-banks in
Persian waters, and all the Persian Gulf pearls are obtained from
banks on the coast of Arabia and near Bahrein. (A. H.-S.)
FARTHING (A.S. fedrtha, fourth, +ing, diminutive), the
smallest English coin, equal to the fourth of a penny. It
became a regular part of the coinage from the reign of Edward I.,
and was, up to the reign of Mary, a silver coin. No farthing was
struck in the reign of Elizabeth, but a silver three-farthing piece
was issued in that reign, with a profile bust of the queen crowned,
with a rose behind her head, and inscribed " E.D.G. Rosa sine
spina." The copper farthing was first introduced in the reign
of James I., a patent being given to Lord Harington of Exton
in 1613 for the issue of copper tokens of this denomination. It
was nominally of six grains' weight, but was usually heavier.
Properly, however, the copper farthing dates from the reign of
Charles II., in whose reign also was issued a tin farthing, with
a small copper plug in the centre, and an inscription on the edge,
" Nummorum famulus 1684." No farthings were actually issued
in the reign of Queen Anne, though a number of patterns were
prepared (see NUMISMATICS: medieval section, England). In
1860 the copper farthing was superseded by one struck in bronze.
In 1842 a proclamation was issued giving currency to half-
farthings, and there were several issues, but they were de-
monetized in 1869. In 1897 the practice was adopted of darken-
ing farthings before issue, to prevent their being mistaken for
half-sovereigns.
FARTHINGALE (from the O. Fr. verdagalle, or vertugalle, a
corruption of the Spanish name of the article, verdagado, from
verdago, a rod or stick), a case or hoop, originally of bent rods,
but afterwards made of whalebone, upon which were hung the
voluminous skirts of a woman's dress. The fashion was intro-
duced into England from Spain in the i6th century. In its most
exaggerated shape, at the beginning of the lyth century, the
top of the farthingale formed a flat circular surface projecting
at right angles to the bodice (see COSTUME).
FARUKHABAD, FARRAKHABAD, or FURRUCKABAD, a city and
district of British India in the Agra division of the United
Provinces. The city is near the right bank of the Ganges, 87 m.
by rail from Cawnpore. It forms a joint municipality with
Fatehgarh, the civil headquarters of the district with a military
cantonment. Pop. (1901) 67,338. At Fatehgarh is the govern-
ment gun-carriage factory; and other industries include cotton-
printing and the manufacture of gold lace, metal vessels and
tents.
The DISTRICT OF FARUKHABAD has an area of 1685 sq. m.
It is a flat alluvial plain in the middle Doab. The principal rivers
are: the Ganges, which has a course of 87 m. either bordering
on or passing through the district, but is not at all times navigable
by large boats throughout its entire course; the Kali-nadi (84 m.)
and the Isan-nadi (42 m.), both tributaries of the Ganges; and
the Arind-nadi, which, after a course of 20 m. in the south of the
district, passes into Cawnpore. The principal products are rice,
wheat, barley, millets, pulses, cotton, sugar-cane, potatoes, &c.
The grain crops, however, are insufficient for local wants, and
grain is largely imported from Oudh and Rohilkhand. The
district is, therefore, liable to famine, and it was severely visited
by this calamity six times during the igth century in 1803-
1804, 1815-1816, 1825-1826, 1837-1838, 1868-1869 and 1899-
1900. Farukhabad is one of the healthiest districts in the Doab,
but fevers are prevalent during August and September. The
average annual mean temperature is almost 80 F. ; the average
annual rainfall, 29-4 in.
In the early part of the i8th century, when the Mogul empire
was breaking up, Mahommed Khan, a Bangash Afghan from
a village near Kaimganj, governor of Allahabad and later of
Malwa, established a considerable state of which the present
district of Farukhabad was the nucleus, founding the city of
Farukhabad in 1714. After his death in 1743, his son and suc-
cessor Kaim Khan was embroiled by Safdar Jang, the nawab
wazir of Oudh, with the Rohillas, in battle with whom he lost
his life in 1749. In 1750 his brother, Ahmad Khan, recovered
the Farukhabad territories; but Safdar Jang called in the
Mahrattas, and a struggle for the possession of the country
began, which ended in 1771, on the death of Ahmad Khan, by
its becoming tributary to Oudh. In 1801 the nawab wazir ceded
to the British his lands in this district, with the tribute due from
the nawab of Farukhabad, who gave up his sovereign rights in
1802. In 1804 the Mahrattas, under Holkar, ravaged this tract,
but were utterly routed by Lord Lake at the town of Farukhabad.
During the mutiny Farukhabad shared the fate of other districts,
and passed entirely out of British hands for a time. The native
troops, who had for some time previously evinced a seditious
spirit, finally broke into rebellion on the i8th of June 1857,
and placed the titular nawab of Farukhabad on the throne.
The English military residents took shelter in the fort, which
they held until the 4th of July, when, the fort being undermined,
they endeavoured to escape by the river. One boat succeeded in
reaching Cawnpore, but only to fall into the hands of Nana.
Its occupants were made prisoners, and perished in the massacre
of the icth of July. The other boat was stopped on its progress
down the river, and all those in it were captured or killed, except
four who escaped. The prisoners were conveyed back to Fateh-
garh, and murdered there by the nawab on the igth of July.
The rebels were defeated in several engagements, and on the
3rd of January 1858 the English troops recaptured Fatehgarh
fort; but it was not till May that order was thoroughly re-
established. In 1901 the population was 925,812, showing
an increase of 8 % in one decade. Part of the district is watered
by distributaries of the Ganges canal; it is traversed throughout
its length by the Agra-Cawnpore line of the Rajputana railway,
and is also served by a branch of the East Indian system.
Tobacco, opium, potatoes and fruit, cotton-prints, scent and
saltpetre are among the principal exports.
FASCES, in Roman antiquities, bundles of elm or birch rods
from which the head of an axe projected, fastened together by a
red strap. Nothing is known of their origin, the tradition that
represents them as borrowed by one of the kings from Etruria
resting on insufficient grounds. As the emblem of official
authority, they were carried by the lictors, in the left hand
and on the left shoulder, before the higher Roman magistrates;
at the funeral of a deceased magistrate they were carried behind
the bier. The lictors and the fasces were so inseparably connected
that they came to be used as synonymous terms. The fasces
originally represented the power over life and limb possessed by
the kings, and after the abolition of the monarchy, the consuls,
like the kings, were preceded by twelve fasces. Within the
precincts of the city the axe was removed, in recognition of the
right of appeal (prowcatid) to the people in a matter of life
and death; outside Rome, however, each consul retained the
axe, and was preceded by his own lictors, not merely by a single
accensus (supernumerary), as was originally the case within the
city when he was not officiating. Later, the lictors preceded the
officiating consul, and walked behind the other. Valerius
Publicola, the champion of popular rights, further established
the custom that the fasces should be lowered before the people,
as the real representatives of sovereignty (Livy ii. 7; Florus
i. 9; Plutarch, Publicola, 10); lowering the fasces was also the
manner in which an inferior saluted a superior magistrate. A
dictator, as taking the place of the two consuls, had 24 fasces
(including the axe even within the city) ; most of the other
magistrates had fasces varying in number, with the exception
of the censors, who, as possessing no executive authority, had
none. Fasces were given to the Flamen Dialis and (after 42 B.C.)
even to the Vestals. During the times of the republic, a victorious
general, who had been saluted by the title of imperator by his
soldiers, had his fasces crowned with laurel (Cicero, Pro Ligario,
3). Later, under the empire, when the emperor received the
title for life on his accession, it became restricted to him, and the
laurel was regarded as distinctive of the imperial fasces (see
Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, i., 1887, p. 373).
FASCIA (Latin for a bandage or fillet) , a term used for many
objects which resemble a band in shape; thus in anatomy it is
applied to the layers of fibrous connective tissue which sheathe
FASCINATION FASTI
the muscles or cover various parts or organs in the body, and in
zoology, and particularly in ornithology, to bands or stripes of
colour. In architecture the word is used of the bands into
which the architrave of the Ionic and Corinthian orders is
subdivided; their origin would seem to have been derived from
the superimposing of two or more beams of timber to span the
opening between columns and to support a superincumbent
weight; the upper beam projected slightly in front of the lower,
and similar projections were continued in the stone or marble
beam though in one block. In the Roman Corinthian order the
fasciae, still projecting one in front of the other, were subdivided
by small mouldings sometimes carved. The several bands are
known as the first or upper fascia, the second or middle fascia
and the third or lower fascia. The term is sometimes applied
to flat projecting bands in Renaissance architecture when em-
ployed as string courses. It is also used, though more commonly
in the form " facia," of the band or plate over a shop-front,
on which the name and occupation of the tradesman is written.
FASCINATION (from Lat. fascinare, to bewitch, probably
connected with the Gr. (JaerKaiveLV, to speak ill of, to bewitch),
the art of enchantfng or bewitching, especially through the
influence of the " evil eye," and so properly of the exercise of an
evil influence over the reason or will. The word is thus used
of the supposed paralysing attraction exercised by some reptiles
on their victims. It is also applied to a particular hypnotic
condition, marked by muscular contraction, but with conscious-
ness and power of remembrance left. In a quite general sense,
fascination means the exercise of any charm or strong attraction.
FASCINE (from the Lat. fascina, fastis, a bundle of sticks),
a large faggot of brushwood used in the revetments of earthworks
and for other purposes of military engineering. The British
service pattern of fascine is 18 ft. long; it is tied as tightly as
possible at short intervals, and the usual diameter is 9 in. Similar
bundles of wood formed part of the foundations of the early
lake-dwellings, and in modern engineering fascines are used in
making rough roads over marshy ground and in building river
and sea walls and breakwaters.
FASHION (adapted from Fr. fafon, Lat. factio, making, facere,
to do or make), the action of making, hence the shape or form
which anything takes in the process of making. It is thus used
in the sense of the pattern, kind, sort, manner or mode in which
a thing is done. It is particularly used of the common or
customary way in which a thing is done, and so is applied to
the manner or custom prevalent at or characteristic of a particular
period, especially of the manner of dress, &c., current at a
particular period in any rank of society, for which the French
term is modes (see COSTUME).
FASHODA (renamed, 1004, KODOK), a post on the west bank
of the Upper Nile, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in 9 53' N., 32 8' E.,
459 m. S., by river, of Khartum. It is the headquarters of the
mudiria (province) of the Upper Nile. The station is built on a
flat peninsula connected by a narrow strip of land with a ridge
which runs parallel with the river. The surrounding country is
mostly deep swamp and the station is most unhealthy; mosquitoes
are present in millions. The climate is always damp and the
temperature rarely below 98 in the shade. The government
offices are well-built brick structures. In front of the station
is a long low island, and when the Nile is at its lowest this channel
becomes dry. Several roads from Kordofan converge on the
Nile at this point, and near the station is the residence of the
mek, or king, of the Shilluk tribe, whose designation of the post
was adopted when it was decided to abandon the use of Fashoda.
At Lul, 1 8 m. farther up stream, is an Austrian Roman Catholic
mission station.
An Egyptian military post was established at Fashoda in 1865.
It was then a trading station of some importance, slaves being
the chief commodity dealt in. In 1883-1884 the place fell into
the hands of the Mahdists. On the loth of July 1898 it was
occupied by a French force from the Congo under Commandant
J. B. Marchand, a circumstance which gave rise to a state of
great tension between Great Britain and France. On the i ith of
December following the French force withdrew, returning home
via Abyssinia (see AFRICA, 5, and EGYPT: History, and Military
Operations).
FAST AND LOOSE, a cheating game played at fairs by
sharpers. A strap, usually in the form of a belt, is rolled or
doubled up with a loop in the centre, and laid edgewise on a
table. The swindler then bets that the loop cannot be caught
with a stick or skewer as he unrolls the belt. As this looks to
be easy to do the bet is often taken, but the sharper unrolls the
belt in such a manner as to make the catching of the loop
practically impossible. Centuries ago it was much practised by
gipsies, a circumstance alluded to by Shakespeare in Anthony
and Cleopatra (iv. 12) :
" Like a right gipsy, hath, at fast and loose,
Beguiled me to the very heart of loss."
From this game is taken the colloquial expression " to play fast
and loose." At the present day it is called " prick the garter "
or " prick the loop."
FASTI, in Roman antiquities, plural of the Latin adjective
fastus, but more commonly used as a substantive, derived from
fas, meaning what is binding, or allowable, by divine law, as
opposed to jus, or human law. Fasti dies thus came to mean
the days on which law business might be transacted without
impiety, corresponding to our own " lawful days "; the opposite
of the dies fasti were the dies nefasli, on which, on various
religious grounds, the courts could not sit. The word fasti itself
then came to be used to denote lists or registers of various kinds,
which may be divided into two great classes.
1. Fasti Diurni, divided into urbani and rustici, a kind of
official year-book, with dates and directions for religious cere-
monies, court-days, market-days, divisions of the month, and
the like. Until 304 B.C. the lore of the calendaria remained the
exclusive and lucrative monopoly of the priesthood; but in that
year Gnaeus Flavius, a pontifical secretary, introduced the
custom of publishing in the forum tables containing the requisite
information, besides brief references to victories, triumphs,
prodigies, &c. This list was the origin of the public Roman
calendar, in which the days were divided into weeks of eight
days each, and indicated by the letters A-H. Each day was
marked by a certain letter to show its nature; thus the letters
F., N., N.P., P.P., Q. Rex C.F., C., EN., stood for fastus,
nefastus, nefastus in some unexplained sense, faslus priore,
quando rex (sacrorum) comitiavit fastus, comitialis and intercisus.
The dies intercisi were partly fasti and partly nefasti. Ovid's
Fasti is a poetical description of the Roman festivals of the first
six months, written to illustrate the Fasti published by Julius
Caesar after he remodelled the Roman year. Upon the
cultivators fewer feasts, sacrifices, ceremonies and holidays
were enjoined than on the inhabitants of cities; and the rustic
fasti contained little more than the ceremonies of the calends,
nones and ides, the fairs, signs of zodiac, increase and decrease
of the days, the tutelary gods of each month, and certain direc-
tions for rustic labours to be performed each month.
2. Fasti Magistrates, Annales or Historici, were concerned
with the several feasts, and everything relating to the gods,
religion and the magistrates; to the emperors, their birthdays,
offices, days consecrated to them, with feasts and ceremonies
established in their honour or for their prosperity. They came
to be denominated magni, by way of distinction from the bare
calendar, or fasti diurni. Of this class, the fasti consulares, for
example, were a chronicle or register of time, in which the several
years were denoted by the respective consuls, with the principal
events which happened during their consulates. The fasti
triumphales and sacerdotales contained a list in chronological
order of persons who had obtained a triumph, together with
the name of the conquered people, and of the priests. The word
fasti thus came to be used in the general sense of " annals "
or " historical records." A famous specimen of the same class
are the fasti Capitolini, so called because they were deposited
in the Capitol by Alexander Farnese, after their excavation from
the Roman forum in 1547. They are chiefly a nominal list of
statesmen, victories, triumphs, &c., from the expulsion of the
kings to the death of Augustus. A considerable number of fasti
FASTING
of the first class have also been discovered; but none of them
appear to be older than the time of Augustus. The Praenestine
calendar, discovered in 1770, arranged by the famous gram-
marian Verrius Flaccus, contains the months of January, March,
April and December, and a portion of February. The tablets
give an account of festivals, as also of the triumphs of Augustus
and Tiberius. There are still two complete calendars in existence,
an official list by Furius Dionysius Philocalus (A.D. 354), and a
Christian version of the official calendar, made by Polemius
Silvius (A.D. 448). But some kinds of fasti included under the
second general head were, from the very beginning, written
for publication. The Annales Pontificum different from the
calendaria properly so called were " annually exhibited in
public on a white table, on which the memorable events of the
year, with special mention of the prodigies, were set down in
the briefest possible manner." Any one was allowed to copy
them. Like the pontifices, the augurs also had their books,
libri augurales. In fact, all the state offices had their fasti
corresponding in character to the consular fasti named above.
For the best text and account of the fragments of the Fasti see
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, i. (2nd ed.); on the subject gener-
ally, Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature, 74, 75, and
article by Bouche-Leclercq in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire
des antiquites.
FASTING (from " fast," derived from old Teutonic fastejan;
synonyms being the Gr. vrianvfiv, late Lat. jejunarc), an
act which is most accurately defined as an abstention from
meat, drink and all natural food for a determined period. So
it is defined by the Church of England, in the i6th homily, on
the authority of the Council of Chalcedon * and of the primitive
church generally. In a looser sense the word is employed to
denote abstinence from certain kinds of food merely; and this
meaning, which in ordinary usage is probably the more prevalent,
seems also to be at least tolerated by the Church of England
when it speaks of " fast or abstinence days," as if fasting and
abstinence were synonymous. 2 More vaguely still, the word
is occasionally used as an equivalent for moral self-restraint
generally. This secondary and metaphorical sense (cijoreueic
KCUOTIJTOS) occurs in one of the fragments of Empedocles.
For the physiology of fasting, see DIETETICS; NUTRITION;
also CORPULENCE.
Starvation itself (see also HUNGER AND THIRST) is of the nature
of a disease which may be prevented by diet; nevertheless
there are connected with it a few peculiarities of scientific and
practical interest. "Inedia," as it is called in the nomenclature
of diseases by the London College of Physicians, is of two kinds,
arising from want of food and from want of water. When entirely
deprived of nutriment the human body is ordinarily capable
of supporting life under ordinary circumstances for little more
than a week. In the spring of 1869 this was tried on the person
of a " fasting girl " in South Wales. The parents made a show
of their child, decking her out like a bride on a bed, and asserting
that she had eaten no food for two years. Some reckless en-
thusiasts for truth set four trustworthy hospital nurses to watch
her; the Celtic obstinacy of the parents was roused, and in
defence of their imposture they allowed death to take place in
eight days. Their trial and conviction for manslaughter may
be found in the daily periodicals of the date; but, strange to
say, the experimental physiologists and nurses escaped scot-free.
There is no doubt that in this instance the unnatural quietude,
the grave-like silence, and the dim religious light in which the
victim was kept contributed to defer death.
One thing which remarkably prolongs life is a supply of water.
" The Fathers assembled there . . . decreed in that council that
every person, as well in his private as public fast, should continue all
the day without meat and drink, till after the evening prayer. And
whosoever did eat or drink before the evening prayer was ended
should be accounted and reputed not to consider the purity of his
fast. This canon teacheth so evidently how fasting was used in the
primitive church as by words it cannot be more plainly expressed "
(Of Good Works; and first, of Fasting.)
1 As indeed they are, etymologically ; but, prior to the Reforma-
tion, a conventional distinction between abslinentia and jejunium
naturale had long been recognized. " Exceptio eduliorum quo-
rundam portionale jejunium est " (Tertullian).
X. 7
Dogs furnished with as much as they wished to drink were found
by M. Chossat (Sur I'inanition, Paris, 1843) to live three times as
long as those who were deprived of solids and liquids at the same
time. Even wetting the skin with sea-water has been found
useful by shipwrecked sailors. Four men and a boy of fourteen
who got shut in the Tynewydd mine near Forth, in South Wales,
in the winter of 1876-1877 for ten days without food, were not only
alive when released, but several of them were able to walk, and
all subsequently recovered. The thorough saturation of the
narrow space with aqueous vapour, and the presence of drain
water in the cutting, were probably their chief preservatives
assisted by the high even temperature always found in the
deeper headings of coal mines, and by the enormous compres-
sion of the confined air. This doubtless prevented evaporation,
and retarded vital processes dependent upon oxidation. The
accumulation of carbonic acid in the breathed air would also have
a similar arrestive power over destructive assimilation. These
prisoners do not seem to have felt any of the severer pangs of
hunger, for they were not tempted to eat their candles. With
the instinctive feeling that darkness adds a horror to death,
they preferred to use them for light. At the wreck of the
" Medusa " frigate in 1876, fifteen people survived on a raft
for thirteen days without food.
It is a paradoxical fact, that the supply of the stomach even
from the substance of the starving individual's body should tend
to prolong life. In April 1874 a case was recorded of exposure
in an open boat for 32 days of three men and two boys, with
only ten days' provisions, exclusive of old boots and jelly-fish.
They had a fight in their delirium, and one was severely wounded.
As the blood gushed out he lapped it up; and instead of suffering
the fatal weakness which might have been expected from the
haemorrhage, he seems to have done well. Experiments were
performed by a French physiologist, M. Anselmier (Archives
gin. de medecine, 1860, vol. i. p. 169), with the object of trying
to preserve the lives of dogs by what he calls " artificial auto-
phagy." He fed them on the blood taken from their own veins
daily, depriving them of all other food, and he found that the
fatal cooling incident to starvation was thus postponed, and
existence prolonged. Life lasted till the emaciation had pro-
ceeded to six- tenths of the animal's weight, as in Chossat 's
experiments, extending to the fourteenth day, instead of ending
on the tenth day, as was the case with other dogs which were
not bled.
Various people have tried, generally for exhibition purposes,
how long they could fast from food with the aid merely of water
or some medicinal preparation ; but these exhibitions cannot be
held to have proved anything of importance. A man named
Jacques in this way fasted at Edinburgh for thirty days in 1888,
and in London for forty-two days in 1890, and for fifty days in
1891; and an Italian named Succi fasted for forty days in 1890.
Religious Fasts. Fasting is of special interest when considered
as a discipline voluntarily submitted to for moral and religious
ends. As such it is very widely diffused. Its modes and motives
vary considerably according to climate, race, civilization and
other circumstances; but it would be difficult to name any
religious system of any description in which it is wholly un-
recognized. 3 The origin of the practice is very obscure. 4 In his
Principles of Sociology Herbert Spencer collected, from the
accounts we have of various savage tribes in widely separated
8 Confucianism ought perhaps to be named as one. Zoroastrian-
ism is frequently given as another, but hardly corrrectly. In the Liber
Sad-der, indeed (Porta xxv.), we read, " Cavendum est tibi a jejunio;
nam a mane ad vesperam nihil comedere non est bonum in religione
nostra "; but according to the Pere de Chinon (Lyons, 1671) the
Parsee religion enjoins, upon the priesthood at least, no fewer than
five yearly fasts. See Hyde, Veterum Persarum religio, pp 449, 548
(ed. 1700).
4 During the middle ages the prevalent notion was that it had its
origin in paradise. The germ at least of this idea is to be found in
Tertullian, who says: " Acceperat Adam a Deo legem non gustandi
de arbore agnitionis boni et mali, moriturus si gustasset; verum
et ipse tune in psychicum reversus . . . facilius ventri quam Deo
cessit, pabulo potius quam praecepto annuit, salutem gula vendidit,
manducavit denique et periit, salvus alioquin si uni arbusculae
jejunare maluisset " (De jejuniis, c. 3).
FASTING
parts of the globe, a considerable body of evidence, from which
he suggested that it may have arisen out of the custom of
providing refreshments for the dead, either by actually feeding
the corpse, or by leaving eatables and drinkables for its use.
It is suggested that the fasting which was at first the natural
and inevitable result of such sacrifice on behalf of the dead
may eventually have come to be regarded as an indispensable
concomitant of all sacrifice, and so have survived as a well-
established usage long after the original cause had ceased to
operate. 1 But this theory is repudiated by the best authorities;
indeed its extreme precariousness at once becomes evident when
it is remembered that, now at least, it is usual for religious fasts
to precede rather than to follow sacrificial and funeral feasts,
if observed at all in connexion with these. Spencer himself
(p. 284) admits that " probably the practice arises in more ways
than one," and proceeds to supplement the theory already
given by another that adopted by E. B. Tylor to the effect
that it originated in the desire of the primitive man to bring on
at will certain abnormal nervous conditions favourable to the
seeing of those visions and the dreaming of those dreams which
are supposed to give the soul direct access to the objective
realities of the spiritual world. 2 Probably, if we leave out of
sight the very numerous and obvious cases in which fasting,
originally the natural reflex result of grief, fear or other strong
emotion, has come to be the usual conventional symbol of these,
we shall find that the practice is generally resorted to, either as
a means of somehow exalting the higher faculties at the expense
of the lower, or as an act of homage to some object of worship.
The axiom of the Amazulu, that " the continually stuffed body
cannot see secret things," meets even now with pretty general
acceptance; and if the notion that it is precisely the food which
the worshipper foregoes that makes the deity more vigorous to
do battle for his human friend be confined only to a few scattered
tribes of savages, the general proposition that " fasting is a work
of reverence toward God " may be said to be an article of the
Catholic faith. 3
Although fasting as a religious rite is to be met with almost
everywhere, there are comparatively few religions, and those only
of the more developed kind, which appoint definite public fasts,
and make them binding at fixed seasons upon all the faithful.
Brahmanism, for example, does not appear to enforce any stated
fast upon the laity. 4 Among the ancient Egyptians fasting
seems to have been associated with many religious festivals,
notably with that of Isis (Herod, ii. 40), but it does not appear
that, so far as the common people were concerned, the observance
of these festivals (which were purely local) was compulsory.
The VTjortia on the third day of the Thesmophoria at Athens
was observed only by the women attending the festival (who
were permitted to eat cakes made of sesame and honey). It is
doubtful whether the fast mentioned by Livy (xxxvi. 37) was
intended to be general or sacerdotal merely.
Jewish Fasts. While remarkable for the cheerful, non-ascetic
character of their worship, the Jews were no less distinguished
from all the nations of antiquity by their annual solemn fast
appointed to be observed on the loth day of the 7th month
(Tisri), the penalty of disobedience being death. The rules, as
laid down in Lev. xvi. 29-34, xxiii. 27-32 and Numb. xxix. 7-11,
include a special injunction of strict abstinence (" ye shall afflict
your souls " 6 ) from evening to evening. This fast was intimately
associated with the chief feast of the year. Before that feast
1 Principles of Sociology, i. pp. 170, 284, 285. Compare the passage
in the appendix from Hanusch, Slavischer Mythus, p. 408.
1 Spencer, Prin. of Sociology, i. 256, &c. ; E. B. Tylor, Primitive
Culture, i. 277, 402; ii. 372, &c.
3 Hooker, E.P. v. 72. In the Westminster Assembly's Larger
Catechism fasting is mentioned among the duties required by the
second commandment.
4 The Brahrnans themselves on the eleventh day after the full
moon and the eleventh day after the new " abstain for sixty hours
from every kind of sustenance " ; and some have a special fast every
Monday in November. See Picart, The Religion and Manners of the
Brahmins.
5 E>?} is here to be taken as substantially equivalent to " desire,"
" appetite."
could be entered upon, the sins of the people had to be confessed
and (sacramentally) expiated. The fast was a suitable con-
comitant of that contrition which befitted the occasion. The
practice of stated fasting was not in any other case enjoined
by the law; and it is generally understood to have been forbidden
on Sabbath. 6 At the same time, private and occasional fasting,
being regarded as a natural and legitimate instinct, was regulated
rather than repressed. The only other provision about fasting
in the Pentateuch is of a regulative nature, Numb. xxx. 14 (13),
to the effect that a vow made by a woman " to afflict the soul "
may in certain circumstances be cancelled by her husband.
The history of Israel from Moses to Ezra furnishes a large
number of instances in which the fasting instinct was obeyed
both publicly and privately, locally and nationally, under the
influence of sorrow, or_ fear, or passionate desire. See, for
example, Judg. xx. 26; i Sam. vii. 6 (where the national fast
was conjoined with the ceremony of pouring out water before
the Lord); Jer. xxxvi. 6, 9; and 2 Sam. xii. 16.' Sometimes the
observance of such fasts extended over a considerable period of
time, during which, of course, the stricter jejunium was conjoined
with abstinentia (Dan. x. 2). Sometimes they lasted only for a
day. In Jonah iii. 6, 7, we have an illustrative example of the
rigour with which a strict fast might be observed; and such
passages as Joel ii. and Isa. Iviii. 5 enable us to picture with
some vividness the outward accompaniments of a Jewish fast
day before the exile.
During the exile many occasional fasts were doubtless observed
by the scattered communities, in sorrowful commemoration of
the various sad events which had issued in the downfall of the
kingdom of Judah. Of these, four appear to have passed into
general use the fasts of the loth, 4th, sth and 7th months
commemorating the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem, the
capture of the city, the destruction of the temple, the assassina-
tion of Gedaliah. As time rolled on they became invested with
increasing sanctity; and though the prophet Zechariah, when
consulted about them at the close of the exile (Zech. viii. 19),
had by no means encouraged the observance of them, the re-
building of the temple does not appear to have been considered
an achievement of sufficient importance to warrant their dis-
continuance. It is worthy of remark that Ezekiel's prophetic
legislation contains no reference to any fast day; the book of
Esther (ix. 31), on the other hand, records the institution of a
new fast on the i3th of the i2th month.
In the post-exile period private fasting was much practised
by the pious, and encouraged by the religious sentiment of the
time (see Judith viii. 6; Tob. xii. 8, and context; Sirach xxxiv.
26; Luke ii. 37 and xviii. 12). The last reference contains an
allusion to the weekly fasts which were observed on the 2nd
and 5th days of each week, in commemoration, it was said, of
the ascent and descent of Moses at Sinai. The real origin of
these fasts and the date of their introduction are alike uncertain;
it is manifest, however, that the observance of them was volun-
tary, and never made a matter of universal obligation. It is
probable that the Sadducees, if not also the Essenes, wholly
neglected them. The second book (Seder Moed) of the Mishna
contains two tractates bearing upon the subject of fasting.
One (Yoma, " the day ") deals exclusively with the rites which
were to be observed on the great day of expiation or atonement;
the other (Taanilh, " fast ") is devoted to the other fasts, and
6 See Judith viii. 6. " And yet it may be a question whether they
(the Jews) did not always fast upon Sabbath, ' says Hooker (E.P.
v. 72, 7), who gives a curious array of evidence pointing in this
direction. He even makes use of Neh. viii. 9-12, which might be
thought to tell the other way. Justinian's phrase, " Sabbata
Judaeorum a Mose in omne aevum jeiunio dicata " (1. xxxvi. c. 2;
comp. Suetonius, Augustus, 76) may be accounted for by the fact
that the day of atonement is called Sabbat Sabbat6n (" a perfect
Sabbath ").
7 There is, as Graf (Gesch. Biicher des A.T. p. 41) has pointed out,
no direct evidence that the fast on the loth of the 7th month was ever
observed before the exile. But the inference which he draws from
this silence of the historical books is manifestly a precarious one at
best. Bleek calls Lev. xvi. " ein deutliches Beispiel Mosa'ischer
Abfassung " (Einleitung, p. 31, ed. 1878).
FASTING
deals especially with the manner in which occasional fasting is
to be gone about if no rain shall have fallen on or before the i7th
day of Marcheschwan. It is enacted that in such a case the
rabbis shall begin with a light fast of three days (Monday,
Thursday, Monday), i.e. a fast during which it is lawful to work,
and also to wash and anoint the person. Then, in the event of a
continued drought, fasts of increasing intensity are ordered;
and as a last resort the ark is to be brought into the street and
sprinkled with ashes, the heads of the Nasi and Ab-beth-din being
at the same time similarly sprinkled. 1 In no case was any
fast to be allowed to interfere with new-moon or other fixed
festival. Another institution treated with considerable fulness
in the treatise Taanith is that of the loyo : (viri slationis),
who are represented as having been laymen severally represent-
ing the twenty-four classes or families into which the whole
commonwealth of the laity was divided. They used to attend
the temple in rotation, and be present at the sacrifices; and as
this duty fell to each in his turn, the men of the class or family
which he represented were expected in their several cities and
places of abode to engage themselves in religious exercises,
and especially in fasting. The suggestion will readily occur that
here may be the origin of the Christian staliones. But neither
Tertullian nor any other of the fathers seems to have been
aware of the existence of any such institution among the Jews;
and very probably the story about it may have been a com-
paratively late invention. It ought to be borne in mind that the
Aramaic portion of the Megillath Taanith (a document consider-
ably older than the treatises in the Mishna) gives a catalogue
only of the days on which fasting was forbidden. The Hebrew
part (commented on by Maimonides), in which numerous fasts
are recommended, is of considerably later date. See Reland,
Antiq. Hebr. p. iv. c. 10; Derenbourg, Hist, de Palestine, p. 439.
Practice of the Early Christian Church. Jesus Himself did not
inculcate asceticism in His teaching, and the absence of that
distinctive element from His practice was sometimes a subject
of hostile remark (Matt. xi. 19). We read, indeed, that on one
occasion He fasted forty days and forty nights; but the ex-
pression, which is an obscure one, possibly means nothing more
than that He endured the privations ordinarily involved in a
stay in the wilderness. While we have no reason to doubt that
He observed the one great national fast prescribed in the written
law of Moses, we have express notice that neither He nor His
disciples were in the habit of observing the other fasts which
custom and tradition had established. See Mark ii. 18, where
the correct reading appears to be " The disciples of John, and
the Pharisees, were fasting " (some customary fast). He never
formally forbade fasting, but neither did He ever enjoin it.
He assumed that, in certain circumstances of sorrow and need,
the fasting instinct would sometimes be felt by the community
and the individual; what He was chiefly concerned about was
to warn His followers against the mistaken aims which His
contemporaries were so apt to contemplate in their fasting
(Matt.vi. 16-18). In one passage, indeed, He has been understood
as practically commanding resort to the practice in certain
circumstances. It ought to be noted, however, that Matt,
xvii. 21 is probably spurious; and that in Mark ix. 29 the
words " and fasting " are omitted by Westcott and Hort as
well as by Tischendorf on the evidence of the Cod. Sinaiticus
(first hand) and Cod. Vaticanus. 2 The reference to " the fast "
in Acts xxvii. 9 has generally been held to indicate that the
apostles continued to observe the yearly Jewish fast. But this
inference is by no means a necessary one. According to Acts
xiii. 2, 3, xiv. 23, they conjoined fasting with prayer at ordina-
tions, and doubtless also on some other solemn occasions; but
at the same time the liberty of the Christian " in respect of an
holiday, or of the new moon, or of the Sabbath " was strongly
insisted on, by one of them at least, who declared that meat
whether taken or abstained from commendeth not to God (Col.
1 The allusion to the ark warns us to be cautious in assuming the
laws of the Mishna to have been ever in force.
2 The idea, however, is found in. the Clementine Homilies, ix. 9.
Compare Tertullian De jejuniis, c. 8: " Docuit etiam adversus
diriora daemonia jejuniis praeliandum."
ii. 16-23; i Cor. viii. 8 ; Rom. xiv. 14-22 ; i Tim. iv. 3-5).
The fastings to which the apostle Paul alludes in 2 Cor. vi. 5,
xi. 27, were rather of the nature of inevitable hardships cheerfully
endured in the discharge of his sacred calling. The words
which appear to encourage fasting in i Cor. vii. 5 are absent
from all the oldest manuscripts and are now omitted by all
critics; 3 and on the whole the precept and practice of the New
Testament, while recognizing the propriety of occasional and
extraordinary fasts, seem to be decidedly hostile to the imposition
of any of a stated, obligatory and general kind.
The usage of the Christian church during the earlier centuries
was in this, as in so many other matters, influenced by traditional
Jewish feeling, and by the force of old habit, quite as much as
by any direct apostolic authority or supposed divine command.
Habitual temperance was of course in all cases regarded as an
absolute duty; and " the bridegroom " being absent, the present
life was regarded as being in a sense one continual " fast."
Fasting in the stricter sense was not unknown; but it is certain
that it did not at first occupy nearly so prominent a place in
Christian ritual as that to which it afterwards attained. There
are early traces of the customary observance of the Wednesday
and Friday fasts the dies stationum (Clem. Alex. Strom, vii.
877), and also of a " quadragesimal " fast before Easter. But
the very passage which proves the early origin of " quadra-
gesima," conclusively shows how uncertain it was in its character,
and how unlike the Catholic " Lent." Irenaeus, quoted by
Eusebius (v. 24), informs us with reference to the customary
yearly celebration of the mystery of the resurrection of our Lord,
that disputes prevailed not only with respect to the day, but
also with respect to the manner of fasting in connexion with it.
" For some think that they ought to fast only one day, some
two, some more days ; some compute their day as consisting of
forty hours night and day ; and this diversity existing among
those that observe it is not a matter that has just sprung up in
our times, but long ago among those before us." It was not
pretended that the apostles had legislated on the matter, but
the general and natural feeling that the anniversaries of the
crucifixion and the resurrection of Christ ought to be celebrated
by Christians took expression in a variety of ways according to
the differing tastes of individuals. No other stated fasts, besides
those already mentioned, can be adduced from the time before
Irenaeus ; but there was also a tendency not unnatural in
itself, and already sanctioned by Jewish practice to fast by
way of preparation for any season of peculiar privilege. Thus,
according to Justin Martyr (Apol. ii. 93), catechumens were
accustomed to fast before baptism, and the church fasted with
them. To the same feeling the quadragesimal fast which (as
already stated) preceded the joyful feast of the resurrection,
is to be, in part at least, attributed. As early as the time of
Tertullian it was also usual for communicants to prepare them-
selves by fasting for receiving the eucharist. But that Christian
fasts had not yet attained to the exaggerated importance which
they afterwards assumed is strikingly shown in the well-known
Shepherd of Hermas (lib. iii. sim. v.), where it is declared that
" with merely outward fasting nothing is done for true virtue " ;
the believer is exhorted chiefly to abstain from evil and seek to
cleanse himself from feelings of covetousness, and impurity, and
revenge : " on the day that thou fastest content thyself with
bread, vegetables and water, and thank God for these. But
reckon up on this day what thy meal would otherwise have cost
thee, and give the amount that it comes to to some poor widow
or orphan, or to the poor." The right of bishops to ordain special
fasts, "ex aliqua sollicitudinis ecclesiasticae causa " (Tertullian),
was also recognized.
Later Practice of the Church. According to an expression
preserved by Eusebius (H.E. v. 18), Montanus was the first to
give laws (to the church) on fasting. Such language, though
rhetorical in form, is substantially correct. The treatise of Ter-
tullian, Concerning Fasting : against the Carnal, written as
3 On the manuscript evidence the words " I was fasting," in Acts x.
30, must also be regarded as doubtful. They are rejected by Lach-
mann, Tregelles and Tischendorf.
196
FASTING
it was under Montanistic influence, is doubly interesting, first
as showing how free the practice of the church down to that time
had been, and then as foreshadowing the burdensome legislation
which was destined to succeed. In that treatise (c. 15) he
approves indeed of the church practice of not fasting on Saturdays
and Sundays (as elsewhere, De corona, c. 3, he had expressed
his concurrence in the other practice of observing the entire
period between Easter and Pentecost as a season of joy) ; but
otherwise he evinces great dissatisfaction with the indifference
of the church as to the number, duration and severity of her
fasts. 1 The church thus came to be more and more involved in
discussions as to the number of days to be observed, especially
in " Lent," as fast days, as to the hour at which a fast ought to
terminate (whether at the 3rd or at the 9th hour), as to the
rigour with which each fast ought to be observed (whether by
abstinence from flesh merely, abstinentia, or by abstinence from
lacticinia, xerophagia, or by literal jejunium), and as to the
penalties by which the laws of fasting ought to be enforced.
Almost a century, however, elapsed between the composition
of the treatise of Tertullian (dr. 212) and the first recorded
instances of ecclesiastical legislation on the subject. These, while
far from indicating that the church had attained unanimity
on the points at issue, show progress in the direction of the later
practice of Catholicism. About the year 306 the synod of
Illiberis in its 26th canon decided in favour of the observance
of the Saturday fast. 2 The council of Ancyra in 3 14, on the other
hand, found it necessary to legislate in a somewhat different
direction, by its i4th canon enjoining its priests and clerks
at least to taste meat at the love feasts. 3 The synod of Laodicea
framed several rules with regard to the observance of " Lent,"
such as that " during Lent the bread shall not be offered except
on Saturday and Sunday " (can. 49), that " the fast shall not be
relaxed on the Thursday of the last week of Lent, thus dishonour-
ing the whole season; but the fast shall be kept throughout the
whole period " (can. 50), that " during the fast no feasts of the
martyrs shall be celebrated " (can. 51), and that " no wedding
or birthday feasts shall be celebrated during Lent " (can. 52).
The synod of Hippo (393 A.D.) enacted that the sacrament of
the altar should always be taken fasting, except on the Thursday
before Easter. Protests in favour of freedom were occasionally
raised, not always in a very wise manner, or on very wise grounds,
by various individuals such as Eustathius of Sebaste (c. 350),
Aerius of Pontus (c. 375), and Jovinian, a Roman monk (c. 388).
Of the Eustathians, for example (whose connexion with Eusta-
thius can hardly be doubted), the complaint was made that " they
fast on Sundays, but eat on the fast-days of the church." They
were condemned by the synod of Gangra in Paphlagonia in the
following canons: Can. 19, " If any one fast on Sunday, let
him be anathema." 4 Can. 20, " If any one do not keep the fasts
universally commanded and observed by the whole church, let
him be anathema." Jovinian was very moderate. He " did not
allow himself to be hurried on by an inconsiderate zeal to con-
demn fasting, the life of celibacy, monachism, considered purely
in themselves. . . . He merely sought to show that men were
1 Quinam isti (adversarii) sint, semel nominabo: exteriores et
interioresbotulipsychicorum . . . Arguunt nos quod jejunia propria
custodiamus, quod stationes plerumque in vesperam producamus,
quod etiam xerophagias observemus, siccantes cibum ab omni carne
et omni jurulentia et uvidioribusquibusque pomis, nee quid vinositatis
vel edamus vel potemus; lavacri quoque abstinentiam congruentem
arido victui.
2 The language of the canon is ambiguous; but this interpretation
seems to be preferable, especially in view of canon 23, which enacts
that jejunii superpositiones are to be observed in all months except
July and August. See Hefele, Councils, i. 148 (Engl. trs.).
3 Compare the 52nd [5ist] of the Apostolical canons. " If any
bishop or presbyter or deacon, or indeed any one of the sacerdotal
catalogue, abstains from flesh and wine, not for his own exercise
but out of hatred of the things, forgetting that all things were very
good . . . either let him reform, or let him be deprived and be cast
out of the church. So also a layman." To this particular canon
Hefele is disposed to assign a very early date.
4 Compare canon 64 of the (supposed) fourth synod of Carthage:
" He who fasts on Sunday is not accounted a Catholic " (Hefele, ii.
415).
wrong in recommending so highly and indiscriminately the life
of celibacy and fasting, though he was ready to admit that both
under certain circumstances might be good and useful "
(Neander). He was nevertheless condemned (390) both by Pope
Siricius at a synod in Rome, and by Ambrose at another in Milan.
The views of Aerius, according to the representations of his
bitter opponent Epiphanius (Haer. 75, " Adv. Aerium "), seem
on this head at least, though unpopular, to have been character-
ized by great wisdom and sobriety. He did not condemn
fasting altogether, but thought that it ought to be resorted to
in the spirit of gospel freedom according as each occasion should
arise. He found fault with the church for having substituted
for Christian liberty a yoke of Jewish bondage. 6
Towards the beginning of the 5th century we find Socrates
(439) enumerating (H.E. v. 22) a long catalogue of the different
fasting practices of the church. The Romans fasted three weeks
continuously before Easter (Saturdays and Sundays excepted).
In Illyria, Achaia and Alexandria the quadragesimal fast lasted
six weeks. Others (the Constantinopolitans) began their fasts
seven weeks before Easter, but fasted only on alternate weeks,
five days at a time. Corresponding differences as to the manner
of abstinence occurred. Some abstained from all living creatures ;
others ate fish ; others fish and fowl. Some abstained from eggs
and fruit; some confined themselves to bread; some would not
take even that. Some fasted till three in the afternoon, and
then took whatever they pleased. " Other nations," adds the
historian, " observe other customs in their fasts, and that for
various reasons. And since no one can show any written rule
about this, it is plain the apostles left this matter free to every
one's liberty and choice, that no one should be compelled to do
a good thing out of necessity and fear." When Leo the Great
became pope in 440, a period of more rigid uniformity began.
The imperial authority of Valentinian helped to bring the whole
West at least into submission to the see of Rome ; and ecclesi-
astical enactments had, more than formerly, the support of the
civil power. Though the introduction of the four Ember seasons
was not entirely due to him, as has sometimes been asserted,
it is certain that their widespread observance was due to his
influence, and to that of his successors, especially of Gregory the
Great. The tendency to increased rigour may be discerned in
the 2nd canon of the synod of Orleans (541), which declares that
every Christian is bound to observe the fast of Lent, and, in case
of failure to do so, is to be punished according to the laws of the
church by his spiritual superior; in the gth canon of the synod
of Toledo (653), which declares the eating of flesh during Lent
to be a mortal sin; in Charlemagne's law for the newly con-
quered Saxony, which attaches the penalty of death to wanton
disregard of the holy season. 6 Baronius mentions that in the
nth century those who ate flesh during Lent were liable to have
their teeth knocked out. But it ought to be remembered that
this severity of the law early began to be tempered by the power
to grant dispensations. The so-called Butter Towers (Tours de
beurre) of Rouen, 1485-1507, Bourges and other cities, are said
to have been built with money raised by sale of dispensations
to eat lacticinia on fast days.
It is probable that the apparent severity of the medieval
Latin Church on this subject was largely due to the real strictness
of the Greek Church, which, under the patriarch Photius in 864,
had taken what was virtually a new departure in its fasting
praxis. The rigour of the fasts of the modern Greek Church is
well known; and it can on the whole be traced back to that
comparatively early date. Of the nine fundamental laws of that
6 Priscillian, whose widespread heresy evoked from the synod of
Saragossa (418) the canon, " No one shall fast on Sunday, nor may
any one absent himself from church during Lent and hold a fes-
tival of his own," appears, on the question of fasting, not to have
differed from the Encratites and various other sects of Manichean
tendency (c. 406).
8 Cap. iii. pro partib. Saxoniae: " Si quis sanctum quadragesimale
jejunium pro despectu Christianitatis contempserit et carnem
comederit, morte moriatur. Sed tamen consideretur a sacerdote ne
forte causa necessitatis hoc cuilibet proveniat, ut carnem comedat."
See August!, Christliclie Archiiologie, x. p. 374.
FASTING
197
church (kvvka. irapa.'yytktj.a.Ta. rfjs l/CKXrjoias) two are concerned
with fasting. Besides fasts of an occasional and extraordinary
nature, the following are recognized as of stated and universal
obligation: (i) The Wednesday and Friday fasts throughout
the year (with the exception of the period between Christmas
and Epiphany, the Easter week, the week after Whitsunday,
the third week after Epiphany); (2) The great yearly fasts, viz.
that of Lent, lasting 48 days, from the Monday of Sexagesima
to Easter eve; that of Advent, 39 days, from November 15 to
Christmas eve; that of the Theotokos (v^anla TTJS Qeoronov) ,
from August i to August 15; that of the Holy Apostles, last-
ing a variable number of days from the Monday after Trinity;
(3) The minor yearly fasts before Epiphany, before Whitsunday,
before the feasts of the transfiguration, the invention of the cross,
the beheading of John the Baptist. During even the least rigid
of these the use of flesh and lacticinia is strictly forbidden;
fish, oil and wine are occasionally conceded, but not before two
o'clock in the afternoon. The practice of the Coptic church is
almost identical with this. A week before the Great Fast (Lent) ,
a fast of three days is observed in commemoration of that of the
Ninevites, mentioned in the book of Jonah. Some of the Copts
are said to observe it by total abstinence during the whole
period. The Great Fast continues fifty-five days; nothing is
eaten except bread and vegetables, and that only in the afternoon,
when church prayers are over. The Fast of the Nativity lasts
for twenty-eight days before Christmas; that of the Apostles
for a variable number of days from the Feast of the Ascension;
and that of the Virgin for fifteen days before the Assumption.
All Wednesdays and Fridays are also fast days except those that
occur in the period between Easter and Whitsunday. The
Armenians are equally strict; but (adds Rycaut) " the times
seem so confused and without rule that they can scarce be re-
counted, unless by those who live amongst them, and strictly
observe them, it being the chief care of the priest, whose learning
principally consists in knowing the appointed times of fasting
and feasting, the which they never omit on Sundays to publish
unto the people." *
At the council of Trent no more than a passing allusion was
made to the subject of fasting. The faithful were simply en-
joined to submit themselves to church authority on the subject;
and the clergy were exhorted to urge their flocks to the observance
of frequent jejunia, as conducive to the mortification of the flesh,
and as assuredly securing the divine favour. R. F. R. Bellarmine
(De jejunio) distinguishes jejunium spirituale (abstinentia a
vitiis), jejunium morale (parsimonia et temperantia cibi et potus),
jejunium naturale (abstinentia ab omni prorsus cibo et potu,
quacunque ratione sumplo), and jejunium ecclesiasticum. The
last he defines simply as an abstinence from food in conformity
with the rule of the church. It may be either voluntary or
compulsory; and compulsory either because of a vow or because
of a command. But the definition given by Alexander Halensis,
which is much fuller, still retains its authority: " Jejunium
est abstinentia a cibo et potu secundum formam ecclesiae, intuitu
satisfaciendi pro peccato et acquirendi vitam aeternam." It
was to this last clause that the Reformers most seriously objected.
They did not deny that fasting might be a good thing, nor did
they maintain that the church or the authority might not ordain
fasts, though they deprecated the imposition of needless burdens
on the conscience. What they protested against was the theory
of the opus operatum et meritorium as applied to fasting. As
matter of fact, the Reformed churches in no case g"ave up the
custom of observing fast days, though by some churches the
number of such days was greatly reduced. In many parts of
Germany the seasons of Lent and Advent are still marked by
the use of emblems of mourning in the churches, by the frequency
of certain phrases (Kyrie eleison, Agnus Dei) and the absence of
others (Hallelujah, Gloria in excelsis) in the liturgical services,
by abstinence from some of the usual social festivities, and by
the non-celebration of marriages. And occasional fasts are more
1 See Fink's article " Fasten " in Ersch and Gruber's Encydopddie;
Lane, Modern Egyptians; and Rycaut, Present State of the Armenian
Church.
or less familiar. The Church of England has retained a con-
siderable list of fasts; though Hooker (E.P. v. 72) had to con-
tend with some who, while approving of fastings undertaken
" of men's own free and voluntary accord as their particular
devotion doth move them thereunto," yet "yearly or weekly
fasts such as ours in the Church of England they allow no further
than as the temporal state of the land doth require the same
for the maintenance of seafaring men and preservation of cattle;
because the decay of the one and the waste of the other could not
well be prevented but by a politic order appointing some such
usual change of diet as ours is."
In the practice of modern Roman Catholicism the following
are recognized as fasting days, that is to say, days on which one
meal only, and that not of flesh, may be taken in the course of
twenty-four hours: The forty days of Lent (Sundays excepted),
all the Ember days, the Wednesdays and Fridays in Advent,
and the vigils of certain feasts, namely, those of Whitsuntide,
of St Peter and St Paul, of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin
Mary, of All Saints and of Christmas day. The following are
simply days of abstinence, that is to say, days on which flesh at
all events must not be eaten: The Sundays in Lent, the three
Rogation days, the feast of St Mark (unless it falls in Easter
week), and all Fridays which are not days of fasting. In the
Anglican Church, the " days of fasting or abstinence " are the
forty days of Lent, the Ember days, the Rogation days, and all
the Fridays in the year, except Christmas day. The evens or
vigils before Christmas, the Purification of the Blessed Virgin
Mary, the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Easter day,
Ascension day, Pentecost, St Matthias, the Nativity of St John
Baptist, St Peter, St James, St Bartholomew, St Matthew, St
Simon and St Jude, St Andrew, St Thomas, and All Saints are
also recognized as " fast days." By the 64th canon it is enacted
that " every parson, vicar or curate, shall in his several charge
declare to the people every Sunday at the time appointed in the
communion-book [which is, after the Nicene creed has been
repeated] whether there be any holy-days or fast-days the week
following." The ?2nd canon ordains that " no minister or
ministers shall, without licence and direction of the bishop
under hand and seal, appoint or keep any solemn fasts, either
publicly or in any private houses, other than such as by law
are or by public authority shall be appointed, nor shall be
wittingly present at any of them under pain of suspension for
the first fault, of excommunication for the second, and of
deposition from the ministry for the third." While strongly
discouraging the arbitrary multiplication of public or private
fasts, the English Church seems to leave to the discretion of the
individual conscience every question as to the manner in which
the fasts she formally enjoins are to be observed. In this
connexion the homily Of Fasting may be again referred to.
By a statute of the reign of Queen Elizabeth it was enacted that
none should eat flesh on " fish days " (the Wednesdays, Fridays
and Saturdays throughout the year) without a licence, under a
penalty. In the Scottish Presbyterian churches days of " fast-
ing, humiliation and prayer " are observed by ecclesiastical
appointment in each parish once or twice every year on some day
of the week preceding the Sunday fixed for the administration
of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. In some of the New
England States, it has been usual for the governor to appoint
by proclamation at some time in spring a day of fasting, when
religious services are conducted in the churches. National fasts
have more than once been observed on special occasions both in
this country and in the United States of America.
On the subject of fasting the views of Aerius are to a large
extent shared by modern Protestant moralists. R. Rothe, for
example, who on this point may be regarded as a representative
thinker, rejects the idea that fasting is a thing meritorious in
itself, and is very doubtful of its value even as an aid to devotional
feeling. Of course when bodily health and other circumstances
require it, it becomes a duty; and as a means of self-discipline
it may be used with due regard to the claims of other duties,
and to the fitness of things. In this last aspect, however,
habitual temperance will generally be found to be much more
198
FASTOLF FATALISM
beneficial than occasional fasting. It is extremely questionable,
in particular, whether fasting be so efficient as it is sometimes
supposed to be in protecting against temptation to fleshly sin.
The practice has a well-ascertained tendency to excite the
imagination; and in so far as it disturbs that healthy and well-
balanced interaction of body and mind which is the best or at
least the normal condition for the practice of virtue, it is to
be deprecated rather than encouraged (Theologische Elhik, sec.
873-875)-
Mahommedan Fasts. Among the Mahommedans, the month
Ramadan, in which the first part of the Koran is said to have
been received, is by command of the prophet observed as a fast
with extraordinary rigour. No food or drink of any kind is
permitted to be taken from daybreak until the appearance of
the stars at nightfall. Extending as it does over the whole
" month of raging heat," such a fast manifestly involves con-
siderable self-denial; and it is absolutely binding upon all the
faithful whether at home or abroad. Should its observance at
the appointed time be interfered with by sickness or any other
cause, the fast must be kept as soon afterwards as possible for
a like number of days. It is the only one which Mahommedanism
enjoins; but the doctors of the law recommend a considerable
number of voluntary fasts, as for example on the tenth day of
the month Moharram. This day, called the " Yom Ashoora,"
is held sacred on many accounts: " because it is believed to be
the day on which the first meeting of Adam and Eve took place
after they were cast out of paradise; and that on which Noah
went out from the ark; also because several other great events
are said to have happened on this day; and because the ancient
Arabs, before the time of the prophet, observed it by fasting.
But what, in the opinion of most modern Moslems, and especially
the Persians, confers the greatest sanctity on the day of Ashoora
is the fact of its being that on which El-Hoseyn, the prophet's
grandson, was slain a martyr at the battle of the plain of Karbala."
It is the practice of many Moslems to fast on this day, and some
do so on the preceding day also. Mahomet himself called fasting
the " gate of religion," and forbade it only on the two great
festivals, namely, on that which immediately follows Ramadan
and on that which succeeds ihe pilgrimage. (See Lane, Modern
Egyptians, chaps, iii., xxiv.)
FASTOLF, SIR JOHN (d. 1459), English soldier, has enjoyed a
more lasting reputation as in some part the prototype of Shake-
speare's Falstaff. He was son of a Norfolk gentleman, John
Fastolf of Caister, is said to have been squire to ThomasMowbray,
duke of Norfolk, before 1398, served with Thomas of Lancaster
in Ireland during 1405 and 1406, and in 1408 made a fortunate
marriage with Millicent, widow of Sir Stephen Scrope of Castle
Combe in Wiltshire. In 1413 he was serving in Gascony, and
took part in all the subsequent campaigns of Henry V. in France.
He must have earned a good repute as a soldier, for in 1423 he
was made governor of Maine and Anjou, and in February 1426
created a knight of the Garter. But later in this year he was
superseded in his command by John Talbot. After a visit to
England in 1428, he returned to the war, and on the i2th of
February 1429 when in charge of the convoy for the English
army before Orleans defeated the French and Scots at the
" battle of herrings." On the i8th of June of the same year
an English force under the command of Fastolf and Talbot
suffered a serious defeat at Patay. According to the French
historian Waurin, who was present, the disaster was due to
Talbot's rashness, and Fastolf only fled when resistance was
hopeless. Other accounts charge him with cowardice, and it is
true that John of Bedford at first deprived him of the Garter,
though after inquiry he was honourably reinstated. This
incident was made unfavourable use of by Shakespeare in Henry
VI. (pt. i. act iv. sc. i.). Fastolf continued to serve with honour
in France, and was trusted both by Bedford and by Richard of
York. He only came home finally in 1440, when past sixty years
of age. But the scandal against him continued, and during
Cade's rebellion in 1451 he was charged with having been the
cause of the English disasters through minishing the garrisons
of Normandy. It is suggested that he had made much money
in the war by the hire of troops, and in his later days he showed
himself a grasping man of business. A servant wrote of him :
" cruel and vengible he hath been ever, and for the most part
without pity and mercy " (Paston Letters, i. 389). Besides his
share in his wife's property he had large estates in Norfolk and
Suffolk, and a house at Southwark, where he also owned the
Boar's Head Inn. He died at Caister on the sth of November
1459. There is some reason to suppose that Fastolf favoured
Lollardry, and this circumstance with the tradition of his
braggart cowardice may have suggested the use of his name for
the boon companion of Prince Hal, when Shakespeare found
it expedient to drop that of Oldcastle. In the first two folios
the name of the historical character in the first part of Henry VI.
is given as " Falstaffe " not Fastolf. Other points of resemblance
between the historic Fastolf and the Falstaff of the dramatist
are to be found in their service under Thomas Mowbray, and
association with a Boar's Head Inn. But Falstaff is in no true
sense a dramatization of the real soldier.
The facts of Fastolf's early career are to be found chiefly in the
chronicles of Monstrelet and Waurin. For his later life there is much
material, including a number of his own letters, in the Paston Letters.
There is a full life by W. Oldys in the Biographia Britannica (ist ed.,
enjarged by Gough in Kippis's edition). See also Dawson Turner's
History of Caister Castle, Scrape's History of Castle Combe, J. Gairdner's
essay On the Historical Element in Shakespeare's Falstaff, ap. Studies
in English History, Sidney Lee's article in the Dictionary of National
Biography, and D. W. Duthie, The Case of Sir John Fastojf and other
Historical Studies (1907). (C. L. K.)
FAT (O.E. fdelt; the word is common to Teutonic languages,
cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fell, &c., and may be ultimately related to
Greek ir'uav and luapos, and Sanskrit pivan), the name given
to certain animal and vegetable products which are oily solids
at ordinary temperatures, and are chemically distinguished
as being the glyceryl esters of various fatty acids, of which the
most important are stearic, palmitic, and oleic; it is to be
noticed that they are non-nitrogenous. Fat is a normal con-
stituent of animal tissue, being found even before birth; it
occurs especially in the intra-muscular, the abdominal and
the subcutaneous connective tissues. In the vegetable kingdom
fats especially occur in the seeds and fruits, and sometimes in
the roots. Physiological subjects- concerned with the part played
by fats in living animals are treated in the articles CONNECTIVE
TISSUES; NUTRITION; CORPULENCE; METABOLIC DISEASES.
The fats are chemically similar to the fixed oils, from which they
are roughly distinguished by being solids and not liquids (see
OILS). While all fats have received industrial applications,
foremost importance must be accorded to the fats of the domestic
animals the sheep, cow, ox and calf. These, which are extracted
from the bones and skins in the first operation in the manu-
facture of glue, are the raw materials of the soap, candle and
glycerin industries.
FATALISM (Lat. fatum, that which is spoken, decreed),
strictly the doctrine that all things happen according to a pre-
arranged fate, necessity or inexorable decree. It has frequently
been confused with determinism (q.v.), which, however, differs
from it categorically in assigning a certain function to the will.
The essence of the fatalistic doctrine is that it assigns no place
at all to the initiative of the individual, or to rational sequence
of events. Thus an oriental may believe that he is fated to die
on a particular day; he believes that, whatever he does and in
spite of all precautions he may take, nothing can avert the
disaster. The idea of an omnipotent fate overruling all affairs
of men is present in various forms in practically all religious
systems. Thus Homer assumes a single fate (Molpa), an
impersonal power which makes all human concerns subject to
the gods: it is not powerful over the gods, however, for Zeus
is spoken of as weighing out the fate of men (II. xxii. 209, viii.
69). Hesiod has three Fates (MoTpai), daughters of Night,
Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos. In Aeschylus fate is powerful
even over the gods. The Epicureans regarded fate as blind
chance, while to the Stoics everything is subject to an absolute
rational law.
The doctrine of fate appears also in what are known as the
higher religions, e.g. Christianity and Mahommedanism. In the
FATE FATHER
199
former the ideas of personality and infinite power have vanished,
all power being conceived as inherent in God. It is recognized
that the moral individual must have some kind of initiative,
and yet since God is omnipotent and omniscient man must be
conceived as in some sense foreordained to a certain moral,
mental and physical development. In the history of theChristian
church emphasis has from time to time been laid specially on the
latter aspect of human life (cf. the doctrines of election, fore-
ordination, determinism). Even those theologians, however,
who have laid special stress on the limitations of the human will
have repudiated the strictly fatalistic doctrine which is character-
istic of Oriental thought and is the negation of all human initiative
(see PREDESTINATION; AUGUSTINE, SAINT; WILL). In Islam
fate is an absolute power, known as Kismet, or Nasib, which is
conceived as inexorable and transcending' all the physical laws
of the universe. The most striking feature of the Oriental
fatalism is its complete indifference to material circumstances:
men accept prosperity and misfortune with calmness as the decree
of fate.
FATE, in Roman mythology, the spoken word (fatum) of
Jupiter, the unalterable will of heaven. The plural (Fata, the
Fates) was used for the " destinies " of individuals or cities,
and then for the three goddesses who controlled them. Thus,
Fata Scribunda were the goddesses who wrote down a man's
destiny at his birth. In this connexion, however, Fata may be
singular, the masculine and feminine Fatus, Fata, being the usual
forms in popular and ceremonial language. The Fates were
also called Parcae, the attributes of both being the same as those
of the Greek Moerae.
FATEHPUR, FATHIPUR or FUTTEHPOOR, a town and district
of British India, in the Allahabad division of the United Provinces.
The town is 73 m. by rail N.W. of Allahabad. Pop. (1901) 19,281.
The district has an area of 1618 sq. m. It is situated in the
extreme south-eastern corner of the Doab or tract of country
between the Ganges and the Jumna, which respectively mark its
northern and southern boundaries. The whole district consists
of an alluvial plain formed by the deposits of the two great rivers.
The central part is almost perfectly level, and consists of highly
cultivated land interspersed with jungle and with tracts im-
pregnated with saltpetre (usar). A ridge of higher land, forming
the watershed of the district, runs along it from east to west at
an average distance of about 5 m. from the Ganges. Fatehpur
therefore consists of two inclined planes, the one 5 m. broad,
sloping down rapidly to the Ganges, and the other from 1 5 to 20
m. broad, falling gradually to the Jumna. The country near the
banks of the two rivers is cut up into ravines and nullahs running
in all directions, and is almost entirely uncultivable. Besides
the Ganges and Jumna the only rivers of importance are the
Pandu, a tributary of the Ganges, and the Arind and Nun,
which both fall into the Jumna. The climate is more humid
than in the other districts of the Doab, and although fevers are
common, it is not considered an unhealthy district. The average
annual rainfall is 34 in.
The tract in which this district is comprised was conquered
in 1194 by the Pathans; but subsequently, after a desperate
resistance, it was wrested from them by the Moguls. In the i8th
century it formed a part of the subah of Korah, and was under
the government of the wazir of Oudh. In 1736 it was overrun
by the Mahrattas, who retained possession of it until, in 1750,
they were ousted by the Pathans of Fatehpur. In 1753 it was
reconquered by the nawab of Oudh. In 1 765, by a treaty between
the East India Company and the nawab, Korah was made
over to the Delhi emperor, who retained it till 1774, when it
was again restored to the nawab wazir's dominions. Finally in
1 80 1, the nawab, by treaty, reconveyed it to the Company in
commutation of the amount which he had stipulated to pay in
return for the defence of his country. In June 1857 the district
rose in rebellion, and the usual murders of Europeans took place.
Order was established after the fall of Lucknow, on the return of
Lord Clyde's army to Cawnpore. In 1901 the population was
686,391, showing a decrease of 2 % in the decade. The district
is traversed by the main line of the East Indian railway from
Allahabad to Cawnpore. Trade is mainly agricultural, but the
town of Fatehpur is noted for the manufacture of ornamental
whips, and Jafarganj for artistic curtains, &c.
FATEHPUR SIKRI, a town in the Agra district in the United
Provinces of India, on the road from Agra to Jaipur. Pop. (1901)
7 147. It is a ruined city, and is interesting only from an archaeo-
logical point of view. It was founded by Akbar in 1569 as a
thank-offering for the birth of a son, Selim, afterwards the
emperor Jahangir, foretold by Selim Chisti, a famous Mahom-
medan saint. The principal building is the great mosque, which
is said by Fergusson to be hardly surpassed by any in India.
" It measures 550 ft. east and west by 470 ft. north and south,
over all. The mosque itself, 250 ft. by 80 ft., is crowned by three
domes. In its courtyard, which measures 350 ft. by 440 ft.,
stand two tombs. One is that of Selim Chisti, built of white
marble, and the windows with pierced tracery of the most
exquisite geometrical patterns. It possesses besides a deep
cornice of marble, supported by brackets of the most elaborate
design. The other tomb, that of Nawab Islam Khan, is soberer
and in excellent taste, but quite eclipsed by its surroundings.
Even these parts, however, are surpassed in magnificence by
the southern gateway. As it stands on a rising ground, when
looked at from below its appearance is noble beyond that of
any portal attached to any mosque in India, perhaps in the whole
world." Among other more noteworthy buildings the following
may be mentioned. The palace of Jodh Bai, the Rajput wife of
Akbar, consists of a courtyard surrounded by a gallery, above
which rise buildings roofed with blue enamel. A rich gateway
gives access to a terrace on which are the " houses of Birbal and
Miriam "; and beyond these is another courtyard, where are
Akbar's private apartments and the exquisite palace of the
Turkish sultana. Here are also the Panch Mahal or five-storeyed
building, consisting of five galleries in tiers, and the audience
chamber. The special feature in the architecture of the city is
the softness of the red sandstone, which could be carved almost
as easily as wood, and so lent itself readily to the elaborate
Hindu embellishment. Fatehpur Sikri was a favourite residence
of Akbar throughout his reign, and his establishment here was
of great magnificence. After Akbar's death Fatehpur Sikri
was deserted within 50 years of its foundation. The reason for
this was that frequent cause in the East, lack of water. The
only water obtainable was so brackish and corroding as to cause
great mortality among the inhabitants. The buildings are
situated within an enclosure, walled on three sides and about
7 m. in circumference. They are all now more or less in ruins,
and their elaborate painting and other decoration has largely
perished, but some modern restoration has been effected.
See E. B. Havell, A Handbook to Agra and the Taj, Sikandra,
Fatehpur Sikri, &c. (1904).
FATHER, the begetter of a child, the male parent. The
word is common to Teutonic languages, and, like the other
words for close family relationship, mother, brother, son, sister,
daughter, appears in most Indo - European languages. The
O. Eng. form is feeder, and it appears in Ger. Voter, Dutch vader,
Gr. Tranjp, Lat. pater, whence Romanic Fr. pere, Span, padre, &c.
The word is used of male ancestors more remote than the actual
male parent, and of ancestors in general. It is applied to God,
as the Father of Jesus Christ, and as the Creator of the world,
and is thus the orthodox term for the First Person of the Trinity.
Of the transferred uses of the word many have religious reference;
thus it is used of the Christian writers, usually confined to those
of the first five centuries, the Fathers of the Church (see below),
of whom those who flourished at the end of, or just after the age
of, the apostles are known as the Apostolic Fathers. One who
stands as a spiritual parent to another is his " father," e.g. god-
father, or in the title of bishops or archbishops, Right or Most
Reverend Father in God. The pope is, in the Roman Church,
the Holy Father. In the Roman Church, father is strictly applied
to a " regular," a member of one of the religious orders, and so
always in Europe, in English usage, often applied to a confessor,
whether regular or secular, and to any Roman priest, and
sometimes used of sub-members of a religious society or fraternity
200
FATHERS OF THE CHURCH
in the English Church. Of transferred uses, other than religious,
may be mentioned the application to the first founders of an
institution, constitution, epoch, &c. Thus the earliest settlers
of North America are the Pilgrim Fathers, and the framers of
the United States constitution are the Fathers of the Constitution.
In ancient Rome the members of the senate are the Patres
conscripti, the " Conscript fathers." The senior member or
doyen of a society is often called the father. Thus the member
of the English House of Commons, and similarly, of the House
of Representatives in the United States, America, who has sat
for the longest period uninterruptedly, is the Father of the
House.
FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. The use of the word " father "
as a title of respect is found in the Old Testament, where it is
applied to patriarchs (Gen. 1. 24 (Septuagint) ; Exod. iii. 13, 15;
Deut. i. 8), priests (Judg. xvii. 10, xviii. 19), prophets (2 Kings ii.
12, vi. 21, xiii. 14), and distinguished ancestors (Ecclus. xliv. i).
In the time of our Lord the scribes claimed the name with an
arrogance which He disapproved (Matt, xxiii. 9) ; in the rabbinic
literature " the fathers " are the more eminent of the earlier
rabbis whose sayings were handed down for the guidance of
posterity. 1 The Christian Church, warned perhaps by the words
of Christ, appears at first to have avoided a similar use of the
term, while St Paul, St Peter and St John speak of their
converts as spiritual children (i Cor. iv. 14 f., Gal. iv. 19, i Pet. v.
13, i John ii. 12); they did not assume, so far as we know, the
official style of " fathers in God." Nor is this title found in the
age which succeeded to that of the apostles. When Polycarp,
bishop of Smyrna, was martyred (A.D. 155), the crowd shouted,
" This is the father of the Christians " 2 ; but the words were
probably prompted by the Jews, who took a prominent part in
the martyrdom, and who naturally viewed Polycarp in the
light of a great Christian rabbi, and gave him the title which their
own teachers bore. In the next century members of the episcopal
order were sometimes addressed in this manner: thus Cyprian
is styled papas or papa by his Roman correspondents. 3 The
bishops who sat in the great councils of the 4th century were
known as "the 318 fathers" of Nicaea, and "the 150 fathers"
of Constantinople. Meanwhile the custom was growing up of
appealing to eminent Church writers of a past generation under
this name. Thus Athanasius writes (ad Afros vi.): " We have
the testimony of fathers (the two Dionysii, bishops of Alexandria
and Rome, who wrote in the previous century) for the use of
the word 6/iooixnos." Such quotations were multiplied, as
theologians learnt to depend increasingly upon their predecessors,
until the testimony of " our holy father " Athanasius, or Gregory
the Divine, or John the Golden-mouthed, came to be regarded
as decisive in reference to controverted points of faith and
practice.
In the narrower sense thus indicated the " fathers " of the
Church are the great bishops and other eminent Christian
teachers of the earlier centuries, who were conspicuous for
soundness of judgment and sanctity of life, and whose writings
remained as a court of appeal for their successors. A list of fathers
drawn up on this principle will begin with the Christian writers
of the ist century whose writings are not included in the New
Testament: where it ought to end is a more difficult point to
determine. Perhaps the balance of opinion is in favour of
regarding Gregory the Great (d. 604) as the last of the Latin
fathers, and John of Damascus (d. c. 760) as the last of the fathers
of the Greek Church. A more liberal estimate might include
John Scotus Erigena or -even Anselm or Bernard of Clairvaux
in the West and Photius in the East. The abbe Migne carried
his Latin patrology down to the time of Innocent III. (d. 1216),
and his Greek patrology to the fall of Constantinople (1453);
but, while this large extension of the field is much to the advan-
tage of his readers, it undoubtedly stretches the meaning of
patrologia far beyond its natural limits. For ordinary purposes
it is best to make the patristic period conterminous with the life
1 See Buxtorf, s.v. Abh, and cf. the title of the tract Pirke Aboth
(ed. Taylor, p. 3).
2 Polyc. Marl. 8. ' Stadia biblica, iv. p. 273.
of the ancient Catholic Church. In the West the Church enters
the medieval stage of its history with the death of Gregory,
while in the East even John of Damascus is rather a compiler
of patristic teaching than a true "father."
A further question arises. Are all the Christian writers of a
given period to be included among the " fathers," or those only
who wrote on religious subjects, and of whose orthodoxy there
is no doubt ? Migne, following the example of the editors of
bibliothecae patrum who preceded him, swept into his great
collection all the Christian writings which fell within his period ;
but he is careful to state upon his title-page that his patrologies
include the ecclesiastical writers as well as the fathers and doctors
of the Church. For a comprehensive use of the term " ecclesi-
astical writers " he has the authority of Jerome, who enumerates
among them 4 such heresiarchs or leaders of schism as Tatian,
Bardaisan, Novatus, Donatus, Photinus and Eunomius. This
may not be logical, but long usage has made it permissible or
even necessary. It is often difficult, if not impracticable, to
draw the line between orthodox writers and heterodox; on
which side, it might be asked, is Origen to be placed ? and in the
case of a writer like Tertullian who left the Church in middle
life, are we to admit certain of his works into our patrology and
refuse a place to others ? It is clear that in the circumstances
the terms " father," " patristic," " patrology " must be used
with much elasticity, since it is now too late to substitute for
them any more comprehensive terms.
By the " fathers," then, we understand the whole of extant
Christian literature from the time of the apostles to the rise of
scholasticism or the beginning of the middle ages. However we
may interpret the lower limit of this period, the literature which
it embraces is immense. Some method of subdivision is necessary,
and the simplest and most obvious is that which breaks the whole
into two great parts, the ante-Nicene and the post-Nicene.
This is not an arbitrary cleavage; the Council of Nicaea (A.D.
325) is the watershed which actually separates two great tracts
of Christian literature. The ante-Nicene age yields priceless
records of the early struggles of Christianity; from it we have
received specimens of the early apologetic and the early polemic
of the Church, the first essays of Christian philosophy, Christian
correspondence, Christian biblical interpretation: we owe to it
the works of Justin, Irenaeus, the Alexandrian Clement, Origen,
Tertullian, Cyprian. In these products of the 2nd and 3rd
centuries there is much which in its own way was not surpassed
by any of the later patristic writings. Yet the post-Nicene
literature, considered as literature, reaches a far higher level.
Both in East and West, the 4th and 5th centuries form the golden
age of dogmatic theology, of homiletic preaching, of exposition,
of letter-writing, of Church history, of religious poetry. Two
causes may be assigned for this fact. The conversion of the
empire gave the members of the Church leisure and opportunities
for the cultivation of literary taste, and gradually drew the
educated classes within the pale of the Christian society. More-
over, the great Christological controversies of the age tended to
encourage in Christian writers and preachers an intellectual
acuteness and an accuracy of thought and expression of which
the earlier centuries had not felt the need.
The ante-Nicene period of patristic literature opens with the
" apostolic fathers," 6 i.e. the Church writers who flourished
toward the end of the apostolic age and during the half century
that followed it, including Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch,
Polycarp of Smyrna and the author known as "Barnabas."
Their writings, like those of the apostles, are epistolary; but
editions of the apostolic fathers now usually admit also the early
Church order known as the Didache, the allegory entitled the
Shepherd, and a short anonymous apology addressed to one
Diognetus. A second group, known as the " Greek Apologists,"
embraces Aristides, Justin, Tatian, Athenagoras and Theophilus;
and a third consists of the early polemical writers, Irenaeus and
4 In his book De viris illustribus.
6 The term patres apostolici is due to the patristic scholars of the
1 7th century: see Lightfoot, St Clement of Rome, i. p. 3. " Sub-
apostolic " is perhaps a more accurate designation.
FATHOM
2OI
Hippolytus. Next come the great Alexandrians, Clement,
Origen, Dionysius; the Carthaginians, Tertullian and Cyprian;
the Romans, Minucius Felix and Novatian; the last four laid
the foundations of a Latin Christian literature. Even the stormy
days of the last persecution yielded seme considerable writers,
such as Methodius in the East and Lactantius in the West. This
list is far from complete; the principal collections of the ante-
Nicene fathers include not a few minor and anonymous writers,
and the fragments of many others whose works as a whole have
perished.
In the post-Nicene period the literary output of the Church
was greater. Only the more representative names can be men-
tioned here. From Alexandria we get Athanasius, Didyrnus and
Cyril; from Cyrene, Synesius; from Antioch, Theodore of
Mopsuestia, John Chrysostom and Theodoret; from Palestine,
Eusebius of Caesarea and Cyril of Jerusalem; from Cappadocia,
Basil, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus. The Latin
West was scarcely less productive; it is enough to mention
Hilary of Poitiers, Ambrose of Milan, Augustine of Hippo, Leo of
Rome, Jerome, Rufinus, and a father lately restored to his place
in patristic literature, Niceta of Remesiana. 1 Gaul alone has a
goodly list of Christian authors to show: John Cassian, Vincent
of Lerins, Hilary of Aries, Prosper of Aquitaine, Salvian of
Marseilles, Sidonius Apollinaris of Auvergne, Caesarius of Aries,
Gregory of Tours. The period ends in the West with two great
Italian names, Cassiodorus and Pope Gregory I., after Leo the
greatest of papal theologians.
The reader to whom the study is new will gain some idea of the
bulk of the extant patristic literature, if we add that in Migne's
collection ninety-six large volumes are occupied with the Greek
fathers from Clement of Rome to John of Damascus, and seventy-
six with the Latin fathers from Tertullian to Gregory the
Great. 2
For a discussion of the more important fathers the student is
referred to the articles which deal with them separately. In this
place it is enough to consider the general influence of the patristic
writings upon Christian doctrine and biblical interpretation.
Can any authority be claimed for their teaching or their exegesis,
other than that which belongs to the best writers of every age.
The decree of the council of Trent 3 (ut nemo . . . contra un-
animum consensum patrum ipsam scripturam sacram interprelari
audeat) is studiously moderate, and yet it seems to rule that
under certain circumstances it is not permitted to the Church of
later times to carry the science of biblical interpretation beyond
the point which it had reached at the end of the patristic period.
Roman Catholic writers, 4 however, have explained the prohibition
to apply to matters of faith only, and in that case the Tridentine
decree is little else than another form of the Vincentian canon
which has been widely accepted in the Anglican communion:
curandum est ut id leneamus quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab
omnibus creditum est. The fathers of the first six or seven
centuries, so far as they agree, may be fairly taken to represent
the main stream of Christian tradition and belief during the
period when the apostolic teaching took shape in the great creeds
and dogmatic decisions of Christendom. The English reformers
realized this fact; and notwithstanding their insistence on the
unique authority of the canon of Scripture, their appeal to the
fathers as representatives of the teaching of the undivided
Church was as wholehearted as that of the Tridentine divines.
Thus the English canon of 1571 directs preachers " to take heed
that they do not teach anything in their sermons as though
they would have it completely held and believed by the people,
save what is agreeable to the doctrine of the Old and New
Testaments, and what the Catholic Fathers and ancient Bishops
have gathered from that doctrine." Depreciation of the fathers
was characteristic, not of the Anglican reformation, but of the
1 The editio princeps of Niceta's works was published by Dr A. E.
Burn in 1905.
2 The Greek patrology contains, however, besides the text, a
Latin translation, and in both patrologies there is much editorial
matter.
' Scss. iv
4 E. G. Mohler, Symbolism (E. tr.)42.
revolt against some of its fundamental principles which was led
by the Puritan reaction. 5
Now that the smoke of these controversies has passed away,
it is possible to form a clearer judgment upon the merits of the
patristic writings. They are no longer used as an armoury
from which opposite sides may draw effective weapons, offensive
or defensive; nor on the other hand are they cast aside as the
rubbish of an ignorant and superstitious age. All patristic
students now recognize the great inequality of these authors,
and admit that they are not free from the faults of their times;
it is not denied that much of their exegesis is untenable, or that
their logic is often feeble and their rhetoric offensive to modern
taste. But against these disadvantages may be set the unique
services which the fathers still render to Christian scholars.
Their works comprise the whole literature of our faith during
the decisive centuries which followed the apostolic age. They
are important witnesses "to the text of the New Testament, to
the history of the canon, and to the history of interpretation.
It is to their pages that we owe nearly all that we know of the
life of ancient Christianity. We see in them the thought of the
ancient Church taking shape in the minds of her bishops and
doctors; and in many cases they express the results of the great
doctrinal controversies of their age in language which leaves
little to be desired. 6
AUTHORITIES. The earliest writer on patristics was Jerome,
whose book De viris illustribus gives a brief account of one hundred
and thirty-five Church writers, beginning with St Peter and ending
with himself. Jerome's work was continued successively by
Gennadius of Marseilles, Isidore of Seville, and Ildefonsus of Toledo;
the last-named writer brings the list down to the middle of the 7th
century. Since the revival of learning books on the fathers have
been numerous; among the more recent and most accessible of these
we may mention Smith and Wace's Dictionary of Christian Bio-
graphy, Hauck-Herzog's Reakncyklppddie, Bardenhewer's Patrologie
and Geschichte der altkirchlichen Litteratur, Harnack's Geschichte der
altchristlichen Litteratur bei Eusebius and Ehrard's Die allchristliche
Litteratur^ und ihre Erforschung. A record of patristic collections
and editions down to 1839 may be found in Dowling's Notitia
Scriptorum SS. Patrum. The contents of the volumes of Migne's
patrologies are given in the Catalogue general des livres de I'abbe
Migne, and a useful list in alphabetical order of the writers in the
Greek Patrologia has been compiled by Dr J. B. Pearson (Cambridge,
1882). Migne's texts are not always satisfactory, but since the
completion of his great undertaking two important collections have
been begun on critical lines the Vienna edition of the Latin Church
writers, 7 and the Berlin edition of the Greek writers of the ante-Nicene
period. 8
For English readers there are three series of translations from the
fathers, which cover much of the ground; the Oxford Library of
the Fathers, the Ante Nicene Christian Library and the Select Library
of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Satisfactory lexicons of patristic
Greek and Latin are still a desideratum: but assistance may be
obtained in the study of the Greek fathers from Suicer's Thesaurus,
the Lexicon of Byzantine Greek by E. A. Sophocles, and the Lexicon
Graecum suppletorium et dialecticum of Van Herwerden; whilst the
new great Latin Lexicon, published by the Berlin Academy, is calcu-
lated to meet the needs of students of Latin patristic literature. For
a fuller list of books useful to the reader of the Greek and Latin'fathers
see H. B. Swete's Patristic Study (2nd ed., 1902). (H. B. S.)
FATHOM (a word common, in various forms, to Scandinavian
and Teutonic languages; cf. Danish favn, Dutch warn and
Ger. Faden, and meaning "the arms extended "; the ultimate
origin is a root pet, seen in the Gr. Treravv vvai, to spread), a
measure of length, being the distance from the tip of one middle
finger to the tip of the other, when the arms are stretched out
to their widest extent. This length has been standardized to
a measure of 6 ft., and as such is used mainly in soundings as
a unit for measuring the depth of the sea. " Fathom " is also
used in the measurement of timber, when it is equivalent to 6 ft.
sq.; similarly, in mining, a fathom is a portion of ground
running the whole thickness of the vein of ore, and is 6 ft. in
breadth and thickness. The verb " to fathom," i.e. to sound
or measure with a fathom-line, is used figuratively, meaning to
go into a subject deeply, to penetrate, or to explore thoroughly.
6 See T. J. Blunt, Right Use of the Fathers, p. 15 ff.
6 See Stanton, Place of Authority in Religion, p. 165 f.
7 Corpus scriptorum ecclesiaslicorum Latinorum.
8 Griechischen christlichen Schriftstellern der ersten drei Jahrhunderte.
202
FATIMITES
FATIMITES, or FATIMIDES, the name of a dynasty called after
Fatima, daughter of the prophet Mahomet, from whom and her
husband the caliph Ali, son of Abu Talib, they claimed descent.
The dynasty is also called 'Obaidi (UbaidI) after 'Obaidallah,
the first sovereign, and 'Alawi, a title which it shares with
other dynasties claiming the same ancestry. For a list of
sovereigns see EGYPT, section History (Mahommedan period);
three, however, must be prefixed who reigned in north-western
Africa before the annexation of Egypt: al-Mahdi 'Obaidallah
297 (909); al-Qa'im Mahommed 322 (934); al-Mansur Isma'll
334 (945)-
The dynasty owed its rise to the attachment to the family of
the prophet which was widespread in the Moslem world, and
the belief that the sovereignty was the right of one of its members.
Owing, however, to the absence of the principle of primogeniture
there was difference of opinion as to the person whose claim
should be enforced, and a number of sects arose maintaining the
rights of different branches of the family. The Fatimites were
supported by those who regarded the sovereignty as vested in
Isma'll, son of Ja'far al-Sadiq, great-great-grandson of All,
through his second son Hosain (Husain). Of this Isma'll the
first Fatimite caliph was supposed to be the great-grandson.
The line of ancestors between him and Isma'll is, however,
variously given, even his father's name being quite uncertain,
and in some of the pedigrees even Isma'll does not figure.
Apparently when the family first became of political importance
their Alid descent was not disputed at Bagdad, and the poet
al-Sharif al-Radi (d. A.H. 406: A.D. 1015), in whose family the
office of Naqlb (registrar of the Alids) was hereditary, appears
to have acknowledged it (Diwan, ed. Beirut, p. 972). When
their success became a menace to the caliphs of Bagdad, genealo-
gists were employed to demonstrate the falsity of the claim,
and a considerable literature, both official and unofficial, rose in
consequence. The founder of the dynasty was made out to be
a scion of a family of heretics from whom the terrible Carmathian
sect had originated: later on (perhaps owing to the r61e played
by Jacob, son of Killis, in bringing the Fatimites to Egypt),
the founder was made out to have been a Jew, either as having
been adopted by the heretic supposed to be his father, or as
having been made to personate the real 'Obaidallah, who had
been killed in captivity. While the stories that make him of
either Jewish or Carmathian origin may be neglected, as the
product of malice, the uncertainty of the genealogies offered by
their partisans renders any positive solution of the problem
impossible. What seems to be clear is that secretly within the
Abbasid empire propaganda was carried on in favour of one or
other Alid aspirant, and the danger which any such aspirant
incurred by coming forward openly led to his whereabouts being
concealed except from a very few adherents. What is known
then is that towards the end of the 3rd Islamic century the leader
of the sect of Isma'ilites (Assassins, q.v.) who afterwards mounted
a throne, lived at Salamia, near Emesa (Horns), having agents
spread over Arabia, Persia and Syria, and frequently receiving
visits from pious adherents, who had been on pilgrimage to the
grave of Hosain (Husain). Such visitors received directions
and orders such as are usual in secret societies. One of these
agents, Abu Abdallah al-Hosain called al-Shi'I, said to have
filled the office of censor (muhtasib) at Basra, received orders
to carry on a mission in Arabia, and at Mecca is said to have
made the acquaintance of some members of the Berber tribe
Kutama, south of the bay of Bougie. These persons persuaded
him to travel home with them in the character of teacher of the
Koran, but according to some authorities the ground had already
been prepared there for a political mission. He arrived in the
Kutama country in June 893, and appears very soon to have
been made chief, thereby exciting the suspicion of the Aghlabite
ruler of Kairawan, Ibrahim b. Ahmad, which, however, was
soon allayed. His success provoked a civil war among the
Berbers, but he was protected by a chief named IJasan b. Harun,
and displayed sufficient military ability to win respect. Nine
years after his arrival he made use of the unrest following on the
death of the Aghlabite Ibrahim to attack the town of Mila,
which he took by treachery, and turned into his capital; the son
and successor of Ibrahim, Abu'l-' Abbas 'Abdallah, sent bis son
al-Ahwal to deal with the new power, and he defeated al-Shi'I
in some battles, but in 903 al-Ahwal was recalled by his brother
Ziyadatallah, who had usurped the throne, and put to death.
At some time after his first successes al-Shi'i sent a messenger
(apparently his brother) to the head of his sect at Salamia,
bidding him come to the Kutama country, and place himself at
the head of affairs, since al-Shl'i's followers had been taught to
pay homage to a Mahdi who would at some time be shown them.
It is said that 'Obaidallah, who now held this post, was known
to the court at Bagdad, and that on the news of his departure
orders were sent to the governor of Egypt to arrest him : but by
skilful simulation 'Obaidallah succeeded in escaping this danger,
and with his escort reached Tripoli safely. Instructions had by
this time reached the Aghlabite Ziyadatallah to be on the watch
for the Mahdi, who was finally arrested at Sijilmasa (Tafilalt) in
the year A.H. 292 (A.D. 905); his companion, al-Shi'i's brother,
had been arrested at an earlier point, and the Mahdi's journey
to the south-west must have been to elude pursuit.
The invitation to the Mahdi turned out to have been prema-
ture; for Ziyadatallah had sent a powerful army to oppose
al-Shi'I, which, making Constantine its headquarters, had driven
al-Shi'I into the mountains: after six months al-Shfl secured
an opportunity for attacking it, and won a complete victory.
Early in 906 another army was sent to deal with al-Shi'i, and
an earnest appeal came from the caliph Muqtafl (Moktafi),
addressed to all the Moslems of Africa, to aid Ziyadatallah
against the usurper. The operations of the Aghlabite prince
were unproductive of any decided result, and by September
906 al-Shi'i had got possession of the important fortress Tubna
and some others. Further forces were immediately sent to the
front by Ziyadatallah, but these were defeated by al-Shi'I and
his officers, to whom other towns capitulated, till Ziyadatallah
found it prudent to retire from Al-Urbus or Laribus, which had
been his headquarters, and entrench himself in Raqqada, one
of the two capitals of his kingdom, Kairawan being the other.
Ziyadatallah is charged by the chroniclers with dissoluteness and
levity, and even cowardice: after his retreat the fortresses and
towns in what now constitute the department of Constantine
and in Tunisia fell fast into al-Shl'I's hands, and he was soon
able to threaten Raqqada itself.
By March 909 Raqqada had become untenable, and Ziyadat-
allah resolved to flee from his kingdom; taking with him his
chief possessions, he made for Egypt, and thence to 'Irak: his
final fate is uncertain. The cities Raqqada and Kairawan were
immediately occupied by Al-Shi'i, who proceeded to send
governors to the other places of importance in what had been
the Aghlabite kingdom, and to strike new coins, which, however,
bore no sovereign's name. Orders were given that the Shi'ite
peculiarities should be introduced into public worship.
In May 909 al-Shi'I led a tremendous army westwards to the
kingdom of Tahert, where he put an end to the Rustamite
dynasty, and appointed a governor of his own: he thence
proceeded to Sijilmasa where 'Obaidallah lay imprisoned, with
the intention of releasing him and placing him on the throne.
After a brief attempt at resistance, the governor fled, and
al-Shi'I entered the city, released 'Obaidallah and presented
him to the army as the long-promised Imam. The day is given
as the 26th of August 909. 'Obaidallah had been in prison
more than three years. Whether his identity with the Mahdi
for whom al-Shi'I had been fighting was known to the governor
of Sijilmasa is uncertain. If it was, the governor and his master
the Aghlabite sovereign might have been expected to make use
of their knowledge and outwit al-Shi'I by putting his Mahdi
to death. Opponents of the Fatimites assert that this was
actually done, and that the Mahdi presented to the army was
not the real 'Obaidallah, but (as usual) a Jewish captive, who
had been suborned to play the r61e.
The chief command was now assumed by 'Obaidallah, who took
the title " al-Mahdi, Commander of the Faithful," thereby
claiming the headship of the whole Moslem world: Raqqada
FATIMITES
203
was at the first made the seat of the court, and the Shl'ite
doctrines were enforced on the inhabitants, not without en-
countering some opposition. Revolts which arose in different
parts of the Aghlabite kingdom were, however, speedily quelled.
The course followed by 'Obaidallah in governing independently
of al-Shl'I soon led to dissatisfaction on the part of the latter,
who, urged on it is said by his brother, decided to dethrone
their Mahdl, and on the occasion of an expedition to T6nes,
which al-Shl'I commanded, organized a conspiracy with that
end. The conspiracy was betrayed to 'Obaidallah, who took
steps to defeat it, and on the last day of July 911 contrived
to assassinate both al-Shf I and his brother. Thus the procedure
which had characterized the accession of the 'Abbasid dynasty
was repeated. It has been conjectured that these assassina-
tions lost the Fatimites the support of the organization that
continued to exist in the East, whence the Carmathians figure as
an independent and even hostile community, though they appear
to have been amenable to the influence of the African caliph.
'Obaidallah had now to face the dissatisfaction of the tribes
whose allegiance al-Shl'I had won, especially the Kutama,
Zenata and Lawata: the uprising of the first assumed formidable
proportions, and they even elected a Mahdi of their own, one
Kadu b. Mu'arik al-Mawati, who promulgated a new revelation
for their guidance. They were finally defeated by 'Obaidallah's
son Abu'l-Qasim Mahommed, who took Constantine, and
succeeded in capturing the new Mahdl, whom he brought to
Raqqada. Other opponents were got rid of by 'Obaidallah by
ruthless executions. By the middle of the year 913 by his own
and his son's efforts he had brought his kingdom into order.
After the style of most founders of dynasties he then selected
a site for a new capital, to be called after his title Mahdia (q.v.),
on a peninsula called Hamma (Cape Africa) S.S.E. of Kairawan.
Eight years were spent in fortifying this place, which in 921
was made the capital of the empire.
After defeating internal enemies 'Obaidallah turned his
attention to the remaining 'Abbasid possessions in Africa, and
his general Habasah b. Yusuf in the year 913 advanced along
the northern coast, taking various places, including the important
town of Barca, his progress, it is said, being marked by great
cruelty. He then advanced towards Egypt, and towards the
end of July 914, being reinforced by Abu'l-Qasim, afterwards
al-Qa'im, entered Alexandria. The danger led to measures of
unusual energy being taken by the Bagdad caliph Moqtadir,
an army being sent to Egypt under Mu'nis, and a special post
being organized between that country and Bagdad to convey
messages uninterruptedly. The Fatimite forces were defeated,
partly owing to the insubordination of the general Habasah,
in the winter of 914, and returned to Barca and Kairawan with
great loss.
A second expedition was undertaken against Egypt in the
year 919, and on the loth of July Alexandria was entered by
Abu'l-Qasim, who then advanced southward, seizing the Fayum
and Ushmunain (Eshmunain). He was presently reinforced by
a fleet, which, however, was defeated at Rosetta in March of
the year 920 by a fleet despatched from Tarsus by the 'Abbasid
caliph Moqtadir, most of the vessels being burned. Through
the energetic measures of the caliph, who sent repeated rein-
forcements to Fostat, Abu'l-Qasim was compelled in the spring
of 921 to evacuate the places which he had seized, and return
to the west with the remains of his army, which had suffered
much from plague as well as defeat on the field. On his return
he found that the court had migrated from Raqqada to the new
capital Mahdia (<?..). Meanwhile other expeditions had been
despatched by 'Obaidallah towards the west, and Nekor (Nakur)
and Fez had been forced to acknowledge his sovereignty.
The remaining years of 'Obaidallah's reign were largely
spent in dealing with uprisings in various parts of his dominions,
the success of which at times reduced the territory in which he
was recognized to a small area.
'Obaidallah died on the 4th of March 933, and was succeeded
by Abu'l-Qasim, who took the title al-Qa'im biamr allah. He
immediately after his accession occupied himself with the
reconquest of Fez and Nekor, which had revolted during the last
years of the former caliph. He also despatched a fleet under
Ya'qiib b. Ishaq, which ravaged the coast of France, took
Genoa, and plundered the coast of Calabria before returning
to Africa. A third attempt made by him to take Egypt resulted
in a disastrous defeat at Dhat al-Human, after which the remains
of the expedition retreated in disorder to Barca.
The later years of the reign of Qa'im were troubled by the
uprising of Abu Yazld Makhlad al-Zenati, a leader who during
the former reign had acquired a following among the tribes
inhabiting the Jebel Aures, including adherents of the 'Ibadl
sect. After having fled for a time to Mecca, this person returned
in 937 to Tauzar (Touzer), the original seat of his operations,
and was imprisoned by Qa'im's order. His sons, aided by the
powerful tribe Zenata, succeeded in forcing the prison, and
releasing their father, who continued to organize a conspiracy
on a vast scale, and by the end of 943 was strong enough to take
the field against the Fatimite sovereign, whom he drove out of
Kairawan. Abu Yazld proclaimed himself a champion of Sunni
doctrine against the Shl'is, and ordered the legal system of
Malik to be restored in place of that introduced by the Fatimites.
Apparently the doctrines of the latter has as yet won little
popularity, and Abu Yazld won an enormous following, except
among the Kutama, who remained faithful to Qa'im. On the
last day of October 944, an engagement was fought between
Kairawan and Mahdia at a place called al-Akhawan, which
resulted in the rout of Qa'im's forces, and the caliph's being
shortly after shut up in his capital, the suburbs of which he
defended by a trench. Abu Yazid's forces were ill-suited to
maintain a protracted siege, and since, owing to the former
caliph's forethought, the capital was in a condition to hold out
for a long time, many of them deserted and the besiegers gained
no permanent advantage. After the siege had lasted some
ten months Abu Yazld was compelled to raise it (September
945); the struggle, however, did not end with that event, and
for a time the caliph and Abu Yazld continued to fight with
varying fortune, while anarchy prevailed over most of the
caliph's dominions. On the I3th of January 946, Abu Yazld
shut up Qa'im's forces in Susa which he began to besiege, and
attempted to take by storm.
On the i8th of May 945, while Abu Yazld was besieging Susa,
the caliph ai-Qa'im died at Mahdia, and was succeeded by his
son Isma'll, who took the title Mansur. He almost immediately
relieved Susa by sending a fleet, which joining with the garrison
inflicted a severe defeat on Abu Yazld, who had to evacuate
Kairawan also; but though the cities were mainly in the hands
of Fatimite prefects, Abu Yazld was able to maintain the field
for more than two years longer, while his followers were steadily
decreasing in numbers, and he was repeatedly driven into fast-
nesses of the Sahara. In August 947 his last stronghold was
taken, and he died of wounds received in defending it. His
sons carried on some desultory warfare against Manur after
their father's death. A town called Mansura or Sabra was
built adjoining Kairawan to celebrate the decisive victory over
Abu Yazld, which, however, did not long preserve its name.
The exhausted condition of north-west Africa due to the pro-
tracted civil war required some years of peace for recuperation,
and further exploits are not recorded for Mansur, who died on
the igth of March 952.
His son, Abu Tamlm Ma'add, was twenty-two years of age at
the time, and succeeded his father with the title Mo'izz lidin
allah. His authority was acknowledged over the greater part
of the region now constituting Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, as
well as Sicily, and he appears to have had serious thoughts of
endeavouring to annex Spain. At an early period in his reign he
made Jauhar, who had been secretary under the former caliph,
commander of the forces, and the services rendered by this
person to the dynasty made him count as its second founder
after al-Shl'I. In the years 958 and 959 he was sent westwards to
reduce Fez and other places where the authority of the Fatimite
caliph had been repudiated, and after a successful expedition
advanced as far as the Atlantic. As early as 966 the plan of
204
FAUBOURG FAUCHER
. attempting a fresh invasion of Egypt was conceived, and pre-
parations made for its execution; but it was delayed, it is said
at the request of the caliph's mother, who wished to make a
pilgrimage to Mecca first; and her honourable treatment by
Kafur when she passed through Egypt induced the caliph to
postpone the invasion till that sovereign's death.
In August 972 Mo'izz resolved to follow Jauhar's pressing
invitation to enter his new capital Cairo. With his arrival there
the centre of the Fatimite power was transferred from Mahdia
and Kairawan to Egypt, and their original dominion became
a province called al-Maghrib, which immediately fell into the
hands of a hereditary dynasty, the Zeirids, acknowledging
Fatimite suzerainty. The first sovereign was Bulukkin, also
called Abu'l-Futuh Yusuf, appointed by Mo'izz as his viceroy
on the occasion of his departure for Egypt: separate prefects
were appointed for Sicily and Tripoli; and at the first the
minister of finance was to be an official independent of the
governor of the Maghrib. On the death of Bulukkin in 984 he
was succeeded by a son who took the royal title al-Mansur, under
whose rule an attempt was made by the Kutama, instigated by
the caliph, to shake off the yoke of the Zeirids, who originated
from the Sanhaja tribe. This attempt was defeated by the energy
of Mans.ur in 988; and the sovereignty of the Fatimites in the
Maghrib became more and more confined to recognition in public
prayer and on coins, and the payment of tribute and the giving
of presents to the viziers at Cairo. The fourth ruler of the
Zeirid dynasty, called Mo'izz, endeavoured to substitute ' Abbasid
suzerainty for Fatimite: his land was invaded by Arab colonies
sent by the Fatimite caliph, with whom in 1051 Mo'izz fought a
decisive engagement, after which the dominion of the Zeirids
was restricted to the territory adjoining Mahdia; a number of
smaller kingdoms rising up around them. The Zeirids were finally
overthrown by Roger II. of Sicily in 1 148.
After the death of al-Adid, the last Fatimite caliph in Egypt,
some attempts were made to place on the throne a member of
the family, and at one time there seemed a chance of the Assassins,
who formed a branch of the Fatimite sect, assisting in this project.
In 1174 a conspiracy for the restoration of the dynasty was
organized by "Umarah of Yemen, a court poet, with the aid of
eight officials of the government: it was discovered and those
who were implicated were executed. Two persons claiming
Fatimite descent took the royal titles al-Mo'tasim biljah and
al-Hamid lillah in the years 1175 and 1176 respectively; and
as late as 1192 we hear of pretenders in Egypt. Some members
of the family are traceable till near the end of the 7th century
of Islam.
The doctrines of the Fatimites as a sect, apart from their
claim to the sovereignty in Islam, are little known, and we
are not justified in identifying them with those of the Assassins,
the Carmathians or the Druses, though all these sects are
connected with them in origin. A famous account is given by
Maqrizi of a system of education by which the neophyte had
doubts gently instilled into his mind till he was prepared to
have the allegorical meaning of the Koran set before him, and to
substitute some form of natural for revealed religion. In most
accounts of the early days of the community it is stated that the
permission of wine-drinking and h'centiousness, and the com-
munity of wives and property formed part of its tenets. There
is little in the recorded practice of the Fatimite state to confirm
or justify these assertions; and they appear to have differed
from orthodox Moslems rather in small details of ritual and law
than in deep matters of doctrine.
AUTHORITIES. F. Wiistenfeld, Geschichte der Fatimiden Chalifen
(Gottingen, 1881); E. Mercier, Histoire de I'Afrique Septentrionale
(Paris, 1888) ; M. J. de Goeje, Memoirs sur Us Carmathes de Bahrain
et Us Fatimides (2nd ed., Leiden, 1886); P. Casanova, " Memoire
sur les derniers Fatimides," Mem. Miss, archeologique au Caire,
vol. vi. ; for the lives of 'Obaidallah and Abu Yazid, Cherbonneau in
the Journal Asiatique, ser. iv. vol. 20, and ser. v. vol. 5. See also
EGYPT: History, sect. Mahommedan. (D. S. M.*)
FAUBOURG, the French name for a portion of a town which
lies outside the walls, hence properly a suburb. The name
survives in certain parts of Paris, such as the Faubourg St
Antoine, and the Faubourg St Germain, &c., which have long
since ceased to be suburbs and have become portions of the
town itself. The origin of the word is doubtful. The earlier
spelling faux-bourg, and the occurrence in medieval Latin of
jalsus-burgus (see Ducange, Glossarium, s.v. " Falsus-Burgus "),
was taken as showing its obvious origin and meaning, the sham
or quasi-borough. The generally accepted derivation is from
fors, outside (Lat. foris, outside the gates), and bourg. It is
suggested that the word is the French adaptation of the Ger.
Pfahlburger, the burghers of the pale, i.a. outside the walls
but within the pale.
FAUCES (a Latin plural word for " throat "; the singular
faux is rarely found), in anatomy, the hinder part of the mouth,
which leads into the pharynx; also an architectural term given
by Vitruvius to narrow passages on either side of the tablinum,
through which access could be obtained from the atrium to the
peristylar court in the rear.
FAUCHER, LEONARD JOSEPH [LEON] (1803-1854), French
politician and economist, was born at Limoges on the 8th of
September 1803. When he was nine years old the family
removed to Toulouse, -where the boy was sent to school. His
parents were separated in 1816, and Leon Faucher, who resisted
his father's attempts to put him to a trade, helped to support
himself and his mother during the rest of his school career by
designing embroidery and needlework. As a private tutor in
Paris he continued his studies in the direction of archaeology
and history, but with the revolution of 1830 he was drawn into
active political journalism on the Liberal side. He was on the
staff of the Temps from 1830 to 1833, when he became editor
of the Constitutionnel for a short time. A Sunday journal of
his own, Le Bien public, proved a disastrous financial failure;
and his poh'tical independence having caused his retirement
from the Constitutionnel, he joined in 1834 the Courrier fran^ais,
of which he was editor from 1839 until 1842, when the paper
changed hands. Faucher belonged in policy to the dynastic
Left, and consistently preached moderation to the more ardent
Liberals. On resigning his connexion with the Courrier franc.ais
he gave his attention chiefly to economic questions. He advo-
cated a customs union between the Latin countries to counter-
balance the German Zollverein, and in view of the impractic-
ability of such a measure narrowed his proposal in 1842 to a
customs union between France and Belgium. In 1843 he visited
England to study the English social system, publishing the
results of his investigations in a famous series of Etudes sur
I'Angleterre (2 vols., 1845), published originally in the Revue
des deux mondes. He helped to organize the Bordeaux associa-
tion for free-trade propaganda, and it was as an advocate of
free trade that he was elected in 1847 to the chamber of deputies
for Reims. After the revolution of 1848 he entered the Con-
stituent Assembly for the department of Marne, where he
opposed many Republican measures the limitation of the hours
of labour, the creation of the national relief works in Paris,
the abolition of the death penalty and others. Under the
presidency of Louis Napoleon he became minister of public
works, and then minister of the interior, but his action in seeking
to influence the coming elections by a circular letter addressed
to the prefects was censured by the Constituent Assembly,
and he was compelled to resign office on the i4th of May 1849.
In 1851 he was again minister of the interior until Napoleon
declared his intention of resorting to universal suffrage. After
the coup d'etat of December he refused a seat in the consultative
commission instituted by Napoleon. He had been elected a
member of the Academy of Moral and Political Science in 1849,
and his retirement from politics permitted a return to his writings
on economics. He had been to Italy in search of health in 1854,
and was returning to Paris on business when he was seized by
typhoid at Marseilles, where he died on the i4th of December
1854.
His miscellaneous writings were collected (2 vols., 1856) as
Melanges d'economie politique et de finance, and his speeches in the
legislature are printed in vol. ii. of Leon Faucher, biographic et
correspondance (2 vols., 2nd ed., Paris, 1875).
FAUCHET FAUJAS DE SAINT-FOND
205
FAUCHET, CLAUDE (1530-1601), French historian and
antiquary, was born at Paris on the 3rd of July 1530. Of his
early life few particulars are known. He applied himself to the
study of the early French chroniclers, and proposed to publish
extracts which would throw light on the first periods of the
monarchy. During the civil wars he lost a large part of his
books and manuscripts in a riot, and was compelled to leave
Paris. He then settled at Marseilles. Attaching himself after-
wards to Cardinal de Tournon, he accompanied him in 1554
to Italy, whence he was several times sent on embassies to the
king, with reports on the siege of Siena. His services at length
procured him the post of president of the chambre des monnaies,
and thus enabled him to resume his literary studies. Having
become embarrassed with debt, he found it necessary, at the
age of seventy, to sell his office; but the king, amused with an
epigram, gave him a pension, with the title of historiographer
of France. Fauchet has the reputation of an impartial and
scrupulously accurate writer; and in his works are to be found
important facts not easily accessible elsewhere. He was, however,
entirely uncritical, and his style is singularly inelegant. His
principal works (1579, 1599) treat of Gaulish and French anti-
quities, of the dignities and magistrates of France, of the
origin of the French language and poetry, of the liberties of the
Gallican church, &c. A collected edition was published in 1610.
Fauchet took part in a translation of the Annals of Tacitus
(1582). He died at Paris about the close of 1601.
FAUCHET, CLAUDE (1744-1793), French revolutionary
bishop, was born at Domes (Nievre) on the 22nd of September
1744. He was a curate of the church of St Roch, Paris, when
he was engaged as tutor to the children of the marquis of Choiseul,
brother of Louis XV. 's minister, an appointment which proved
to be the first step to fortune. He was successively grand vicar
to the archbishop of Bourges, preacher to the king, and abbot
of Montfort-Lacarre. The " philosophic " tone of his sermons
caused his dismissal from court in 1788 before he became a
popular speaker in the Parisian sections. He was one of the
leaders of the attack on the Bastille, and on the 5th of August
1789 he delivered an eloquent discourse by way of funeral
sermon for the citizens slain on the i4th of July, taking as his
text the words of St Paul, " Ye have been called to liberty."
He blessed the tricolour flag for the National Guard, and in
September was elected to the Commune, from which he retired
in October 1790. During the next winter he organized within
the Palais Royal the " Social Club of the Society of the Friends
of Truth," presiding over crowded meetings under the self-
assumed title of procureur general de la verite. Nevertheless,
events were marching faster than his opinions, and the last
occasion on which he carried his public with him was in a sermon
preached at Notre Dame on the i4th of February 1791. In
May he became constitutional bishop of Calvados, and was
presently returned by the department to the Legislative
Assembly, and afterwards to the Convention. At the king's
trial he voted for the appeal to the people and for the penalty
of imprisonment. He protested against the execution of Louis
XVI. in the Journal des amis (January 26, 1793), and next
month was denounced to the Convention for prohibiting married
priests from the exercise of the priesthood in his diocese. He
remained secretary to the Convention until the accusation of
the Girondists in May 1 793. In July he was imprisoned on the
charge of supporting the federalist movement at Caen, and of
complicity with Charlotte Corday, whom he had taken to see
a sitting of the Convention on her arrival in Paris. Of the
second of these charges he was certainly innocent. With the
Girondist deputies he was brought before the revolutionary
tribunal on the 3Oth of October, and was guillotined on the
following day.
See Memoires . . . ou Lettres de Claude Fauchet (sth ed., 1793) ;
Notes sur Claude Fauchet (Caen, 1842).
FAUCIT, HELENA SAVILLE (1817-1898), English actress,
the daughter of John Saville Faucit, an actor, was born in London.
Her first London appearance was made on the sth of January
1836 at Covent Garden as Julia in The Hunchback. Her success
in this was so definitely confirmed by her subsequent acting
of Juliet, Lady Teazle, Beatrice, Imogen and Hermione, that
within eighteen months she was engaged by Macready as leading
lady at Covent Garden. There, besides appearing in several
Shakespearian characters, she created the heroine's part in
Lytton's Duchess de la Valliere (1836), Lady of Lyons (1838),
Richelieu (1839), The Sea Captain (1839), Money (1840), and
Browning's Slrajford (1837). After a visit to Paris and a short
season at the Haymarket, she joined the Drury Lane company
under Macready early in 1842. There she played Lady Macbeth,
Constance in King John, Desdemona and Imogen, and took
part in the first production of Westland Marston's Patrician's
Daughter (1842) and Browning's Blot on t/te Scutclieon (1843).
Among her successful tours was included a visit to Paris in 1844-
1845, where she acted with Macready in several Shakespearian
plays. In 1851 she was married to Mr (afterwards Sir) Theodore
Martin, but still acted occasionally for charity. One of her last
appearances was as Beatrice, on the opening of the Shakespeare
Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon on the 23rd of April 1879.
In i88r there appeared in Blackwood's Magazine the first of her
Letters on some, of Shakespeare's Heroines, which were published
in book form as On Some of Shakespeare's Female Characters
(1885). Lady Martin died at her home near Llangollen in Wales
on the 3ist of October 1898. There is a tablet to her in the
Shakespeare Memorial with a portrait figure, and the marble
pulpit in the Shakespeare church with her portrait as Saint
Helena was given in her memory by her husband.
See Sir Theodore Martin's Helena Faucit (1900).
FAUJAS DE SAINT-FOND, BARTH^LEMY (1741-1819),
French geologist and traveller, was born at Montelimart on the
I7th of May T74i. He was educated at the Jesuits' College at
Lyons; afterwards he went to Grenoble, applied himself to the
study of law, and was admitted advocate to the parliament.
He rose to be president of the seneschal's court (1765), a post
which he honourably filled, but the duties of which became
irksome, as he had early developed a love of nature and his
favourite relaxation was found in visits to the Alps. There he
began to study the forms, structure, composition and super-
position of rocks. In 1775 he discovered in the Velay a rich
deposit of pozzuolana, which in due course was worked by the
government. In 1776 he put himself in communication with
Buffon, who was not slow to perceive the value of his labours.
Invited by Buffon to Paris, he quitted the law, and was appointed
by Louis XVI. assistant naturalist to the museum, to which office
was added some years later (1785, 1788) that of royal commis-
sioner for mines. One of the most important of his works was the
Recherches sur les volcans eteints du Vivarais et du Velay, which
appeared in 1778. In this work, rich in facts and observations,
he developed his theory of the origin of volcanoes. In his
capacity of commissioner for mines Faujas travelled in almost
all the countries of Europe, everywhere devoting attention to
the nature and constituents of the rocks. It was he who first
recognized the volcanic nature of the basaltic columns of the
cave of Fingal (Staffa), although the island was visited in 1772
by Sir Joseph Banks, who remarked that the stone " is a coarse
kind of Basalles, very much resembling the Giants' Causeway
in Ireland " (Pennant's Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the
Hebrides). Faujas's Voyage en Angleterre, en ,cosse et aux lies
Hebrides (1797) is full of interest containing anecdotes of Sir
Joseph Banks and Dr John Whitehurst, and an amusing account
of " The Dinner of an Academic Club " (the Royal Society), and
has been translated into English (2 vols., 1799). Having been
nominated in 1 793 professor at the Jardin des Plantes, he held
this post till he was nearly eighty years of age, retiring in 1818
to his estate of Saint-Fond in Dauphine. Faujas took a warm
interest in the balloon experiments of the brothers Montgolfier,
and published a very complete Description des experiences de la
machine aerostalique de MM. Montgolfier, &c. (1783, 1784).
He contributed many scientific memoirs to the Annales and the
Memoires of the museum of natural history. Among his separate
works, in addition to those already named are Histoire naturelle
de la province de Dauphine (1781, 1782); Mineralogie des volcans
206
FAULT
(1784); and Essai de geologic (1803-1809). Faujas died on the
i8th of July 1819.
FAULT (Mid. Eng.faule, through the French, from the popular
Latin use oifallere, to fail; the original /of the Latin being replaced
in English in the i5th century), a failing, mistake or defect.
In geology, the term is given to a plane of dislocation in a
portion of the earth's crust; synonyms used in mining are
" trouble," " throw " and " heave "; the German equivalent
is Verwerfung, and the French faille. Faults on a small scale are
sometimes sharply-
defined planes, 1 as if
the rocks had been
sliced through and
together again
being shifted
i). In such
however, the
harder portions of the
dislocated rocks will
usually be found
"slickensided." More
frequently some dis-
FIG. L-Section of clean-cut fault. turbance has occurred
on one or both sides
of the fault. Sometimes in a series of strata the beds on the side
which has been pushed up' are bent down against the fault, while
those on the opposite side are bent up (fig. 2). Most commonly
fitted
after
(fig-
cases,
FIG. 2. Section of strata, bent at a line of fault.
the rocks on both sides are considerably broken, jumbled and
crumpled, so that the line of fracture is marked by a belt or wall-
like mass of fragmentary rock, fault-rock, which may be several
yards in breadth. Faults are to be distinguished from joints
and fissures by the fact that there must have been a movement
of the rock on one side of the fault-plane relatively to that on the
other side. The trace of a fault-plane at the surface of the earth
is a line (or belt of fault-rock), which in geological mapping is
often spoken of as a " fault-line " or " line of fault." Fig. 3
FIG. 3. Plan of simple fault.
represents the plan of a simple fault; quite frequently, however,
the main fault subdivides at the extremities into a number of
minor faults (fig. 4), or the main fault may be accompanied by
FIG. 4. Plan of a fault splitting into minor faults.
lateral subordinate faults (fig. 5), some varieties of which have
been termed flaws or Blatts.
" Fault-planes "are sometimes perpendicular to the horizon, but
more usually they are inclined at a greater or lesser angle. The
angle made by the fault-plane with the vertical is the hade of the
1 The fault-plane is not a plane surface in the mathematical sense;
it may curve irregularly in more than one direction.
fault (if the angle of inclination were measured from the horizon,
as in determining the " dip " of strata, this would be expressed
as the " dip of the fault "). In figs, i and 2 the faults are hading
FIG. 5. Plan of main fault, with branches.
towards the right of the reader. The amount of dislocation as
measured along a fault-plane is the displacement of the fault
(for an illustration of these terms see fig. 18, where they are
applied to a thrust fault) ; the vertical displacement is the throw
(Fr. rejet) the horizontal displacement, which even with vertical
movement must arise in all cases where the faults are not per-
pendicular to the horizon and the strata are not horizontal,
is known as the heave. In fig. 6 the displacement is equal to the
throw in the fault A; in the fault B the displacement is more than
FIG. 6. Section of a vertical and inclined fault.
twice as great as in A, while the throw is the same in both; the
fault A has no heave, in B it is considerable. The rock on that
side of a fault which has dropped relatively to the rock on the
other is said to be upon the downthrow side of the fault; con-
versely, the relatively uplifted portion is the upthrow side.
The two fault faces are known as the " hanging-wall " and the
" foot- wall."
The relationship that exists between the hade and the direction
of throw has led to the classification of faults into " normal
faults," which hade under the downthrow side, or in other
words, those in which the hanging- wall has dropped; and
" reversed faults," which hade beneath the upthrow side, that
is to say, the foot-wall exhibits a relative sinking. Normal
faults are exemplified in figs, i, 2, and 6; in the latter the
masses A and B are on the downthrow sides, C is upthrown.
Fig. 7 represents a small reversed fault. Normal faults are
FIG. 7. Reversed fault, Liddesdale.
so called because they are more generally prevalent than the other
type; they are sometimes designated " drop " or " gravity "
faults, but these are misleading expressions and should be
discountenanced. Normal faults are regarded as the result of
stretching of the crust, hence they have been called " tension "
faults as distinguished from reversed faults, which are assumed
to be due to pressure. It is needful, however, to exercise great
caution in accepting this view except in a restricted and localized
sense, for there are many instances in which the two forms are
intimately associated (see fig. 8), and a whole complex system
of faults may be the result of horizontal (tangential) pressure
alone or even of direct vertical uplift. It is often tacitly assumed
FAULT
207
that most normal and reversed faults are due to simple vertical
movements of the fractured crust-blocks; but this is by no means
the case. What is actually observed in examining a fault is
the apparent direction of motion; but the present position of
the dislocated masses is the result of real motion or series of
FIG. 8. Diagram of gently undulating strata cut by a fault,
with alternate throw in opposite directions.
motions, which have taken place along the fault-plane at various
angles from horizontal to vertical; frequently it can be shown
that these movements have been extremely complicated. The
striations and " slickensides " on the faces of a fault indicate
only the direction of the last movement.
FIG. 9. Section of strata cut by step faults.
A broad monoclinal fold is sometimes observed to pass into
a fault of gradually increasing throw; such a fault is occasionally
regarded as pivoted at one end. Again, -a faulted mass may be
on the downthrow side towards one end, and on the upthrow
side towards the other, the movement having taken place about
FIG. 10. Trough faults.
an axis approximately normal to the fault-plane, the " pivot "
in this case being near the centre. From an example of this
kind it is evident that the same fault may at the same time be
both " normal " and " reversed " (see fig. 8). When the principal
movement along a highly inclined fault-plane has been approxi-
VarfA,
South
FIG. 11. Plan of a strike fault.
mately horizontal, the fault has been variously styled a lateral-
shift, transcurrent fault, transverse thrust or a heave fault. The
horizontal component in faulting movements is more common
than is often supposed.
A single normal fault of large throw is sometimes replaced
by a series of close parallel faults, each throwing a small amount
in the same direction; if these subordinate faults occur within
a narrow width of ground they are known as distribution faults;
if they are more widely separated they are called step faults
(fig. 9). Occasionally
two normal faults
hade towards one
another and intersect,
and the rock mass
between them has s
been let down; this is'
described as a trough'
fault (fig. 10). A fault
running parallel to
the strike of bedded
rocks is a strike fault;
one which runs along
the direction of the FIG. 12. Sectionacrosstheplan.fig.il.
dip is a dip fault; a
so-called diagonal fault takes a direction intermediate between
these two directions. Although the effects of these types of
fault upon the outcrops of strata differ, there are no intrinsic
differences between the faults themselves.
The effect of normal faults upon the outcrop may be thus
briefly summarized: a strike fault that hades with the direction
of the dip may cause beds to be cut out at the surface on the
~B
FIG. 13. Plan of strata cut by a dip fault.
upthrow side; if it hades against the dip direction it may repeat
some of the beds on the upthrow side (figs, n and 12). With
dip faults the crop is carried forward (down the dip) on the
upthrow side. The perpendicular distance between the crop
of the bed (dike or vein) on opposite sides of the fault is the
" offset." The offset decreases with increasing angle of dip
and increases with increase in the throw of the fault (fig. 13).
FIG. 14. Plan of strata traversed by a diminishing strike fault.
Faults which run obliquely across the direction of dip, if they
hade with the dip of the strata, will produce offset with " gap "
between the outcrops; if they hade in the opposite direction
to the dip, offset with " overlap " is caused: in the latter case
the crop moves forward (down dip) on the denuded upthrow
side, in the former it moves backward. The effect of a strike
fault of diminishing throw is seen in fig. 14. Faults crossing
folded strata cause the outcrops to approach on the upthrow
side of a syncline and tend to separate the outcrops of an anti-
cline (figs. 15, 16, 17).
In the majority of cases the upthrown side of a fault has been
so reduced by denudation as to leave no sharp upstanding
ridge; but examples are known where the upthrown side still
208
FAULT
exists as a prominent cliff -like face of rock, a "fault-scarp";
familiar instances occur in the Basin ranges of Utah, Nevada, &c.,
and many smaller examples have been observed in the areas
affected by recent earthquakes in Japan, San Francisco and
other places. But although there may be no sharp cliff, the
effect of faulting upon topographic forms is abundantly evident
wherever a harder
series of strata has been
__ brought in juxtaposi-
-V_-s tion to softer rocks.
By certain French
s writers, the upstanding
side of a faulted piece
.. of ground is said to
--,.-'' have a regard, thus the
'" faults of the Jura
A Mountains have a
" regard franfais," and
so- li
t
t"'
i //
L
FIG. 15. Plan of an anticline (A) and
syncline (S), dislocated by a fault.
in the same region it
has been observed that
in curved faults the
convexity is directed
the same way as the
regard. Occasionally
one or more parallel
faults have let down an intervening strip of rock, thereby form-
ing "fault valleys" or Graben (Grabensenken) ; the Great Rift
Valley is a striking example. On the other hand, a large area of
rock is sometimes lifted up, or surrounded by a system of faults,
which have let down the
/'.V x > encircling ground; such
/ / \ \ a fault-block is known
. // <V N A a ' so as a horst; a con-
\ **'' A \ V* siderable area of Green-
** u ;' .' u ' \ land stands up in this
manner.
Faults have often an
important influence upon
water-supply by bringing
impervious beds up
against pervious ones or
vice versa, thus forming underground dams or reservoirs, or
allowing water to flow away that would otherwise be conserved.
Springs often rise along the outcrop of a fault. In coal and metal
FIG. 16. Section along the upcast side
of the fault in fig. 15.
mining it is evident from what has already been said that faults
must act sometimes beneficially, sometimes the reverse. It is a
common occurrence for fault-fissures and fault-rock to appear
as valuable mineral lodes through the infilling or impregnation
of the spaces and broken ground with mineral ores.
In certain regions which have been subjected to very great
crustal disturbance a
type of fault is found
which possesses a very
low hade sometimes i.
only a few degrees
from the horizontal
rf
FIG. 17. Section along the downcast
side of same fault.
and, like a reversed
fault, hades beneath
the upthrown mass;
these are termed
thrusts, overthrusts , or
overthrust faults (Fr. recouvrements, failles de chevauchement,
charriages; Ger. (jberschiebungen, Ubersprunge, Wechsel, Fallen-
oerwerfungen) . Thrusts should not be confused with reversed
faults, which have a strong hade. Thrusts play a very important
FIG. 1 8. Diagram to illustrate the terminology of faults
and thrusts.
part in the N.W. highlands of Scotland, the Scandinavian high-
lands, the western Alps, the Appalachians, the Belgian coal region,
&c. By the action of thrusts enormous masses of rock have been
pushed almost horizontally over underlying rocks, in some cases
for several miles. One of the largest of the Scandinavian thrust
N.W.
Damn
Sangomort
*** /-....
Kylt ofPuntett
Meall Meadhonach
,-F
Scale, i inch = 1)4 miles
F Hornal fault
***&
FIG. 19. Section of a very large thrust in the Durness Eriboll district, Scotland.
FAUNA FAURE
209
masses is 1120 m. long, 80 m. broad, and 5000 ft. thick.
In Scotland three grades of thrusts are recognized, maximum,
major, and minor thrusts; the last have very generally been
truncated by those of greater magnitude. Some of these great
thrusts have received distinguishing names, e.g. the Moine
thrust (fig. 19) and the Ben More thrust; similarly in the coal
basin of Mons and Valenciennes we find the faille de Boussu
and the Grande faille du midi. Overturned folds are frequently
seen passing into thrusts. Bayley Willis has classified thrusts
as (i) Shear thrusts, (2) Break thrusts, (3) Stretch thrusts, and
(4) Erosion thrusts.
Dr J. E. Marr (" Notes on the Geology of the English Lake
District," Proc. Geol. Assoc., 1900) has described a type of fault
which may be regarded as the converse of a thrust fault. If
we consider a series of rock masses A, B, C of which A is the
oldest and undermost undergoing thrusting, say from south
to north, should the mass C be prevented from moving forward
as rapidly as B, a low-hading fault may form between C and B
and the mass C may lag behind; similarly the mass B may lag
behind A. Such faults Dr Marr calls "lag faults." A mass of
rock suffering thrusting or lagging may yield unequally in its
several parts, and those portions tending to travel more rapidly
than the adjoining masses in the same sheet may be cut off by
fractures. Thus the faster-moving blocks will be separated from
the slower ones by faults approximately normal to the plane
of movement: these are described as " tear faults."
Faults may occur in rocks of all ages; small local dislocations
are observable even in glacial deposits, alluvium and loess.
A region of faulting may continue to be so through more than one
geological period. Little is known of the mechanism of faulting
or of the causes that produce it; the majority of the text-book
explanations will not bear scrutiny, and there is room for ex-
tended observation and research. The sudden yielding of the
strata along a plane of faulting is a familiar cause of earthquakes.
See E. de Margerie and A. Heim, Les Dislocations de I'ecorce terrestre
(Zurich, 1888); A. Rothpletz, Geotektonische Probleme (Stuttgart,
1894); B. Willis, " The Mechanics of Appalachian Structure," ijth
Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey (1891-1892, pub. 1893). A prolonged
discussion of the subject is given in Economic Geology, Lancaster, Pa.,
U.S.A., vols. i. and ii. (1906, 1907). (A. GE.; J. A. H.)
FAUNA, the name, in Roman mythology, of a country goddess
of the fields and cattle, known sometimes as the sister, some-
times as the wife of the god Faunus; hence the term is used
collectively for all the animals in any given geographical area
or geological period, or for an enumeration of the same. It thus
corresponds to the term " flora " in respect to plant life.
FAUNTLEROY, HENRY (1785-1824), English banker and
forger, was born in 1785. After seven years as a clerk in the
London bank of Marsh, Sibbald & Co., of which his father was
one of the founders, he was taken into partnership, and the whole
business of the firm was left in his hands. In 1824 the bank
suspended payment. Fauntleroy was arrested on the charge of
appropriating trust funds by forging the trustees' signatures,
and was committed for trial, it being freely rumoured that he
had appropriated 250,000, which he had squandered in de-
bauchery. He was tried at the Old Bailey, and, the case against
him having been proved, he admitted his guilt, but pleaded that
he had used the misappropriated funds to pay his firm's debts.
He was found guilty ard sentenced to be hanged. Seventeen
merchants and bankers gave evidence as to his general integrity
at the trial, and after his conviction powerful influence was
brought to bear on his behalf, and his case was twice argued
before judges on points of law. An Italian named Angelini
even offered to take Fauntleroy's place on the scaffold. The
efforts of his many friends were, however, unavailing, and he
was executed on the 3oth of November 1824. A wholly
unfounded rumour was widely credited for some time subse-
quently to the effect that he had escaped strangulation by
inserting a silver tube in his throat, and was living comfortably
abroad.
See A. Griffith's Chronicles of Newgate, ii. 294-300, and Pierce
Egan's Account of the Trial of Mr Fauntleroy.
FAUNUS (i.e. the " kindly," from La.t.favere, or the " speaker,"
from /art), an old Italian rural deity, the bestower of fruitfulness
on fields and cattle. As such he is akin to or identical with
Inuus (" fructifier ") and Lupercus (see LUPERCALIA). Faunus
also revealed the secrets of the future by strange sounds from
the woods, or by visions communicated to those who slept within
his precincts in the skin of sacrificed lambs; he was then called
Fatuus, and with him was associated his wife or daughter Fatua.
Under Greek influence he was identified with Pan, and just as
there was supposed to be a number of Panisci, so the existence
of many Fauni was assumed misshapen and mischievous
goblins of the forest, with pointed ears, tails and goat's feet,
who loved to torment sleepers with hideous nightmares. In
poetical tradition Faunus is an old king of Latium, the son of
Picus (Mars) and father of Latinus, the teacher of agriculture and
cattle-breeding, and the introducer of the religious system of the
country, honoured after death as a tutelary divinity. Two
festivals called Faunalia were celebrated in honour of Faunus,
one on the i3th of February in his temple on the island in the
Tiber, the other in the country on the 5th of December (Ovid,
Fasti, ii. 193; Horace, Odes, iii. 18. 10). At these goats were
sacrificed to him with libations of wine and milk, and he was im-
plored to bepropitious to fields and flocks. The peasants and slaves
at the same time amused themselves with dancing in the meadows.
FAURE, FRANCOIS FELIX (1841-1899), President of the
French Republic, was born in Paris on the 3oth of January 1841,
being the son of a small furniture maker. Having started as
a tanner and merchant at Havre, he acquired considerable
wealth, was elected to the National Assembly on the 2ist of
August 1881, and took his seat as a member of the Left, interest-
ing himself chiefly in matters concerning economics, railways
and the navy. In November 1882 he became under-secretary
for the colonies in M. Ferry's ministry, and retained the post
till 1885. He held the same post in M. Tirard's ministry in 1888,
and in 1893 was made vice-president of the chamber. In 1894.
he obtained cabinet rank as minister of marine in the administra-
tion of M . Dupuy. In the January following he was unexpectedly
elected president of the Republic upon the resignation of M.
Casimir-Perier. The principal cause of his elevation was the
determination of the various sections of the moderate republican
party to exclude M. Brisson, who had had a majority of votes
on the first ballot, but had failed to obtain an absolute majority.
To accomplish this end it was necessary to unite among them-
selves, and union could only be secured by the nomination of
some one who offended nobody. M. Faure answered perfectly
to this description. His fine presence and his tact on ceremonial
occasions rendered the state some service when in 1896 he re-
ceived the Tsar of Russia at Paris, and in 1897 returned his
visit, after which meeting the momentous Franco-Russian
alliance was publicly announced. The latter days of M. Faure's
presidency were embittered by the Dreyfus affair, which he was
determined to regard as chose jugee. But at a critical moment
in the proceedings his death occurred suddenly, from apoplexy,
on the i6th of February 1899. With all his faults, and in spite
of no slight amount of personal vanity, President Faure was
a shrewd political observer and a good man of business. After
his death, some alleged extracts from his private journals,
dealing with French policy, were published in the Paris press.
See E. Maillard, Le President F. Faure (Paris, 1897); P. Bluysen,
Felix Faure intime (1898) ; and F. Martin-Ginouvier, F. Faure devant
Ihistoire (1895).
FAUR& GABRIEL (1845- ), French musical composer,
was born at Pamiers on the i3th of May 1845. He studied at
the school of sacred music directed by Niedermeyer, first under
Dietsch, and subsequently under Saint-Saens. He became
" maitre de chapelle " at the church of the Madeleine in 1877,
and organist in 1896. His works include a symphony in D
minor (Op. 40), two quartets for piano and strings (Opp. 15 and
45), a suite for orchestra (Op. 12), sonata for violin and piano
(Op. 13), concerto for violin (Op. 14), berceuse for violin, elegie
for violoncello, pavane for orchestra, incidental music for
Alexandre Dumas' Caligula and De Haraucourt's Shylock,
210
FAURIEL FAUST
a requiem, a cantata, The Birth of Venus, produced at the Leeds
festival in 1898, a quantity of piano music, and a large number
of songs. Faure occupies a place by himself among modern
French composers. He delights in the imprevu, and loves to
wander through labyrinthine harmonies. There can be no
denying the intense fascination and remarkable originality of
his music. His muse is essentially aristocratic, and suggests
the surroundings of the boudoir and the perfume of the hot-
house.
FAURIEL, CLAUDE CHARLES (1772-1844), French historian,
philologist and critic, was born at St Etienne on the 2ist of
October 1772. Though the son of a poor joiner, he received a
good education in the Oratorian colleges of Tournon and Lyons.
He was twice in the army at Perpignan in 1793, and in 1796-
1797 at Briancon, as private secretary to General J. Servan de
Gerbey (1741-1808); but he preferred the civil service and the
companionship of his friends and his books. In 1 794 he returned
to St Etienne, where, but only for a short period, he filled a
municipal office; and from 1797 to 1799 he devoted himself
to strenuous study, more especially of the literature and history,
both ancient and modern, of Greece and Italy. Having paid a
visit to Paris in 1799, he was introduced to Fouche, minister of
police, who i nduced him to become his private secretary. Though
he discharged the duties of this office to Fouche's satisfaction,
his strength was overtasked by his continued application to
study, and he found it necessary in 1801 to recruit his health
by a three months' trip in the south. In resigning his office in the
following year he was actuated as much by these considerations
as by the scruples he put forward in serving longer under
Napoleon, when the latter, in violation of strict republican prin-
ciples, became consul for life. This is clearly shown by the frag-
ments of Memoirs discovered by Ludovic Lalanne and published
in 1886.
Some articles which Fauriel published in the Dicade pkilo-
sophique (1800) on a work of Madame de Stael's De la litttrature
considerie dans ses rapports avec les institutions sociales led to an
intimate friendship with her. About 1802 he contracted with
Madame de Condorcet a liaison which lasted till her death (1822).
It was said of him at the time that he gave up all his energies
to love, friendship and learning. The salon of Mme de Condorcet
was throughout the Consulate and the first Empire a rallying
point for the dissentient republicans. Fauriel was introduced
by Madame de Stael to the literary circle of Auteuil, which
gathered round Destutt de Tracy. Those who enjoyed his closest
intimacy were the physiologist Cabanis (Madame de Condorcet's
brother-in-law), the poet Manzoni, the publicist Benjamin
Constant, and Guizot. Later Tracy introduced to him Aug.
Thierry (1821) and perhaps Thiers and Mignet. During his
connexion with Auteuil, Fauriel's attention was naturally
turned to philosophy, and for some years he was engaged on a
history of Stoicism, which was never completed, all the papers
connected with it having accidentally perished in 1814. He also
studied Arabic, Sanskrit and the old South French dialects. He
published in 1810 a translation of the Parthenais of the Danish
poet Baggesen, with a preface on the various kinds of poetry;
in 1823 translations of two tragedies of Manzoni, with a preface
" Surlatheoriederartdramatique "; andin 1824-1825 his transla-
tion of the popular songs of modern Greece, with a " Discours
preliminaire " on popular poetry.
The Revolution of July, which put his friends in power, opened
to him the career of higher education. In 1830 he became
professor of foreign literature at the Sorbonne. The Hisloire de la
Guide meridionale sous la domination des conquerants germains
(4 vols., 1836) was the only completed section of a general history
of southern Gaul which he had projected. In 1 836 he was elected
a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1837 he pub-
lished (with an introduction the conclusions of which would not
now all be endorsed) a translation of a Provencal poem on the
Albigensian war. He died on the isth of July 1844. After his
death his friend Mary Clarke (afterwards Madame J. Mohl)
published his Hisloire de la literature proven$ale (3 vols., 1846)
his lectures for 1831-1832. Fauriel was biased in this work by
his preconceived and somewhat fanciful theory that Provence was
the cradle of the chansons de geste and even of the Round Table
romances; but he gave a great stimulus to the scientific study of
Old French and Provencal. Dante et les origines de la langue et de
la litter ature italiennes (2 vols.) was published in 1854.
Fauriel's Memoires, found with Condorcet's papers, are in the
Institute library. They were written at latest in 1804, and include
some interesting fragments on the close of the consulate, Moreau, &c.
Though anonymous, Lalanne, who published them (Les Derniers
Jours du Consulat, 1886), proved them to be in the same handwriting
as a letter of Fauriel's in 1803. The same library has Fauriel's corre-
spondence, catalogued by Ad. Regnier (1900). Benjamin Constant's
letters (1802-1823) were published by Victor Glachant in 1906.
For Fauriel's correspondence with Guizot see Nouvelle Rev. (Dec. I,
1901, by V. Glachant), and for his love-letters to Miss Clarke (1822-
1844.) the Revue des deux mondes (1908-1909) by E. Rod.) See
further Sainte-Beuve, Portraits contemporains, ii. ; Antoine Guillois,
Le Salon de Mme Helvetius (1894) and La Marquise de Condorcet
(1897); O'Meara, Un Salon a Paris: Mme Mohl (undated); and
J. B. Galley, Claude Fauriel (1909).
FAUST, or FAUSTUS, the name of a magician and charlatan
of the 1 6th century, famous in legend and in literature. The
historical Faust forms little more than the nucleus round which
a great mass of legendary and imaginative material gradually
accumulated. That such a person existed there is, however,
sufficient proof. 1 He is first mentioned in a letter, dated August
20, 1507, of the learned Benedictine Johann Tritheim or Trithe
mius (1462-1516), abbot of Spanheim, to the mathematiciaii
and astrologer Johann Windung, at Hasfurt, who had apparently
written about him. Trithemius, himself reputed a magician, and
the author of a mystical work (published at Darmstadt in 1621
under the title of Steganographica and burnt by order of the
Spanish Inquisition), speaks contemptuously of Faust, who
called himself Magister Georgius Sabellicus Faustus Junior, as
a fool rather than a philosopher (fatuum non philosophum) , a
vain babbler, vagabond and mountebank who ought to be
whipped, and who had fled from the city rather than confront
him. The insane conceit of the man was proved by his boast that,
were all the works of Aristotle and Plato blotted from the
memory of men, he could restore them with greater elegance, and
that Christ's miracles were nothing to marvel at, since he could
do the like whenever and as often as he pleased; his debased
character by the fact that he had been forced to flee from the
school of which he had been appointed master by the discovery
of his unnatural crimes. The same unflattering estimate is con-
tained in the second extant notice of Faust, in a letter of the
jurist and canon Konrad Mudt (Mutianus Rufus), of the 3rd of
October 1513, to Heinrich Urbanus. Mudt, like Trithemius,
simply regards Faust as a charlatan. Similar is the judgment of
another contemporary, Philipp Begardi, who in the fourth
chapter of his Index sanitatis (Worms, 1539) ranks Faust, with
Theophrastus Paracelsus, among the " wicked, cheating, useless
and unlearned doctors."
It was Johann Cast (d. 1572), a worthy Protestant pastor
of Basel, who like Mudt claims to have come into personal
contact with Faust, who in his Sermones conviiiales (Basel, 1543)
first credited the magician with genuine supernatural qualities.
Cast, a man of some learning and much superstition, believed
Faust to be in league with the devil, by whom about 1525 he
was ultimately carried off, and declared the performing horse and
dog by which the necromancer was accompanied to be familiar
and evil spirits. Further information was given to the world
by Johann Mannel or Manlius (d. 1560), councillor and historian
to the emperor Maximilian II., in his Locorum communium
collectanea (Basel, undated). Manlius reports a conversation
of Melanchthon, which there is no reason to suspect of being other
than genuine, in which the Reformer speaks of Faust as " a
disgraceful beast and sewer of many devils," as having been
born at Kundling (Kundlingen or Knittlingen), a little town
near his own native town (of Bretten), and as having studied
magic at Cracow. The rest of the information given can hardly
be regarded as historical, though Melanchthon, who, like Luther,
1 The opinion, long maintained by some, that he was identical
with Johann Fust, the printer, is now universally rejected.
FAUST
211
was no whit less superstitious than most people of his time,
evidently believed it to be so. According to him, among other
marvels, Faust was killed by the devil wringing his neck. While
he lived he had taken about with him a dog, which was really
a devil. A similar opinion would seem to have been held of
Faust by Luther also, who in Widmann's Faust-book is men-
tioned as having declared that, by God's help, he had been able
to ward off the evils which Faust with his sorceries had sought to
put upon him. The passage, with the omission of Faust's name,
occurs word for word in Luther's Table-talk(ed.C.E.F6rstemann,
vol. i. p. 50). It is not improbable, then, that Widmann, in
supplying the name of the necromancer omitted in the Table-
talk, may be giving a fuller account of the conversation.
Bullinger also, in his Theatrum de beneficiis (Frankf., 1569)
mentions Faust as one of those " of whom the Scriptures speak,
in various places, calling them magi." Lastly Johann Weiher,
Wierus or Piscinarius (1515-1588) a pupil of Cornelius Agrippa,
body physician to the duke of Cleves and a man of enlighten-
ment, who opposed the persecution of witches in his De prae-
stigiis daemonum (Basel, 1563, &c.), speaks of Faust as a drunken
vagabond who had studied magic at Cracow, and before 1540
had practised " this beautiful art shamelessly up and down
Germany, with unspeakable deceit, many lies and great effect."
He goes on to tell how the magician had revenged himself on
an unhappy parish priest, who had refused to supply him any
longer with drink, by giving him a depilatory which removed
not only the beard but the skin, and further, how he had insulted
a poor wretch, for no better reason than that he had a black
beard, by greeting him as his cousin the devil. Of his super-
human powers Weiher evidently believes nothing, but he tells
the tale of his being found dead with his neck wrung, after the
whole house had been shaken by a terrific din.
The sources above mentioned, which were but the first of
numerous works on Faust, of more or less value, appearing
throughout the next two centuries, give a sufficient picture of
the man as he appeared to his contemporaries: a wandering
charlatan who lived by his wits, cheiromantist, astrologer,
diviner, spiritualist medium, alchemist, or, to the more credulous,
a necromancer whose supernatural gifts were the outcome of a
foul pact with the enemy of mankind. Whatever his character,
his efforts to secure a widespread notoriety had, by the time of
his death, certainly succeeded. By the latter part of the i6th
century he had become the necromancer par excellence, and all
that legend had to tell about the great wizards of the middle ages,
Virgil, Pope Silvester, Roger Bacon, Michael Scot, or the mythic
Klingsor, had become for ever associated with his name. When
in 1587, the oldest Faust-book was published, the Faust legend
was, in all essential particulars, already complete.
The origin of the main elements of the legend must be sought
far back in the middle ages and beyond. The idea of a compact
with the devil, for the purpose of obtaining superhuman power
or knowledge, is of Jewish origin, dating from the centuries
immediately before and after the Christian era which produced
the Talmud, the Kabbalah and such magical books as that of
Enoch. In the mystical rites in which blood, as the seat of life,
played a great part that accompanied the incantations with
which the Jewish magicians evoked the Satanim the lowest
grade of those elemental spirits (shedim) who have their existence
beyond the dimensions of time and space we have the proto-
types and originals of all the ceremonies which occupy the books
of magic down to the various versions of the Hollenzivang ascribed
to Faust. The other principle underlying the Faust legend,
the belief in the essentially evil character of purely human
learning, has existed ever since the triumph of Christianity set
divine revelation above human science. The legend of Theo-
philus a Cilician archdeacon of the 6th century, who sold his
soul to Satan for no better reason than to clear himself of a false
charge brought against him by his bishop was immensely
popular throughout the middle ages, and in the 8th century
formed the theme of a poem in Latin hexameters by the nun
Hroswitha of Gandersheim, who, especially in her description of
the ritual of Satan's court, displays a sufficiently lively and
original imagination. Equally widespread were the legends
which gathered round the great name of Gerbert (Pope Silvester
II.). Gerbert's vast erudition, like Roger Bacon's so far in
advance of his age, naturally cast upon him the suspicion of
traffic with the infernal powers; and in due course the suspicion
developed into the tale, embellished with circumstantial and
harrowing details, of a compact with the arch-fiend, by which
the scholar had obtained the summit of earthly ambition at the
cost of his immortal soul. These are but the two most notable
of many similar stories, 1 and, in an age when the belief in witch-
craft and the ubiquitous activity of devils was still universal,
it is natural that they should have been retold in all good faith
of a notorious wizard who was himself at no pains to deny their
essential truth. The Faust legend, however, owes something of
its peculiar significance also to the special conditions of the age
which gave it birth: the age of the Renaissance and the Refor-
mation. The opinion that the religious reformers were the
champions of liberty of thought against the obscurantism of
Rome is the outgrowth of later experience. To themselves they
were the protagonists of " the pure Word of God " against the
corruptions of a church defiled by the world and the devil, and
the sceptical spirit of Italian humanism was as abhorrent to them
as to the Catholic reactionaries by whom it was again trampled
under foot. If then, in Goethe's drama, Faust ultimately de-
velops into the type of the unsatisfied yearning of the human
intellect for " more than earthly meat and drink," this was
because the great German humanist deliberately infused into the
old story a spirit absolutely opposed to that by which it had
originally been inspired. The Faust of the early Faust-books,
of the ballads, the dramas^ and the puppet-plays innumerable
which grew out of them, 'is irrevocably damned because he
deliberately prefers human to " divine " knowledge; " he laid
the Holy Scriptures behind the door and under the bench,
refused to be called doctor of Theology, but preferred to be styled
doctor of Medicine." The orthodox moral of the earliest versions
is preserved to the last in the puppet-plays. The Voice to the
right cries: " Faust! Faust! desist from this proposal! Go
on with the study of Theology, and you will be the happiest
of mortals." The Voice to the left answers: " Faust! Faust!
leave the study of Theology. Betake you to Necromancy, and
you will be the happiest of mortals! " The Faust legend was,
in fact, the creation of orthodox Protestantism; its moral,
the inevitable doom which follows the wilful revolt of the in-
tellect against divine authority as represented by the Holy
Scriptures and its accredited interpreters. Faust, the contemner
of Holy Writ, is set up as a foil to Luther, the champion of the
new orthodoxy, who with well-directed inkpot worsted the devil
when he sought to interrupt the sacred work of rendering the
Bible into the vulgar tongue.
It was doubtless this orthodox and Protestant character of
the Faust story which contributed to its immense and immediate
popularity in the Protestant countries. The first edition of the
Historia von D. Johann Fausten, by an unknown compiler,
published by Johann Spies at Frankfort in 1587, sold out at
once. Though only placed on the market in the autumn, before
the year was out it had been reprinted in four pirated editions.
In the following year a rhymed version was printed at Tubingen,
a second edition was published by Spies at Frankfort and a
version in low German by J. J. Balhorn at Liibeck. Reprints
and amended versions continued to appear in Germany every
year, till they culminated in the pedantic compilation of Georg
Rudolf Widmann, who obscured the dramatic interest of the
story by an excessive display of erudition and by his well-meant
efforts to elaborate the orthodox moral. Widmann's version of
1599 formed the basis of that of Johann Nicholaus Pfitzer,
published at Nuremberg in 1674, which passed through six
editions, the last appearing in 1726. Like Widmann, Pfitzer
was more zealous for imparting information than for perfecting
a work of art, though he had the good taste to restore the episode
of the evocation of Helen, which Widmann had expunged as
unfit for Christian readers. Lastly there appeared, about
i Many are given in Kiesewetter's Faust, p. 112, &c.
212
FAUST
1712, what was to prove the most popular of all the Faust-books:
The League with the Devil established by the world-famous Arch-
necromancer and Wizard Dr Johann Faust. By a Christian
Believer (Christlich Meynenden}. This version, which bore the
obviously false date of 1525, passed through many editions,
and was circulated at all the fairs in Germany. Abroad the
success of the story was scarcely less striking. A Danish version
appeared in 1588; in England the History of the Damnable
Life and Deserved Death of Dr John Fauslus was published some
time between 1588 and 1594; in France the translation of
Victor Palma Cayet was published at Paris in 1 592 and, in the
course of the next two hundred years, went through fifteen
editions; the oldest Dutch and Flemish versions are dated
1592; and in 1612 a Czech translation was published at Prague.
Besides the popular histories of Faust, all more or less founded
on the original edition of Spies, numerous ballads on the same
subject were also soon in circulation. Of these the most interest-
ing for the English reader is A Ballad of the life and death of Dr
Faustus the great congerer, published in 1588 with the imprimatur
of the learned Aylmer, bishop of London. This ballad is supposed
to have preceded the English version of Spies's Faust-book,
mentioned above, on which Marlowe's drama was founded.
To Christopher Marlowe, it would appear, belongs the honour
of first realizing the great dramatic possibilities of the Faust
legend. The Tragicall History of D. Faustus as it hath bene
acted by the Right Honourable the Earle of Nottingham his servants
was first published by Thomas Bushall at London in 1604. As
Marlowe died in 1593, the play must have been written shortly
after the appearance of the English version of the Faust story
on which it was based. The first recorded performance was on
the 30th of September 1594.
As Marlowe's Faustus is the first, so it is {incomparably the
finest of the Faust dramas which preceded Goethe's masterpiece.
Like most of Marlowe's work it is, indeed, very unequal. At
certain moments the poet seems to realize the great possibilities
of the story, only to sacrifice them to the necessity for humouring
the prevailing public taste of the age. Faustus, who in one
scene turns disillusioned from the ordinary fountains of know-
ledge, or flies in a dragon-drawn chariot through the Empyrean
to search out the mysteries of the heavens, in another is made
to use his superhuman powers to satisfy the taste of the ground-
lings for senseless buffoonery, to swindle a horse-dealer, or cheat
an ale-wife of her score; while Protestant orthodoxy is concili-
ated by irrelevant insults to the Roman Church and by the final
catastrophe, when Faustus pays for his revolt against the Word
of God by the forfeit of his soul. This conception, which followed
that of the popular Faust histories, underlay all further develop-
ments of the Faust drama for nearly two hundred years. Of
the serious stage plays founded on this theme, Marlowe's Faustus
remains the sole authentic example until near the end of the
i8th century; but there is plenty of evidence to prove that
in Germany the Comedy of Dr Faust, in one form or another,
was and continued to be a popular item in the repertories of
theatrical companies until far into the i8th century. It is
supposed, with good reason, that the German versions were
based on those introduced into the country by English strolling
players early in the I7th century. However this may be, the
dramatic versions of the Faust legend followed much the same
course as the prose histories. Just as these gradually degener-
ated into chap-books hawked at fairs, so the dramas were replaced
by puppet-plays, handed down by tradition through genera-
tions of showmen, retaining their original broad characteristics,
but subject to infinite modification in detail. In this way, in
the puppet-shows, the traditional Faust story retained its popu-
larity until far into the igth century, long after, in the sphere of
literature, Goethe had for ever raised it to quite another plane.
It was natural that during the literary revival in Germany
in the i8th century, when German writers were eagerly on the
look-out for subjects to form the material of a truly national
literature, the Faust legend should have attracted their attention.
Lessing was the first to point out its great possibilities; * and
1 In the Literaturbrief of Feb. 16, 1759.
he himself wrote a Faust drama, of which unfortunately only a
fragment remains, the MS. of the completed work having been
lost in the author's lifetime. None the less, to Lessing, not to
Goethe, is due the new point of view from which the story was
approached by most of those who, after about the year 1770,
attempted to tell it. The traditional Faust legend represented
the sternly orthodox attitude of the Protestant reformers.
Even the mitigating elements which the middle ages had per-
mitted had been banished by the stern logic of the theologians
of the New Religion. Theophilus had been saved in the end by
the intervention of the Blessed Virgin; Pope Silvester, according
to one version of the legend, had likewise been snatched from
the jaws of hell at the last moment. Faust was irrevocably
damned, since the attractions of the studium theologicum
proved insufficient to counteract the fascinations of the classic
Helen. But if he was to become, in the i8th century, the type
of the human intellect face to face with the deep problems of
human life, it was intolerable that his struggles should issue
in eternal reprobation. Error and heresy had ceased to be
regarded as crimes; and stereotyped orthodoxy, to the age of
the Encyclopaedists, represented nothing more than the atrophy
of the human intellect. Es irrt der Mensch so lang er strebt,
which sums up in one pregnant line the spirit of Goethe's Faust,
sums up also the spirit of the age which killed with ridicule the
last efforts of persecuting piety, and saw the birth of modern
science. Lessing, in short, proclaimed that the final end of Faust
must be, not his damnation, but his salvation. This revolution-
ary conception is the measure of Goethe's debt to Lessing.
The essential change which Goethe himself introduced into the
story is in the nature of the pact between Faust and Mephis-
topheles, and in the character of Mephistopheles himself.
The Mephistopheles of Marlowe, as of the old Faust-books, for
all his brave buffoonery, is a melancholy devil, with a soul above
the unsavoury hell in which he is forced to pass a hopeless
existence. " Tell me," says Faust, in the puppet-play, to
Mephistopheles, " what would you do if you could attain to
everlasting salvation? " And the devil answers, " Hear and
despair! Were I able to attain everlasting salvation, I would
mount to heaven on a ladder, though every rung were a razor
edge !" Goethe's Mephistopheles would have made no such
reply. There is nothing of the fallen angel about him; he is
perfectly content with his past, his present and his future;
and he appears before the throne of God with the same easy
insolence as he exhibits in Dame Martha's back-garden. He
is, in fact, according to his own definition, the Spirit of Denial,
the impersonation of that utter scepticism which can see no
distinction between high and low, between good and bad, and
is therefore without aspiration because it knows no " divine
discontent." And the compact which Faust makes with this
spirit is from the first doomed to be void. Faustus had bartered
away his soul for a definite period of pleasure and power. The
conception that underlies the compact of Faust with Mephis-
topheles is far more subtle. He had sought happiness vainly
in the higher intellectual and spiritual pursuits; he is content
to seek it on a lower plane since Mephistopheles gives him the
chance; but he is confident that nothing that " such a poor
devil " can offer him could give him that moment of supreme
satisfaction for which he craves. He goes through the traditional
mummery of signing the bond with scornful submission; for
he knows that his damnation will not be the outcome of any
formal compact, but will follow inevitably, and only then, when
his soul has grown to be satisfied with what Mephistopheles can
purvey him.
" Canst thou with lying flattery rule me
Until self-pleased myself I see,
Canst thou with pleasure mock and fool me,
Let that hour be the last for me!
When thus I hail the moment flying:
' Ah, still delay, thou art so fair!"
Then bind me in thy chains undying,
My final ruin then declare!" 2
It is because Mephistopheles fails to give him this self-satisfaction
2 Bayard Taylor's trans.
FAUSTINA FAVERSHAM
213
or to absorb his being in the pleasures he provides, that the
compact comes to nothing. When, at last, Faust cries to the
passing moment to remain, it is because he has forgotten self in
enthusiasm for a great and beneficent work, in a state of mind the
very antithesis of all that Mephistopheles represents. In the
old Faust-books, Faust had been given plenty of opportunity
for repentance, but the inducements had been no higher than
the exhibition of a throne in heaven on the one hand and the tor-
tures of hell on the other. Goethe's Faust, for all its Christian
setting, departs widely from this orthodox standpoint. Faust
shows no signs of " repentance "; he simply emerges by the
innate force of his character from a lower into a higher state.
The triumph, foretold by " the Lord " in the opening scene,
was inevitable from the first, since, though
" ' Man errs so long as he is striving,
A good man through obscurest aspiration
Is ever conscious of the one true way.' "
A man, in short, must be judged not by the sins and follies which
may be but accidents of his career, but by the character which is
its essential outcome.
This idea, which inspired also the kindred theme of Browning's
Paracelsus, is the main development introduced by Goethe
into the Faust legend. The episode of Gretchen, for all its tragic
interest, does not belong to the legend at all; and it is difficult
to deny the pertinency of Charles Lamb's criticism, " What has
Margaret to do with Faust?" Yet in spite of all that may be
said of the irrelevancies, and of the discussions of themes of
merely ephemeral interest, with which Goethe overloaded
especially the second part of the poem, his Faust remains for the
modern world the final form of the legend out of which it grew,
the magnificent expression of the broad humanism which, even
in spheres accounted orthodox, has tended to replace the peculiar
studium theologicum which inspired the early Faust-books.
See Karl Engel, Zusammenstellung der Faust-Schriften vom 16.
Jahrhundert bis Mitte 1884 a second edition of the Bibliotheca
Faustiana (1874) (Oldenburg, 1885), a complete bibliography of all
published matter concerned, even somewhat remotely, with Faust;
Goethe's Faust, with introduction and notes by K. J. Schroer
(2nd ed., Heilbronn, 1886) ; Carl Kiesewetter, Faust in der Geschichte
und Tradition (Leipzig, 1893). The last book, besides being a critical
study of the material for the historical and legendary story of
Faust, aims at estimating the relation of the Faust-legend to the
whole subject of occultism, ancient and modern. It is a mine of
information on necromancy and its kindred subjects, as well
as on eminent theurgists, wizards, crystal-gazers and the like of
all ages. (W. A. P.)
FAUSTINA, ANNIA GALERIA, the younger, daughter of
Antoninus Pius, and wife of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. She
is accused by Dio Cassius and Capitolinus of gross profligacy,
and was reputed to have instigated the revolt of Avidius Cassius
against her husband. She died in 175 or 176 (so Clinton, Fast:
rom.) at Halala, near Mount Taurus, in Cappadocia, whither she
had accompanied Aurelius. Charitable schools for orphan girls
(hence called Faustinianae) were founded in her honour, like
those established by her father Antoninus in honour of his wife
the elder Faustina. Her statue was placed in the temple ol
Venus, and she was numbered among the tutelary deities of Rome
From the fact that Aurelius was always devoted to her and was
heartbroken at her death, it has been inferred that the unfavour-
able estimate of the historians is prejudiced or at least mistaken.
See Capitolinus, Marcus Aurelius; Dio Cassius Ixxi. 22, Ixxiv. 3
E. Rerian, in Melanges d'histoire et des voyages, 169-195.
FAVARA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, 5 m. E
of Girgenti by road. Pop. (1901) 20,398. It possesses a fine
castle of the Chiaramonte family, erected in 1280. The town
has a considerable agricultural trade, and there are sulphur anc
other mines in the neighbourhood.
FAVART, CHARLES SIMON (1710-1792), French dramatist
was born in Paris on the i3th of November 1710, the son of a
pastry-cook. He was educated at the college of Louis-le-Grand
and after his father's death carried on the business for a time
His first success in literature was La France delivree par la
Pucelle d' Orleans, a poem which obtained a prize of the Academic
des Jeux Flor ux. After the production of his first vaudeville
Les Deux Jumellei (i 734) , circumstances enabled him to relinquish
usiness and devote himself entirely to the drama. He provided
many pieces anonymously for the lesser theatres, and first put
lis name to La Chercheuse d' esprit, which was produced in 1741.
Among his most succeesful works were Annette et Lubin, Le
l.oq du village (1743), Ninette d la cour (1753), Les Trois Sultanes
1761) and L'Anglaisd Bordeaux (1763). Favart became director
>f the Opera Comique, and in 1745 married MARIE JUSTINE
JENOITE DURONCERAY (1727-1772), a beautiful young dancer,
inger and actress, who as " Mile Chantilly " had made a success-
ul debut the year before. By their united talents and labours
he Opera Comique rose to such a height of success that it aroused
he jealousy of the rival Comedie Italienne and was suppressed,
"avart, left thus without resources, accepted the proposal of
Maurice de Saxe, and undertook the direction of a troupe of
comedians which was to accompany his army into Flanders.
It was part of his duty to compose from time to time impromptu
verses on the events of the campaign, amusing and stimulating
the spirits of the men. So popular were Favart and his troupe
.hat the enemy became desirous of hearing his company and shar-
ng his services, and permission was given to gratify them, battles
and comedies thus curiously alternating with each other. But
the marshal, who was an admirer of Mme Favart, began to perse-
cute her with his attentions. To escape him she went to Paris,
and the wrath of Saxe fell upon the husband. A lettre de cachet
was issued against him, but he fled to Strassburg and found
concealment in a cellar. Mme Favart meanwhile had been
istablished by the marshal in a house at Vaugirard; but as she
proved a fickle mistress she was suddenly arrested and confined
in a convent, where she was brought to unconditional surrender
in the beginning of 1750. Before the year was out the marshal
died, and Mme Favart reappeared at the Comedie Italienne,
where for twenty years she was the favourite actress. To her is
largely due the beginnings of the change in this theatre to perform-
ances of a lyric type adapted from Italian models, which developed
later into the genuine French comic opera. She was also a bold
reformer in matters of stage costume, playing the peasant with
bare arms, in wooden shoes and linen dress, and not, as heretofore,
in court costume with enormous hoops, diamonds and long white
kid gloves. With her husband, and other authors, she collabor-
ated in a number of successful pieces, and one La Fille mal gardee
she produced alone.
Favart survived his wife twenty years. After the marshal's
death in 1750 he had returned to Paris, and resumed his pursuits
as a dramatist. It was at this time that the abbe de Voisenon
became intimate with him and took part in his labours, to what
extent is uncertain. He had grown nearly blind in his last
days, and died in Paris on the i2th of May 1792. His plays
have been several times republished in various editions and
selections (1763-1772, 12 vols.; 1810, 3 vols.; 1813; 1853).
His correspondence (1759-1763) with Count Durazzo, director
of theatres at Vienna, was published in 1808 as Memoires et
correspondance litteraire, dramatique el anecdotique de C. S. Favart.
It furnishes valuable information on the state of the literary and
theatrical worlds in the i8th century.
Favart's second son, CHARLES NICOLAS JOSEPH JUSTIN FAVART
(1749-1806), was an actor of moderate talent at the Comedie
Franchise for fifteen years. He wrote a number of successful
plays: -Le Diable boiteux (i'j&2),LeMariagesingulier (1787) and,
with his father, La Vieillesse d' Annette (1791). His son Antoine
Pierre Charles Favart (1780-1867) was in the diplomatic service,
and assisted in editing his grandfather's memoirs; he was a
playwright and painter as well.
FAVERSHAM, a market town and river-port, member of the
Cinque Port of Dover, and municipal borough in the Faversham
parliamentary division of Kent, England, on a creek of the Swale,
9 m. W.N.W. of Canterbury on the South-Eastern & Chatham
railway. Pop.(i9oi) 11,290. Thechurchof St Maryof Charity,
restored by Sir G. G. Scott in 1874, is of Early English archi-
tecture, and has some remains on one of the columns of frescoes
of the same period, while the 14th-century paintings in the
chancel are in better preservation. Some of the brasses are very
fine, and there is one commemorating King Stephen, as well as
214
FAVORINUS FAVRE
a tomb said to be his. He was buried at the abbey he founded
here, of which only a wall and the foundations below ground
remain. At Davington, close to Faversham, there are remains,
incorporated in a residence, of the cloisters and other parts of
a Benedictine priory founded in 1153. Faversham has a free
grammar school founded in 1527 and removed to its present
site in 1877. Faversham Creek is navigable up to the town for
vessels of 200 tons. The shipping trade is considerable, chiefly
in coal, timber and agricultural produce. The oyster fisheries
are important, and are managed by a very ancient gild, the Com-
pany of Free Dredgermen of the Hundred and Manor of Faver-
sham. Brewing, brickmaking and the manufacture of cement
are also carried on, and there are several large powder mills in
the vicinity. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area, 686 acres.
There was a Romano-British village on the site of Faversham.
The town (Fauresfeld, Faveresham) owed its early importance
to its situation as a port on the Swale, to the fertile country
surrounding it, and to the neighbourhood of Watling Street.
In 8n it was called the king's town, arid a witenagemot was
held here under /Ethelstan. In 1086 it was assessed as royal
demesne, and a market was held here at this date. An abbey
was built by Stephen in 1147, in which he and Matilda were
buried. They had endowed it with the manor and hundred of
Faversham; this grant caused many disputes between the abbot
and men of Faversham concerning the abbot's jurisdiction.
Faversham was probably a member of Dover from the earliest
association of the Cinque Ports, certainly as early as Henry III.,
who in 1252 granted among other liberties of the Cinque Ports
that the barons of Faversham should plead only in Shepway
Court, but ten years later transferred certain pleas to the abbot's
court. In this reign also the abbot appointed the mayor, but
from the reign of Edward I. he was elected by the freemen and
then installed by the abbot. The corporation was prescriptive,
and a hallmote held in 1293 was attended by a mayor and
twelve jurats. All the liberties of the Cinque Ports were granted
to the barons of Faversham by Edward I. in 1302, and confirmed
by Edward III. in 1365, and by later monarchs. The governing
charter till 1835 was that of Henry VIII., granted in 1545 and
confirmed by Edward VI.
FAVORINUS (2nd century A.D.), Greek sophist and philosopher,
flourished during the reign of Hadrian. A Gaul by birth, he was
a native of Arelate (Aries) , but at an early age began his lifelong
travels through Greece, Italy and the East. His extensive
knowledge, combined with great oratorical powers, raised him
to eminence both in Athens and in Rome. With Plutarch, who
dedicated to him his treatise Ilepi TOV irpcorov \ftv\pov, with
Herodes Atticus, to whom he bequeathed his library at Rome,
with Demetrius the Cynic, Cornelius Fronto, Aulus Gellius,
and with Hadrian himself, he lived on intimate terms; his great
rival, whom he violently attacked in his later years, was Polemon
of Smyrna. It was Favorinus who, on being silenced by Hadrian
in an argument in which the sophist might easily have refuted
his adversary, subsequently explained that it was foolish to
criticize the logic of the master of thirty legions. When the
servile Athenians, feigning to share the emperor's displeasure
with the sophist, pulled down a statue which they had erected
to him, Favorinus remarked that if only Socrates also had had a
statue at Athens, he might have been spared the hemlock. Of
the very numerous works of Favorinus, we possess only a few
fragments (unless the ~K.opiv8ia.Kfa Xcryos attributed to his
tutor Dio Chrysostom is by him), preserved by Aulus Gellius,
Diogenes Laertius, Philostratus, and Suidas, the second of
whom borrows from his Havrooairfi ioropia (miscellaneous
history) and his 'Kwoiun\tU)vtvna.T a (memoirs). As a philosopher,
Favorinus belonged to the sceptical school; his most important
work in this connexion appears to have been Hvppuvttoi rpfriroi
(the Pyrrhonean Tropes) in ten books, in which he endeavours
to show that the methods of Pyrrho were useful to those who
intended to practise in the law courts.
See Philostratus, Vitae sophistarum, i. 8; Suidas, *..; frags.
in C. W. Muller, Frag. Hist. Graec. iii. 4; monographs by L. Legre
(1900), T. Colardeau (1903).
FAVRAS, THOMAS DE MAHY, MARQUIS DE (1744-1790),
French royalist, was born on the 26th of March 1744, at Blois.
He belonged to a poor family whose nobility dated from the
1 2th century. At seventeen he was a captain of dragoons,
and saw some service in the closing campaign of the Seven
Years' War. In 1772 he became first lieutenant of the Swiss
guards of the count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.).
Unable to meet the expenses of his rank, which was equivalent
to the grade of colonel in the army, he retired in 1775. He
married in 1776 Victoria Hedwig Caroline, princess of Anhalt-
Bernburg-Schaumburg, whose mother, deserted by her husband
Prince Carl Ludwig in 1749, had found refuge with her daughter
in the house of Marshal Soubise. After his marriage he went to
Vienna to press the restitution of his wife's rights, and spent
some time in Warsaw. In 1787 he was authorized to raise a
patriotic legion to help the Dutch against the stadtholder
William IV. and his Prussian allies. Returning to Paris at the
outbreak of the Revolution, he became implicated in schemes
for the escape of Louis XVI. from Paris and the dominance of
the National Assembly. He was commissioned by the count
of Provence through one of his gentlemen, the comte de la
Chatre, to negotiate a loan of two million francs from the bankers
Schaumel and Sartorius. Favras took into his confidence
certain officers by whom he was betrayed; and, with his wife,
he was arrested on Christmas Eve 1789 and imprisoned in the
Abbaye. A fortnight later they were separated, Favras being
removed to the Chatelet. It was stated in a leaflet circulated
throughout Paris that Favras had organized a plot of which
the count of Provence was the moving spirit. A force of 30,000
was to be raised, La Fayette and Bailly, the- mayor of Paris,
were to be assassinated, and Paris was to be starved into sub-
mission by cutting off supplies. The count hastened publicly
to disavow Favras in a speech delivered before the commune of
Paris and in a letter to the National Assembly, although there is
no reasonable doubt of his complicity in the plot that did exist.
In the course of a trial of nearly two months' duration the
witnesses disagreed, and even the editor of the Revolutions de
Paris (No. 30) admitted that the evidence was insufficient;
but an armed attempt of the Royalists on the Chatelet on the
26th of January, which was defeated by La Fayette, roused the
suspicious temper of the Parisians to fury, and on the i8th of
February 1790, in spite of the courageous defence of his counsel,
Favras was condemned to be hanged. He refused to give any
information of the alleged plot, and the sentence was carried out
on the Place de Greve the next day, to the delight of the populace,
since it was the first instance when no distinction in the mode
of execution was allowed between noble and commoner. Favras
was generally regarded as a martyr to his refusal to implicate
the count of Provence, and Madame de Favras was pensioned
by Louis XVI. She left France, and her son Charles de Favras
served in the Austrian and the Russian armies. He received an
allowance from Louis XVIII. Her daughter Caroline married
Riidiger, Freiherr von Stillfried Ratenic, in 1805.
The official dossier of Favras's trial for high treason against
the nation disappeared from the Chatelet, but its substance
is preserved in the papers of a clerk.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For particulars see A. Tuetey, Repertoire general
des sources manuscrites de I'histoire de Paris pendant la Revolution
Fran$aise (vol. i., 1890, pp. 175-177); M.Tourneux, Bibl. del'histoire
de Paris pendant la Revolution Fran^aise (vol. i. pp. 196-198, 1890).
His brother, M. Mahy de Cormere, published a Memoirejustificatifin
1790 and a Justification in 1791. See also a memoir by Eduard,
Freiherr v. Stillfried Ratenic (Vienna, 1881), and an article by Alexis
de Valon in the Revue des deux mondes (isth June 1851).
FAVRE, JEAN ALPHONSE (1815-1890), Swiss geologist,
was born at Geneva on the 3ist of March 1815. He was for
many years professor of geology in the academy at Geneva, and
afterwards president of the Federal Commission with charge
of the geological map of Switzerland. One of his earliest papers
was On the Anthracites of the Alps (1841), and later he gave
special attention to the geology of Savoy and of Mont Blanc,
and to the ancient glacial phenomena of those Alpine regions.
His elucidation of the geological structure demonstrated that
FAVRE FAWCETT, HENRY
215
certain anomalous occurrences of fossils were due to repeated
interfoldings of the strata and to complicated overthrust faults.
In 1867 he published Rechetches geologiques dans les parties
de la Savoie, du Piemont et de la Suisse voisines du Mont Blanc.
He died at Geneva in June 1890.
His son ERNEST FAVRE (b. 1843) has written on the palaeon-
tology and geology of Galicia, Savoy and the Fribourg Alps,
and of the Caucasus and Crimea.
FAVRE, JULES CLAUDE GABRIEL (1809-1880), French
statesman, was born at Lyons on the aist of March 1809, and
began his career as an advocate. From the time of the revolu-
tion of 1830 he openly declared himself a republican, and in
political trials he seized the opportunity to express his opinions.
After the revolution of 1848 he was elected deputy for Lyons
to the Constituent Assembly, where he sat among the moderate
republicans, voting against the socialists. When Louis Napoleon
was elected President of France, Favre made himself conspicuous
by his opposition, and on the 2nd of December 1851 he tried with
Victor Hugo and others to organize an armed resistance in the
streets of Paris. After the coup d'ltat he withdrew from politics,
resumed his profession, and distinguished himself by his defence
of Felice Orsini, the perpetrator of the attack against the life
of Napoleon III. In 1858 he was elected deputy for Paris, and
was one of the " Five " who gave the signal for the republican
opposition to the Empire. In 1863 he became the head of his
party, and delivered a number of addresses denouncing the Mexi-
can expedition and the occupation of Rome. These addresses,
eloquent, clear and incisive, won him a seat in the French
Academy in 1867. With Thiers he opposed the declaration of
war against Prussia in 1870, and at the news of the defeat of
Napoleon III. at Sedan he demanded from the Legislative
Assembly the deposition of the emperor. In the government of
National Defence he became vice-president under General Trochu,
and minister of foreign affairs, with the onerous task of negotiat-
ing peace with victorious Germany. He proved to be less adroit
as a diplomat than he had been as an orator, and committed
several irreparable blunders. His famous statement on the
6th of September 1870 that he " would not yield to Germany
an inch of territory nor a single stone of the fortresses " was a
piece of oratory which Bismarck met on the igth by his declara-
tion to Favre that the cession of Alsace and of Lorraine was the
indispensable condition of peace. He also made the mistake
of not having an assembly elected which would have more regular
powers than the government of National Defence, and of opposing
the removal of the government from Paris during the siege. In
the peace negotiations he allowed Bismarck to get the better
of him, and arranged for the armistice of the 28th of June 1871
without knowing! the situation of the armies, and without
consulting the government at Bordeaux. By a grave oversight
he neglected to inform Gambetta that the army of the East
(80,000 men) was not included in the armistice, and it was thus
obliged to retreat to neutral territory. He gave no proof what-
ever of diplomatic skill in the negotiations for the treaty of Frank-
fort, and it was Bismarck who imposed all the conditions. He
withdrew from the ministry, discredited, on the 2nd of August
1871, but remained in the chamber of deputies. Elected senator
on the 30th of January 1876, he continued to support the govern-
ment of the republic against the reactionary opposition, until his
death on the 2oth of January 1880.
His works include many speeches and addresses, notably
La Liberte de la Presse (1849), Defense de F. Orsini (1866),
Discours de reception a I' Academic fran^aise (1868), Discours sur
la liberte interieure (1869). In Le Gouvernement de la Defense
Nationale, 3 vols., 1871-1875, he explained his r61e in 1870-1871.
After his death his family published his speeches in 8 volumes.
See G. Hanotaux, Histoire de la France contemporaine (1903, &c.) ;
also E. Benoit-Levy, Jules Favre (1884).
FAVUS (Lat. for honeycomb), a disease of the scalp, but occur-
ring occasionally on any part of the skin, and even at times on
mucous membranes. The uncomplicated appearance is that
of a number of yellowish, circular, cup-shaped crusts (scutula)
grouped in patches like a piece of honeycomb, each about the
size of a split pea, with a hair projecting in the centre. These
increase in size and become crusted over, so that the character-
istic lesion can only be seen round the edge of the scab. Growth
continues to take place for several months, when scab and
scutulum come away, leaving a shining bare patch destitute
of hair. The disease is essentially chronic, lasting from ten to
twenty years. It is caused by the growth of a fungus, and
pathologically is the reaction of the tissues to the growth. It
was the first disease in which a fungus was discovered by
J. L. Schonlein in 1839; the discovery was published in a brief
note of twenty lines in Mutters Archiv for that year (p. 82),
the fungus having been subsequently named by R. Remak
Achorion Schonleinii after its discoverer. The achorion consists
of slender, mycelial threads matted together, bearing oval,
nucleated gonidia either free or jointed. The spores would
appear to enter through the unbroken cutaneous surface, and
to germinate mostly in and around the hair-follicle and some-
times in the shaft of the hair. In 1892 two other species of the
fungus were described by P. G. Unna and Frank, the Favus
griseus, giving rise to greyish-yellow scutula, and the Favus
sulphureus celerior, causing sulphur-yellow scutula of a rapid
growth. Favus is commonest among the poorer Jews of Russia,
Poland, Hungary, Galicia and the East, and among the
same class of Mahommedans in Turkey, Asia Minor, Syria,
Persia, Egypt, Algiers, &c. It is not rare in the southern depart-
ments of France, in some parts of Italy, and in Scotland. It
is spread by contagion, usually from cats, often, however, from
mice, fowls or dogs. Lack of personal cleanliness is an almost
necessary factor in its development, but any one in delicate
health, especially if suffering from phthisis, seems especially
liable to contract it. Before treatment can be begun the scabs
must be removed by means of carbolized oil, and the head
thoroughly cleansed with soft soap. The cure is then brought
about by the judicious use of parasiticides. If the nails are
affected, avulsion will probably be needed before the disease can
be reached.
FAWCETT, HENRY (1833-1884), English politician and
economist, was born at Salisbury on the 25th of August 1833.
His father, William Fawcett, a native of Kirkby Lonsdale, in
Westmorland, started life as a draper's assistant at Salisbury,
opened a draper's shop on his own account in the market-place
there in 1825, married a solicitor's daughter of the city, became
a prominent local man, took a farm, developed his north-country
sporting instincts, and displayed his shrewdness by successful
speculations in Cornish mining. His second son, Henry, inherited
a full measure of his shrewdness, along with his masculine energy,
his straightforwardness, his perseverance and his fondness for
fishing. The father was active in electioneering matters, and his
wife was an ardent reformer. Henry Fawcett was educated
locally and at King's College school, London, and proceeded
to Peterhouse, Cambridge, in October 1852, migrating in 1853
to Trinity Hall. He was seventh wrangler in 1856, and was
elected to a fellowship at his college.
He had already attained some prominence as an orator at
the Cambridge Union. Before he left school he had formed
the ambition of entering parliament, and, being a poor man, he
resolved to approach the House of Commons through a career
at the bar. He had already entered Lincoln's Inn. His prospects,
however, were shattered by a calamity which befell him in
September 1858, when two stray pellets from his father's fowling-
piece passed through the glasses he was wearing and blinded
him for life. Within ten minutes after his accident he had made
up his mind " to stick to his old pursuits as much as possible."
He kept up all recreations contributing to the enjoyment of life;
he fished, rowed, skated, took abundant walking and horse
exercise, and learnt to play cards with marked packs. Soon
after his accident he established his headquarters at Trinity
Hall, Cambridge, entered cordially into the social life of the
college, and came to be regarded by many as a typical Cambridge
man. He gave up mathematics (for which he had little aptitude) ,
and specialized in political economy. He paid comparatively
little attention to economic history, but he was in the main a
216
FAWCETT, HENRY
devout believer in economic theory, as represented by Ricardo
and his school. The later philosophy of the subject he believed
to be summed up in one book, Mill's Principles of Political
Economy, which he regarded as the indispensable " vade mecum "
of every politician. He was not a great reader, and Mill probably
never had a serious rival in his regard, though he was much
impressed by Buckle's History of Civilization and Darwin's
Origin of Species when they severally appeared. He made a
great impression in 1859 with a paper at the British Association,
and he soon became a familiar figure there and at various lecture
halls in the north as an exponent of orthodox economic theory.
Of the sincerity of his faith he gave the strongest evidence
by his desire at all times to give a practical application to his
views and submit them to the test of experiment. Among
Mill's disciples he was, no doubt, far inferior as an economic
thinker to Cairnes, but as a popularizer of the system and a
demonstrator of its principles by concrete examples he had no
rival. His power of exposition was illustrated in his Manual of
Political Economy (1863), of which in twenty years as many as
20,000 copies were sold. Alexander Macmillan had suggested
the book, and it appeared just in time to serve as a credential,
when, in the autumn of 1863, Fawcett stood and was elected
for the Chair of Political Economy at Cambridge. The appoint-
ment attached him permanently to Cambridge, gave him an
income, and showed that he was competent to discharge duties
from which a blind man is often considered to be debarred.
He was already a member of the Political Economy Club, and
was becoming well known in political circles as an advanced
Radical. In January 1863, after a spirited though abortive
attempt in Southwark, he was only narrowly beaten for the
borough of Cambridge. Early in 1864 he was adopted as one
of the Liberal candidates at Brighton, and at the general election
of 1865 he was elected by a large majority. Shortly after his
election he became engaged to Millicent, daughter of Mr Newson
Garrett of Aldeburgh, Suffolk, and in 1867 he was married.
Mrs Fawcett (b. 1847) became well known for her social and
literary work, and especially as an advocate, in the press and
on the platform, of women's suffrage and the higher education
and independent employment of women. And after her husband's
death, as well as during his lifetime, she was a prominent leader
in these movements.
Fawcett entered parliament just in time to see the close of
Palmerston's career and to hail the adoption by Gladstone of
a programme of reform to which most of the laissez-faire
economists gave assent. He was soon known as a forcible
speaker, and quickly overcame the imputation that he was
academic and doctrinaire, though it is true that a certain
monotony in delivery often gave a slightly too didactic tone to
his discourses. But it was as the uncompromising critic of the
political shifts and expedients of his leaders that he attracted
most attention. He constantly insisted upon the right of
exercising private judgment, and he especially devoted himself
to the defence of causes which, as he thought, were neglected
both by his official leaders and by his Radical comrades. Re-
elected for Brighton to the parliament of 1868-1874, he greatly
hampered the government by his persistence in urging the
abolition of clerical fellowships and the payment of election
expenses out of the rates, and by opposing the " permissive
compulsion " clauses of the Elementary Education Bill, and the
exclusion of agricultural children from the scope of the act.
His hatred of weak concessions made him the terror of parlia-
mentary wirepullers, and in 1871 he was not undeservedly spoken
of in The Times as the most "thorough Radical now in the House."
His liberal ideals were further shocked by the methods by
which Gladstone achieved the abolition of Army Purchase.
His disgust at the supineness of the cabinet in dealing with the
problems of Indian finance and the growing evil of Commons
Enclosures were added to the catalogue of grievances which
Fawcett drew up in a powerful article, " On the Present Position
of the Government," in the Fortnightly Review for November
1871. In 1867 he had opposed the expenses of a ball given to
the sultan at the India office being charged upon the Indian
budget. In 1870 he similarly opposed the taxation of the
Indian revenue with the cost of presents distributed by the duke
of Edinburgh in India. In 1871 he went alone into the lobby
to vote against the dowry granted to the princess Louise. The
soundness of his principles was not impeached, but his leaders
looked askance at him, and from 1871 he was severely shunned
by the government whips. Their suspicion was justified when
in 1873 Fawcett took a leading share in opposing Gladstone's
scheme for university education in Ireland as too denominational,
and so contributed largely to a conclusive defeat of the Gladstone
ministry.
From 1869 to 1880 Fawcett concentrated his energies upon
two important subjects which had not hitherto been deemed
worthy of serious parliamentary attention. The first of these
was the preservation of commons, especially those near large
towns; and the second was the responsibility of the British
government for the amendment of Indian finance. In both
cases the success which he obtained exhibited the sterling sense
and shrewdness which made up such a great part of Fawcett's
character. In the first case Fawcett's great triumph was the
enforcement of the general principle that each annual Enclosure
Act must be scrutinized by parliament and judged in the light
of its conformity to the interests of the community at large.
Probably no one did more than he did to prevent the disafforesta-
tion of Epping Forest and of the New Forest. From 1869 he
regularly attended the meetings of the Commons Preservation
Society, and he remained to the end one of its staunchest sup-
porters. His intervention in the matter of Indian finance,
which gained him the sobriquet of the " member for India,"
led to no definite legislative achievements, but it called forth
the best energies of his mind and helped to rouse an apathetic
and ignorant public to its duties and responsibilities. Fawcett
was defeated at Brighton in February 1874. Two months
later, however, he was elected for Hackney, and retained the
seat during his life. He was promptly replaced on the Indian
Finance Committee, and continued his searching inquiries with
a view to promote a stricter economy in the Indian budget, and
a more effective responsibility in the management of Indian
accounts.
As an opponent of the Disraeli government (1874-1880)
Fawcett came more into line with the Liberal leaders. In foreign
politics he gave a general adhesion to Gladstone's views, but he
continued to devote much attention to Indian matters, and it
was during this period that he produced two of his best publica-
tions. His Free Trade and Protection (1878) illustrated his
continued loyalty to Cobdenite ideas. At the same time his
admiration for Palmerston and his repugnance to schemes of
Home Rule show that he was not by any means a peace-at-any-
price man. He thought that the Cobdenites had deserved well
of their country, but he always maintained that their foreign
politics were biased to excess by purely commercial considera-
tions. As befitted a writer whose linguistic gifts were of the
slenderest, Fawcett's English was a sound homespun, clear and
unpretentious. In a vigorous employment of the vernacular
he approached Cobbett, whose writing he justly admired.
The second publication was his Indian Finance (1880), three
essays reprinted from the Nineteenth Century, with an intro-
duction and appendix. When the Liberal party returned to
power in 1880 Gladstone offered Fawcett a place in the new
government as postmaster-general (without a seat in the cabinet).
On Egyptian and other questions of foreign policy Fawcett was
often far from being in full harmony with his leaders, but his
position in the government naturally enforced reserve. He was,
moreover, fully absorbed by his new administrative functions.
He gained the sympathy of a class which he had hitherto done
little to conciliate, that of public officials, and he showed himself
a most capable head of a public department. To his readiness
in adopting suggestions, and his determination to push business
through instead of allowing it to remain permanently in the
stage of preparation and circumlocution, the public is mainly
indebted for five substantial postal reforms: (i) The parcels
post, (2) postal orders, (3) sixpenny telegrams, (4) the banking
FAWCETT, J. FAWKES, GUY
of small savings by means of stamps, (5) increased facilities for
life insurance and annuities. In connexion with these last two
improvements Fawcett, in 1880, with the assistance of Mr James
Cardin, took great pains in drawing up a small pamphlet called
Aids to Thrift, of which over a million copies were circulated
gratis. A very useful minor innovation of his provided for the
announcement on every pillar-box of the time of the " next
collection." In the post office, as elsewhere, he was a strong
advocate of the employment of women. Proportional representa-
tion and the extension of franchise to women were both political
doctrines which he adopted very early in his career, and never
abandoned. Honours were showered upon him during his later
years. He was made an honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, a fellow
of the Royal Society, and was in 1883 elected lord rector of
Glasgow University. But the stress of departmental work soon
began to tell upon his health. In the autumn of 1882 he had a
sharp attack of diphtheria complicated by typhoid, from which
he never properly recovered. He resumed his activities, but on
the 6th of November 1884 he succumbed at Cambridge to an
attack of congestion of the lungs. He was buried in Trump-
ington churchyard, near Cambridge, and to his memory were
erected a monument in Westminster Abbey, a statue in Salis-
bury market-place, and a drinking fountain on the Thames em-
bankment.
In economic matters Fawcett's position can best be described
as transitional. He believed in co-operation almost as a panacea.
In other matters he clung to the old laissez-faire theorists, and
was a strong anti-socialist, with serious doubts about free
education, though he supported the Factory Acts and wished
their extension to agriculture. Apparent inconsistencies were
harmonized to a great extent by his dominating anxiety to
increase the well-being of the poor. One of his noblest traits
was his kindliness and genuine affection for the humble and
oppressed, country labourers and the like, for whom his sympathies
seemed always on the increase. Another was his disposition to
interest himself in and to befriend younger men. In the great
affliction of his youth Fawcett bore himself with a fortitude
which it would be difficult to parallel. The effect of his blindness
was, as the event proved, the reverse of calamitous. It brought
the great aim and purpose of his life to maturity at an earlier
date than would otherwise have been possible, and it had a
mellowing influence upon his character of an exceptional and
beneficent kind. As a youth he was rough and canny, with a
suspicion of harshness. The' kindness evoked by his misfortune,
a strongly reciprocated family affection, a growing capacity for
making and keeping friends these and other causes tended to
ripen all that was best, and apparently that only, in a strong
but somewhat stern character. His acerbity passed away, and
in later life was reserved exclusively for official witnesses before
parliamentary committees. Frank, helpful, conscientious to a
fault, a shrewd gossip, and a staunch friend, he was a man
whom no one could help liking. Several of his letters to his father
and mother at different periods of his career are preserved in
Leslie Stephen's admirable Life (1885), and show a goodness
of heart, together with a homely simplicity of nature, which
is most touching. In appearance Fawcett was gaunt and
tall, over 6 ft. 3 in. in height, large of bone, and massive
in limb. (T. SE.)
FAWCETT, JOHN (1768-1837), English actor and playwright,
was born on the 29th of August 1768, the son of an actor of the
same name (d. 1793). At the age of eighteen he ran away from
school and appeared at Margate as Courtall in The Belle's
Stratagem; afterwards he joined Tate Wilkinson's company
and turned from tragedy to low comedy parts. In 1791 he
appeared at Covent Garden, and in 1794 at the Haymarket.
Colman, then manager of that house, wrote a number of parts
designed to suit his talents, and two of Fawcett's greatest
successes were as Dr. Pangloss in The Heir at Law (1797) and as
Dr Ollapod in The Poor Gentleman (1798). He retired from
the stage in 1830.
FAWKES, FRANCIS (1720-1777), English poet and divine,
was born at Warmsworth, near Doncaster, Yorkshire, where
217
his father was rector, and was baptized on the 4th of April 1720.
After studying at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he graduated
M.A. in 1745, he took holy orders, and was successively curate
of Bramham, curate of Croydon, vicar of Orpington, and rector
of Hayes, and finally was made one of the chaplains to the princess
of Wales. His first publication is said to have been Bramham
Park, a Poem, in 1745; a volume of poems and translations
appeared in 1761; and Partridge Shooting, an eclogue, in 1764.
His translations of the minor Greek poets Anacreon, Sappho,
Bion and Moschus, Musaeus, Theocritus and Apollonius ac-
quired for him considerable fame, but they are less likely to be
remembered than his fine song, " Dear Tom, this brown jug,
that now foams with mild ale." Fawkes died on the 26th of
August 1777.
FAWKES, GUY (1570-1606), English "gunpowder plot"
conspirator, son of Edward Fawkes of York, a member of a
good Yorkshire family and advocate of the archbishop of York's
consistory court, was baptized at St Michael le Belfrey at York
on the 1 6th of April 1570. His parents were Protestants, and
he was educated at the free school at York, where, it is said,
John and Christopher Wright and the Jesuit Tesimond alias
Greenway, afterwards implicated in the conspiracy, were his
schoolfellows. On his father's death in 1579 he inherited his
property. Soon afterwards his mother married, as her second
husband, Dionis Baynbrigge of Scotton in Yorkshire, to which
place the family removed. Fawkes's stepfather was connected
with many Roman Catholic families, and was probably a Roman
Catholic himself, and Fawkes himself became a zealous adherent
of the old faith. Soon after he had come of age he disposed of
his property, and in 1593 went to Flanders and enlisted in the
Spanish army, assisting at the capture of Calais by the Spanish
in 1596 and gaining some military reputation. According to
Father Greenway he was " a man of great piety, of exemplary
temperance, of mild and cheerful demeanour, an enemy of
broils and disputes, a faithful friend and remarkable for his
punctual attendance upon religious observances," while his
society was " sought by all the most distinguished in the arch-
duke's camp for nobility and virtue." He is described as " tall,
with brown hair and auburn beard."
In 1604 Thomas Winter, at the instance of Catesby, in whose
mind the gunpowder plot had now taken definite shape, intro-
duced himself to Fawkes in Fianders, and as " a confident
gentleman," " best able for this business," brought him on to
England as assistant in the conspiracy. Shortly afterwards
he was initiated into the plot, after taking an oath of secrecy,
meeting Catesby, Thomas Winter, Thomas Percy and John
Wright at a house behind St Clement's (see GUNPOWDER PLOT
and CATESBY, ROBERT). Owing to the fact of his being unknown
in London, to his exceptional courage and coolness, and probably
to his experience in the wars and at sieges, the actual accomplish-
ment of the design was entrusted to Fawkes, and when the house
adjoining the parliament house was hired in Percy's name, he
took charge of it as Percy's servant, under the name of Johnson.
He acted as sentinel while the others worked at the mine in
December 1604, probably directing their operations, and on
the discovery of the adjoining cellar, situated immediately
beneath the House of Lords, he arranged in it the barrels of gun-
powder, which he covered over with firewood and coals and with
iron bars to increase the force of the explosion. When all was
ready in May 1605 Fawkes was despatched to Flanders to
acquaint Sir William Stanley, the betrayer of Deventer, and the
intriguer Owen with the plot. He returned in August and brought
fresh gunpowder into the cellars to replace any which might
be spoilt by damp. A slow match was prepared which would
give him a quarter of an hour in which to escape from the ex-
plosion. On Saturday, the 26th of October, Lord Monteagle
(q.v.) received the mysterious letter which revealed the con-
spiracy and of which the conspirators received information
the following day. They, nevertheless, after some hesitation,
hoping that the government would despise the warning, deter-
mined to proceed with their plans, and were encouraged in their
resolution by Fawkes, who visited the cellar on the 3Oth and
218
FAY FAYETTEVILLE
reported that nothing had been moved or touched. He returned
accordingly to his lonely and perilous vigil on the 4th of
November. On that day the earl of Suffolk, as lord chamberlain,
visited the vault, accompanied by Monteagle, remarked the
quantity of faggots, and asked Fawkes, now described as " a very
tall and desperate fellow," who it was that rented the cellar.
Percy's name, which Fawkes gave, aroused fresh suspicions
and they retired to inform the king. At about ten o' clock Robert
Keyes brought Fawkes from Percy a watch, that he might
know how the anxious hours were passing, and very shortly
afterwards he was arrested, and the gunpowder discovered, by
Thomas Knyvett, a Westminster magistrate. Fawkes was
brought into the king's bedchamber, where the ministers had
hastily assembled, at one o'clock. He maintained an attitude
of defiance and of " Roman resolution," smiled scornfully at
his questioners, making no secret of his intentions, replied
to the king, who asked why he would kill him, that the pope
had excommunicated him, that " dangerous diseases require a
desperate remedy," adding fiercely to the Scottish courtiers
who surrounded him that " one of his objects was to blow back
the Scots into Scotland." His only regret was the failure of
the scheme. " He carrieth himself," writes Salisbury to Sir
Charles Cornwallis, ambassador at Madrid, " without any feare
or perturbation . . . ; under all this action he is noe more
dismayed, nay scarce any more troubled than if he was taken for
a poor robbery upon the highway," declaring " that he is ready
to die, and rather wisheth 10,000 deaths, than willingly to accuse
his master or any other." He refused stubbornly on the following
days to give information concerning his accomplices; on the
8th he gave a narrative of the plot, but it was not till the gth,
when the fugitive conspirators had been taken at Holbeche,
that torture could wring from him their names. His imperfect
signature to his confession of this date, consisting only of his
Christian name and written in a faint and trembling hand, is
probably a ghastly testimony to the severity of the torture
("per gradus ad ima ") which James had ordered to be applied
if he would not otherwise confess and the " gentler tortures "
were unavailing, a horrible practice unrecognized by the law
of England, but usually employed and justified at this time in
cases of treason to obtain information. He was tried, together
with the two Winters, John Grant, Ambrose Rokewood, Robert
Keyes and Thomas Bates, before a special commission in West-
minster Hall on the 27th of January 1606. In this case there
could be no defence and he was found guilty. He suffered
death in company with Thomas Winter, Rokewood and Keyes
on the 3ist, being drawn on a hurdle from the Tower to the
Parliament House, opposite which he was executed. He made
a short speech on the scaffold, expressing his repentance, and
mounted the ladder last and with assistance, being weak from
torture and illness. The usual barbarities practised upon him
after he had been cut down from the gallows were inflicted on a
body from which all life had already fled.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Hist, of England, by S. R. Gardiner, vol. i. ;
and the same author's What Gunpowder Plot was (1897) ; What was
the Gunpowder Plot? by J. Gerard (1897); -^The Gunpowder Plot, by
D. Jardine (1857) ; Calendar of State Pap. Dom. 1603-1610; State
Trials, vol. ii.; Archaeologia, xii. 200; R. Winwood's Memorials;
Notes and Queries, vi. ser. vii. 233, viii. 136; The Fawkeses of York
in the i6th Century, by R. Davies (1850); Diet, of Nat. Biog. and
authorities cited there. The official account (untrustworthy in
details) is the True and Perfect Relation of the Whole Proceedings
against the late most Barbarous Traitors (1606), reprinted by Bishop
Barlow of Lincoln as The Gunpowder Treason (1679). See also
GUNPOWDER PLOT.
The lantern said to be Guy Fawkes's is in the Bodleian library at
Oxford. (P. C. Y.)
FAY, ANDRAS (1786-1864), Hungarian poet and author,
was born on the 3Oth of May 1786, at Kohany in the county of
Zemplin, and was educated for the law at the Protestant college
of Sarospatak. His Mesek (Fables), the first edition of which
appeared at Vienna in 1820, evinced his powers of satire and
invention, and won him the well-merited applause of his country-
men. These fables, which, on account of their originality and
simplicity, caused Fay to be regarded as the Hungarian Aesop,
were translated into German by Petz (Raab, 1825), and partly
into English by E. D. Butler, Hungarian Poems and Fables
(London, 1877). Fay wrote also numerous poems, the chief of
which are to be found in the collections Bokreta (Nosegay) (Pest,
1807), and Fris Bokreta (Fresh Nosegay) (Pest, 1818). He also
composed plays and romances and tales. In 1833 Fay was
elected to the Hungarian diet, and was for a time the leader
of the opposition party. It is to him that the Pest Savings
Bank owes its origin, and he was one of the chief founders
of the Hungarian National theatre. He died on the 26th of
July 1864. His earlier works were collected at Pest (1843-
1844, 8 yols.). The most noteworthy of his later works is a
humorous novel entitled Jdiior orvos is Bakator Ambrus szolgdia
(Jdvor the Doctor and his servant Ambrose Bakator), (Pest 1855,
2 VOls.).
FAYAL (Paid), a Portuguese island in the Atlantic Ocean,
forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop. (1900) 22,262;
area, 63 sq. m. Fayal, i.e. " the beech wood," was so called
from the former abundance of the Myrica faya, which its dis-
coverers mistook for beech trees. It is one of the most frequented
of the Azores, for it lies directly in the track of vessels crossing
the Atlantic, and has an excellent harbour at Horta (q.v.), a
town of 6574 inhabitants. Cedros (3278) and Feteira (2002)
are the other chief towns. The so-called " Fayal wine," which
was largely exported from the Azores in the igth century, was
really the produce of Pico, a larger island lying to the east.
The women of Fayal manufacture fine lace from the agave
thread. They also execute carvings in snow-white fig-tree
pith, and carry on the finer kinds of basket-making. A small
valley, called Flemengos, perpetuates the name of the Flemish
settlers, who have left their mark on the physical appearance
of the inhabitants. (See AZORES.)
FAYETTEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Washington
county, Arkansas, -U.S.A., about 150 m. N.W. of Little Rock.
Pop. (1890) 2942; (1900) 4061; (1910) 4471. It is served by the
St Louis & San Francisco railway. The city lies about 1400 ft.
above the sea, in the Ozark Mountain region. There is much
fine scenery in the neighbourhood, there are mineral springs
near by, and the place has become known as a summer resort.
Fayetteville is the seat of the University of Arkansas (incor-
porated 1871; opened 1872; co-educational), which includes
the following departments: at Fayetteville, a college of liberal
arts, science and engineering, a conservatory of music and art,
a preparatory school, and an agricultural college and agricultural
experiment station; at Little Rock, a medical school and a law
school, and at Pine Bluff, the Branch Normal College for negroes.
In 1908 the university had 122 instructors and a total enrolment
of 1725 students. In Fayetteville there are a National cemetery
with 1236 soldiers' graves (782 " unknown ") and a Confederate
cemetery with 725 graves and a memorial monument. In the
vicinity of Fayetteville there are deposits of coal; and the city
is in a fine fruit-growing region, apples being the principal crop.
Much of the surrounding country is still covered with timber.
Among manufactures are lumber, spokes, handles, waggons, lime,
evaporated fruit and flour.
The first settlement on the site of what is now Fayetteville
was made between 1820 and 1825; when Washington county
was created in 1828 the place became the county-seat, and it
was called Washington Court-house until 1829, when it received
its present name. The citizens of Fayetteville were mainly
Confederate sympathizers; Fayetteville was raided by Federal
cavalry on the i4th of July 1862, and was permanently occupied
by Federal troops in the autumn of the same year. Con-
federate cavalry under Brigadier- General William Lewis Cabell
attacked the city on the i8th of April 1863, but were driven off.
The town was burned in August 1863, and shelled on the 3rd of
November 1864, after the battle of Pea Ridge, by a detachment
of General Price's army. Fayetteville was incorporated as a
town in 1841, and in 1859 received a city charter, which was
abolished by act of the Legislature in 1867; under a general law
of 1869 the town was re-incorporated; and in 1906 it became a
city of the first class.
FAYETTEVILLE FAZOGLI
219
FAYETTEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Cumberland
county, North Carolina, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Cape Fear
river (at the head of steamboat navigation), about 80 m. N.W.
of Wilmington. Pop. (1890) 4222; (1900) 4670, including 2221
negroes; (1910) 7045. It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line
railway and the short Raleigh & Southport railway, and by
steamboat lines to Wilmington. A scheme was set on foot for
the improvement by canalization of the Cape Fear river above
Wilmington under a Federal project of 1902, which provided for
a channel 8 ft. deep at low water from Wilmington to Fayetteville.
Below Wilmington the improvement of the river channel, 270 ft.
wide and 16 ft. deep, was completed in 1889, and the project
of 1889 provided for an increase in depth to 20 ft. Pine forests
surround the town, and oaks and elms of more than a century's
growth shade its streets. Fayetteville has two hospitals (each
with a training school for nurses) , and is the seat of a state coloured
normal school and of the Donaldson military school. Several
creeks and the upper Cape Fear river furnish considerable water-
power, and in or near Fayetteville are manufactories of cotton
goods, silk, lumber, wooden-ware, turpentine, carriages, wagons,
ploughs, edge tools and flour. In the earlier half of the igth
century Fayetteville was a great inland market for the western
part of the state, for eastern Tennessee and for south-western
Virginia. There is a large vineyard in the vicinity; truck-
gardening is an important industry in the surrounding country;
and Fayetteville is a shipping centre for small fruits and vege-
tables, especially lettuce, melons and berries. The municipality
owns its water-works and its electric-lighting plant. The vicinity
was settled between 1729 and 1747 by Highlanders, the settle-
ment called Cross Creek lying within the present limits of Fayette-
ville. In 1762, by an act of the assembly, a town was laid out
including Cross Creek, and was named Campbelltown (or " Camp-
beltown"); but in 1784, when Lafayette visited the town, its
name was changed in his honour to Fayetteville, though the
name Cross Creek continued to be used locally for many years.
Flora McDonald, the famous Scottish heroine, came to Campbell-
town in April 1775 with her husband and children, and here she
seems to have lived during the remainder of that year. The
general assembly of the state met at Fayetteville in 1787, 1788
and 1789 (Newbern, Tarboro, Hillsboro and Fayetteville all
being rivals at this time for the honour of becoming the permanent
capital); and in 1789 the Federal constitution was here ratified
for North Carolina. In 1831 most of the town was burned.
At the outbreak of the Civil War, the state authorities seized the
United States Arsenal at Fayetteville, which contained 37,000
muskets and a complete equipment for a battery of light artillery.
In March 1865 General W. T. Sherman and his army took
possession of the town, destroyed the arsenal, and did consider-
able damage to property. Fayetteville was chartered as a city
in 1893. A serious flood occurred in August 1908.
FAYRER, SIR JOSEPH, Bart. (1824-1907), English physician,
was born at Plymouth on the 6th of December 1824. After
studying medicine at Charing Cross hospital, London, he was
in 1847 appointed medical officer of H.M.S. " Victory," and
soon afterwards accompanied the 3rd Lord Mount-Edgcumbe on
a tour through Europe, in the course of which he saw fighting
at Palmero and Rome. Appointed an assistant surgeon in
Bengal in 1850, he went through the Burmese campaign of 1852
and was political assistant and Residency surgeon at Lucknow
during the Mutiny. From 1859 to 1872 he was professor of
surgery at the Medical College of Calcutta, and when the prince
of Wales made his tour in India he was appointed to accompany
him as physician. Returning from India, he acted as president
of the Medical Board of the India office from 1874 to 1895, and in
1896 he was created a baronet. Sir Joseph Fayrer, who became
a fellow of the Royal Society in 1877, wrote much on subjects
connected with the practice of medicine in India, and was
especially known for his studies on the poisonous snakes
of that country and on the physiological effects produced by
their virus (Thanatophidia of India, 1872). In 1900 appeared
his Recollections of my Life. He died at Falmouth on the 2ist
of May 1907.
FAYUM, a mudiria (province) of Upper Egypt, having an area
of 490 sq. m. and a population (1907) of 441,583. The capital,
Medinet-el-Fayum, is8i m. S.S.W. of Cairo by rail. The Fayum
proper is an oasis in the Libyan Desert, its eastern border being
about 15 m. west of the Nile. It is connected with that river
by the Bahr Yusuf, which reaches the oasis through a gap in
the hills separating the province from the Nile Valley. South-
west of the Fayum, and forming part of the mudiria, is the
Gharak depression. Another depression, entirely barren, the
Wadi Rayan, covering 280 sq. m., lies west of the Gharak. The
whole region is below sea-level, and save for the gap mentioned
is encircled by the Libyan hills. The lowest part of the province,
the north-west end, is occupied by the Birket el Kerun, or Lake
of the Horns, whose surface level is 140 ft. below that of the sea.
The lake covers about 78 sq. m.
Differing from the typical oasis, whose fertility depends on
water obtained from springs, the cultivated land in the Fayum
is formed of Nile mud brought down by the Bahr Yusuf. From
this channel, 15 m. in length from Lahun, at the entrance of
the gap in the hills, to Medina, several canals branch off and by
these the province is irrigated, the drainage water flowing into
the Birket el Kerun. Over 400 sq. m. of the Fayum is cultivated,
the chief crops being cereals and cotton. The completion of
the Assuan dam by ensuring a fuller supply of water enabled
20,000 acres of land, previously unirrigated and untaxed, to be
brought under cultivation in the three years 1903-1905. Three
crops are obtained in twenty months. The province is noted for
its figs and grapes, the figs being of exceptionally good quality.
Olives are also cultivated. Rose trees are very numerous
and most of the attar of roses of Egypt is manufactured in
the province. The Fayum also possesses an excellent breed
of sheep. Lake Kerun abounds in fish, notably the bulti (Nile
carp), of which considerable quantities are sent to Cairo.
Medinet el-Fayum (or Medina), the capital of the province,
is a great agricultural centre, with a population which increased
from 26,000 in 1882 to 37,320 in 1907, and has several large
bazaars, mosques, baths and a much-frequented weekly market.
The Bahr Yusuf runs through the town, its banks lined with
houses. There are two bridges over the stream: one of three
arches, which carries the main street and bazaar, and one of two
arches over which is built the Kait Bey mosque. Mounds north
of the town mark the site of Arsinoe, earlier Crocodilopolis,
where was worshipped the sacred crocodile kept in the Lake
of Moeris. Besides Medina there are several other towns in the
province, among them Senuris and Tomia to the north of Medina
and Senaru and Abuksa on the road to the lake, all served by rail-
ways. There are also, especially in the neighbourhood of the
lake, many ruins of ancient villages and cities. The Fayum
is the site of the Lake of Moeris (q.v.) of the ancient Egyptians
a lake of which Birket el Kerun is the shrunken remnant.
See The Fayum and Lake Moeris, by Major (Sir) R. H. Brown, R.E.
(London, 1892), a valuable contribution as to the condition of the
province at that date, its connexion with Lake Moeris and its possi-
bilities in the future; The Assuan Reservoir and Lake Moeris (London,
1904), by Sir William Willcpcks with text in English, French and
Arabic a consideration of irrigation possibilities; The Topography
and Geology of the Fayum Province of Egypt, by H. J. L. Beadnell
(Cairo, 1905).
FAZOGLI, or FAZOKL, a district of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,
cut by 1 1 N. and bounded E. and S. by Abyssinia. It forms part
of the foot-hills of the Abyssinian plateau and is traversed by
the Blue Nile and its affluent the Tumat. Immediately south is
the auriferous Beni Shangul country. The chief gold-washings
lie (in Abyssinian territory) on the west slope of the hills draining
to the White Nile. Here is the steep Jebel-Dul, which appears
to contain rich gold-bearing reefs, as gold is found in all the
ravines on its flanks. The auriferous region extends into Sudanese
territory, gold dust being found in all the khors coming from
Jebel Faronge on the S.E. frontier. The inhabitants of Fazogli,
who are governed, under the Sudan administration, by their
own meks or kings, are Berta and other Shangalla tribes with
an admixture of Funj blood, the country having been con-
quered by the Funj rulers of Sennar at the close of the isth
220
FEA FEASTS AND FESTIVALS
century. There are also Arab settlements. Fazogli, the residence
of the principal mek, is a straggling town built some 800 yds.
from the left bank of the Blue Nile near the Tumat confluence,
434 m. by river above Khartum and opposite Famaka, the
headquarters of the Egyptians in this region between 1839 and
1883. Above Famaka and near the Abyssinian frontier is the
prosperous town of Kiri, while Abu Shaneina on the Nile below
Fazogli is the spot where the trade route from Beni Shangul
strikes the river. The chief imports from Abyssinia are coffee,
cattle, transport animals and gold. Durra and tobacco are the
principal crops. The local currency includes rings of gold, specially
made as a circulating medium.
FEA, CARLO (1753-1836), Italian archaeologist, was born
at Pigna in Piedmont on the 2nd of February 1753, and studied
law in Rome. He received the degree of doctor of laws from
the university of La Sapienza, but archaeology gradually ab-
sorbed his attention, and with the view of obtaining better
opportunities for his researches in 1798 he took orders. For
political reasons he was obliged to take refuge in Florence;
on his return in 1799 he was imprisoned by the Neapolitans, at
that time in occupation of Rome, as a Jacobin, but shortly
afterwards liberated and appointed Commissario delle Antichita
and librarian to Prince Chigi. He died at Rome on the i8th of
March 1836.
Fea revised, with notes, an Italian translation of J. J. Winckel-
mann's Geschichte der Kunst, and also added notes to some of G. L.
Rianconi's works. Among his original writings the principal are:
Miscellanea, filologica, crilica, e antiquaria ; L'Inlegrita del Panteone
rivendicala a M. Agrippa; Frammenti di fasti consolari; Iscrizioni
di monumenti pubblichi; and Descrizione di Roma.
FEARNE, CHARLES (1742-1794), English jurist, son of
Charles Fearne, judge-advocate of the admiralty, was born in
London in 1742, and was educated at Westminster school.
He adopted the legal profession, but, though well fitted by his
talents to succeed as a barrister, he neglected his profession and
devoted most of his attention and his patrimony to the prosecu-
tion of scientific experiments, with the vain hope of achieving
discoveries which would reward him for his pains and expense.
He died in 1794, leaving his widow and family in necessitous
circumstances. His Essay on the Learning of Contingent Re-
mainders and Executory Devises, the work which has made
his reputation as a legal authority, and which has passed through
numerous editions, was called forth by a decision of Lord Mans-
field in the case of Perrin v. Blake, and had the effect of reversing
that decision.
A volume entitled Fearne's Posthumous Works was published by
subscription in 1797 for the benefit of his widow.
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. A festival or feast 1 is a day or
series of days specially and publicly set apart for religious observ-
ances. Whether its occurrence be casual or periodic, whether
its ritual be grave or gay, carnal as the orgies of Baal and Astarte,
or spiritual as the worship of a Puritan Sabbath, it is to be
regarded as a festival or " holy day" as long as it is professedly
held in the name of religion.
To trace the festivals of the world through all their variations
would be to trace the entire history of human religion and human
civilization. Where no religion is, there can of course be no
feasts; and without civilization any attempt at festival-keeping
must necessarily be fitful and comparatively futile. But as
religion develops, festivals develop with it, and assume their
distinctive character; and an advancing civilization, at least in
its earlier stages, will generally be found to increase their number,
enrich their ritual, fix more precisely the time and order of their
recurrence, and widen the area of their observance.
Some uncivilized tribes, such as the Juangs of Bengal,- the
Fuegians and the Andamanese, have been described as having
no word for God, no idea of a future state, and consequently
no religious ceremonies of any kind whatever. But such cases,
doubtful at the best, are confessedly exceptional. In the vast
majority of instances observed and recorded, the religiosity
1 " To feast " is simply to keep a festum or festival. The ety-
mology of the word is uncertain ; but probably it has no connexion
with the Gr. tmar.
of the savage is conspicuous. Even when incapable of higher
manifestations, it can at least take the form of reverence for the
dead; the grave-heap can became an altar on which offerings
of food for the departed may be placed, and where in acts of
public and private worship the gifts of survivors may be accom-
panied with praises and with prayers. That the custom of ghost-
propitiation by some sort of sacrifice is even now very widely
diffused among the lower races at least, and that there are also
many curious " survivals " of such a habit to be traced among
highly civilized modern nations, has been abundantly shown
of late by numerous collectors of folk-lore and students of
sociology; and indications of the same phenomena can be readily
pointed out in the Rig- Veda, the Zend-Avesta and the Pentateuch,
as well as in the known usages of the ancient Egyptians, Greeks
and Romans. 2 In many cases the ceremonial observed is of
the simplest; but it ever tends to become more elaborate; and
above all it calls for repetition, and repetition, too, at regular
intervals. Whenever this last demand has made itself felt, a
calendar begins to take shape. The simplest calendar is obviously
the lunar. " The Naga tribes of Assam celebrate their funeral
feasts month by month, laying food and drink on the graves
of the departed." But it soon comes to be combined with the
solar. Thus the Karens, " while habitually making oblations,
have also annual feasts for the dead, at which they ask the
spirits to eat and drink." The natives of the Mexican valley
in November lay animals, edibles and flowers on the graves
of their dead relatives and friends. The common people in
China have a similar custom on the arrival of the winter solstice.
The ancient Peruvians had the custom of periodically assembling
the embalmed bodies of their dead emperors in the great' square
of the capital to be feasted in company with the people. The
Athenians had their annual Ne/cixria or Ne/ie<ra and the Romans
their Feralia and Lemuralia. The Egyptians observed their
three " festivals of the seasons," twelve " festivals of the month,"
and twelve " festivals of the half month," in honour of their
dead. The Parsees, too, were required to render their afringans
(blessings which were to be recited over a meal to which an
angel or the spirit of a deceased person was invited) at each of
the six seasons of the year, and also on certain other days. 3
In the majority of recorded instances, the religious feeling
of the savage has been found to express itself in other forms
besides that of reverence towards the dead. The oldest litera-
tures of the world, at all events, whether Aryan or Semitic,
embody a religion of a much higher type than ancestor worship.
The hymns of the Rig-Veda, for example, while not without
traces of the other, yet indicate chiefly a worship of the powers
of nature, connected with the regular recurrence of the seasons.
Thus in iv. 57 we have a hymn designed for use at the commence-
ment of the ploughing time; 4 and in the Aitareya-Brahmana,
the earliest treatise on Hindu ceremonial, we already find a
complete series of sattras or sacrificial sessions exactly following
the course of the solar year. They are divided into two distinct
sections, each consisting of six months of thirty days each. The
sacrifices are allowed to commence only at certain lucky con-
stellations and in certain months. So, for instance, as a rule, no
great sacrifice can commence during the sun's southern progress.
The great sacrifices generally take place in spring, in the months
of April and May. 5 In the Parsee Scriptures 6 the year is divided
into six seasons or gahanbars of two months each, concluding
with February, the season at which " great expiatory sacrifices
were offered for the growth of the whole creation in the last two
months of the year." We have no means of knowing precisely
what were the arrangements of the Phoenician calendar, but it
2 See Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i. 170, 280, 306.
3 Haug, Parsis, 224, 225.
4 " May the heavens, the waters, the firmament, be kind to us; may
the lord of the field be gracious to us .... May the oxen (draw)
happily, the men labour happily ; may the traces bind happily, wield
the goad happily " (Wilson's translation, iii. 224).
'See Haugs Aitareya-brahmanam of the Rig-Veda; Max Miiller's
Chips from a German Workshop, i. 115.
6 Visperad. See Haug, Parsis, 192; Richardson's Dissertation on
the Language, &c., of Eastern Nations, p. 184; Morier's Journey
through Persia.
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS
221
is generally admitted that the worship was solar, the principal
festivals taking place in spring and in autumn. Among the
most characteristic celebrations of the Egyptians were those
which took place at the a.4>avurfi6s or disappearance of Osiris
in October or November, at the search for his remains, and their
discovery about the winter solstice, and at the date of his sup-
posed entrance into the moon at the beginning of spring. The
Phrygian festivals were also arranged on the theory that the
deity was asleep during the winter and awake during the summer;
in the autumn they celebrated his retiring to rest, and in spring
with mirth and revelry they roused him from his slumbers. 1
The seasonal character of the Teutonic Ostern, the Celtic Beltein
and the Scandinavian Yule is obvious. Nor was the habit of
observing such festivals peculiar to the Aryan or the Semitic
race. The Mexicans, who were remarkable for the perfection
of their calendar, in addition to this had an elaborate system
of movable and immovable feasts distributed over the entire
year; the principal festivals, however, in honour of their chief
gods, Tezcatlipoca, Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, were held in
May, June and December. Still more plainly connected with
the revolutions of the seasons was the public worship of the
ancient Peruvians, who, besides the ordinary feast at each new
moon, observed four solar festivals annually. Of these the
most important was the Yntip-Raymi (Sun-feast), which,
preceded by a three days' fast, began with the summer solstice,
and lasted for nine days. Its ceremonies have been often
described. A similar but less important festival was held at the
winter solstice. The Cusqui-Raymi, held after seedtime, as
the maize began to appear, was celebrated with sacrifices and
banquets, music and dancing. A fourth great festival, called
Citua, held on the first new moon after the autumnal equinox,
was preceded by a strict fast and special observances intended
for purposes of purification and expiation, after which the
festivities lasted until the moon entered her second quarter.
Greek Festivals. Perhaps the annual Attic festival in honour
of Erechtheus alluded to in the Iliad (ii. 550) ought to be regarded
as an instance of ancestor- worship; but the seasonal character
of the toprri or new-moon feast in Od. xx. 156, and of the
6a.\vaia or harvest-festival in II. ix. 533, is generally acknow-
ledged. The older Homeric poems, however, give 'no such
express indications of a fully-developed system of festivals as
are to be met with in the so-called " Homeric " hymns, in the
Works and Days of Hesiod, in the pages of Herodotus, and so
abundantly in most authors of the subsequent period; and it is
manifest that the calendar of Homer or even of Herodotus
must have been a much simpler matter than that of the Taren-
tines, for example, came to be, of whom we are told by Strabo
that their holidays were in excess of their working days. Each
demos of ancient Greece during the historical period had its
own local festivals (eopral drjiJoriKai) , often largely attended
and splendidly solemnized, the usages of which, though essentially
alike, differed very considerably in details. These details have
in many cases been wholly lost, and in others have reached us
only in a very fragmentary state. But with regard to the
Athenian calendar, the most interesting of all, our means of
information are fortunately very copious. It included some
50 or 60 days on which all business, and especially the ad-
ministration of justice, was by order of the magistrates suspended.
Among these Upofjnr)vitu were included in Gamelion (January),
the Lenaea or festival of vats in honour of Dionysus; in
Anthesterion (February), the Anthesteria, also in honour of
Dionysus, lasting three days (Pithoigia, Choes and Chytri);
the Diasia in honour of Zeus, and the lesser Eleusinia; in
Elaphebolion (March), the Pandia (? of Zeus), the Elaphebolia
of Artemis, and the greater Dionysia; in Munychion, the
Munychia of Artemis as the moon goddess (JAovvvxio-) and the
Delphinia of Apollo; in Thargelion (May), the Thargelia of
Apollo and the Plynteria and Callynteria of Athena; in Sciro-
phorion (June), the Diipolia. of Zeus and the Sdrophoria of
Athena; in Hekatombaion, hecatombs were offered to Apollo
the summer-god, and the Crania of Cronus and the Panathenaea
1 Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride; Macrobius, Saturnalia, i. 21.
of Athena were held; in Metageitnion, the Metageitnia of
Apollo; in Boedromion, the Boedromia of Apollo the helper, 2
the Nekusia or Nemeseia (the festival of the dead), and the
greater Eleusinia; in Pyanepsion, the Pyanepsia of Apollo, the
Oschophoria of Dionysus (probably), the Chalkeia or Athenaea of
Athena, the Thesmophoria of Demeter, and the Apaturia; in
Maimacterion, the Maimacteria of Zeus; and in Poseideon
(December), the lesser Dionysia.
Of these some are commemorative of historical events, and
one at least may perhaps be regarded as a relic of ancestor-
worship; but the great majority are nature-festivals, associating
themselves in the manner that has already been indicated with
the phenomena of the seasons, the equinoxes and the solstices. 5
In addition to their numerous public festivals, the Greeks held
various family celebrations, also called toprai, in connexion with
weddings, births and similar domestic occurrences. For the
great national vav.jyvpea Olympian, Pythian, Nemean and
Isthmian see the article GAMES, CLASSICAL.
Roman Festivals. For the purpose of holding comitia and
administering justice, the days of the Roman year were regarded
as being either dies fasti or dies nefasti the dies fasti being the
days on which it was lawful for the praetors to administer
justice in the public courts, while on the dies nefasti neither
courts of justice nor meetings of comitia were allowed to be held.
Some days were fasti during one portion and nefasti during
another; these were called dies intcrcisi. For the purposes of
religion a different division of the year was made; the days
were treated asfesti or as profesli, the former being consecrated
to acts of public worship, such as sacrifices, banquets and games,
while the latter (whether fasti or nefasti) were not specially
claimed for religious purposes. The dies festi or feriae publicae 4
were either stativae, conceptivae or impcrativae. The stalivae
were such as were observed regularly, each on a definite day;
the conceptivae were observed annually on days fixed by the
authorities for the time being; the imperativae were publicly
appointed as occasion called for them. In the Augustan age the
feriae stalivae were very numerous, as may be seen from what
we possess of the Fasti of Ovid. The number was somewhat
fluctuating. Festivals frequently fell into desuetude or were
revived, were increased or diminished, were shortened or pro-
longed at the will of the emperor, or under the caprice of the
popular taste. Thus Augustus restored the Compitalia and
Lupercalia; while Marcus Antoninus in his turn found it ex-
pedient to diminish the number of holidays.
The following is an enumeration of the stated festivals as
given by Ovid and contemporary writers. The first day of
January was observed somewhat as is the modern New Year's
day: clients sent presents to their patrons, slaves to their
masters, friends and relatives to one another. On the pth the
Agonalia were held, apparently in honour of Janus. On the
nth the Carmentalia were kept as a half-holiday, but principally
by women; so also on the isth. On the i3th of February were
the Faunalia, on the isth the Lupercalia, on the i7th the
Quirinalia, on the i8th the Feralia, on the 23rd (at one time the
last day of the Roman year) the Terminalia, on the 24th the
Regifugium or Fugalia, and on the 2;th the Equiria (of Mars).
On the ist of March were the Malronalia, on the I4th a repetition
of the Equiria, on the isth the festival of Anna Perenna, on the
1 7th the Liber alia or Agonalia, and from the ipth to the 23rd
the Quinquatria (of Minerva). On the 4th of April were the
Megalesia (of Cybele), on the i2th the Cerealia, on the 2ist the
Pa/ilia, on the 23rd the Vinalia, on the 2sth the Robigalia,
and on the 28th the Floralia. The ist of May was the festival
of the Lares Praeslites; on the gth, nth and i3th the Lemuria
were celebrated; on the 1 2th the Ludi Marliales, and on the isth
those of Mercury. June 5 was sacred to Semo Sancus; the
Vestalia occurred on the pth, the Matralia on the nth, and the
J In this month the anniversaries of the battle of Marathon, and
of the downfall of the thirty tyrants, were also publicly celebrated.
8 See Schoemann, Griechische Allertumer, ii. 439 seq.; Mommsen,
Heortologie.
* Feriae privatae, such as anniversaries of births, deaths and the
like, were observed by separate clans, families or individuals.
222
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS
Quinquatrus Minusculae on the I3th. The Ludi Apollinares
were on the 5th, and the Neptunalia on the 23rd of July. On
the i3th of August were the Nemoralia, in honour of Diana;
on the i8th the Consualia, on the igth the Vinalia Rustica, and
on the 23rd the Vulcanalia. The Ludi Magni, in honour of
Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, began on September 4. The Medi-
trinalia (new wine) were on the nth of October, the Faunalia
on the i3th, and the Equiria on the isth. The Epulum Jovis
was on I3th November. The December festivals were on the sth
Faunalia, and towards the close Opalia, Saturnalia, Larentalia.
The calendar as it stood at the Augustan age was known
to contain many comparatively recent accessions, brought
in under the influence of two " closely allied powers, the foreign
priest and the foreign cook " (Mommsen). The Megalesia, for
example, had been introduced 204 B.C. The Ludi Apollinares
could not be traced farther back than 208 B.C. The Floralia
and Cerealia had not come in much earlier. Among the oldest
feasts were undoubtedly the Lupercalia, in honour of Lupercus,
the god of fertility; the Equiria, in honour of Mars; the Palilia;
the great September festival; and the Saturnalia.
Among the feriae conceptivae were the very ancient feriae
Latinae, held in honour of Jupiter on the Alban Mount, and
attended by all the higher magistrates and the whole body of
the senate. The time of their celebration greatly depended
on the state of affairs at Rome, as the consuls were not allowed
to take the field until they had held the Latinae, which were
regarded as days of a sacred truce. The feriae sementivae
were held in the spring, and the Ambaroalia in autumn, both
in honour of Ceres. The Paganalia of each pagus, and the
Compitalia of each vicus were also conceptivae. Of feriae
imperativae, that is to say, festivals appointed by the senate,
or magistrates, or higher priests to commemorate some great
event or avert some threatened disaster, the best known is
the Novendiale, which used to be celebrated as often as stones
fell from heaven (Livy xxi. 62, xxv. 7, &c.). In addition to
all those already mentioned, there occasionally occurred ludi
volivi, which were celebrated in fulfilment of a vow ; ludi
funebres, sometimes given by private persons; and ludi secular es,
to celebrate certain periods marked off in the Etrusco-Roman
religion.
Feasts of the Jews. By Old Testament writers a festival or
feast is generally called either w (compare the Arabic Hadj), from
jjri to rejoice, or nyto, from is-,, to appoint. The words njp and
jhj) H-ipp are also occasionally used. In the Talmud the three
principal feasts are called D^J-I, after Exod. xxiii. 14. Of the
Jewish feasts which are usually traced to a pre-Mosaic origin
the most important and characteristic was the weekly Sabbath,
but special importance was also attached from a very early date
to the lunar periods. It is probable that other festivals also, of
a seasonal character, were observed (see Exod. v. i ) . In common
with most others, the Mosaic system of annual feasts groups
itself readily around the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. In
Lev. xxiii., where the list is most fully given, they seem to be
arranged with a conscious reference to the sacred number seven
(compare Numb, xxviii.). Those belonging to the vernal equinox
are three in number ; a preparatory day, that of the Passover,
leads up to the principal festival, that of unleavened bread,
which again is followed by an after-feast, that of Pentecost (see
PASSOVER, PENTECOST). Those of the autumnal equinox are
four; a preparatory day on the new moon of the seventh month
(the Feast of Trumpets) is followed by a great day of rest, the
day of Atonement (which, however, was hardly a festival in the
stricter sense of the word), by the Feast of Tabernacles, and by
a great concluding day (Lev. xxiii. 36; John vii. 37). If the
feast of the Passover be excepted, it will be seen that all these
celebrations or commemorations associate themselves more
readily with natural than with historical events. 1 There was
1 In the " parallel " passages, there is considerable variety in the
designation and arrangement of these feasts. While'Ex. xii. approxi-
mates most closely to Lev. xxiii. and Num. xxviii., Ex. xxiii. has
stronger affinities with Deut. xvi. The relations of these passages are
largely discussed by Graf, Die geschichtlichen Bticher des A. T., pp.
34-41 , and by other recent critics.
also a considerable number of post-Mosaic festivals, of which
the principal were that of the Dedication (described in i Mace,
iv. 52-59; comp. John x. 22) and that of Purim, the origin of
which is given in the book of Esther (ix. 20 seq.) . It has probably
no connexion with the Persian festival Furdigan (see ESTHER). 2
Earlier Christian Festivals. While making it abundantly
manifest that Christ and his disciples observed the appointed
Jewish feasts, the New Testament nowhere records the formal
institution of any distinctively Christian festival. But we have
unambiguous evidence of the actual observance, from a very
early period, of the first day of the week as a holy day (John
xx. 19, 26; i Cor. xvi. 2; Acts xx. 7; Rev. i. 10). Pliny in
his letter to Trajan describes the Christians of Bithynia as meeting
for religious purposes on a set day; that this day was Sunday is
put beyond all reasonable doubt by such a passage as that in the
Apology of Justin Martyr, where he says that " on Sunday
(rfj TOV fi\lov \eyontvrj ifcw) all the Christians living either in the
city or the country met together." The Jewish element, in some
churches at least, and especially in the East, was strong enough
to secure that, along with the dies dominica, the seventh day
should continue to be kept holy. Thus in the Apostolic Con-
stitutions (ii. 59) we find the Saturday specially mentioned along
with the Sunday as a day for the assembling of the church;
in v. 15 it is ordained that there shall be no fasting on Saturday,
while in viii. 33 it is added that both on Saturday and Sunday
slaves are to have rest from their labours. The i6th canon of
the council of Laodicea almost certainly means that solemn
public service was to be held on Saturday as well as on Sunday.
In other quarters, however, the tendency to regard both days as
equally sacred met with considerable resistance. The 36th
canon of the council of Illiberis, for example, deciding that
Saturday should be observed as a fast-day, was doubtless intended
to enforce the distinction between Saturday and Sunday. At
Milan in Ambrose's time Saturday was observed as a [festival;
but Pope Innocent is found writing to the bishop of Eugubium
to urge that it should be kept as a fast. Ultimately the Christian
church came to recognize but one weekly festival.
The numerous yearly festivals of the later Christian church,
when historically investigated, can be traced to very, small
beginnings. Indeed, while it appears to be tolerably certain that
Jewish Christians for the most part retained all the festivals
which had been instituted under the old dispensation, it is not
at all probable that either they or their Gentile brethren recog-
nized any yearly feasts as of distinctively Christian origin or
obligation. It cannot be doubted, however, that gradually,
in the course of the 2nd century, the universal church came to
observe the anniversaries of the death and resurrection of Christ
the Trdaxo, aravptixrifiov and the iraaxa avaaraaiijov, as they
were respectively called (see EASTER and GOOD FRIDAY). Not
long afterwards Whitsunday also came to be fixed in the usage
of Christendom as a great annual festival. Even Origen (in the
Sth book Against Celsus) enumerates as Christian festivals the
Sunday, the irapaaicevri, the Passover with the feast of the
Resurrection, and Pentecost; under which latter term, however,
he includes the whole period between Easter and Whitsuntide.
About Cyprian's time we find individual Christians commemorat-
ing their departed friends, and whole churches commemorating
their martyrs; in particular, there are traces of a local and
partial observance of the feast of the Innocents. Christmas day
and Epiphany were among the later introductions, the feast of
the Epiphany being somewhat the earlier of the two. Both are
alluded to indeed by Clemens Alexandrinus (i. 340), but only
in a way which indicates that even in his time the precise date
of Christ's birth was unknown, that its anniversary was not
usually observed, and that the day of his baptism was kept as
a festival only by the followers of Basilides (see EPIPHANY).
When we come down to the 4th century we find that, among
the 50 days between Easter and Pentecost, Ascension Day has
1 On the whole subject of Jewish festivals see Reland, Antiq. Hebr. ;
Knobel, Leviticus (c. 23); George, Die judischen Fes'te; Edersheim,
The Temple; its Ministry and Services; Ewald, Altertumer des
Volkes Israel; articles in Bible dictionaries.
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS
223
come into new prominence. Augustine, for example, enumerates
as anniversaries celebrated by the whole church those of Christ's
passion, resurrection and ascension, along with that of the out-
pouring of the Holy Ghost, while he is silent with regard to
Christmas and Epiphany. The general tendency of this and the
following centuries was largely to increase the festivals of the
Church, and by legislation to make them more fixed and uniform.
Many passages, indeed, could be quoted from Chrysostom,
Jerome and Augustine to show that these fathers had not by
any means forgotten that comparative freedom with regard
to outward observances was one of the distinctive excellences
of Christianity as contrasted with Judaism and the various
heathen systems (compare Socrates, H.E. v. 22). But there
were many special circumstances which seemed to the leaders
of the Church at that time to necessitate the permission and even
legislative sanction of a large number of new feasts. The innova-
tions of heretics sometimes seemed to call for rectification by
the institution of more orthodox observances; in other instances
the propensity of rude and uneducated converts from paganism
to cling to the festal rites of their forefathers proved to be in-
vincible, so that it was seen to be necessary to seek to adapt
the old usages to the new worship rather than to abolish
them altogether; 1 moreover, although the empire had become
Christian, it was manifestly expedient that the old holidays
should be recognized as much as possible in the new arrange-
ments of the calendar. Constantine soon after his conversion
enacted that on the dies dominica there should be no suits or
trials in law; Theodosius the Great added a prohibition of all
public shows on that day, and Theodosius the younger extended
the prohibition to Epiphany and the anniversaries of martyrdoms,
which at that time included the festivals of St Stephen, and of St
Peter and St Paul, as also that of the Maccabees. In the zist
canon of the council of Agde (506), besides Easter, Christmas,
Epiphany, Ascension and Pentecost, we find the Nativity of
John the Baptist already mentioned as one of the more important
festivals on which attendance at church was regarded as obli-
gatory. To these were added, in the centuries immediately
following, the feasts of the Annunciation, the Purification, and
the Assumption of the Virgin ; as well as those of the Circum-
cision, of St Michael and of All Saints.
Festivals were in practice distinguished from ordinary days
in the following ways: all public and judicial business was
suspended, 2 as well as every kind of game or amusement which
might interfere with devotion; the churches were specially
decorated; Christians were expected to attend public worship,
attired in their best dress; love feasts were celebrated, and the
rich were accustomed to show special kindness to the poor;
fasting was strictly forbidden, and public prayers were said in a
standing posture.
Later Practice. In the present calendar of the Roman Catholic
Church the number of feast days is very large. Each is cele-
brated by an appropriate office, which, according to its character,
is either duplex, semi-duplex or simplex. A duplex again may
be either of the first class or of the second, or a major or a minor.
The distinctions of ritual for each of these are given with great
minuteness in the general rubrics of the breviary; they turn
chiefly on the number of Psalms to be sung and of lessons to be
read, on the manner in which the antiphons are to be given and
on similar details. The duplicia of the first class are the Nativity,
the Epiphany, Easter with the three preceding and two following
days, the Ascension, Whitsunday and the two following days,
Corpus Christi, the Nativity of John Baptist, Saints Peter and
Paul, the Assumption of the Virgin, All Saints, and, for each
church, the feast proper to its patron or title and the feast of its
dedication. The duplicia of the second class are the Circum-
cision, the feast of the Holy Name of Jesus, of the Holy Trinity,
and of the Most Precious Blood of Christ, the feasts of the Purifica-
1 As, at a later period (601), Gregory the Great instructed his
Anglo-Saxon missionaries so to Christianize the temples, festivals,
&c., of the heathen " ut durae mentes gradibus vel passibus, non
autem saltibus, eleventur."
2 Manumission, however, was lawful on any day.
tion, Annunciation, Visitation, Nativity and Conception of the
Virgin, the Natalitia of the Twelve Apostles, the feasts of the
Evangelists, of St Stephen, of the Holy Innocents, of St Joseph
and of the Patrocinium of Joseph, of St Lawrence, of the Inven-
tion of the Cross and of the Dedication of St Michael. The
Dominicae majores of the first class are the first Sunday in
Advent, the first in Lent, Passion Sunday, Palm Sunday, Easter
Sunday, Dominica in Albis, Whitsunday and Trinity Sunday ;
the Dominicae majores of the second class are the second, third
and fourth in Advent, Septuagesima, Sexagesima and Quinqua-
gesima Sundays, and the second, third and fourth Sundays in
Lent.
In the canons and decrees of the council of Trent repeated
allusions are made to the feast days, and their fitness, when
properly observed, to promote piety. Those entrusted with the
cure of souls are urged to see that the feasts of the Church be
devoutly and religiously observed, the faithful are enjoined
to attend public worship on Sundays and on the greater festivals
at least, and parish priests are bidden to expound to the people
on such days some of the things which have been read in the
office for the day. Since the council of Trent the practice of the
Church with respect to the prohibition of servile work on holidays
has varied considerably in different Catholic countries, and even
in the same country at different times. Thus in 1577, in the
diocese of Lyons, there were almost forty annual festivals of a
compulsory character. By the concordat of 1802 the number of
such festivals was for France reduced to four, namely, Christmas
.day, Ascension day, the Assumption of the Virgin, and All Saints
day.
The calendar of the Greek Church is even fuller than that
of the Latin, especially as regards the eoprcu TWV ay&v. Thus on
the last Sunday in Advent the feast of All Saints of the Old
Covenant is celebrated; while Adam and Eve, Job, Elijah,
Isaiah, &c., have separate days. The distinctions of ritual are
analogous to those in the Western Church. In the Coptic Church
there are seven great festivals, Christmas, Epiphany, the
Annunciation, Palm Sunday, Easter Sunday, Ascension and
Whitsunday, on all of which the Copts " wear new clothes (or
the best they have), feast and give alms " (Lane). They also
observe, as minor festivals, Maundy Thursday, Holy Saturday,
the feast of the Apostles (nth July), and that of the Discovery
of the Cross.
In common with most of the churches of the Reformation,
the Church of England retained a certain number of feasts
besides all Sundays in the year. They are, besides Monday and
Tuesday both in Easter- week and Whitsun-week, as follows :
the Circumcision, the Epiphany, the Conversion of St Paul, the
Purification of the Blessed Virgin, St Matthias the Apostle, the
Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, St Mark the Evangelist, St
Philip and St James (Apostles), the Ascension, St Barnabas,
the Nativity of St John Baptist, St Peter the Apostle, St
James the Apostle, St Bartholomew, St Matthew, St Michael and
all Angels, St Luke the Evangelist, St Simon and St Jude, All
Saints, St Andrew, St Thomas, Christmas, St Stephen, St John
the Evangelist, the Holy Innocents. The i3th canon enjoins
that all manner of persons within the Church of England shall
from henceforth celebrate and keep the Lord's day, commonly
called Sunday, and other holy days, according to God's holy will
and pleasure, and the orders of the Church of England prescribed
in that behalf, that is, in hearing the Word of God read and
taught, in private and public prayers, in acknowledging their
offences to God and amendment of the same, in reconciling them-
selves charitably to their neighbours where displeasure hath been,
in oftentimes receiving the communion of the body and blood
of Christ, in visiting of the poor and sick, using all godly and sober
conversation. (Compare Hooker, E.P. v. 70.) In the Directory
for the Public Worship of God which was drawn up by the West-
minster Assembly, and accepted by the Church of Scotland in
1645, there is an appendix which declares that there is no day
commanded in Scripture to be kept holy under the gospel but
the Lord's day, which is the Christian Sabbath; festival days,
vulgarly called holy-days, having no warrant in the Word of God,
224
FEATHER
are not to be continued; nevertheless it is lawful and neces-
sary, upon special emergent occasions, to separate a day or days
for public fasting or thanksgiving, as the several eminent and
extraordinary dispensations of God's providence shall administer
cause and opportunity to his people.
Several attempts have been made at various times in western
Europe to reorganize the festival system on some other scheme
than the Christian. Thus at the time of the French Revolution,
during the period of Robespierre's ascendancy, it was proposed
to substitute a tenth day (Decadi) for the weekly rest, and to
introduce the following new festivals: that of the Supreme
Being and of Nature, of the Human Race, of the French people,
of the Benefactors of Mankind, of Freedom and Equality, of the
Martyrs of Freedom, of the Republic, of the Freedom of the
World, of Patriotism, of Hatred of Tyrants and Traitors, of
Truth, of Justice, of Modesty, of Fame and Immortality, of
Friendship, of Temperance, of Heroism, of Fidelity, of Unselfish-
ness, of Stoicism, of Love, of Conjugal Fidelity, of Filial Affection,
of Childhood, of Youth, of Manhood, of Old Age, of Misfortune,
of Agriculture, of Industry, of our Forefathers, of Posterity and
Felicity. The proposal, however, was never fully carried out,
and soon fell into oblivion.
Mahommedan Festivals. These are chiefly two the 'Eed
es-Sagheer (or minor festival) and the 'Eed el-Kebeer (or great
festival), sometimes called 'Eed el-Kurban. The former, which
lasts for three days, immediately follows the month Ramadan,
and is generally the more joyful of the two; the latter begins
on the tenth of Zu-1-Heggeh (the last month of the Mahommedan
year), and lasts for three or four days. Besides these festivals'
they usually keep holy the first ten days of Moharram (the first
month of the year), especially the tenth day, called Yom Ashoora;
the birthday of the prophet, on the twelfth day of the third
month; the birthday of El-Hoseyn, in the fourth month; the
anniversary of the prophet's miraculous ascension into heaven,
in the seventh month; and one or two other anniversaries.
Friday, called the day of El-Gumah (the assembly), is a day
of public worship; but it is not usual to abstain from public
business on that day except during the time of prayer.
Hindu and Buddhist Festivals. In modern India the leading
popular festivals are the Holi, v/hich is held in March or April
and lasts for five days, and the Dasahara, which occurs in October.
Although in its origin Buddhism was a deliberate reaction
against all ceremonial, it does not now refuse to observe festivals.
By Buddhists in China, for example, three days in the year are
especially observed in honour of the Buddha, the eighth day
of the second month, when he left his home; the eighth day of
the fourth month, the anniversary of his birthday; and the
eighth of the twelfth, when he attained to perfection and entered
Nirvana. In Siam the eighth and fifteenth days of every month
are considered holy, and are observed as days for rest and
worship. At Trut, the festival of the close of the year, visiting
and play-going are universal. The new year (January) is cele-
brated for three days; in February is another holiday; in April
is a sort of Lent, ushering in the rainy season; on the last day
of June presents are made of cakes of the new rice; in August is
the festival of the angel of the river, " whose forgiveness is
then asked for every act by which the waters of the Meinam
have been rendered impure." See Bowring's Siam and Game's
Travels in Indo-China and the Chinese Empire. Copious details
of the elaborate festival-system of the Chinese may be found in
Doolittle's Social Life of the Chinese.
LITERATURE. For Christian feasts see K. A. H. Kellner, Heorto-
logie (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1906) ; Hippolyte Delehaye, Les
Legendes hagiographiques (Brussels, 1905) ; j. Rendel Harris, The
Cult of the Heavenly Twins (Cambridge, 1906); de Rossi-Duchesne,
Martyrologium Hieronymianum.
FEATHER (O. Eng. fether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-
European root seen also in Gr. irrtpbv, and irerfaOai, to fly),
a horny outgrowth of the skin of birds homologous with the
scale of the reptile. The body-covering of birds is, without
exception, comprised of feathers, and by this character alone
birds may be distinguished from all other animals.
The most perfect form of feather is made up of a long, tapering
rod, fringed on either side, for the greater part of its length, by a
secondary ssries of slender and tapering rods fprming a more
or less acute angle with the central axis. This fringe is known
as the vexillum cr " vane " (fig. i a). The central axis is divisible
into two distinct parts, a hollow, cylindrical, transparent
calamus, or " quill," the base of which is inserted into the skin,
and a solid, quadrangular rhachis or " shaft " which supports
the vane. At the lower end of the quill is a small hole the
lower umbilicus through which the nutritive pulp passes during
the growth of the feather: while at the upper end, where it
passes into the shaft, a similar hole will be found, the upper
umbilicus and from this the last remains of the capsules which
contained the nutritive pulp may sometimes be seen protruding.
If the quill is cut open a series of these capsules will be found
fitting one into the other throughout the whole length of the
tubular chamber.
FlG. I . Diagrams
Outline of a feather showing
the relation of the barbs and
barbules to the central axis
or shaft.
Section across two of the barbs
shown in a, highly magni-
fied.
Two barbules of the posterior
series seen only in cross-
section in b.
of Feather-Barbs.
d, A barbule of the anterior
series.
e, Section across the base of three
anterior barbules showing
attachment to barb.
/, A portion of the booklet of the
anterior series showing the
method of interlocking with
the barbules of the posterior
The rods comprising the lateral fringe, or vane, are known
as the rami or the " barbs," and will be found, on microscopic
examination, to be lath-shaped and to taper to a point. Further,
each barb supports a double series of smaller outgrowths known
as the radii, or " barbules "; so that each barb may be likened
to a feather in miniature. These " barbules," however, differ
markedly in structure on the two sides of the barb, those
pointing towards the tip of the feather the " anterior barbules "
being ribbon-shaped from the base outwards for about half
their length, when they become cut up to form a series of long
and very delicate booklets (fig. id). On the opposite side of the
barb the barbules are also ribbon-shaped for about half their
length, but the ribbon is curved trough-fashion, so that the
whole series of posterior barbules forms a number of deep
valleys, and into these the booklets are thrust so as to catch
hold of the upper edges of the troughs, which are set so that the
FEATHER
225
upper edge is towards the upper, and the lower edge towards
the under surface of the feather. The manner in which this
beautiful mechanism works may be seen in fig. i b.
In one of the primary or " quill " feathers of the wing of a
crane, each barb of the inner side of the vane was found to bear
about 600 pairs of barbules, which would make about 800,000
barbules for the inner web of the vane alone, or more than a
million for the whole feather (H. F. Gadow). It is to the agency
of these booklets alone that the closely-knit, elastic vanes of the
flight feathers and the body feathers are due. Where these
booklets are wanting the barbs do not adhere together, resulting
in a loose " discontinuous " vane such as, for example, is found
in the plumes of the ostrich.
Many feathers, in addition to the main axis, bear a second,
generally much shorter axis, supporting a loose discontinuous
vane; this shorter branch is known as the " aftershaft " and
arises from the under surface of the feather. Only in the casso-
wary and emu among adult birds is the aftershaft as large as
the main shaft.
There are several different kinds of feathers contour feathers,
semiplumes, down-feathers, filoplumes and powder-down.
Contour feathers, as their name implies, are those which form the
contour or outline of the body, and are all that can generally
be seen. Those which form the " flight feathers " of the wing,
and the tail feathers, are the most perfectly developed. Semi-
plumes are degenerate contour feathers. The down-feathers
are generally completely hidden by the contour feathers: they
form in many birds, such as gulls and ducks, a thick under-
clothing comparable to the under-fur of mammals such as the
seals. In all cases they are of a loose, soft, " fluffy " structure,
the barbs being of great length and slenderness, while the
barbules are often long and provided with knob-like thickenings
answering to the booklets of the more perfectly developed
contour feathers; these thickenings help to " felt " the separate
down-feathers together, the barbs of one down-feather inter-
locking with those of its neighbour. Down-feathers differ from
semiplumes both in their relation to contour feathers and in
that they do not possess a main axis, all the barbs arising from
a. common centre.
Filoplumes are degenerate structures having a superficial
resemblance to hairs, but they always bear a minute vane at
the tip. They occur in all birds, in clusters of varying number,
about the bases of contour feathers. In some birds they attain
a great length, and may project beyond the contour feathers,
sometimes forming conspicuous white patches, as for example
in the necks of cormorants. In their early stages of development
they often possess a large aftershaft made up of a number of
barbs, but these quickly disappear, leaving only the degenerate
main shaft. The eyelashes and bristles round the mouth found
in many birds appear to be akin to filoplumes.
Powder-down feathers are degenerate down-feathers which
appear to secrete a dry, waxy kind of powder. This powder
rapidly disintegrates and becomes distributed over the plumage,
adding thereto a quite peculiar bloom. In birds of the heron
tribe powder-down feathers have reached a high degree of
development, forming large patches in the breast and thighs,
while in some hawks, and in the parrots, these mysterious
feathers are scattered singly over the greater part of the body.
The nature of the covering of nestling birds is of a more
complex character than has hitherto been suspected. The
majority of young birds, as is well known, either
down. emerge from the egg clothed in down-feathers, or they
develop these within a day or two afterwards. But
this covering, though superficially similar in all, may, as a
matter of fact, differ widely in its constitution, even in closely
related forms, while only in a very few species can the complete
history of these feathers be made out.
The brown or tawny owl (Syrnium oluco) is one of these.
At hatching, the young of this species is thickly clad in white,
woolly down-feathers, of the character known as umbelliform
that is to say, the central axis or main shaft is wanting, so that
the barbs all start from a common centre. These feathers
x. 8
occupy the position of the ultimate contour feathers. They are
shortly replaced by a second down-like covering, superficially
resembling, and generally regarded as, true down. But they
differ in that their barbs spring from a central axis as in typical
contour feathers. Feathers of this last description indeed have
now made their appearance in the shape of the " flight " or quill
feathers (remiges) and of the tail feathers. This plumage is
worn until the autumn, when the downy feathers give place to
the characteristic adult plumage. The down feathers which
appear at hatching-time are known as pre-pennae, or pre-plumulae,
as the case may be; the first generation of pre-pennae, in the
case of the tawny owl for example, is made up of protoptyles,
while the succeeding plumage is made up of mesoptyles, and
these in turn give place to the teleoptyles or adult feathers. The
two forms of nestling plumage pre-pennae and pre-plumulae
may be collectively called " neossoptyles," a term coined by
H. F. Gadow to distinguish the plumage of the nestling from
that of the adult the " teleoptyle " plumage.
As a rule the nestling develops but one of these generations
of neossoptyles, and this generally answers to the mesoptyle
plumage, though this is of a degenerate type. In some birds,
as in the Megapodes, the " protoptyle " or first of these two
generations of pre-pennae is developed and shed while the chick
is yet in the shell, so that at hatching the mesoptyle plumage
is well developed. But in the majority of birds, probably, the
mesoptyle plumage only is developed, while the earlier, and
apparently more degenerate, dress is suppressed. In the penguins
both of these nestling plumages are developed, but the mesoptyle
dress has degenerated so that umbelliform feathers now take the
place of feathers having a central axis.
The Anatidae show traces of the earlier, first generation of
feathers in one or two species only, e.g. Clo'ephaga rubidiceps.
In all the remaining species mesoptyles only occur. And this
is true also of the game-birds. In both the Tinamous, the duck-
tribe and the game-birds this mesoptyle plumage shows, in
different species, every gradation between feathers having a
well-developed main shaft and aftershaft, and those which are
mere umbelliform tufts.
As development proceeds and the contour feathers make their
appearance they thrust the mesoptyle feathers out of their
follicles the pockets in the skin in which they were rooted
and these will often be found adhering to the tips of the contour
feathers for many weeks after the bird has left the nest. This
occurs because the development of the contour feather begins
before that of the mesoptyles has completed.
The plumage in nestling birds is still futher complicated by the
fact that it may be almost, or entirely, composed of pre-plumulae ;
that is to say, of down-feathers which are later succeeded by
adult down-leathers. This is the case among the accipitrine
birds for example, and thereby it differs entirely from that of
the owls, which develop neither pre-plumulae nor adult down.
The cormorants are, so far as is known, the only birds which
have a nestling plumage composed entirely of pre-plumulae.
In variety and brilliancy the colours of birds are not surpassed
by those of any other group of animals. Yet the pigments to
which these colours are due are but few in number,
while a large number of the most resplendent hues The
, , , i- ... f , colours of
are produced by structural peculiarities of tne feathers.
colourless horny surface of the feathers, and hence
are known as subjective or optical colours.
The principal colour pigments are (a) melanin pigments,
derived possibly from the haemoglobin of the blood, but more
probably from the blood plasma, and (I) lipochrome or " fat "
pigments, which are regarded as reserve products; though in the
case of birds it is exceedingly doubtful whether they have this
significance.
The melanin pigments (zoomelaniri) occur in the form of
granules and give rise to the black, brown and grey tones;
or they may combine with those of the lipochrome series.
The lipochrome pigments (zoonerythrin and zooxanthin) tend
to be diffused throughout the substance of the feather, and give
rise respectively to the red and yellow colours.
226
FEATHER
In addition to these must be reckoned turacin, a reddish-
purple pigment consisting of the same elements as zoomelanin,
but remarkable for the fact that it contains from 5 to 8% of
copper, which can be extracted by a weak alkaline solution, such
as ammonia, and with the addition of acetic acid it can be
filtered off as a metallic red or blue powder. The presence of
metallic copper is indicated by the green flame of these red
feathers when burnt. Turacin was discovered by Sir A. H. Church
in the quill-feathers of the wings of Touracoes or " plantain
eaters." These feathers, he showed, lose their colour after they
have become wet, but regain it on drying. But turacin is not,
as was supposed, confined to the feathers of the plantain eaters,
since it has been obtained from a cuckoo, Dasyiophus superciliosus.
What effect food may have on colour in birds in a wild state
we have no means of knowing, but it is significant that flamingoes
and linnets in confinement never regain their bright hues after
their first moult in captivity. If cayenne pepper be mixed with
the food of certain strains of canaries, from the time the birds
are hatched onwards, the yellow colour of the feathers becomes
intensified, till it takes on a deep orange hue. Bullfinches, if fed
on hemp-seed, turn black. According to Darwin, the natives of
the Amazonian region feed the common green parrot on the fat
of large Siluroid fishes, and as a result the feathers become beauti-
fully variegated with red and yellow. Similarly, in the Malay
Archipelago, the natives of GUolo change the colours of another
parrot.
With but rare exceptions bright colours are confined to the
exposed portions of the plumage, but in some of the Bustards the
down is of a bright pink colour.
Structural colours include all metallic or prismatic colours,
blue, green, white, some yellows, and, in part, glossy black.
In metallic feathers the radii (barbules) are modified
colours * n var i us ways, frequently to form flattened, over-
lapping plates or tiles, while the surfaces of the plates
are either smooth, finely striated or pitted. But, save only
in the case of white feathers, beneath this colourless, glazed outer
coat there is always a layer of pigment.
The only green pigment known to occur in feathers is tura-
coverdin, found in the feathers of the plantain eaters; it contains
a relatively large amount of iron, but no copper. In all other
cases the green colour of feathers is due to yellow, orange or
greyish-brown pigment occurring with a special superstructure
consisting of narrow ridges, as in some parrots and pittas (ant-
thrushes), or the surface of the barbs and barbules is smooth and
transparent, while between it and the pigment there exists a
layer of small polygonal, colourless bodies having highly re-
fractory, and often striated, surfaces.
Blue is unknown as a pigment in feathers. Blue feathers
contain only orange or brownish pigment (Gadow), the blue
colour being caused by the combination of pigment corpuscles
and colourless striated polygonal bodies, as in green feathers.
While in many birds the coloration takes the form either of
a uniform hue or of bands and patches of colour more or less
brilliant, in others the coloration is sombre, and made up of
dark longitudinal stripes or_transverse bars on a lighter ground.
The latter is the more primitive, and there seems good reason
to believe that longitudinal stripes preceded transverse bars.
This is indicated by the fact that the nestlings of the more
primitive groups are longitudinally striped, and that young
hawks in their first plumage are so striped, while the adults are
barred.
There is also evidence to show that the evolution of brilliant
plumage began with the males, and has, in many cases, been more
or less perfectly acquired by the females, and also by the young,
as for example in the kingfishers, where parents and offspring
wear the same livery. Often, where the parents are alike in
plumage, the young wear a different and duller livery, as in the
ease of the common starling (Sturnus ifulgaris). But where the
female differs from the male in coloration the young resemble
the female parent.
The physiological explanation of complete disappearance of
pigment in adult life, e.g. gannet, is not yet apparent.
At least once annually birds renew their feathers completely
by a process known as a moult. Until the new feathers have
attained at least half their full length they are invested Moulao
in a soft sheath, and, as development proceeds, the
sheath breaks up from the tip of the feather downwards, so that
for a time the new feathers have almost a brush-like appearance.
Generally this replacement takes place gradually, new and old
feathers occurring side by side, and on this account it is not
always possible to see whether a moult is proceeding without
raising the old feathers.
The " quill " feathers of the wing and tail are renewed in pairs,
so that flight is little, if at all, impaired, the change taking
place in the wing from the region of the wrist inwards, as to the
primaries, and from the body outwards, towards the tip of the
wing, as to the secondaries. In certain birds, however, as in
the duck tribe and the rails, for example, all the quill-feathers
of the wing are shed at once, so that for some time flight is
impossible.
In the penguins this simultaneous method of moulting is
carried still further. That is to say, the old feathers covering
the body are not replaced gradually, but en masse. This method
of ecdysis is, however, still further remarkable in that the old
feathers do not drop out, to be succeeded by spine-like stumps
which, later, split at the tip, liberating the barbs of the new
feathers. They are, on the contrary, thrust out upon the tips
of the new feathers, the barbs of which are never enclosed within
an envelope such as that just describ3d. When their growth
has practically completed, and not till then, the old feathers are
removed in large patches by the aid of the bird's beak; ex-
posing thereby a perfectly developed plumage. In the cassowary,
and emeu, the old feathers similarly adhere for a time to the tips
of the new; but in these birds the feathers are moulted singly
as in other birds.
Some birds moult twice within the year, the additional moult
taking place in the spring, as in the case of the " warblers "
(Sylviidae) and Limicolae, for example. But when this is the
case the spring moult is only partial, since the quill feathers
of the wings and the tail feathers are not renewed.
At this spring moult a special " nuptial " plumage is often
assumed, as for example in many of the Limicolae, e.g. godwits,
knots, dunlin, ruff.
The sequel to this habit of assuming a nuptial dress is an
interesting one. Briefly, this plumage, at first assumed at the
mating period by the males only, and doffed soon after the young
appear, has become retained for longer and longer periods,
so that the succeeding plumage, often conspicuously dull com-
pared with the nuptial dress, is worn only for a few weeks, instead
of many months, as in the case of many of the ducks, for example;
wherein the males, as soon as the young are hatched, assume
what C. Waterton has aptly called an " eclipse " dress. This,
instead of being worn till the following spring, as in the waders,
is shed again in the autumn and replaced by what answers to
the waders' " nuptial " dress. In the game-birds but a trace
of this " eclipse " plumage remains; and this, apparently, only
in jungle-fowl, the common grey partridge (Perdix cinerea) and
the blackcock (Lyrurus), in whose case the head and neck for
a short period following the breeding season are clothed only
by dull feathers. Further, this more highly developed plumage
becomes transferred, first to the female, then to the young, so
that, in many groups, the dull phase of plumage is entirely
eliminated.
But the assumption at the breeding season of a conspicuously
brilliant plumage is not always due to a moult. In many birds,
notably many Passerines, this change is brought about by
shedding the tips of the feathers, which are of a duller hue than
the rest of the feather. In this way the bright rose pink of the
linnet's breast, the blue and black head of the chaffinch, and the
black throat and chestnut-and-black markings of the back of
the sparrow, are assumed to mention but a few instances.
These birds moult but once a year, in the autumn, when the
new feathers have broad brown fringes; as the spring advances
these drop off, and with them the barbicels from the barbules
FEATHER
227
of the upper surface of the feather, thus revealing the hidden
tints.
According to some authorities, however, some birds acquire
a change of colour without a moult by the ascent of pigment
from the base of the feather. The black head assumed by many
gulls in the spring is, for example, said to be gained in this way.
There is, however, not only no good evidence in support of the
contention, but the whole structure of the feather is against
the probability of any such change taking place.
Feathers correspond with the scales of reptiles rather than with
the hairs of mammals, as is shown by their development. They
make their first appearance in the developing chick at
i t a b out t* 16 sixth day of incubation, in the shape of small
,? p "[ papillae. In section each papilla is found to be made up
ers - of a cluster of dermal cells that is to say, of cells of the
deeper layer of the skin-^-capped by cells of the epidermis. These
last form a single superficial layer of flattened cells the epitrichium
overlaying the cells of the Malpighian layer, which are cylindrical
in shape and rapidly increase to form several layers. As develop-
ment proceeds the papillae assume a cone-shape with its apex
directed backwards, while the base of this cone sinks down into the
skin, or rather is carried down by the growth of the Malpighian cells,
so that the cone is now sunk in a deep pit. Thereby these Malpighian
cells become divided into two portions: (i) those taking part in the
formation of the walls of the pit or " feather follicle," and (2) those
enclosed within the cone. These last surround the central mass or
core formed by the dermis. This mass constitutes the nutritive
pulp for the development of the growing feather, and is highly
vascular. The cells of the Malpighian layer within the cone now
become differentiated into three layers, (i) An inner, extremely
thin, forming a delicate sheath for the pulp, and found in the fully
developed feather in the form of a series of hollow, transparent caps
enclosed within the calamus; (2) a thick layer which forms the
feather itself; and (3) a thin layer which forms the investing sheath
of the feather. It is this sheath which gives the curious spine-
covered character to many nestling birds and birds in moult. As
growth proceeds the cells of this middle layer arrange themselves in
longitudinal rows to form the barbs, while the barbules are formed
by a secondary splitting. At their bases these rudimentary barbs
meet to form the calamus. Finally the tips of the barbs break
through the investing sheath and the fully formed down-feather
emerges.
A part of the pulp and Malpighian cells remains over after the
complete growth of the down-feather, and from this succeeding
generations of feathers are developed. The process of this develop-
ment differs from that just outlined chiefly in this: that of the
longitudinal rows which in the down-feather form the barbs, two
on the dorsal and two on the ventral aspect of the interior of the
cylinder become stronger than the rest, combining to form the main-
and after-shaft respectively. The remainder of the rods form the
barbs and barbules as in the down-feather.
The reproductive power of the feather follicle appears to be almost
inexhaustible, since it is not diminished appreciably by age, nor
restricted to definite moulting periods, as is shown by the cruel and
now obsolete custom of plucking geese alive, no less than three times
annually, for the sake of their feathers. The growth of the feathers
is, however, certainly affected by the general health of the bird,
mal-nutrition causing the appearance of peculiar transverse V-
shaped grooves, at more or less regular intervals, along the whole
length of the feather. These are known as "hunger-marks," a
name given by falconers, to whom this defect was well known.
It would seem that while the feather germ may be artificially
stimulated to produce three successive generations of feathers within
a year, it may, on the other hand, be induced artificially to maintain
a continuous activity extending over long periods. That is to say,
the normal quiescent period, and periodic moult, may be suspended,
so that the feather maintains a steady and continuous growth till it
attains a length of several feet. The only known instance of this
kind is that furnished by a domesticated breed of jungle-fowl known
as the " Japanese long-tailed fowls " or as " Yokohamas." In this
breed the upper tail coverts are in some way, as yet unknown to
Europeans, induced to go on growing until they have attained a
length of from 12 to 18 or even 20 ft. ! In this abnormal growth the
" hackles "of the lower part of the back also share, though they
do not attain a similar length.
The feathers of birds are not uniformly distributed over the
body, but grow only along certain definite tracts known as pterylae,
leaving bare spaces or apteria. These pterylae differ considerably
in their conformation in different groups of birds, and hence are of
service in systematic ornithology.
The principal pterylae are as follows:
(1) The head tract (pt. capitis), which embraces the head only.
(2) The spinal tract (pt. spinalis), which extends the whole length
of the vertical column. It is one of the most variable in its modifica-
tions, especially in so far as the region from the base of the neck to
the tail is concerned. In its simplest form it runs down the back
in the form of a band of almost uniform width, but generally it
FIG. 2. Pterylosis of the plover.
expands considerably in the lumbar region, as in Passeres. Fre-
quently it is divided into two portions; an upper, terminating in
the region of the middle of the back in a fork, and a lower, which
commences either as a fork, e.g. plover, barbet, or as a median band,
e.g. swallow. Very commonly the dorsal region of this tract encloses
a more or less extensive featherless space (apterion), e.g. swift, auk.
While, as a rule, the dorsal region of this tract is relatively narrow,
it is in some of great breadth, e.g. grebe, pigeon, coly.
(3) The ventral tract (pt. ventmlis), which presents almost as
many variations as the spinal tract.
In its simplest form it runs from the throat backwards in the
form of a median band as far as the base of the neck where it divides,
sending a branch to each side
of the breast. This branch
commonly again divides into
a short, broad outer branch
which lodges the " flank "
feathers, and a long, narrow,
inner branch which runs
backwards to join its fellow
of the opposite side in front
of the cloacal aperture. This
branch lodges the abdominal
feathers. The median space
which divides the inner
branches of the tract may be
continued forwards as far as
the middle of the neck, or even
up to the throat, e.g. plover.
Only in a few cases is the
neck continuously covered by
the fusion of the dorsal and
ventral tracts, e.g. flamingo, Anseres, Ciconidae, Pygopodes.
For convenience sake the cervical portions of the spinal and
ventral tracts are generally regarded as separate tracts, the pt. colli
dorsalis and pt. cotti ventralis respectively.
(4) The humeral tract (pt. humeralis), which gives rise to the
" scapular " feathers.
(5) The femoral tract (pt. femoralts), which forms an oblique band
across the thigh.
(6) The crural tract (pt. cruralis), which clothes the rest of the leg.
(7) The tail tract (pt. caudalis), including the tail feathers and
their coverts; and
(8) The wing tract (pt. alaris). The wing tract presents many
peculiar features. Each segment arm, forearm and hand bears
feathers essential to flight, and these are divided into remiges, or
" quill " feathers, and tectrices, or " coverts."
The remiges of the arm, more commonly described as " tertiaries,"
are, technically, collectively known as the parapteron and hypopteron,
and are composed respectively of long, quill-like feathers forming a
double series, the former arranged along the upper, and the latter
along the lower aspect of the humerus. They serve to fill up the
ap which, in long-winged birds, would otherwise occur during flight
etween the quill-feathers of the forearm and the body, a gap which
would make night impossible. In short- winged birds these two series
are extremely reduced.
The remiges range in number from 16, as in humming-birds, to 48
as in the albatross, according, in short, to the length of the wing.
But these numerical differences depend, in flying birds, rather upon
the length of the forearm, since the quills of the hand never exceed
12 and never fall below 10, though the tenth may be reduced to a
mere vestige.
The quills of the forearm are known as " secondaries," those of the
hand as " primaries." The former are attached by their bases at
relatively wide distances apart to the ulna, while the primaries are
crowded close together and attached to the skeleton of the hand.
The six or seven which rest upon the fused metacarpals II.-III. are
known as " metacarpals." The next succeeding feather is borne by
the phalanx of digit III. and hence is known as the addigital.
Phalanx i. of digit 1 1. always supports two quills, the " middigitals,"
while the remaining feathers one or two are borne by the last
phalanx of digit II. and are known as pre-digitals, while the whole
series of primaries are known as the metacarpo-digitals.
In their relation one to another the remiges, it must be noted,
are always so placed that they overlap one another, the free edge of
each, when the wing is seen from its upper surface, being turned
'towards the tip of the wing. Thus, in flight, the air passes through
the wing as it is raised, while in the downstroke the feathers are forced
together to form a homogeneous surface.
Birds which fly much have the outer primaries of great length,
fiving the wing a pointed shape, as in swifts, while in species which
y but little, or frequent thickets, the outer primaries are very short,
giving the wing a rounded appearance. This adaptation to environ-
ment is commonly lost sight of by taxonomers, who not infrequently
use the form of the wing as a factor in classification.
The tectrices, or covert feathers of the wing, are arranged in
several series, decreasing in size from behind forwards. The number
of rows on the dorsal aspect and the method of their overlap, afford
characters of general importance in classification.
228
FEATHER
The first row of the series is formed by the major coverts; these,
like the primaries, have their free-edges directed towards the tip of
the wing, and hence are said to have a distal overlap. The next row
is formed by the median coverts. These, on the forearm, commonly
overlap as to the outer half of the row distally, and as to the inner
half proximally. On the hand this series is incomplete. Beyond the
median are four or five rows of coverts known as the minor coverts.
These may have either a proximal or a distal overlap. The remaining
rows of small feathers are known as the marginal coverts, and they
always have a distal overlap.
The three or four large quill-like feathers borne by the thumb
form what is known as the "bastard-wing," ala spuria.
The coverts of the under follow an arrangement similar to that of
the upper surface, but the minor coverts are commonly but feebly
developed, leaving a more or less bare space which is covered by the
great elongation of the marginal series.
One noteworthy fact about the coverts of the under side of the
wing is that all save the major and median coverts have what answers
to the dorsal surfaces of the feather turned towards the body, and
what answers to the ventral surface of the feather turned towards
the under surface of the wing. In the major and median coverts,
however, the ventral surfaces of these feathers are turned ventral-
wards, that is to say, in the extended wing they, like the remiges,
have the ventral surfaces turned downwards or towards the body
in the closed wing.
But the most remarkable fact in connexion with the pterylosis
of the wing is the fact that in all, save the Passerine and Galliform
types, and some few other isolated exceptions, the secondary series
of remiges appears always to lack the fifth remex, counting from the
wrist inwards, inasmuch as, when such wings are examined, there is
always found, in the place of the fifth remex, a pair of major coverts
only, while throughout the rest of the series each such pair of coverts
embraces a quill.
This extraordinary fact was first _discovered by the French
naturalist Z. Gerbe, and was later rediscovered by R. S. Wray.
Neither of these, however, was able to offer any explanation thereof.
This, however, has since been attempted, simultaneously, by P. C.
Mitchell and W. P. Pycraft. The former has aptly coined the word
diastataxic to denote the gap in the series, and eutaxic to denote
such wings as have an uninterrupted series of quills. While both
authors agree that there is no evidence of any loss in the number
of the quills in diastataxic wings, they differ in the interpretation
as to which of the two conditions is the more primitive and the
means by which the gap has been brought about.
According to Mitchell the diastataxic is the more primitive
condition, and he has conclusively shown a way in which diastataxic
wings may become eutaxic. Pycraft on the other hand contends
that the diastataxic wing has been derived from the eutaxic type,
and has produced evidence showing, on the one hand, the method
by which this transition is effected, and on the other that by which
the diastataxic wing may again recover the eutaxic condition,
though in this last particular the evidence adduced by Mitchell is
much more complete. The matter is, however, one of considerable
difficulty, but is well worth further investigation.
The wings of struthious birds differ from those of the Carinatae,
just described, in many ways. All are degenerate and quite useless
as organs of flight. In some cases indeed they have become reduced
to mere vestiges.
Those of the ostrich and Rhea are the least degraded.
In the ostrich ankylosis has prevented the flexion of the hand at
the wrist joint so that the quills primaries and secondaries form
an unbroken series of about forty in number. Of these sixteen
belong to the primary or metacarpo-digital series, a number exceeding
that of any other bird. What the significance of this may be with
regard to the primitive wing it is impossible to say at present. The
coverts, in their disposition, bear a general resemblance to those of
Carinate wings; but they differ on account of the great length of the
feathers and the absence of any definite overlap.
The wing of the South American Rhea more nearly resembles
that of flying birds since the hand can be flexed at the wrist joint,
and the primaries are twelve in number, as in grebes, and some storks,
for example.
The coverts, as in the African ostrich, are remarkable for their
great length, those representing the major series being as long as the
remiges, a fact probably due to the shortening of the latter. They
are not, however, arranged in quincunx, as is the rule among the
Carinatae, but in parallel, transverse rows, in which respect they
resemble the owls.
In both ostrich and Rhea, as well as in all the other struthious
birds, the under surface of the wing is entirely bare.
The wing of the cassowary, emeu and apteryx has undergone
complete degeneration; so much so that only a vestige of the hand
remains.
Remiges in the cassowary are represented by a few spine-like
shafts three primaries and two secondaries. These are really
hypertrophied calami. This is shown by the fact that in the nestling
these remiges have a normal calamus, rhachis and vane; but as
development proceeds the rhachis with its vane sloughs off, while the
calamus becomes enormously lengthened and solid.
In the emeu the wing is less atrophied than in the cassowary,
but is not yet completely degenerate. Altogether seventeen remiges
are represented, of which seven correspond to primaries. Since,
however, these feathers have each an aftershaft as long as the main
shaft like the rest of the body feathers it may be that they answer
not to remiges, but to major coverts.
The wing of apteryx, like that of the cassowary, has become
extremely reduced. The remiges are thirteen in number, four of
which answer to primaries. These feathers are specially interesting,
inasmuch as they retain throughout life a stage corresponding to
that seen in the very young cassowary, the calamus being greatly
swollen, and supporting a very degenerate rhachis and vane.
The penguins afford another object-lesson in degeneration of this
kind. Here the wing has become transformed into a paddle, clothed
on both sides with a covering of small, close-set feathers. A pollex
is wanting, as in the cassowary, emeu and apteryx, while it is
impossible to say whether remiges are represented or not.
AUTHORITIES. The following authors should be consulted for
further details on this subject:
For General Reference as to Structure, Colour, Development and
Pterylosis. H. Gadow, in Newton's Dictionary of Birds (1896);
W. P. Pycraft, " The Interlocking of the Barbs of Feathers," Natural
Science (1893).
On the Colours of Feathers. J. L. Bonhote, " On Moult and Colour
Change in Birds," Ibis (1900); A. H. Church, "Researches on
Turacin, an Animal Pigment containing Copper," Phil. Trans.
clix. (1870), pt. ii. ; H. Gadow, " The Coloration of Feathers as affected
by Structure," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1882); Newbegin, Colour in Nature
(1898); R. M. Strong, " The Development of Color in the Definitive
Feather," Bull. Mus. Zool. Harvard College, vol. xl.
On Moulting. J. Dwight, " The Sequences of Plumage and
Moults of the Passerine Birds of New York," Annals N. Y.Acad. Set.,
vol. xiii. (1900); W. E. De Winton, " On the Moulting of the King
Penguin," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1898-1899); W. P. Pycraft, " On some
Points in the Anatomy of the Emperor and Adelie Penguins," Report
National Antarctic Expedition, vol. ii. (1907).
On Development of Embryonic, Nestling and Adult Feathers. T. H.
Studer, " Die Entwicklung der Federn," Inaug.-Diss. (Bern, 1873);
" Beitrage zur Entwickl. der Feder," Zeitsch.f. wiss. Zool., Bd. xxx. ;
J. T. Cunningham, " Observations and Experiments on Japanese
Long-tailed Fowls," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1903) ; H. R. Davies, " Beitrag
zur Entwicklung der Feder," Mprph. Jahrb. xiv. (1888), xv. (1889);
W. P. Pycraft, " A Contribution towards our Knowledge of the
Morphology of the Owls," Trans. Linn. Soc. (1898) ; W. P. Pycraft,
" A Contribution towards our Knowledge of the Pterytography of
the Megapodii," Report Willey's Zoological Results, pt. iv. U9Oo) ;
W. P. Pycraft, " Nestling Birds and some of the Problems they
Present, British Birds (1907).
On Pterylosis. H. Gadow, " Remarks on the Numbers and on the
Phylogenetic Development of the Remiges of Birds," Proc. Zool. Soc.
(1888); Z. Gerbe, " Sur les plumes du vol et leur mue," Bull. Soc.
Zool. France, vol. ii. (1877) ; J. G. Goodchild, " The Cubital Coverts
of the Euornithae in relation to Taxonomy," Proc. Roy. Phys.
Edinb. vol. x. (1890-1891); Meijere, " Uber die Federn der Vogel,"
Morphol. Jahrb. xxiii. (1895) ; P. C. Mitchell, " On so-called ' Quinto-
cubitalism ' in the Wing of Birds," Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. vol.
xxvii. (1899); "On the Anatomy of the Kingfishers, with special
reference to the Conditions known as Eutaxy and Diastataxy,"
Ibis (1901); C. L. Nitzsch, "Pterytography," Ray Soc. (1867);
W. P. Pycraft, " Some Facts concerning the so-called ' Aquintp-
cubitalism ' of the Bird's Wing," Journ. Linn. Soc. vol. xxvii.;
C. J. Sundevall, " On the Wings of Birds," Ibis (1886) ; R. S. Wray,
" On some Points in the Morphology of the Wings of Birds," Proc.
Zool. Soc. (1887). (W. P. P.)
Commercial Applications of Feathers. The chief purposes for
which feathers become commercially valuable may be compre-
hended under four divisions: (i) bed and upholstery feathers ;
(2) quills for writing; (3) ornamental feathers; and (4) mis-
cellaneous uses of feathers.
Bed and Upholstery Feathers. The qualities which render
feathers available for stuffing beds, cushions, &c., are lightness,
elasticity, freedom from matting and softness. These are
combined in the most satisfactory degree in the feathers of the
goose and of several other allied aquatic birds, whose bodies
are protected with a warm downy covering. Goose feathers
and down, when plucked in spring from the living bird, are most
esteemed, being at once more elastic, cleaner and less liable to
taint than those obtained from the bodies of killed geese. The
down of the eider duck, Anas mollissima, is valued above all
other substances for lightness, softness and elasticity ; but it
has some tendency to mat, and is consequently more used for
quilts and in articles of clothing than unmixed for stuffing beds.
The feathers of swans, ducks and of the common domestic fowl
are also largely employed for beds ; but in the case of the latter
bird, which is of course non-aquatic, the feathers are harsher
FEATHERSTONE FEATLEY
229
and less downy than are those of the natatorial birds generally.
Feathers which possess strong or stiff shafts cannot without
some preliminary preparation be used for stuffing purposes, as
the stiff points they present would not only be highly uncomfort-
able, but would also pierce and cause the escape of the feathers
from any covering in which they might be enclosed. The barbs
are therefore stripped or cut from these feathers, and when so
prepared they, in common with soft feathers and downs, undergo
a careful process of drying and cleaning, without which they
would acquire an offensive smell, readily attract damp, and
harbour vermin. The drying is generally done in highly heated
apartments or stoves, and subsequently the feathers are smartly
beaten with a stick, and shaken in a sieve to separate all dust
and small debris.
Quills for Writing. The earliest period at which the use of
quill feathers for writing purposes is recorded is the 6th century;
and from that time till the introduction of steel pens in the early
part of the ipth century they formed the principal writing
implements of civilized communities. It has always been
from the goose that quills have been chiefly obtained, although
the swan, crow, eagle, owl, hawk and turkey all have more or
less been laid under contribution. Swan quills, indeed are
better and more costly than are those from the goose, and for
fine lines crow quills have been much employed. Only the
five outer wing feathers of the goose are useful for writing, and
of these the second and third are the best, while left-wing quills
are also generally more esteemed than those of the right wing,
from the fact that they curve outward and away from the
writer using them. Quills obtained in spring, by plucking or
otherwise, from living birds are by far the best, those taken
from dead geese, more especially if fattened, being comparatively
worthless. To take away the natural greasiness to remove the
superficial and internal pellicles of skin, and to give the necessary
qualities of hardness and elasticity, quills require to undergo
some processes of preparation. The essential operation consists
in heating them, generally in a fine sand-bath, to from 130 to
180 F. according to circumstances, and scraping them under
pressure while still soft from heat, whereby the outer skin is
removed and the inner shrivelled up. If the heating has been
properly effected, the quills are found on cooling to have become
hard, elastic and somewhat brittle. While the quills are soft
and hot, lozenge-shaped patterns, ornamental designs, and names
are easily and permanently impressed on them by pressure
with suitable instruments or designs in metal stamps.
Ornamental Feathers. Feathers do not appear to have been
much used, in Europe at least, for ornamental purposes till the
close of the i3th century. They are found in the conical caps
worn in England during the reigns of Edward III. and Richard
II.; but not till the period of Henry V. did they take their
place as a part of military costume. Towards the close of the
1 5th century the fashion of wearing feathers in both civil and
military life was carried to an almost ludicrous excess. In the
time of Henry VIII. they first appeared in the bonnets of ladies;
and during Elizabeth's reign feathers began to occupy an impor-
tant place as head-dress ornaments of women. From that
time down to the present, feathers of endless variety have con-
tinued to be leading articles of ornamentation in female head-
attire; but, except for military plumes, they have long ceased
to be worn in ordinary male costume. At the present day, the
feathers of numerous birds are, in one way or another, turned
to account by ladies for the purpose of personal ornament.
Ostrich feathers, however, hold, as they have always held, a
pre-eminent position among ornamental feathers; and the
ostrich is the only bird which may be said to be reared exclusively
for the sake of its feathers. Ostrich farming is one of the estab-
lished industries of South Africa, and is also practised in Kordofan
and other semi-desert regions of North Africa, in Argentina,
and in Arizona and California in North America. The feathers
are generally plucked from the living animal a process which
does not appear to cause any great inconvenience. In the male
bird, the long feathers of the rump and wings are white, and the
short feathers of the body are jet black; while the rump and
wing feathers of the female are white tinged with a dusky grey,
the general body colour being the latter hue. The feathers
of the male are consequently much more valuable than those
of the female, and they are separately classified in commerce.
The art of the plumassier embraces the cleaning, bleaching,
dyeing, curling and making up of ostrich and other plumes and
feathers. White feathers are simply washed in bundles in hot
soapy water, run through pure warm water, exposed to sulphurous
fumes for bleaching, thereafter blued with indigo solution,
rinsed in pure cold water, and hung up to dry. When dry the
shafts are pared or scraped down to give the feathers greater
flexibility, and the barbs are curled by drawing them singly
over the face of a blunt knife or by the cautious application of a
heated iron. Dull-coloured feathers are usually dyed black.
Feathers which are dyed light colours are first bleached by
exposure in the open air. Much ingenuity is displayed in the
making up of plumes, with the general result of producing
the appearance of full, rich, and long feathers from inferior
varieties and from scraps and fragments of ostrich feathers;
and so dexterously can factitious plumes be prepared that
only an experienced person is able to detect the fabrication.
In addition to those of the ostrich, the feathers of certain
other birds form articles of steady commercial demand. Among
these are the feathers of the South American ostrich, Rhea
americana, the marabout feathers of India obtained from
Leptoptilos argala and L. javanica, the aigrettes of the heron,
the feathers of the various species of birds of paradise, and of
numerous species of humming-birds. Swan-down and the skins
of various penguins and grebes and of the albatross are used,
like fur, for muffs and collarettes.
The Chinese excel in the preparation of artificial flowers and
other ornaments from bright natural-coloured or dyed feathers;
and the French also skilfully work fragments of feathers into
bouquets of artificial flowers, imitation butterflies, &c.
Miscellaneous Applications of Feathers. Quills of various
sizes are extensively employed as holders for the sable and
camel hair brushes used by artists, &c. Feather brushes and
dusters are made from the wing-feathers of the domestic fowl
and other birds; those of a superior quality, under the name
of vulture dusters, being really made of American ostrich
feathers. A minor application of feathers is found in the dress-
ing of artificial fly-hooks for fishing. As steel pens came into
general use it became an object of considerable importance
to find applications for the supplanted goose-quills, and a large
field of employment for them was found in the preparation of
toothpicks. (J. PA; W. P. P.)
FEATHERSTONE, an urban district in the Osgoldcross
parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
6 m. E. of Wakefield on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway.
Pop. (1901) 12,093. The industrial population is employed in
large collieries in the vicinity; and here, on the 7th of September
1893, serious riots during a strike resulted in the destruction
of some of the colliery works belonging to Lord Masham, and
were not quelled without military intervention and some blood-
shed.
FEATLEY (or FAIRCLOUGH) DANIEL (1582-1645), English
divine, was born at Charlton, Oxfordshire, on the isth of March
1582. He was a scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and
probationer fellow in 1602, after which he went to France as
chaplain to the English ambassador. For some years he was
domestic chaplain to George Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury,
and held also the rectories of Lambeth (1619), Allhallows, Bread
Street (c. 1622), and Acton (1627), this last after leaving the
archbishop's service in 1625. His varied activities included a
" scholastick duel " with James I. in 1625, and the publication
of (i) the report of a conference with some Jesuits in 1624, (2)
a devotional manual entitled Ancilla Pietatis (1626), (3) Mystica
Clavis, a Key opening divers Difficult Texts of Scripture in fo
Sermons (1636). He was appointed provost of Chelsea College
in 1630, and in 1641 was one of the sub-committee " to settle
religion." In the course of this work he had a disputation with
four Baptists at Southwark which he commemorated in his book
230
FEBRONIANISM
Karairrurroi, The Dippers dipt or the Anabaptists
duckt and plunged over head and ears (1645). He sat in the
Westminster Assembly 1643, and was the last of the Episcopal
members to remain. For revealing its proceedings he was
expelled and imprisoned. He died at Chelsea on the I7th of
April 1645.
FEBRONIANISM, the name given to a powerful movement
within the Roman Catholic Church in Germany, in the latter
part of the i8th century, directed towards the " nationalizing "
of Catholicism, the restriction of the monarchical power usurped
by the papacy at the expense of the episcopate, and the reunion
of the dissident churches with Catholic Christendom. It was
thus, in its main tendencies, the equivalent of what in France
is known as Gallicanism (q.v.). The name is derived from
the pseudonym of " Justinus Febronius " adopted by Johann
Nikolaus von Hontheim (q.v.), coadjutor bishop of Treves (Trier) ,
in publishing his work De statu ecclesiae et legilima poteslate
Romani pontificis. This book, which roused a vast amount of
excitement and controversy at the time, exercised an immense
influence on opinion within the Roman Catholic Church, and the
principles it proclaimed were put into practice by the rulers of
that Church in various countries during the latter part of the
1 8th and the beginning of the igth century.
The main propositions defended by " Febronius " were as
follows. The constitution of the Church is not, by Christ's
institution, monarchical, and the pope, though entitled to a
certain primacy, is subordinate to the universal Church. Though
as the " centre of unity " he may be regarded as the guardian
and champion of the ecclesiastical law, and though he may
propose laws, and send legates on the affairs of his primacy, his
sovereignty (principatus) over the Church is not one of jurisdic-
tion, but of order and collaboration (ordinis et consociationis).
The Roman (ultramontane) doctrine of papal infallibility is not
accepted " by the other Catholic Churches " and, moreover,
" has no practical utility." The Church is based on the one
episcopacy common to all bishops, the pope being only primus
inter pares. It follows that the pope is subject to general councils,
in which the bishops are his colleagues (conjudices) , not merely
his consul tors; nor has he the exclusive right to summon such
councils. The decrees of general councils need not be confirmed
by the pope nor can they be altered by him; on the other hand,
appeal may be made from papal decisions to a general council.
As for the rights of the popes in such matters as appeals, reserva-
tions, the confirmation, translation and deposition of bishops,
these belong properly to the bishops in provincial synods, and
were usurped by the papacy gradually as the result of a variety of
causes, notably of the False Decretals. For the health of the
Church it is therefore necessary to restore matters to their condi-
tion before the False Decretals, and to give to the episcopate its
due authority. The main obstacle to this is not the pope himself,
but the Curia, and this must be fought by all possible means,
especially by thorough popular education (primum adversus
abusum ecdesiasticae potestatis remedium), and by the assembling
of national and provincial synods, the neglect of which is the
main cause of the Church's woes. If the pope will not move
in the matter, the princes, and notably the emperor, must act in
co-operation with the bishops, summon national councils even
against the pope's will, defy his excommunication, and in the
last resort refuse obedience in those matters over which the
papacy has usurped jurisdiction.
It will be seen that the views of Febronius had but little
originality. In the main they were those that predominated
in the great general councils of Constance and Basel in the i5th
century; but they were backed by him with such a wealth of
learning, and they fitted so well into the intellectual and political
conditions of the time, that they found a widespread acceptance.
The book, indeed, was at once condemned at Rome (February
1764), and by a brief of the aist of May the pope commanded
all the bishops of Germany to suppress it. The papal condemna-
tion met with a very mixed reception; in some dioceses the order
to prohibit the book was ignored, in others action upon it was
postponed pending an independent examination, in yet others
(nine in all) it was at once obeyed " for political reasons,"
though even in these the forbidden book became the " breviary
of the governments." The Febronian doctrine, in fact, exactly
fitted the views of the German bishops, which were by no means
disinterested. It must be remembered that the bishops were
at this time great secular princes rather than Catholic prelates;
with rare exceptions, they made no pretence of carrying out
their spiritual duties; they shared to the full in the somewhat
shallow "enlightenment" of the age. As princes of the Empire
they had asserted their practical independence of the emperor;
they were irked by what they considered the unjustifiable
interference of the Curia with their sovereign prerogatives, and
wished to establish their independence of the pope also. In
the ranks of the hierarchy, then, selfish motives combined
with others more respectable to secure the acceptance of the
Febronian position. Among secular rulers the welcome given
to it was even less equivocal. Even so devout a sovereign as
Maria Theresa refused to allow " Febronius " to be forbidden
in the Habsburg dominions; her son, the emperor Joseph II.,
applied the Febronian principles with remorseless thoroughness.
In Venice, in Tuscany, in Naples, in Portugal, they inspired
the vigorous efforts of " enlightened despots " to reform the
Church from above; and they gave a fresh impetus to the move-
ment against the Jesuits, which, under pressure of the secular
governments, culminated in the suppression of the Society
by Pope Clement XIV. in 1773. "Febronius," too, inspired
the proceedings of two notable ecclesiastical assemblies, both
held in the year 1786. The reforming synod which met at
Pistoia under the presidency of the bishop, Scipione de' Ricci,
is dealt with elsewhere (see PISTOIA). The other was the so-
called congress of Ems, a meeting of the delegates of the four
German archbishops, which resulted, on the 25th of August,
in the celebrated "Punctation of Ems," subsequently ratified
and issued by the archbishops. This document was the outcome
of several years of controversy between the archbishops and
the papal nuncios, aroused by what was considered the un-
justifiable interference of the latter in the affairs of the German
dioceses. In 1769 the three archbishop-electors of Mainz,
Cologne and Treves (Trier) had drawn up in thirty articles
their complaints against the Curia, and after submitting them
to the emperor Joseph II., had forwarded them to the new
pope, Clement XIV. These articles, though " Febronius " was
prohibited in the archdioceses, were wholly Febronian in tone;
and, indeed, Bishop von Hontheim himself took an active part
in the diplomatic negotiations which were their outcome. In
drawing up the " Punctation " he took no active part, but it
was wholly inspired by his principles. It consisted of XXIII.
articles, which may be summarized as follows. Bishops have,
in virtue of their God-given powers, full authority within their
dioceses in all matters of dispensation, patronage and the like;
papal bulls, briefs, &c., and the decrees of the Roman Congrega-
tions are only of binding force in each diocese when sanctioned
by the bishop; nunciatures, as hitherto conceived, are to cease;
the oath of allegiance to the pope demanded of bishops since
Gregory VII. 's time is to be altered so as to bring it into
conformity with episcopal rights; annates and the fees payable
for the pallium and confirmation are to be lowered and, in the
event of the pallium or confirmation being refused, German
archbishops and bishops are to be free to exercise their office
under the protection of the emperor; with the Church tribunals
of first and second instance (episcopal and metropolitan) the
nuncios are not to interfere, and, though appeal to Rome is
allowed under certain " national " safe-guards, the opinion is
expressed that it would be better to set up in each archdiocese
a final court of appeal representing the provincial synod; finally
the emperor is prayed to use his influence with the pope to secure
the assembly of a national council in order to remove the griev-
ances left unredressed by the council of Trent.
Whether this manifesto would have led to a reconstitution
of the Roman Catholic Church on permanently Febronian lines
must for ever remain doubtful. ' The French Revolution inter-
vened; the German Church went down in the storm; and in
FEBRUARY FECHNER
231
1803 the secularizations carried out by order of the First Consul
put an end to the temporal ambitions of its prelates. Febronianism
indeed, survived. Karl Theodor von Dalberg, prince primate of
the Confederation of the Rhine, upheld its principles throughout
the Napoleonic epoch and hoped to establish them in the new
Germany to be created by the congress of Vienna. He sent
to this assembly, as representative of the German Church,
Bishop von Wessenberg, who in his diocese of Constance had
not hesitated to apply Febronian principles in reforming, on
his own authority, the services and discipline of the Church.
But the times were not favourable for such experiments. The
tide of reaction after the Revolutionary turmoil was setting
strongly in the direction of traditional authority, in religion as
in politics; and that ultramontane movement which, before
the century was ended, was to dominate the Church, was already
showing signs of vigorous life. Moreover, the great national
German Church of which Dalberg had a vision with himself
as primate did not appeal to the German princes, tenacious
of their newly acquired status as European powers. One by
one these entered into concordats with Rome, and Febronianism
from an aggressive policy subsided into a speculative opinion.
As such it survived strongly, especially in the universities (Bonn
especially had been, from its foundation in 1774, very Febronian),
and it reasserted itself vigorously in the attitude of many of
the most learned German prelates and professors towards the
question of the definition of the dogma of papal infallibility in
1870. It was, in fact, against the Febronian position that the
decrees of the Vatican Council were deliberately directed, and
their promulgation marked the triumph of the ultramontane
view (see VATICAN COUNCIL, ULTRAMONTANISM, PAPACY). In
Germany, indeed, the struggle against the papal monarchy was
carried on for a while by the governments on the so-called
Kulturkampf, the Old Catholics representing militant Febronian-
ism. The latter, however, since Bismarck " went to Canossa,"
have sunk into a respectable but comparatively obscure sect, and
Febronianism, though it still has some hold on opinion within the
Church in the chapters and universities of the Rhine provinces, is
practically extinct in Germany. Its revival under the guise of so-
called Modernism drew from Pope Pius X. in 1908 the scathing
condemnation embodied in the encyclical Pascendi gregis.
AUTHORITIES. See Justinus Febronius, De stat-u ecclesiae et
legitima potestae Romani pontificis (Bullioni, 1765), second and
enlarged edition, with new prefaces addressed to Pope Clement
XIII., to Christian kings and princes, to the bishops of the Catholic
Church, and to doctors of theology and canon law; three additional
volumes, published in 1770, 1772 and 1774 at Frankfort, are devoted
to vindications of the original work against the critics. In the
Revue des deux mondes for July 1903 (tome xvi. p. 266) is an interest-
ing article under the title of " L'Allemagne Catholique," from the
papal point of view, by Georges Goyau. For the congress of Ems
see Herzog-Hauck, Rcalencyklopadie (Leipzig, 1898), s.v. " Emser
Kongress." Further references are given in the article on Hontheim
(q.v.). (W. A. P.)
FEBRUARY, the second month of the modern calendar.
In ordinary years it contains 28 days; but in bissextile or leap
year, by the addition of the intercalary day, it consists of 29 days.
This month was not in the Romulian calendar. In the reign of
Numa two months were added to the year, namely, January
at the beginning, and February at the end; and this arrange-
ment was continued until 452 B.C., when the decemvirs placed
February after January. The ancient name of Februarius was
derived from februare, to purify, or from Februa, the Roman
festival of general expiation and lustration, which was celebrated
during the latter part of this month. In February also the
Lupercalia were held, and women were purified by the priests
of Pan Lyceus at that festival. The Anglo-Saxons called this
month Sprout-Kale from the sprouting of the cabbage at this
season. Later it was known as Solmonath, because of the return
of the sun from the low latitudes. The most generally noted days
of February are the following: the 2nd, Candlemas day, one
of the fixed quarter days used in Scotland; the i4th, St Valen-
tine's day; and the 24th, St Matthias". The church festival of
St Matthias was formerly observed on the 25th of February in
bissextile years, but it is now invariably celebrated on the 24th.
FEBVRE, ALEXANDRE FREDERIC (1835- ), French
actor, was born in Paris, and after the usual apprenticeship in
the provinces and in several Parisian theatres in small parts,
was called to the Comedie Francaise in 1866, where he made his
debut as Philip II. in Don Juan d'Autriche. He soon became
the most popular leading man in Paris, not only in the classical
repertoire, but in contemporary novelties. In 1894 he toured
the principal cities of Europe, and, in 1895, of America. He
was also a composer of light music for the piano, and published
several books of varying merit. He married Mdlle Harville,
daughter of one of his predecessors at the Comedie Franchise,
herself a well-known actress.
FECAMP, a seaport and bathing resort of northern France,
in the department of Seine-Inferieure, 28 m. N.N.E. of Havre
on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 15,872. The town, which
is situated on the English Channel at the mouth of the small
river Fecamp, consists almost entirely of one street upwards of
2 m. in length. t It occupies the bottom and sides of a narrow
valley opening out towards the sea between high cliffs. The most
important building is the abbey church of La Trinite, dating
for the most part from 1175 to 1225. The central tower and
the south portal (i3th century) are the chief features of its
simple exterior; in the interior, the decorative work, notably
the chapel-screens and some fine stained glass, is remarkable.
The hotel-de-ville with a municipal museum and library occupy
the remains of the abbey buildings (i8th century). The church
of St Etienne (i6th century) and the Benedictine liqueur
distillery, 1 a modern building which also contains a museum, are
of some interest. A tribunal and chamber of commerce, a board
of trade-arbitrators and a nautical school, are among the public
institutions. The port consists of an entrance channel nearly
400 yds. long leading to a tidal harbour and docks capable of
receiving ships drawing 26 ft. at spring-tide, 19 ft. at neap-tide.
Fishing for herring and mackerel is carried on and the town
equips a large fleet for the codbanks of Newfoundland and
Iceland. The chief exports are oil-cake, flint, cod and Benedic-
tine liqueur. Imports include coal, timber, tar and hemp. Steam
sawing, metal-founding, fish-salting, shipbuilding and repairing,
and the manufacture of ship's-biscuits and fishing-nets are among
the industries.
The town of Fecamp grew up round the nunnery founded in
658 to guard the relic of the True Blood which, according to the
legend, was found in the trunk of a fig-tree drifted from Palestine
to this spot, and which still remains the most precious treasure
of the church. The original convent was destroyed by the North-
men, but was re-established by Duke William Longsword as a
house of canons regular, which shortly afterwards was converted
into a Benedictine monastery. King Richard I. greatly enlarged
this, and rebuilt the church. The town achieved some prosperity
under the dukes of Normandy, who improved its harbour, but
after the annexation of Normandy to France it was overshadowed
by the rising port of Havre.
FECHNER, GUSTAV THEODOR (1801-1887), German experi-
mental psychologist, was born on the igth of April 1801 at
Gross-Sarchen, near Muskau, in Lower Lusatia, where his father
was pastor. He was educated at Sorau and Dresden and at the
university of Leipzig, in which city he spent the rest of his life.
In 1834 he was appointed professor of physics, but in 1839
contracted an affection of the eyes while studying the phenomena
of colour and vision, and, after much suffering, resigned. Subse-
quently recovering, he turned to the study of mind and the
relations between body and mind, giving public lectures on the
subjects of which his books treat. He died at Leipzig on the i8th
of November 1887. Among his works may be mentioned:
Das Biichlein wm Leben nach dem Tode (1836, sth ed., 1903),
which has been translated into English; Nanna, oder tiber das
Seelenleben der Pflanzen (1848, 3rd ed., 1903); Zendavesla, oder
1 The liqueur is said to have been manufactured by the Benedictine
monks of the abbey as far back as 1510; since the Revolution
it has been produced commercially by a secular company. The
familiar legend D. O. M.(Deo Optimo Maximo) on the bottles preserves
the memory of its original makers.
232
FECHTER FECKENHAM
iiber die Dinge des Himmels und des Jenseits (1851, 2nd ed.
by Lasswitz, 1901); Uber die physikalische und philosophische
Atomenlehre (1853, 2nd ed., 1864); Elemente der Psychophysik
(1860, 2nd ed., 1889); Vorschule der Asthetik (1876, 2nd ed.,
1898); Die Tagesansicht gegeniiber der N achtansicht (1879).
He also published chemical and physical papers, and translated
chemical works by J. B. Biot and L. J. Thenard from the French.
A different but essential side of his character is seen in his
poems and humorous pieces, such as the Vergleichende Anatomic
der Engel (1825), written under the pseudonym of " Dr Mises."
Fechner's epoch-making work was his Elemente der Psychophysik
(1860). He starts from the Spinozistic- thought that bodily
facts and conscious facts, though not reducible one to the other,
are different sides of one reality. His originality lies in trying
to discover an exact mathematical relation between them.
The most famous outcome of his inquiries is the law known
as Weber's or Fechner's law which may be expressed as follows:
" In order that the intensity of a sensation may increase in arith-
metical progression, the stimulus must increase in geometrical
progression." Though holding good within certain limits only,
the law has been found immensely useful. Unfortunately, from
the tenable theory that the intensity of a sensation increases by
definite additions of stimulus, Fechner was led on to postulate
a unit of sensation, so that any sensation s might be regarded
as composed of units. Sensations, he argued, thus being
represeutable by numbers, psychology may become an " exact "
science, susceptible of mathematical treatment. His general
formula for getting at the number of units in any sensation is
s = c log R, where s stands for the sensation, R for the stimulus
numerically estimated, and c for a constant that must be separ-
ately determined by experiment in each particular order of sensi-
bility. This reasoning of Fechner's has given rise to a great mass
of controversy, but the fundamental mistake in it is simple.
Though stimuli are composite, sensations are not. " Every
sensation," says Professor James, " presents itself as an indivisible
unit; and it is quite impossible to read any clear meaning into
the notion that they are masses of units combined." Still, the
idea of the exact measurement of sensation has been a fruitful
one, and mainly through his influence on Wundt, Fechner was
the father of that " new " psychology of laboratories which
investigates human faculties with the aid of exact scientific
apparatus. Though he has had a vast influence in this special
department, the disciples of his general philosophy are few. His
world-conception is highly animistic. He feels the thrill of life
everywhere, in plants, earth, stars, the total universe. Man
stands midway between the souls of plants and the souls of stars,
who are angels. God, the soul of the universe, must be conceived
as having an existence analogous to men. Natural laws are
just the modes of the unfolding of God's perfection. In his last
work Fechner, aged but full of hope, contrasts this joyous
" daylight view " of the world with the dead, dreary " night
view " of materialism. Fechner's work in aesthetics is also
important. He conducted experiments to show that certain
abstract forms and proportions are naturally pleasing to our
senses, and gave some new illustrations of the working of aesthetic
association. Fechner's position in reference to predecessors
and contemporaries is not very sharply defined. He was
remotely a disciple of Schelling, learnt much from Herbart
and Weisse, and decidedly rejected Hegel and the monadism
of Lotze.
See W. Wundt, G. Th. Fechner (Leipzig, 1901); A. Elsas, " Zum
Andenken G. Th. Fechners," in Grenzbote, 1888; J. E. Kuntze,
G. Th. Fechner (Leipzig, 1892); Karl Lasswitz, G. Th. Fechner
(Stuttgart, 1896 and 1902); E. ,B- Titchener, Experimental Psy-
chology (New York, 1905); G. F. Stout, Manual of Psychology
(1898), bk. ii. ch. vii.; R. Falckenberg, Hist, of Mod. Phil. (Eng.
.trans., 1895), pp. 601 foil.; H. Hoffding, Hist, of Mod. Phil. (Eng.
trans., 1900), vol. ii. pp. 524 foil.; Liebe, Fechners Metaphysik, im
Umriss dargestellt (1903). (H. ST.)
FECHTER, CHARLES ALBERT (1824-1879), Anglo-French
actor, was born, probably in London, on the 23rd of October
1824, of French parents, although his mother was of Piedmontese
and his father of German extraction. The boy would probably
have devoted himself to a sculptor's life but for the accident
of a striking success made in some private theatricals. The
result was an engagement in 1841 to play in a travelling company
that was going to Italy. The tour was a failure, and the com-
pany broke up; whereupon Fechter returned home and worked
assiduously at sculpture. At the same time he attended classes
at the Conservatoire with the view of gaining admission to the
Comedie Francaise. Late in 1844 he won the grand medal of
the Academic des Beaux- Arts with a piece of sculpture, and was
admitted to make his debut at the Comedie Francaise as Seide
in Voltaire's Mahomet and Valere in Moliere's Tartuffe. He
acquitted himself with credit; but, tired of the small parts he
found himself condemned to play, returned again to his sculptor's
studio in 1846. In that year he accepted an engagement to
play with a French company in Berlin, where he made his first
decisive success as an actor. On his return to Paris in the
following year he married the actress Eleonore Rabut (d. 1895).
Previously he had appeared for some months in London, in a
season of French classical plays given at the St James's theatre.
In Paris for the next ten years he fulfilled a series of successful
engagements at various theatres, his chief triumph being his
creation at the Vaudeville on the 2nd of February 1852 of the
part of Armand Duval in La Dame aux camelias. For nearly
two years (1857-1858) Fechter was manager of the Odeon,
where he produced Tarluffe and other classical plays. Having
received tempting offers to act in English at the Princess's
theatre, London, he made a diligent study of the language, and
appeared there on the 27th of October 1860 in an English
version of Victor Hugo's Ruy Bias. This was followed by The
Corsican Brothers and Don Cesar de Bazan; and on the 2oth of
March 1861 he first attempted Hamlet. The result was an
extraordinary triumph, the play running for 115 nights. This
was followed by Othello, in which he played alternately the Moor
and lago. In 1863 he became lessee of the Lyceum theatre,
which he opened with The Duke's Motto; this was followed
by The King's Butterfly, The Mountebank (in which his son Paul,
a boy of seven, appeared), The Roadside Inn, The Master of
Ravenswood, The Corsican Brothers (in the original French version,
in which he had created the parts of Louis and Fabian dei
Franchi) and The Lady of Lyons. After this he appeared at
the Adelphi (1868) as Obenreizer in No Thoroughfare, by Charles
Dickens and Wilkie Collins, as Edmond Dantes in Monte Cristo,
and as Count de Leyrac in Black and White, a play in which the
actor himself collaborated with Wilkie Collins. In 1870 he
visited the United States, where (with the exception of a visit
to London in 1872) he remained till his death. His first appear-
ance in New York was at Niblo's Garden in the title r61e of
Ruy Bias. He played in the United States between 1870 and
1876 in most of the parts in which he had won his chief triumphs
in England, making at various times attempts at management,
rarely successful, owing to his ungovernable temper. The last
three years of his life were spent in seclusion on a farm which
he had bought at Rockland Centre, near Quakertown, Pennsyl-
vania, where he died on the 5th of August 1879. A bust of the
actor by himself is in the Garrick Club, London.
FECKENHAM, JOHN (c. 1515-1584), English ecclesiastic,
last abbot of Westminster, was born at Feckenham, Worcester-
shire,of ancestors who, by theirwills, seem to have been substantial
yeomen. The family name was Howman, but, according to
the English custom, Feckenham, on monastic profession, changed
it for the territorial name by which he is always known. Learn-
ing his letters first from the parish priest, he was sent at an
early age to the claustral school at Evesham and thence, in his
eighteenth year, to Gloucester Hall, Oxford, as a Benedictine
student. After taking his degree in arts, he returned to the
abbey, where he was professed; but he was at the university
again in 1537 and took his B.D. on the nth of June 1539.
Returning to Evesham he was there when the abbey was sur-
rendered to the king (27th of January 1540) ; and then, with a
pension of 10 a year, he once more went back to Oxford, but
soon after became chaplain to Bishop Bell of Worcester and
then served Bonner in that same capacity from 1543 to 1549-
FEDCHENKO FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
233
In 1 544 Bonner gave him the living of Solihull ; and Feckenham
established a reputation as a preacher and a disputant of keen
intellect but unvarying charity. About 1549 Cranmer sent
him to the Tower of London, and while there " he was borrowed
out of prison " to take part in seven public disputations against
Hooper, Jewel and others. Released by Queen Mary (sth of
September 1553), he returned to Bonner and became prebendary
of St Paul's, rector of Finchley, then of Greenford Magna,
chaplain and confessor to the queen, and dean of St Paul's
(loth of March 1554). He took part, with much charity and
mildness, in the Oxford disputes against Cranmer, Latimer and
Ridley; but he had no liking for the fierce bigotry and bloody
measures then in force against Protestants. Feckenham used
all his influence with Mary " to procure pardon of the faults or
mitigation of the punishment for poor Protestants" (Fuller),
and he was sent by the queen to prepare Lady Jane Grey for
death. When Elizabeth was sent to the Tower (i8th of March
1554), Feckenham interceded for her life and liberty, even at
the cost of displeasing the queen.
The royal abbey of Westminster having been restored to its
primitive use, Feckenham was appointed abbot, and the old
life began again within its hallowed walls on the 2 ist of November
1556. The abbey school was reopened and the shrine of St
Edward restored. On the accession of Elizabeth Feckenham
consistently opposed all the legislation for changes in religion,
and, when the hour of trial came, he refused the oath of
supremacy, rejecting also Elizabeth's offer to remain with his
monks at Westminster if he would conform to the new laws.
The abbey was dissolved (i2th of July 1559), and within a year
Feckenham was sent by Archbishop Parker to the Tower (2oth
of May 1560), according to Jewel, " for having obstinately refused
attendance on public worship and everywhere declaiming and
railing against that religion which we now profess " (Parker
Society, first series, p. 79). Henceforth, except for some brief
periods when he was a prisoner at large, Feckenham spent the
rest of his life in confinement either in some recognized prison,
or in the more distasteful and equally rigorous keeping of the
bishops of Winchester and Ely. After fourteen years' confine-
ment, he was released on bail and lived in Holborn, where his
benevolence was shown by all manner of works of charity.
" He relieved the poor wheresoever he came, so that flies flock
not thicker to spilt honey than beggars constantly crowd about
him " (Fuller). He set up a public aqueduct in Holborn, and a
hospice for the poor at Bath; he distributed every day to the
sick the milk of twelve cows, took care of orphans, and encouraged
manly sports on Sundays among the youth of London by giving
prizes. In 1577 he was committed to the care of Cox of Ely
with strict rules for his treatment; and the bishop (1578) could
find no fault with him except that " he was a gentle person
but in the popish religion too, too obstinate." In 1580 he was
removed to Wisbeach Castle, and there exercised such an influence
of charity and peace among his fellow-prisoners that was re-
membered when, in after years, the notorious Wisbeach Stirs
broke out under the Jesuit Weston. Even here Feckenham
found a means of doing public good; at his own cost he repaired
the road and set up a market cross in the town. After twenty-
four years of suffering for his conscience he died in prison and
was buried in an unknown grave in the parish church at Wis-
beach on the 1 6th of October 1584.
The fullest account of Feckenham is to be found in E. Taunton's
English Black Monks of St Benedict (London, 1897), vol. i. pp.
160-222. (E. TN.)
FEDCHENKO, ALEXIS PAVLOVICH (1844-1873), Russian
naturalist and traveller, well known for his explorations in
central Asia, was born at Irkutsk, in Siberia, on the 7th of
February 1844; and, after attending the gymnasium of his
native town, proceeded to the university of Moscow, for the
study more especially of zoology and geology. In 1868 he
travelled through Turkestan, the district of the lower Syr-Darya
and Samarkand; and shortly after his return he set out for
Khokand, where he visited a large portion of territory till then
unknown. Soon after his return to Europe he perished on Mont
Blanc while engaged in an exploring tour in Switzerland, on the
i5th of September 1873.
Accounts of the explorations and discoveries of Fedchenko have
>een published by the Russian government, his Journeys in
Turkestan in 1874, In the Khanat of Khokand in 1875, and Botanical
Discoveries in 1876. See Petermann's Mittheilungen (1872-1874).
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (Lat. foedus, a league), a form of
government of which the essential principle is that there is a
union of two or more states under one central body for certain
permanent common objects. In the most perfect form of
federation the states agree to delegate to a supreme federal
government certain powers or functions inherent in themselves
in their sovereign or separate capacity, and the federal govern-
ment, in turn, in the exercise of those specific powers acts directly,
not only on the communities making up the federation, but on
each individual citizen. So far as concerns the residue of powers
unallotted to the central or federal authority, the separate states
retain unimpaired their individual sovereignty, and the citizens
of a federation consequently owe a double allegiance, one to
the state, and the other to the federal government. They live
under two sets of laws, .the laws of the state and the laws of the
federal government (J. Bryce, Studies in History and Juris-
prudence, ii. 490). The word "confederation," as distinct from
" federation " has been sometimes, though not universally,
used to distinguish from such a federal state (Bundesstaat)
a mere union of states (Staatenbund) for mutual aid, and the
promotion of interests common to all (see CONFEDERATION).
The history of federal government practically begins with
Greece. This, however, is due to the fact that the Greek federa-
tions are the only ones of which we have any detailed information.
The obvious importance, especially to scattered villages or tribes,
of systematic joint action in the face of a common danger makes
it reasonable to infer that federation in its elementary forms
was a widespread device. This view is strengthened by what we
can gather of the conditions obtaining in such districts as Aetolia,
Acarnania and Samnium, as in modern times among primitive
peoples and tribes. The relatively detailed information which
we possess concerning the federal governments of Greece makes
it necessary to pay special attention to them.
In ancient Greece the most striking tendency of political
development was the maintenance of separate city states, each
striving for absolute autonomy, though all spoke practically
the same language and shared to some extent in the same
traditions, interests and dangers. This centrifugal tendency is
most marked in the cases of the more important states, Athens,
Sparta, Argos, Corinth, but Greek history is full of examples of
small states deliberately sacrificing what must have been obvious
commercial advantage for the sake of a precarious autonomy.
Such examples as existed of even semi-federal union were very
loose in structure, and the selfishness of the component units
was the predominant feature. Thus the Spartan hegemony in
the Peloponnese was not really a federation except in the broadest
sense. The states did, it is true, meet occasionally for discussion,
but their relation, which had no real existence save in cases of
immediate common danger, was really that between a paramount
leader and unwilling and suspicious allies. The Athenian empire
again was a thinly disguised autocracy. The synod (see DELIAN
LEAGUE) of the " allies " soon degenerated into a mere form;
of comprehensive united policy there was none, at all events after
the League had achieved its original purpose of expelling the
Persians from Europe.
None the less it is possible, even in the early days of political
development in Greece, to find some traces of a tendency towards
united action. Thus the unions of individual villages, known as
synoecisms, such as took place in Attica and Elis in early times
were partly of a federal character: they resulted in the establish-
ment of a common administration, and no doubt in some degree
of commercial and military unity. On the other hand, it is likely
that these unions lacked the characteristic of federation in that
the units could hardly be described as having any sovereign
power: at the most they had some municipal autonomy as in the
case of the Cleisthenic demes. The union was rather national
than federal. Again the Amphictyonic unions had one of the
234
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
characteristic elements of federation, namely that they were free
sovereign states combining for a particular purpose with an
elaborate system of representation (see AMPHICTYONY). But
these unions, at all events in historic times, were mainly concerned
with religion, and the authority of the councils did not seriously
affect the autonomy of the individual states.
Thus among the city-states as well as among scattered villages
the principle of cohesion was not unknown. On the other hand
the golden mean between an easily dissoluble relationship, more
like an alliance than a federation, and a natiorial system resulting
from synoecism was practically never attained in early Greek
history. There are, however, examples in Greece proper, and
one, Lycia in Asia Minor, of real federal unions. The chief
Greek federations were those of Thessaly, Boeotia, Acarnania,
Olynthus, Arcadia, Aetolia, Achaea, the most important as well
as the most complete in respect of organization being the Aetolian
League and the Achaean League.
1. The Thessalian League originated in the deliberate choice
by village aristocracies of a single monarch who belonged from
time to time to several of the so-called Heracleid families. Soon
after the Persian War this monarchy (dynasty of the Aleuadae,
Herod, v. 63 and vii. 6) disappeared, and in 424 we find Athens
in alliance with a sort of democratic federal council representing
r6 Kowbv GtTTo.Xcoj' (cf. Thuc. i. 102, ii. 22, iv. 78), and probably
composed of delegates from the towns. The local feudal nobles,
however, seem to have put an end to this government by council,
and a dictator (lagus) was appointed, with authority over the
whole military force of the federation. Three such officers,
Lycophron, Jason and Alexander, all of Pherae, endeavoured
vainly to administer the collective affairs of the federation, the
last by means of a revived republican council. The final failure
of this scheme coincided with the disappearance of Thessaly
as a sovereign state (see THESSALY).
2. The form and the history of the Boeotian federation
are treated fully under Boeotia (q.v.). It may probably have
originated in religious associations, but the guiding power
throughout was the imperial policy of Thebes, especially during
its short-lived supremacy after 379 B.C.
3. The federation of Acarnania is of peculiar interest as being
formed by scattered villages or tribes, without settled, still less
fortified, habitation. In the early part of the 4th century a
Koivbv TU>V 'A.Kapvhv<j)v met at Stratus (Xen. Hell. iv. 6. 4). Late
in the same century towns began to form, without, however,
disturbing the federation, which existed as late as the 2nd century
B.C., governed by a representative council (/3ouAa), and a common
assembly (KOIVOV) at which any citizen might be present.
4. The foundation of the Olynthian federation was due to
the need of protection against the northern invaders (see OLYN-
THUS). It was in many respects based on liberal principles, but
Olynthus did not hesitate to exercise force against recalcitrants
such as Acanthus.
5. The 4th century Arcadian league, which was no doubt a
revival of an older federation, was the result of the struggle for
supremacy between Thebes and Sparta. The defeat of Sparta
at Leuctra removed the pressure which had kept separate the
Arcadian tribes, and ri> KOIV&V ruv 'A.pKaowv was established in
the new city, Megalopolis (q.v., also ARCADIA).
6 and 7. The Aetolian and Achaean leagues (see AETOLIA,
and ACHAEAN LEAGUE) were in all respects more important than
the preceding and constitute a new epoch in European politics.
Both belong to a period in Greek history when the great city
states had exhausted themselves in the futile struggle against
Macedon and Rome, and both represent a conscious popular
determination in the direction of systematic government. This
characteristic is curious in the Aetolian tribes which were famous
in all time for habitual brigandage; there was, however, among
them the strong link of a racial feeling. The governing council
(ri> Koivfa' T&V AtrajXaij') was the permanent representative
body; there was also a popular assembly (irapeurwXuc&O ,
partly of a primary, partly of a representative kind, any one
being free to attend, but each state having only one official
representative and one vote. Of all the federal governments of
Greece, this league was the most certainly democratic in constitu-
tion. There was a complete system of federal officers ; at the head
of whom was a Strategus entrusted with powers both military
and civil. This officer was annually elected, and, though the chief
executive authority, was strictly limited in the federal delibera-
tions to presidential functions (cf. Livy xxxv. 25, " ne praetor,
quum de bello consuluisset, ipse sententiam diceret "). The
Achaean League was likewise highly organized; joint action
was strictly limited, and the individual cities had sovereign
power over internal affairs. There were federal officers, all the
military forces of the cities were controlled by the league, and
federal finance was quite separate from city finance.
8. Of the Lycian federation, its origin and duration, practically
nothing is known. We know of it in 188-168 B.C. as dependent on
Rhodes, and, from 168 till the time when the emperor Claudius
absorbed it in the provincial system, as an independent state
under Roman protection. The federation was a remarkable
example of a typical Hellenic development among a non-Hellenic
people. Strabo (p. 665) informs us that the federation, composed
of twenty-three cities, was governed by a council (KOW&V
avvtdpiov) which assembled from time to time at that city which
was most convenient for the purpose in hand. The cities were
represented according to size by one, two or three delegates,
and bore proportionate shares in financial responsibility. The
Lycian league was, therefore, in this respect rather national than
federal.
Of ancient federal government outside Greece we know very
little. The history of Italy supplies a few examples, of which the
chief is perhaps the league of the cities of Latium (<?..; see also
ETRURIA).
See E. A. Freeman, Federal Government in Greece and Rome (2nd
ed., 1893, J- B. Bury), and works quoted in the special articles.
Among the later European confederations the Swiss republic
is one of the most interesting. As now constituted it consists
of twenty-two sovereign states or cantons. The government
is vested in two legislative chambers, a senate or council of
state (Standerat) , and a national council (Nationalrat), consti-
tuting unitedly the federal assembly. The executive council
(Bundesrat) of seven members elects the president and vice-
president for a term of three years (see SWITZERLAND: Govern-
ment). Before the French Revolution the German empire was a
complex confederation, with the states divided into electoral
colleges, consisting (i) of the ecclesiastical electors and of the
secular electors, including the king of Bohemia; (2) of the
spiritual and temporal princes of the empire next in rank to the
electors; and (3) of the free imperial cities. The emperor was
elected by the first college alone. This imposing confederation
came to an end by the conquests of Napoleon; and the Confedera-
tion of the Rhine was established in 1806 with the French
emperor as protector. B-ut in 1815 the Germanic confederation
(Deutscher Bund) was established by the congress of Vienna,
which in its turn has been displaced by the present German
empire. This, in its new organization, conferred on Germany the
long-coveted unity and coherence the lack of which had been a
source of weakness. The constitution dates, in its latest form,
from the treaties entered into at Versailles in 1 87 1 . A federation
was then organized with the king of Prussia as president, under
the hereditary title of German emperor. Delegates of the various
federated governments form the Bundesrath; the Reichstag, or
popular assembly, is directly chosen by the people by universal
suffrage; and the two assemblies constitute the federal parlia-
ment. This body has power to legislate for the whole empire in
reference to all matters connected with the army, navy, postal
service, customs, coinage, &c., all political laws affecting citizens,
and all general questions of commerce, navigation, passports, &c.
The emperor represents the federation in all international
relations, with the chancellor as first minister of the empire, and
has power, with consent of the Bundesrath, to declare war in
name of the empire.
The United States of America more nearly resembles the Swiss
confederacy, though retaining marks of its English origin. The
original thirteen states were colonies wholly independent of each
FEDERALIST PARTY
235
other. By the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union
adopted by the Continental Congress in 1777, and in effect in
1781-1789, the states bound themselves in a league of common
defence. By the written Constitution, drafted in 1787 and in
operation since 1789, a stronger and more centralized union was
established in theory a federal republic formed by the voluntary
combination of sovereign states. A common citizenship was
recognized for the whole union; but the federal government was
to exercise only such powers as were expressly delegated to it
(Amendment of 1791). The powers of the central government
are entrusted to three distinct authorities executive, legislative
and judicial. The president, elected for a term of four years by
electors chosen for that purpose by each state, is the executive
head of the republic. The vice-president, ex officio president
of the Senate, assumes the presidency in case of resignation or
death. Legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of
two Houses: a Senate, composed of two members elected by each
state for a term of six years; and a House of Representatives,
consisting of representatives in numbers proportionate to the
population of each state, holding their seats for two years. The
supreme judicial authority is vested in a Supreme Court, which
consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices, all appointed
for life by the president, subject to confirmation by the Senate.
The extension of responsible constitutional government by
Great Britain to her chief colonies, under a governor or viceregal
representative of the crown, has been followed in British North
America by the union of the Canadian, maritime and Pacific
provinces under a federal government with a senate, the
members of which are nominated by the crown, and a house of
commons elected by the different provinces according to their
relative population. The governor-general is appointed by the
crown for a term of five years, and represents the sovereign in all
matters of federal government. The lieutenant-governors of the
provinces are nominated by him; and all local legislation is
carried on by the provincial parliaments. The remarkable
federation of the Dominion of Canada which was thus originated
presented the unique feature of a federal union of provinces
practically exercising sovereign rights in relation to all local
self-government, 'and sustaining a constitutional autonomy,
while cherishing the colonial relationship to Great Britain.
The Commonwealth of Australia (q.v.), proclaimed in 1901, is
another interesting example of self-governing states federating
into a united whole. There is, however, a striking difference to be
observed in the powers of the federal governments of Canada and
Australia. The federal parliament of Canada has jurisdiction
over all matters not specially assigned to the local legislatures,
while the federal parliament of Australia has only such juris-
diction as is expressly vested in it or is not expressly withdrawn
from the local legislatures. This jurisdiction is undoubtedly
extensive, comprising among others, power to legislate concerning
trade and industry, criminal law, taxation, quarantine, marriage
and divorce, weights and measures, legal tender, copyrights and
patents, and naturalization and aliens. There was also an early
attempt to federate the South African colonies, and an act was
passed for that purpose (South African Act 1877), but it expired
on the i8th of August 1882, without having been brought into
effect by the sovereign in council; in 1908, however, the Closer
Union movement (see SOUTH AFRICA) ripened, and in 1909 a
federating Act was successfully passed.
See also Bluntschli, The Theory of the State; W. Wilson, The State;
Wheaton, Internationa, Law.
FEDERALIST PARTY, in American politics, the party that
organized the national government of the United States under
the constitution of 1787. It may be regarded as, in various
important respects, the lineal predecessor of the American Whig
and Republican parties. The name Federalists (see ANTI-
FEDERALISTS) was first given to those who championed the
adoption of the Constitution. They brought to the support of
that instrument. " the areas of intercourse and wealth " (Libby),
the influence of the commercial towns, the greater planters, the
army officers, creditors and property-holders generally, in short,
of interests that had felt the evils of the weak government of the
Confederation, and also of some few true nationalists (few,
because there was as yet no general national feeling), actuated by
political principles of centralization independently of motives of
expediency and self-interest. Most of the Federalists of 1787-
1 788 became members of the later Federalist Party.
The Federalist Party, which may be regarded as definitely
organized practically from 1791, was led, leaving Washington
aside, by Alexander Hamilton (q.v.) and John Adams. A
nationalization of the new central government to the full extent
warranted by a broad construction of the powers granted to it by
the constitution, and a correspondingly strict construction of the
powers reserved to the states and the citizens, were the basic
principles of Hamilton's policy. The friends of individual liberty
and local government naturally found in the assumption by the
central government of even the minimum of its granted powers
constant stimulus to their fears (see DEMOCRATIC PARTY);
while the financial measures of Hamilton whose wish for
extreme centralization was nowise satisfied by the government
actually created in 1787 were calculated to force an immediate
and firm assumption by that government, to the limit, of every
power it could be held to possess. To the Republicans (Demo-
cratic Republicans) they seemed intended to cause a usurpation
of powers ungranted. Hence these measures became the issues
on which the first American parties were formed. Their effect
was supplemented by the division into French and British
sympathizers; the Republicans approving the aims and condon-
ing the excesses of the French Revolution, the Federalists siding
with B ritish reaction against French democracy. The Federalists
controlled the government until 1801. They, having the great
opportunity of initiative, organized it in all its branches, giving
it an administrative machinery that in the main endures to-day;
established the doctrine of national neutrality toward European
conflicts (although the variance of Federalist and Republican
opinion on this point was largely factitious); and fixed the
practice of a liberal construction of the Constitution, 1 not only
by Congress, but above all by the United States Supreme Court,
which, under the lead of John Marshall (who had been appointed
chief -justice by Pres. John Adams), impressed enduringly on the
national system large portions of the Federalist doctrine. These
are the great claims of the party to memory. After 1801 it
never regained power. In attempts to do so, alike in national
and in state politics, it impaired its morale by internal dissension,
by intrigues,and by inconsistent factious opposition to Democratic
measures on grounds of ultra-strict construction. It took up,
too, the Democratic weapon of states' rights, and in New England
carried sectionalism dangerously near secession in 1808, and in
i8i2-i8i4,during the movement, in opposition to the war of 1812,
which culminated in the Hartford Convention (see HARTFORD).
It lost, more and more, its influence and usefulness, and by 1817
was practically dead as a national party, although in Massa-
chusetts it lingered in power until 1823. It is sometimes said that
Federalism died because the Republicans took over its principles
of nationality. Rather it fell because its great leaders, John
Adams and Alexander Hamilton, became bitter enemies;
because neither was even distantly comparable to Jefferson as a
party leader; because the party could not hold the support of
its original commercial, manufacturing and general business
elements; because the party opposed sectionalism to a 'growing
nationalism on the issues that ended in the war of 1812; and,
above all, because the principles of the party's leaders (e.g. of
Hamilton) were out of harmony, in various respects, with
American ideals. Their conservatism became increasingly a
reactionary fear of democracy; indeed, it is not a strained
construction of the times to regard the entire Federalist period
from the American point of view as reactionary a reaction
against the doctrines of natural rights, individualism, and states'
rights, and the financial looseness of the period of the War of
Independence and the succeeding years of the Confederation.
The Federalists were charged by the Republicans with being
aristocrats and monarchists, and it is certain that their leaders
1 Even the Democratic party has generally been liberal ; although
less so in theory (hardly less so in practice) than its opponents.
236
FEDERICI FEHMIC COURTS
(who were really a very remarkable body of men) distrusted
democratic government; that their Sedition Law was outrageous
in itself, and (as well as the Alien Law) bad as a party measure;
that in disputes with Great Britain they were true English Tories
when contrasted with the friendly attitude toward America held
by many English Liberals; and that they persisted in New
England as a pro-British, aristocratic social-cult long after they
lost effective political influence. In short, the country was already
thoroughly democratic in spirit, while Federalism stood for
obsolescent social ideas and was infected with political "Tory-
ism " fatally against the times.
Besides the standard general histories see 0. G. Libby, Geographical
Distribution of the Vote of the Thirteen States on the Federal Constitu-
tion, 1787-1788 (Madison, Wis., 1894) I the Memoirs of Oliver
Wolcott (ed. by Gibbs); C. D. Hazen, Contemporary American
Opinion of the French Revolution (" J.H.U. Studies," Baltimore, 1897) ;
Henry Adams, Documents relating to New England Federalism, 1800-
1815 (Boston, 1878) ; A. E. Morse, The Federalist Party in Massa-
chusetts (Princeton, N.J., 1909) ; and the biographies and writings
of George Cabot, Fisher Ames, Gouverneur Morris, John Jay, Rufus
King, Timothy Pickering, Theodore Sedgwick, C. C. Pinckney and
J. A. Bayard.
FEDERICI, CAMILLO (1740-1802), Italian dramatist and
actor, was born at Garessio, a small town in Piedmont, on the
9th of April 1749. His real name was Giovanni Battista Viassolo,
and that by which he is now known and which he transmitted
to his children was taken from the title of one of his first pieces,
Camilla e Federico. He was educated at Turin, and showed
at an early age a great fondness for literature and especially
for the theatre. The praises bestowed on his early attempts
determined his choice of a career, and he obtained engagements
with several companies both as writer and actor. He made a
happy marriage in 1777, and soon after left the stage and
devoted himself entirely to composition. He settled at Padua,
and the reputation of his numerous comedies rapidly spread in
Italy, and for a time seemed to eclipse that of his predecessors.
Most of his pieces were of the melodramatic class, and he too
often resorted to the same means of exciting interest and curiosity.
He caught, however, something of the new spirit which was
manifesting itself in German dramatic literature in the works
of Schiller, Iffland and Kotzebue, and the moral tone of his
plays is generally healthy. Fortune did not smile upon him;
but he found a helpful friend in a wealthy merchant of Padua,
Francis Barisan, for whose private theatre he wrote many pieces.
He was attacked in 1791 with a dangerous malady which dis-
abled him for several years; and he had the misfortune to see
his works, in the absence of any copyright law, published by
others without his permission. At length, in 1802, he undertook
to prepare a collected edition; but of this four volumes only
were completed when he was again attacked with illness, and
died at Padua (December 23).
The publication of his works was completed in 14 volumes in 1816.
Another edition in 26 volumes was published at Florence in 1826-
1827. A biographical memoir of Federici by Neymar appeared at
Venice in 1838.
FEE, an estate in land held of a superior lord on condition
of the performance of homage or service (see FEUDALISM). In
English law " fee " signifies an estate of inheritance (i.e. an
estate descendable to the heirs of the grantee so long as there
are any in existence) as opposed to an estate for life. It is
divisible into three species: (i) fee simple; (a) conditional fee;
(3) fee tail. (See ESTATE.) A fee farm rent is the rent reserved
on granting a fee farm, i.e. land in fee simple, to be held by the
tenant and his heirs at a yearly rent. It is generally at least
one-fourth of the value of the land at the time of its reservation.
(See RENT.)
The word " fee " has also the sense of remuneration for services,
especially the honorarium paid to a doctor, lawyer or member
of any other profession. It is also used of a fixed sum paid for
the right to enter for an examination, or on admission to member-
ship of a university or other society. This sense of the word is
taken by the New English Dictionary to be due to a use of " fee "
in its feudal sense, and to represent a sum paid to the holder
of an office " in fee."
The etymology of the Med. Lat. feudum, feodum or feum, of
its French equivalent fief, and English " fee," in Scots law " feu "
(q.v,), is extremely obscure. (See the New English Dictionary,
s.v. " Fee.") There is a common Teutonic word represented
in Old English as feoh or feo, in Old High German as fehu,
meaning property in the shape of cattle (cf. modern Ger. Vieh,
Dutch vee). The old Aryan peku gives Sanskrit pac.u, Lat.
pecus, cattle, whence pecunia, money. The O. Eng. feoh, in
the sense of money, possibly survives in " fee," honorarium,
though this is not the view of the New English Dictionary. The
common explanation of the Med. Lat. feudum or feodum, of
which Ducange (Glossarium, s.v.) gives an example from a
constitution of the emperor Charles the Fat of the year 884, is
that it is formed from the Teutonic fehu, property, and 6d,
wealth (cf. ALLODIUM and UDAL). This would apparently
restrict the original meaning to movable property, while the
early applications of feudum are to the enjoyment of something
granted in return for service (beneficium) . Another theory
takes the origin to be fehu alone, in a particular sense of wages,
payment for services. This leaves the d- of feudum unexplained.
Some have taken the origin to be a verbal form feudare=feum
dare. Another theory finds the source in the O. High GeT.fehdn,
to eat, feed upon, " take for one's enjoyment."
FEHLING, HERMANN VON (1812-1885), German chemist,
was born at Liibeck on the 9th of June 1885. With the intention
of taking up pharmacy he entered Heidelberg University about
1835, and after graduating went to Giessen as preparateur to
Liebig, with whom he elucidated the composition of paraldehyde
and metaldehyde. In 1839 on Liebig's recommendation he was
appointed to the chair of chemistry in the polytechnic at Stutt-
gart, and held it till within three years of his death, which
happened at Stuttgart on the ist of July 1885. His earlier
work included an investigation of succinic acid, and the pre-
paration of phenyl cyanide (benzonitrile), the simplest nitrile
of the aromatic series; but later his time was mainly occupied
with questions of technology and public health rather than with
pure chemistry. Among the analytical methods worked up by
him the best known is that for the estimation of sugars by
" Fehling's solution," which consists of a solution of cupric
sulphate mixed with alkali and potassium-sodium tartrate
(Rochelle salt). He was a contributor to the Handworterbuch
of Liebig, Wohler and Poggendorff, and to the Graham-Otto
Textbook of Chemistry, and for many years was a member of the
committee of revision of the Pharmacopoeia Germanica.
FEHMARN, an island of Germany, belonging to the Prussian
province of Schleswig-Holstein, in the Baltic, separated from
the north-east corner of Holstein by a strait known as the
Fehmarn-Sund, less than a quarter of a mile in breadth. It is
a gently undulating tract of country, about 120 sq. m. in area,
bare of forest but containing excellent pasture-land, and rears
cattle in considerable numbers. Pop. 10,000.
FEHMIC COURTS (Ger. Femgerichte, or Vehmgerichte, of
disputed origin, but probably, according to J. Grimm, from
O. High GeT.feme or feime, a court of justice), certain tribunals
which, during the middle ages, exercised a powerful and some-
times sinister jurisdiction in Germany, and more especially in
Westphalia. Their origin is uncertain, but is traceable to the
time of Charlemagne and in all probability to the old Teutonic
free courts. They were, indeed, also known as free courts
(Freigerickte), a name due to the fact that all free-born men
were eligible for membership and also to the fact that they
claimed certain exceptional liberties. Their jurisdiction they
owed to the emperor, from whom they received the power of
life and death (Blutbann) which they exerc.'sed in his name.
The sessions were often held in secret, whence the names of
secret court (heimliches Gericht, Stillgericht, &c.); arid these
the uninitiated were forbidden to attend, on pain of death,
which led to the designation forbidden courts (verbotene Gerichte).
Legend and romance have combined to exaggerate the sinister
reputation of the Fehmic courts; but modern historical research
has largely discounted this, proving that they never employed
torture, that their sittings were only sometimes secret, and that
FEHRBELLIN FEIJOO Y MONTENEGRO
237
their meeting-places were always well known. They were, in
fact, a survival of an ancient and venerable German institution;
and if, during a certain period, they exercised something like a
reign of terror over a great part of Germany, the cause of this
lay in the sickness of the times, which called for some powerful
organization to combat the growing feudal anarchy. Such an
organization the Westphalian free courts, with their discipline
of terror and elaborate system of secret service, were well cal-
culated to supply. Everywhere else the power of life and death,
originally reserved to the emperor alone, had been usurped by
the territorial nobles; only in Westphalia, called " the Red
Earth " because here the imperial blood-ban was still valid,
were capital sentences passed and executed by the Fehmic courts
in the emperor's name alone.
The system, though ancient, began to become of importance
only after the division of the duchy of Saxony on the fall of
Henry the Lion, when the archbishop of Cologne, duke of West-
phalia from 1180 onwards, placed himself as representative of
the emperor at the head of the Fehme. The organization now
rapidly spread. Every free man, born in lawful wedlock, and
neither excommunicate nor outlaw, was eligible for membership.
Princes and nobles were initiated; and in 1429 even the emperor
Sigismund himself became " a true and proper Freischofe of the
Holy Roman Empire." By the middle of the i4th century these
Freischoffen (Latin scabini), sworn associates of the Fehme, were
scattered in thousands throughout the length and breadth of
Germany, known to each other by secret signs and pass-words,
and all of them pledged to serve the summons of the secret
courts and to execute their judgment.
The organization of the Fehme was elaborate. The head of
each centre of jurisdiction (Freistuhl), often a secular or spiritual
prince, sometimes a civic community, was known as the Stuhl-
herr, the archbishop of Cologne being, as stated above, supreme
over all (Oberststuhlherr) . The actual president of the court was
the Freigraf (free count) chosen for life by the Stuhlherr from
among the Freischofen, who formed the great body of the
initiated. Of these the lowest rank were the Fronboten or Frei-
fronen, charged with the maintenance of order in the courts and
the duty of carrying out the commands of the Freigraf. The
immense development of the Fehme is explained by the privileges
of the Freischo/en; for they were subject to no jurisdiction but
those of the Westphalian courts, whether as accused or accuser
they had access to the secret sessions, and they shared in the
discussions of the general chapter as to the policy of the society.
At their initiation these swore to support the Fehme with all their
powers, to guard its secrets, and to bring before its tribunal
anything within its competence that they might discover.
They were then initiated into the secret signs by which members
recognized each other, and were presented with a rope and with
a knife on which were engraved the mystic letters S.S.G.G.,
supposed to mean Strick, Stein, Gras, Griin (rope, stone, grass,
green).
The procedure of the Fehmic courts was practically that of
the ancient German courts generally. The place of session,
known as the Freistuhl (free seat), was usually a hillock, or
some other well-known and accessible spot. The Freigraf and
Scho/en occupied the bench, before which a table, with a sword
and rope upon it, was placed. The court was held by day and,
unless the session was declared secret, all freemen, whether
initiated or not, were admitted. The accusation was in the old
German form; but only a Freischo/e could act as accuser,
If the offence came under the competence of the court, i.e. was
punishable by death, a summons to the accused was issued under
the seal of the Freigraf. This was not usually served on him
personally, but was nailed to his door, or to some convenient
place where he was certain to pass. Six weeks and three days'
grace were allowed, according to the old Saxon law, and the
summons was thrice repeated. If the accused appeared, the
accuser stated the case, and the investigation proceeded by the
examination of witnesses as in an ordinary court of law. The
judgment was put into execution on the spot if that was possible
The secret court, from whose procedure the whole institution
las acquired its evil reputation, was closed to all but the initiated,
although these were so numerous as to secure quasi-publicity;
any one not a member on being discovered was instantly put
to death, and the members present were bound under the same
jenalty not to disclose what took place. Crimes of a serious
nature, and especially those that were deemed unfit for ordinary
udicial investigation such as heresy and witchcraft fell
within its jurisdiction, as also did appeals by persons condemned
n the open courts, and likewise the cases before those tribunals
!n which the accused had not appeared. The accused if a
member could clear himself by his own oath, unless he had re-
vealed the secrets of the Fehme. If he were one of the uninitiated
t was necessary for him to bring forward witnesses to his inno-
cence from among the initiated, whose number varied according
to the number on the side of the accuser, but twenty-one in favour
of innocence necessarily secured an acquittal. The only punish-
ment which the secret court could inflict was death. If the
accused appeared, the sentence was carried into execution at
once; if he did not appear, it was quickly made known to the
whole body, and the Freischoffe who was the first to meet the
condemned was bound to put him to death. This was usually
done by hanging, the nearest tree serving for gallows. A knife
with the cabalistic letters was left beside the corpse to show that
the deed was not a murder.
That an organization of this character should have outlived
its usefulness and issued in intolerable abuses was inevitable.
With the growing power of the territorial sovereigns and the
gradual improvement of the ordinary process of justice, the
functions of the Fehmic courts were superseded. By the action
of the emperor Maximilian and of other German princes they
were, in the i6th century, once more restricted to Westphalia,
and here, too, they were brought under the jurisdiction of the
ordinary courts, and finally confined to mere police duties.
With these functions, however, but with the old forms long
since robbed of their impressiveness, they survived into the
i gth century. They were finally abolished by order of Jerome
Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, in 1811. The last Freigraf died
in 1835.
AUTHORITIES. P. Wigand, Das Femgericht Westfalens (Hamm,
1825, 2nd ed., Halle, 1893); L. Tross, Sammlung merkwiirdiger
Urkunden fur die Geschichte der Femgerichte (Hanover, 1826) ; F. P.
Usener, Die frei- und heimlichen Gerichte Westfalens (Frankfort,
1832) ; K. G. von Wachter, Beitrdge zur deutschen Gesch., insbesendere
. . . des deutschen Strafrechts (Tubingen, 1845); O. Wachter,
Femgerichte und Hexenprozesse in Deutschland (Stuttgart. 1882);
T. Lindner, Die Feme (Munster and Paderborn, 1888); F. Thudi-
chum, Femgericht und Inquisition (Giessen, 1889) whose theory
concerning the origin of the Fehme is combated in T. Lindner's
Der angebliche Ursprung der Femgerichte aus der Inquisition (Pader-
born, 1890). For works on individual aspects see further Dahlmann-
Waitz, Quellenkunde (ed. Leipzig, 1906), p. 401 ; also ib. supple-
mentary vol. (1907), p. 78.
FEHRBELLIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia,
on the Rhine, 40 m. N.W. from Berlin on the railway to Neu-
Ruppin. Pop. (1905) 1602. It has a Protestant and a Roman
Catholic church and some small industries, among them that
of wooden shoes. Fehrbellin is memorable in history as the scene
of the famous victory gained, on the i8th of June 1675, by the
great elector, Frederick William of Prussia, over the Swedes
under Field-Marshal Wrangel. A monument was erected in
1879 on the field of battle, near the village of Hakenberg, to
commemorate this great feat of arms.
See A. von Witzleben and P. Hassel, Zum 2oo-j&hrigen Gedenktag
von Fehrbellin (Berlin, 1875); G. Sello, "Fehrbellin,' in Deutsche
Zeitschrift fur Geschichtswissenschaften, vii.; M. Jahns, " Der Grosse
Kurfiirst bei Fehrbellin, &c.," in Hohenzollern Jahrbuch, i.j
FEIJ60 Y MONTENEGRO, BENITO JER6NIMO (1676-1764),
Spanish monk and scholar was born at Santa Maria de Melias,
near Orense, on the 8th of October 1676. At the age of twelve
he entered the Benedictine order, devoted himself to study,
and waged war against the superstition and ignorance of his
countrymen in the Teatro crltico (1726-1739) and the Cartas
eruditas (1742-1760). These exposures of a retrograde system
called forth embittered protests from narrow-minded patriots
like Salvador Jose Maner, and others; but the opposition was
2 3 8
FEITH FELIX (POPES)
futile, and Feij6o's services to the cause of knowledge were
universally recognized long before his death, which took place
at Oviedo on the 26th of September 1764. He was not a great
genius, nor a writer of transcendent merit; his name is con-
nected with no important discovery, and his style is undis-
tinguished. But he uprooted many popular errors, awakened an
interest in scientific methods, and is justly regarded as the
initiator of educational reform in Spain.
FEITH, RHIJNVIS (1753-1824), Dutch poet, was born of an
aristocratic family at Zwolle, the capital of the province Over-
ijssel, on the 7th of February 1753. He was educated at Harder-
wijk and at the university of Leiden, where he took his degree in
1770. In 1772 he settled at his birthplace, and married. In 1780,
in his twenty-seventh year, he became burgomaster of Zwolle.
He built a luxurious villa, which he named Boschwijk, in the out-
skirts of the town, and there he lived in the greatest comfort.
His first important production was Julia, in 1783, a novel written
in emulation of Werther, and steeped in Weltschmerz and despair.
This was followed by the tragedy of Thirsa (1784); Ferdinand
and Conslantia (1785), another Werther novel; and The Patriots
(1784), a tragedy. Bilderdijk and other writers attacked his
morbid melancholy, and Johannes Kinker (1764-1845) parodied
his novels, but his vogue continued. In 1791 he published a
tragedy of Lady Jane Grey-; in 1792 a didactic poem, The Grave,
in four cantos; in 1793 Inez de Castro; in 1796 to 1814 five
volumes of Odes and Miscellaneous Poems; and in 1802 Old Age,
in six cantos. He died at Zwolle on the 8th of February 1824.
His works were collected (Rotterdam, n vols.) in 1824, with a
biographical notice by N. G. van Kampen.
FEJER, GYORGY (1766-1851), Hungarian author, was born on
the 23rd of April 1766, at Keszthely, in the county of Zala. He
studied philosophy at Pest, and theology at Pressburg; eventu-
ally, in 1808, he obtained a theological professorship at Pest
University. Ten years later (1818) he became chief director of the
educational circle of Raab, and in 1824 was appointed librarian
to the university of Pest. . FejeVs works, which are nearly all
written either in Latin or Hungarian, exceed one hundred and
eighty in number. His most important work, Codex diplomalicus
Hungariae ecclesiasticus ac civilis, published from 1829 to 1844,
in eleven so-called tomes, really exceeds forty volumes. It
consists of old documents and charters from A.D. 104 to the end
of 1439, and forms an extraordinary monument of patient in-
dustry. This work and many others relating to Hungarian
national history have placed Fejer in the foremost rank of Hun-
garian historians. He died on the 2nd of July 1851. His latest
works were A Kunok eredete (The Origin of the Huns), and A
politikai forradalmak okai ( The Causes of Political Revolutions) ,
both published in 1850. The latter production, on account of
its liberal tendencies, was suppressed by the Austrian govern-
ment.
See Magyar Irak: letrajz-gyujtemeny (Pest, 1856), and A magyar
nemzeti irodalomtorlenet vdzlata (Pest, 1861).
FELANITX, or FELANICHE, a town of Spain, in the south-east
of the island of Majorca, Balearic Islands; about 5 m. inland
from its harbour, Puerto Colon. Pop. (1900) 11,294. A range
of low hills intervenes between Felanitx and the Mediterranean;
upon one summit, the Puig de San Sebastian, stands a Moorish
castle with a remarkable series of subterranean vaults. From
the 3rd century B.C., and possibly for a longer period, eartkenware
water-coolers and other pottery have been manufactured in the
town, and many of the vessels produced are noteworthy for their
beauty of form and antiquity of design. There is a thriving
trade in wine, fruit, wheat, cattle, brandy, chalk and soap.
FELDKIRCH, a small town in the Austrian province of the
Vorarlberg, some 20 m. S. of the S. end of the Lake of Constance.
It is situated in a green hollow, on the 111 river, between the two
narrow rocky gorges through which it flows out into the broad
valley of the Rhine. Hence, though containing only about
4000 inhabitants (German-speaking and Romanist), the town
is of great military importance, since it commands the entrance
into Tirol from the west, over the Arlberg Pass (5912 ft.), and
has been the scene of many conflicts, the last in 1799, when the
| French, under Oudinot and Massena, were driven back by the
Austrians under Hotze and Jellachich. It is a picturesque little
town, overshadowed by the old castle of Schattenburg (now a
poor-house), built about 1200 by the count of Montfort, whose
descendant in 1375 sold it to the Habsburgs. The town contains
many administrative offices, and is the residence of a suffragan
bishop, who acts as vicar-general of the diocesan, the bishop of
Brixen. Among the principal buildings are the parish church,
dating from 1487, and possessing a " Descent from the Cross "
(1521), which has been attributed to Holbein, the great Jesuit
educational establishment called " Stella Matutina," and a
Capuchin convent and church. There is a considerable amount
of transit trade at Feldkirch, which by rail is n m. from Buchs
(Switzerland), through the principality of .Liechtenstein, 24 m.
from Bregenz, and 993 m. from Innsbruck by tunnel beneath
the Arlberg Pass. The town also possesses numerous industrial
establishments, such as factories for cotton-spinning, weaving,
bell-founding, dyeing, &c. (W. A. B. C.)
FELIBIEN, ANDRE (1619-1695), sieur des Avaux et de Javercy,
French architect and historiographer, was born at Chaitres in
May 1619. At the age of fourteen he went to Paris to continue
his studies; and in 1647 he was sent to Rome in the capacity
of secretary of embassy to the Marquis de Marueil. His resi-
dence at Rome he turned to good account by diligent study of its
ancient monuments, by examination of the literary treasures of
its libraries, and by cultivating the acquaintance of men eminent
in literature and in art, with whom he was brought into contact
through his translation of Cardinal Barberini's Life of Pius V.
Among his friends was Nicholas Poussin, whose counsels were
of great value to him. On his return to France he married, and
was ultimately induced, in the hope of employment and honours,
to settle in Paris. Both Fouquet and Colbert in their turn recog-
nized his abilities; and he was one of the first members (1663) of
the Academy of Inscriptions. Three years later Colbert procured
him the appointment of historiographer to the king. In 1671
he was named secretary to the newly-founded Academy of
Architecture, and in 1673 keeper of the cabinet of antiques in
the palace of Brion. To these offices was afterwards added by
Louvois that of deputy controller-general of roads and bridges.
Felibien found time in the midst of his official duties for study
and research, and produced many literary works. Among these
the best and the most generally known is the Entreliens sur les
vies et sur les outrages des plus excellents peintres anciens et
modernes, which appeared in successive livraisons, the first in
1666, and the fifth in 1688. It was republished with several
additions at Amsterdam in 1706, and again at Trevoux in 1725.
Felibien wrote also Origine de la peinture (1660), Principes de
r architecture, de la sculpture, de la peinture, &c. (1676-1690),
and descriptions of Versailles, of La Trappe, and of the pictures
and statues of the royal residences. Among other literary works,
he edited the Conferences of the Academy of Painting, and trans-
lated the Castle of the Soul from the Spanish of St Theresa. His
personal character commanded the highest esteem, agreeing
with the motto which he adopted Bene facere et vera dicere.
He died in Paris on the nth of June 1695.
His son, Jean Francois Felibien (c. 1658-1733), was also an
architect who left a number of works on his subject; and a
younger son, Michel Felibien (c. 1666-1719), was a Benedictine
of Saint Germain-des-Pres whose fame rests on his Histoire de
I'abbaye royale de S. Denys en France, and also his L'Hisloire
de la mile de Paris in 5 vols., a work indispensable to the student
of Paris.
FELIX, the name of five popes.
FELIX I., pope from January 269 until his death in January 274.
He has been claimed as a martyr, and as such his name is given in
the Roman calendar and elsewhere, but his title to this honour is
by no means proved, and he has been probably confused with
another bishop of the same name. He appears in connexion with
the dispute in the church of Antioch between Paul of Samosata,
who had been deprived of his bishopric by a council of bishops for
heresy, and his successor Domnus. Paul refused to give way, and
in 272 the emperor Aurelian was asked to decide between the
FELIX FELIXSTOWE
239
rivals. He ordered the church building to be given to the bishop
who was " recognized by the bishops of Italy and of the city of
Rome " (Felix). See Eusebius, Hist. Ecc. vii. 30.
FELIX II., antipope, was in 356 raised from the archdeaconate
of Rome to the papal chair, when Liberius was banished by the
emperor Constantius for refusing to subscribe the sentence of
condemnation against Athanasius. His election was contrary to
the wishes both of the clergy and of the people, and the consecra-
tion ceremony was performed by certain prelates belonging to the
court. In 357 Constantius, at the urgent request of an influential
deputation of Roman ladies, agreed to the release of Liberius on
condition that he signed the semi-Arian creed. Constantius also
issued an edict to the effect that the two bishops should rule
conjointly, but Liberius, on his entrance into Rome in the follow-
ing year, was received by all classes with so much enthusiasm
that Felix found it necessary to retire at once from Rome.
Regarding the remainder of his life little is known, and the
accounts handed down are contradictory, but he appears to have
spent the most of it in retirement at his estate near Porto. He
died in 365.
FELIX III., pope, was descended from one of the most in-
fluential families of Rome, and was a direct ancestor of Gregory
the Great. He succeeded Simplicius in the papal chair on the
2nd of March 483. His first act was to repudiate the Henoticon,
a deed of union, originating, it is supposed, with Acacius,
patriarch of Constantinople, and published by the emperor Zeno
with the view of allaying the strife between the Monophysites
and their opponents in the Eastern church. He also addressed a
letter of remonstrance to Acacius; but the latter proved re-
fractory, and sentence of deposition was passed against him. As
Acacius, however, had the support of the emperor, a schism
arose between the Eastern and Western churches, which lasted
for 34 years. Felix died in 492.
FELIX IV., pope, a native of Beneventum, was, on the death of
John in 526, raised to the papal chair by the emperor Theodoric
in opposition to the wishes of the clergy and people. His election
was followed by serious riots. To prevent a recrudescence of
these, Felix, on his death -bed, thought it advisable to nominate
his own successor. His choice fell upon the archdeacon Boniface
(pope as Boniface II.). But this proceeding was contrary to all
tradition and roused very serious opposition. Out of two old
buildings adapted by him to Christian worship, Felix made the
church of SS. Cosimo and Damiano, near the Via Sacra. He died
in September 530.
FELIX V., the name taken by Amadeus (1383-1451), duke of
Savoy, when he was elected pope in opposition to Eugenius IV. in
1439. Amadeus was born at Chambery on the 4th of December
1383, and succeeded his father, Amadeus VII., as count of Savoy
in 1391. Having added largely to his patrimonial possessions he
became very powerful, and in 1416 the German king Sigismund
erected Savoy into a duchy; after this elevation Amadeus added
Piedmont to his dominions. Then suddenly, in 1434, the duke
retired to a hermitage at Ripaille, near Thonon, resigning his
duchy to his son Louis (d. 1465), although he seems to have taken
some part in its subsequent administration. It is said, but some
historians doubt the story, that, instead of leading a life of
asceticism, he spent his revenues in furthering his own luxury
and enjoyment. In 1439, when Pope Eugenius IV. was deposed
by the council of Basel, Amadeus, although not in orders, was
chosen as his successor, and was crowned in the following year as
Felix V. In the stormy conflict between the rival popes which
followed, the German king, Frederick IV., after some hesitation
sided with Eugenius, and having steadily lost ground Felix
renounced his claim to the pontificate in 1449 in favour of
Nicholas V., who had been elected on the death of Eugenius.
He induced Nicholas, however, to appoint him as apostolic
vicar-general in Savoy, Piedmont and other parts of his own
dominions, and to make him a cardinal. Amadeus died at
Geneva on the 7th of January 1451.
FELIX, a missionary bishop from Burgundy, sent into East
Anglia by Honorius of Canterbury (630-631). Under King
Sigebert his mission was successful, and he became first bishop of
East Anglia, with a see at Dunwich, where he died and was
surfed, 647-648. It is noteworthy that the Irish monk Furseus
Dreached in East Anglia at the same time, and Bede notices the
admiration of Felix for Aidan.
See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (Plummer), ii. 15, Hi. 18, 20, 25; Saxon
Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 636.
FELIX, of Urgella (fl. 8th century), Spanish bishop, the friend of
Elipandus and the propagator of his views in the great Adoptian
Controversy (see ADOPTIANISM).
FELIX, of Valois (1127-1212), one of the founders of the
monastic order of Trinitarians or Redemptionists, was born in
the district of Valois, France, on the i9th of April 1 1 27. In early
manhood he became a hermit in the forest of Galeresse, where he
remained till his sixty-first year, when his disciple Jean de Matha
(1160-1213) suggested to him the idea of establishing an order of
monks who should devote their lives to the redemption of Chris-
tian captives from the Saracens. They journeyed to Rome about
the end of 1197, obtained the sanction of the pope, and on their
return to France founded the monastery of Cerfroi in Picardy.
Felix remained to govern and propagate the order, while Jean
de Matha superintended the foreign journeys. A subordinate
establishment was also founded by Felix in Paris near a chapel
dedicated to St Mathurin, on which account his monks were also
called St Mathurins. He died at Cerfroi on the 4th of November
1 21 2, and was canonized.
FELIX, ANTONIUS, Roman procurator of Judaea (A.D. 52-60),
in succession to Ventidius Cumanus. He was a freedman either
of the emperor Claudius according to which theory Josephus
(Antiq. xx. 7) calls him Claudius Felix or more probably of the
empress Antonia. On entering his province he induced Drusilla,
wife of Azizus of Horns (Emesa), to leave her husband and live
with him as his wife. His cruelty and licentiousness, coupled
with his accessibility to bribes, led to a great increase of crime in
Judaea. To put down the Zealots he favoured an even more
violent sect, the Sicarii (" Dagger-men "), by whose aid he
contrived the murder of the high-priest Jonathan. The period of
his rule was marked by internal feuds and disturbances, which he
put down with severity. The apostle Paul, after being appre-
hended in Jerusalem, was sent to be judged before Felix at
Caesarea, and kept in custody for two years (Acts xxiv.). On
returning to Rome, Felix was accused of having taken advantage
of a dispute between the Jews and Syrians of Caesarea to slay and
plunder the inhabitants, but through the intercession of his
brother, the freedman Pallas, who had great influence with the
emperor Nero, he escaped unpunished.
See Tacitus, Annals, xx. 54, Hist. v. 9; Suetonius, Claudius, 28;
E. Schurer, History of the Jewish People (1890-1891); article in
Hastings' Diet, of the Bible (A. Robertson) ; commentaries on the
Acts of the Apostles; Sir W. M. Ramsay, St Paul the Traveller;
Carl v. Weizsacker, Apostolic Age (Eng. trans., 1894); art. JEWS.
FELIX, LIA (1830- ), French actress, was the third
sister and the pupil of the great Rachel. She had hardly been
given any trial when, by chance, she was called on to create the
leading woman's part in Lamartine's Toussaint Louverture at
the Porte St Martin on the 6th of April 1850. The play did not
make a hit, but the young actress was favourably noticed, and
several important parts were immediately entrusted to her.
She soon came to be recognized as one of the best comediennes
in Paris. Rachel took Lia to America with her to play second
parts, and on returning to Paris she played at several of the
principal theatres, although her health compelled her to retire
for several years. When she reappeared at the Gaiete in the
title-role of Jules Barbier's Jeanne d'Arc she had an enormous
success.
FELIXSTOWE, a seaside resort of Suffolk, England; fronting
both to the North Sea and to the estuary of the Orwell, where
there are piers. Pop. of urban district of Felixstowe and Walton
(1901), 5815. It is 85 m. N.E. by E. from London by a branch
line from Ipswich of the Great Eastern railway; and is in
the Woodbridge parliamentary division of the county. It
has good golf links, and is much frequented by visitors for its
bracing climate and sea-bathing. There is a small dock, and
phosphate of lime is extensively dug in the neighbourhood and
240
FELL, JOHN
exported for use as manure. The neighbouring village of Walton,
a short distance inland, receives many visitors. The vicinity
has yielded numerous Roman remains, and there was a Roman
fort in the neighbourhood (now destroyed by the sea), forming part
of the coast defence of the Litus Saxonicum in the 4th century.
FELL, JOHN (1625-1686), English divine, son of Samuel Fell,
dean of Christ Church, Oxford, was born at Longworth in Berk-
shire and received his first education at thefreeschoolatThamein
Oxfordshire. In 1636 he obtained a studentship at Christ Church,
and in 1640 he was specially allowed by Archbishop Laud on
account of his " known desert," when wanting one term's resi-
dence, to proceed to his degree of B. A. He obtained his M.A. in
1643 and took holy orders (deacon 1647, priest 1649). During
the Civil War he bore arms for the king and held a commission
as ensign. In 1648 he was deprived of his studentship by the par-
liamentary visitors, and during the next few years he resided
chiefly at Oxford with his brother-in-law, Dr T. Willis, at
whose house opposite Merton College he and his friends Allestree
and Dolben kept up the service of the Church of England
through the Commonwealth.
At the Restoration Fell was made prebendary of Chichester,
canon of Christ Church (July 27, 1660), dean (Nov. 30), master
of St Oswald's hospital, Worcester, chaplain to the king, and
D.D. He filled the office of vice-chancellor from 1666 to 1669,
and was consecrated bishop of Oxford, in 1676, retaining his
deanery in commendam. Some years later he declined the
primacy of Ireland. Fell showed himself a most capable and
vigorous administrator in his various high employments, and
a worthy disciple of Archbishop Laud. He restored in the
university the good order instituted by the archbishop, which
in the Commonwealth had given place to anarchy and a general
disregard of authority. He ejected the intruders from his
college or else " fixed them in loyal principles." " He was the
most zealous man of his time for the Church of England," says
Wood, " and none that I yet know of did go beyond him in the
performance of the rules belonging thereunto." He attended
chapel four times a day, restored to the services, not without some
opposition, the organ and surplice, and insisted on the proper
academical dress which had fallen into disuse. He was active
in recovering church property, and by his directions a children's
catechism was drawn up by Thomas Marshall for use in his
diocese. " As he was among the first of our clergy," says
Burnet, " that apprehended the design of bringing in popery,
so he was one of the most zealous against it." He was forward
in making converts from the Roman Catholics and Noncon-
formists. On the other hand, it is recorded to his honour that
he opposed successfully the incorporation of Titus Gates as
D.D. in the university in October 1679; and according to the
testimony of William Nichols, his secretary, he disapproved
of the Exclusion Bill. He excluded the undergraduates, whose
presence had been irregularly permitted, from convocation.
He obliged the students to attend lectures, instituted reforms
in the performances of the public exercises in the schools, kept
the examiners up to their duties, and himself attended the
examinations. He encouraged the students to act plays. He
entirely suppressed " coursing," i.e. disputations in which the
rival parties " ran down opponents in arguments," and which
commonly ended in blows and disturbances. He was an excellent
disciplinarian and possessed a special talent for the education of
young men, many of whom he received into his own family and
watched over their progress with paternal care. Tom Browne,
author of the Dialogues of the Dead, about to be expelled from
Oxford for some offence, was pardoned by Fell on the condition
of his translating extempore the 33rd epigram from Martial:
" Non amo te, Sabidi, nee possum dicere quare ;
Hoc tantum possum dicere, non amo te.
To which he immediately replied with the well-known lines:
" I do not love you, Dr Fell,
But why, I cannot tell,
But this I know full well,
I do not love you, Dr Fell." l
1 J. T. Browne, Works feth ed. by J. Drake), iv. 99-100; T. Forde,
Virtus rediviva (1661), 106.
Delinquents, however, were not always treated thus mildly
by Fell, and Acton Cremer, for the crime of courting a wife
while only a bachelor of arts, was set as an imposition the
translation into English of the whole of Scheffer's history of
Lapland. As vice-chancellor, Fell himself visited the drinking
taverns and ordered out the students. In the university elec-
tions he showed great energy in suppressing corruption.
Fell's building operations almost rivalled the plans of the
great ecclesiastical architects of the middle ages. In his own
college he completed in 1665 the north side of Wolsey's great
quadrangle, already begun by his father but abandoned during
the Commonwealth; he rebuilt in 1672 the east side of the
Chaplain's quadrangle " with a straight passage under it leading
from the cloister into the field," occupied now by the new
Meadow Buildings; the lodgings of the canon of the 3rd stall
in the passage uniting the Tom and Peckwater quadrangles
(c. 1674); a long building joining the Chaplain's quadrangle
on the east side in 1677-1678; and lastly the great tower gate,
begun in June 1681 on the foundation laid by Wolsey and
finished in November 1682, to which the bell " great Tom,"
after being recast, was transferred from the cathedral in 1683.
In 1670 he planted and laid out the Broad Walk. He spent large
sums of his own on these works, gave 500 for the restoration
of Banbury church, erected a church at St Oswald's, Worcester,
and the parsonage house at Woodstock at his own expense, and
rebuilt Cuddesdon palace. Fell disapproved of the use of St
Mary's church for secular purposes, and promoted the building
of the Sheldonian theatre by Archbishop Sheldon. He was
treasurer during its construction, presided at the formal opening
on the pth of July 1669, and was nominated with Wren curator
in July 1670. In the theatre was placed the University Press,
the establishment of which had been a favourite project of Laud,
which now engaged a large share of Fell's energy and attention,
and which as curator he practically controlled. " Were it not
you ken Mr Dean extraordinarily well," writes Sir L. Jenkins
to J. Williamson in 1672, " it were impossible to imagine how
assiduous and drudging he is about his press."' He sent for
type and printers from Holland, declaring that " the foundation
of all success must be laid in doing things well, which I am sure
will not be done with English letters." Many works, including
a Bible, editions of the classics and of the early fathers, were
produced under his direction and editing, and his press became
noted not only in England but abroad. He published annually
one work, generally a classical author annotated by himself,
which he distributed to all the students of his college on New
Year's day. On one occasion he surprised the Press in printing
surreptitiously Aretino's Postures, when he seized and destroyed
the plates and impressions. Ever " an eager defender and
maintainer of the university and its privileges," he was hostile
to the Royal Society, which he regarded as a possible rival, and
in 1686 he gave an absolute refusal to Obadiah Walker, after-
wards the Roman Catholic master of University College, though
licensed by James II., to print books, declaring he would as soon
" part with his bed from under him " as his press. He conducted
it on strict business principles, and to the criticism that more
great works were not produced replied that they would not sell.
He was, however, not free from fads, and his new spelling (of
which one feature was the substitution of i for y in such words
as eies, daies, maiest) met with great disapproval.
Fell also did much to encourage learning in the university.
While still a young man at Christ Church he had shown both his
zeal and his charity by reading gratuitously with the poor and
neglected students of the college. He bore himself a high
reputation as a Grecian, a Latinist and a philologist, and he found
time, in spite of his great public employments, to bring out with
the collaboration of others his great edition of St Cyprian in
1682, an English translation of The Unity of the Church in 1681,
editions of Nemesius of Emesa (1671), of Aralus and of Erato-
sthenes (1672), Theocritus (1676), Alcinous on Plato (1677),
St Clement's Epistles to the Corinthians (1677), Athenagoras (1682),
Clemens Alexandrinus (1683), St Theophilus of Antioch (1684),
1 Cal. of Stale Pap. Dom., 1672, p. 478, and 1670, p. 26.
FELL, JOHN
Grammatica rationis si-se institutiones logicae (1673 and 1685),
and a critical edition of the New Testament in 1675. The first
volumes of Rerum Anglicarum scriptores and of Historiae
Britannicae, &c. were compiled under his patronage in 1684.
He had the MSS. of St. Augustine in the Bodleian and other
libraries at Oxford generously collated for the use of the Bene-
dictines at Paris, then preparing a new edition of the father.
Fell spent such large sums in his building, in his noble patron-
age of learning, and in charities, that sometimes there was little
left for his private use. Occasionally in his schemes he showed
greater zeal than prudence. He was the originator of a mission
to India which was warmly taken up by the East India Company.
He undertook himself to train as missionaries four scholars at
Oxford, procured a set of Arabic types, and issued from these
the Gospels and Acts in the Malay language in 1677. But this
was scarcely the best method of communicating the gospel to
the natives of India, and the mission collapsed. He affected
to despise public opinion, and was masterful and despotic in
his dealings with others, especially with those upon whom he
was conferring favours. Having generously undertaken at his
own charge to publish a Latin version of Wood's History and
Antiquities of the University of Oxford, with the object of present-
ing the history of the university in a manner worthy of the great
subject to European readers, and of extending its fame abroad,
he arrogated to himself the right of editing the work. " He
would correct, alter, dash out what he pleased. . . .He was a
great man and carried all things at his pleasure." In particular
he struck out all the passages which Wood had inserted in praise
of Hobbes, and substituted some disparaging epithets. He
called the philosopher's Leviathan " monstrosissimus " and
" publico damno notissimus." To the printed remonstrance of
Hobbes, Fell inserted an insulting reply in the History to " irri-
tabile illud et vanissimum Malmesburiense animal," and to the
complaint of Wood at this usage answered only that Hobbes
" was an old man, had one foot in the grave; that he should mind
his latter end, and not trouble the world any more with his
papers." In small things as in great he loved to rule and direct.
" Let not Fell," writes R. South to R. Bathurst, " have the
fingering and altering of them (i.e. his Latin verses), for I think
that, bating the want of siquidems and quinetiams, they are as
good as his Worship can make." Wood styles him " a valde vult
person." He was not content with ruling his own college, but
desired to govern the whole university. He prevented Gilbert
Ironside, who " was not pliable to his humour," from holding
the office of vice-chancellor. He "endeavoured to carry all
things by a high hand; scorn'd in the least to court the Masters
when he had to have anything pass'd the convocation. Severe
to other colleges, blind as to his own, very partiall and with
good words, and flatterers and tell-tales could get anything out
of him." According to Bishop Burnet, who praises his char-
acter and his administration, Fell was " a little too much heated
in the matter of our disputes with the dissenters." " He had
much zeal for reforming abuses, and managed it perhaps with
too much heat and in too peremptory a way." " But," he adds,
" we have so little of that among us that no wonder if such men
are censured by those who love not such patterns nor such severe
task-masters." And Wood, whose adverse criticism must be
discounted a little on account of the personal dispute, after
declaring that Fell " was exceeding partial in his government
even to corruption; went thro' thick and thin; grasped at all
yet did nothing perfect or effectually; cared not what people
said of him, was in many things very rude and in most pedantic
and pedagogical," concludes with the acknowledgment, " yet
still aimed at the public good." Roger North, who paid Fell
a visit at Oxford, speaks of him in terms of enthusiasm:
" The great Dr Fell, who was truly great in all his circumstances,
capacities, undertakings and learning, and above all for his
superabundant public spirit and goodwill. . . .O the felicity of
that age and place when his authority swayed ! "
In November 1684, at the command of the king, Fell deprived
Locke, who had incurred the royal displeasure by his friendship
with Shaftesbury, and was suspected as the author of certain
241
seditious pamphlets, of his studentship at Christ Church, sum-
marily and without hearing his defence. Fell had in former
years cultivated Locke's friendship, had kept up a correspond-
ence with him, and in 1663 had written a testimonial in his
favour; and the ready compliance of one who could on occasion
offer a stout resistance to any invasion of the privileges of the
university has been severely criticised. It must, however, be
remembered in extenuation that the legal status of a person on
the foundation of a collegiate body had not then been decided
in the law-courts. With regard to the justice of the proceeding
Fell had evidently some doubts, and he afterwards expressed
his regret for the step which he was now compelled to take.
But such scruples, however strong, would, with a man of Fell's
political and religious opinions, yield immediately to an order
from the sovereign, who possessed special authority in this case
as a visitor to the college; and such subservience, however
strange to modern notions, would probably only be considered
natural and proper at that period.
Fell, who had never married, died on the loth of July 1686,
worn out, according to Wood, by his overwhelming public
duties. He was buried in the divinity chapel in the cathedral,
below the seat which he had so often occupied when living, where
a monument and an epitaph, now moved elsewhere, were placed
to his memory. "His death," writes John Evelyn, "was an
extraordinary losse to the poore church at this time"; but for
himself Fell was fortunate in the time of his departure; for a
few months more of life would have necessitated a choice, most
painful to a man of his character and creed, between fidelity
to his sovereign and to his church. With all his faults, which
were the defects which often attend eminent qualities such as
his, Fell was a great man, " the greatest governor," according
to Speaker Onslow, " that has ever been since his time in either
of the universities," and of his own college, to which he left
several exhibitions for the maintenance of poor scholars, he
was a second founder. He was a worthy upholder of the Laudian
tradition at Oxford, an enlightened and untiring patron of
learning, and a man of exemplary morals and great piety which
remained unsullied in the midst of a busy life and much contact
with the world. A sum of money was left by John Cross to
perpetuate Fell's memory by an annual speech in his praise, but
the Felii laudes have been discontinued since 1866. There are
two interesting pictures of Fell at Christ Church, one where he
is represented with his two friends Allestree and Dolben, and
another by Vandyck. The statue placed on the N.E. angle of
the Great Quadrangle bears no likeness to the bishop, who is
described by Hearne as a " thin grave man."
Besides the learned works already mentioned Fell wrote the
lives of his friends Dr Henry Hammond (1661), Richard Allestree,
prefixed to his edition of the latter's sermons (1684), and Dr
Thomas Willis, in Latin. His Seasonable advice to Protestants
showing the necessity of maintaining the Established Religion in
opposition to Popery was published in 1688. Some of his sermons,
which Evelyn found dull, were printed, including Character of
the Last Daies, preached before the king, 1675, and a Sermon
preached before the House of Peers Dec. 22, 1680. The Interest
of England stated (1659), advocating the restoration of the king, 1
and The Vanity of Scoffing (1674), are also attributed to him.
Fell probably had some share in the composition of The Whole
Duty of Man, and in the subsequent works published under the
name of the author of The Whole Duty, which included Reasons
of the Decay of Christian Piety, The Ladies Calling, The Gentle-
man's Calling, The Government of the Tongue, The Art of Content-
ment, and The Lively Oracles given us, all of which were published
in one volume with notes and a preface by Fell in 1684.
AUTHORITIES. Wood's Athenae Oxonienses and Fasti (ed. Bliss);
Wood's Life and Times, ed. by A. Clark ; Burnet's Hist, of His Own
Time, ed. 1833; J. Welch, Alumni Westmonasterienses; Thomas
Hearne, Collections, ed. by C. E. Doble and others; History of the
Univ. of Oxford (1814); Christ Church, by Rev. H. L. Thompson;
Fortnightly Review, hx. 689 (May 1896); Macmillan's Magazine
(Aug. 1875) J ^ Specimen of the several sorts of Letter given to the
1 F. Maseres, Tracts of the Civil War, ii. 673.
242
FELL FELLER
University by Dr J. F(ell) (1695) ; Netes and Queries, ser. vi. 2, and
ser. vii. 166; Calendars of State Papers, Dom. Series (1660-1675).
Fell's books and papers were bequeathed by his nephew Henry Jones
to the Bodleian library. A few of his letters are to be found in
Add. MSS. Brit. Mus. 11046, and some are printed in Life of
James II., by Ch. J. Fox, Appendix; Gent. Mag. 77, p. 633;
Academy, 8, p. 14!; Athenaeum for 1887 (2), p. 311; J. Gutch,
Collectanea Curiosa, i. 269; and in Cat. of State Papers, Dom.
Series. (P. C. Y.)
FELL, (i) (Through the O. Fr.fel, from Low Lut.fello, felon) ,
savage, ruthless, deadly; only used now in poetry. (2) (Of
Scandinavian origin, cf. Danish fjeld, probably connected with
a Teutonic root appearing in German fels, rock), a hill, as in
the names of mountains in the Lake District in England, e.g.
Scawfell; also a lofty moorland down. (3) (A word common
to Teutonic languages, cf . Ger. fell, and Dutch vel, cognate with
Lat. pellis, skin), the pelt or hide of an animal, with the hair
or wool and skin; also used of any thick shaggy covering, like
a matted fleece. (4) To cause to " fall," a word common to
Teutonic languages and akin to the root of the Lat. fallere and
Gr. ff<j>6.\\fiv, to cause to stumble, to deceive. As a substantive
" fell " is used of a flat seam laid level with the surface of the
fabric; also, in weaving, of the end of the web.
FELLAH (pi. Fellahin), Arabic for " ploughman " or " tiller,"
the word used in Arabic-speaking countries to designate
peasantry. It is employed especially of the peasantry of Egypt,
" Fellahin " in modern English usage being almost equivalent
to " Egyptians." In Egypt the name is applied to the peasantry
as opposed to the Arabs of the desert (and even those who have
settled on the land), the Turks and the townsfolk. Fellah is
used by the Arabs as a term of reproach, somewhat like the
English " boor," but rather implying a slavish disposition;
the fellahin, however, are not ashamed of the name and may
pride themselves on being of good fellah descent, as a " fellah
of a fellah." They may be classified as Hamito-Semites, and
preserve to some extent the blood of the ancient Egyptians.
They form the bulk of the population of Egypt and are mainly
Mahommedan, though some villages in Upper Egypt are almost
exclusively Copt (Christian). Their hybridism is well shown by
their great divergence of colour, fellahin in the Delta being
sometimes lighter than Arabs, while in Upper Egypt the pre-
vailing complexion is dark brown. The average fellah is some-
what above medium height, big-boned, of clumsy but powerful
build, with head and face of fine oval shape, cheek-bones high,
forehead broad, short flattish nose with wide nostrils, and black
but not woolly hair. The eyebrows are always straight and
smooth, never bushy. The mouth is thick-lipped and large but
well formed. The eyes are large and black, and are remarkable
for the closeness of the eyelashes. The women and girls are
particularly noted for their graceful and slender figures and
their fine carriage, due to the custom of carrying burdens, especi-
ally water-jars, on their heads. The men's heads are usually
shaved. The women are not as a rule closely veiled: they
generally paint the lips a deep blue, and tattoo a floral device
on the chin, sometimes on the forehead and other parts of the
body. All but the poorest wear necklaces of cheap pearls,
coins or gilt disks. The men wear a blue or brown cotton shirt,
linen drawers and a plain skull-cap, or on occasion the tarbush
or fez, round which sometimes a turban is wound; the women
wear a single cotton smock. The common fellah's home is a
mere mud hut, roofed with durra straw. Inside are a few mats,
a sheepskin, baskets and some earthenware and wooden vessels.
He lives almost entirely on vegetables, millet bread, beans,
lentils, dates and onions. But some of the sheikhs are wealthy,
and have large houses built of crude brick and whitewashed with
lime, with courtyard, many apartments and good furniture.
The fellah is laborious in the fields, and abominates absence from
his occupations, which generally means loss of money to him.
Military service on the old oriental plan was both ruinous and
distasteful to him; hence voluntary mutilations to avoid con-
scription were formerly common and the ingrained prejudice
against military service remains. Trained by British officers'
the fellahin make, however, excellent soldiers, as was proved in
the Sudan campaigns of 1896-08. The fellah is intelligent, cheer-
ful and sober, and as hospitable as his poverty allows. (See
COPTS and EGYPT.)
FELLENBERG, PHILIPP EMANUEL VON (1771-1844),
Swiss educationist, was born on the 27th of June 1771 at Bern,
in Switzerland. His father was of patrician family, and a man
of importance in his canton, and his mother was a grand-
daughter of the Dutch admiral Van Tromp. From his mother
and from Pfeffel, the blind poet of Colmar, he received a better
education than falls to the lot of most boys, while the intimacy
of his father with Pestalozzi gave to his mind that bent which
it afterwards followed. In 1790 he entered the university of
Tubingen, where he distinguished himself by his rapid progress
in legal studies. On account of his health he afterwards under-
took a walking tour in Switzerland and the adjoining portions
of France, Swabia and Tirol, visiting the hamlets and farm-
houses, mingling in the labours and occupations of the peasants
and mechanics, and partaking of their rude fare and lodging.
After the downfall of Robespierre, he went to Paris and remained
there long enough to be assured of the storm impending over
his native country. This he did his best to avert, but his warn-
ings were disregarded, and Switzerland was lost before any
efficient means could be taken for its safety. Fellenberg, who
had hastily raised a levy en masse, was proscribed; a price was
set upon his head, and he was compelled to fly into Germany.
Shortly afterwards, however, he was recalled by his countrymen,
and sent on a mission to Paris to remonstrate against the rapacity
and cruelty of the agents of the French republic. But in this
and other diplomatic offices which he held for a short time, he
was witness to so much corruption and intrigue that his mind
revolted from the idea of a political life, and he returned home
with the intention of devoting himself wholly to the education
of the young. With this resolution he purchased in 1799 the
estate of Hofwyl, near Bern, intending to make agriculture the
basis of a new system which he had projected, for elevating the
lower and rightly training the higher orders of the state, and
welding them together in a closer union than had hitherto been
deemed attainable. For some time he carried on his labours in
conjunction with Pestalozzi, but incompatibility of disposition
soon induced them to separate. The scheme of Fellenberg at
first excited a large amount of ridicule, but gradually it began
to attract the notice of foreign countries; and pupils, some of
them of the highest rank, began to flock to him from every
country in Europe, both for the purpose of studying agri-
culture and to profit by the high moral training which he
associated with his educational system. For forty-five years
Fellenberg, assisted by his wife, continued his educational
labours, and finally raised his institution to the highest point
of prosperity and usefulness. He died on the 2ist of November
1844.
See Hamm, Fellenberg' 's Leben und Wirken (Bern, 1845); and
Schoni, Der Stifler von Hofwyl, leben und Wirken Fellenberg' s.
FELLER, FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (1735-1802), Belgian
author, was born at Brussels on the i8th of August 1735. In
1752 he entered a school of the Jesuits at Reims, where he
manifested a great aptitude for mathematics and physical
science. He commenced his novitiate two years afterwards,
and in testimony of his admiration for the apostle of India added
Xavier to his surname. On the expiry of his novitiate he became
professor at Luxembourg, and afterwards at Liege. In 1764 he
was appointed to the professorship of theology at Tyrnau in
Hungary, but in 1771 he returned to Belgium and continued to
discharge his professorial duties at Liege till the suppression of
the Jesuitsin 1773. The remainder of his life he devoted to study,
travel and literature. On the invasion of Belgium by the French
in 1794 he went to Paderborn, and remained there two years,
after which he took up his residence at Ratisbon, where he died
on the 23rd of May 1802.
Feller's works exceed 120 volumes. In 1773 he published, under
the assumed name Flexier de Reyal (an anagram of Xavier de
Feller), his Catechisme philosophique; and his principal work,
Dictionnaire historique et litteraire (published in 1781 at Liege in 8
volumes, and afterwards several times reprinted and continued
FELLING FELONY
243
down to 1848), appeared under the same name. Among his other
works the most important are Cours de morale chretienne el de littera-
ture religiev.se and his Coup d'ceil sur congres d'Ems. The Journal
histcrique et litteraire, published at Luxembourg and Liege from
1774 to 1794 in 70 volumes, was edited and in great part written by
him.
FELLING, an urban district in the Jarrow parliamentary
division of Durham, England, forming an eastern suburb of
Gateshead. Pop. (1901) 22,467. Its large industrial population
is employed in the neighbouring collieries and the various
attendant manufactures.
FELLOE, the outer rim of a wheel, to which the spokes are
attached. The word is sometimes spelled and usually pronounced
" felly." It is a Teutonic word, in O. Eng. felg, cognate with
Dutch velge, Ger. Felge; the original Teutonic root from which
these are derived probably meant " to fit together."
FELLOW, properly and by origin a partner or associate, hence
a companion, comrade or mate, as in " fellow-man," " fellow-
countryman," &c. The word from the isth century has also
been applied, generally and colloquially, to any male person,
often in a contemptuous or pitying sense. The Old English
feolage meant a partner in a business, i.e. one who lays (lag)
money or property (feoh, fee) together for a common purpose.
The word was, therefore, the natural equivalent for socius, a
member of the foundation of an incorporated college, as Eton, or
a college at a university. In the earlier history of universities
both the senior and junior members of a college were known as
" scholars," but later, as now, " scholar " was restricted to those
members of the foundation still in slatu pupillari, and " fellow "
to those senior graduate members who have been elected to the
foundation by the corporate body, sharing in the government and
receiving a fixed emolument out of the revenues of the college.
It is in this sense that " fellow " is used at the universities of
Oxford and Cambridge and Trinity, Dublin. At these universities
the college teaching is performed by those fellows who are also
" tutors." At other universities the term is applied to the
members of the governing body or to the holders of certain sums
of money for a fixed number of years to be devoted to special
study or research. By analogy the word is also used of the
members of various learned societies and institutions.
FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1790-1860), British archaeologist,
was born in August 1799 at Nottingham, where his family had
an estate. When fourteen he drew sketches to illustrate a trip to
the ruins of Newstead Abbey, which afterwards appeared on the
title-page of Moore's Life of Lord Byron. In 1820 he settled in
London, where he became an active member of the British
Association. In 1827 he discovered the modern ascent of Mont
Blanc. After the death of his mother in 1832 he passed the
greater portion of his time in Italy, Greece and the Levant.
The numerous sketches he executed were largely used in illustrat-
ing Childe Harold. In 1838 he went to Asia Minor, making
Smyrna his headquarters. His explorations in the interior and
the south led him to districts practically unknown to Europeans,
and he thus discovered ruins of a number of ancient cities. He
entered Lycia and explored the Xanthus from the mouth at
Patara upwards. Nine miles from Patara he discovered the ruins
of Xanthus, the ancient capital of Lycia, finely situated on hills,
and abounding in magnificent remains. About ism. farther up
he came upon the ruins of Tlos. After taking sketches of the
most interesting objects and copying a number of inscriptions, he
returned to Smyrna through Caria and Lydia. The publication
of A Journal written during an Excursion in Asia Minor (London,
1839) roused such interest that Lord Palmerston, at the request
of the British Museum authorities, asked the British consul at
Constantinople to get leave from the sultan to ship a number
of the Lycian works of art. Late in 1839 Fellows, under the
auspices of the British Museum, again set out for Lycia, accom-
panied by George Scharf, who assisted him in sketching. This
second visit resulted in the discovery of thirteen ancient cities,
and in 1841 appeared An Account of Discoveries in Lycia, being
a Journal kept during a Second Excursion in Asia Minor. A
third visit was made late in 1841, after Fellows had obtained
& firman by personal application at Constantinople. He shipped
a number of works of art for England, and in the fourth and
most famous expedition (1844) twenty-seven cases of marbles
were despatched to the British Museum. His chief discoveries
were at Xanthus, Pinara, Patara, Tlos, Myra and Olympus. In
1844 he presented to the British Museum his portfolios, accounts
of his expeditions, and specimens of natural history illustrative
of Lycia. In 1845 he was knighted " as an acknowledgment
of his services in the removal of the Xanthian antiquities to
this country." He paid his own expenses in all his journeys and
received no public reward. Fellows was twice married. He
died in London on the 8th of November 1860.
In addition to the works above mentioned, Fellows published the
following: The Xanthian Marbles; their Acquisition and Trans-
mission to England (1843), a refutation of false statements that had
been published ; An Account of the Ionic Trophy Monument excavated
at Xanthus (1848); a cheap edition of his two Journals, entitled
Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, particularly in the Province
of Lycia (1852) ; and Coins of Ancient Lycia before the Reign of
Alexander; with an Essay on the Relative Dates of the Lycian Monu-
ments in the British Museum (1855). See C. Brown's Lives of Notting-
hamshire Worthies (1882), pp. 352-353, and Journ. of Roy. Geog.
Soc., 1861. |
FELO DE SE (M,L. a felon, i.e. murderer, of himself), one who
commits murder upon himself. The technical conditions of
murder apply to this crime; e.g., " if one commits any unlawful
malicious act, the consequence of which is his own death, as if
attempting to kill another he runs upon his antagonist's sword,
or shooting at another the gun bursts and kills himself," he is a
felo de se. The horror inspired by this crime led to the revolting
punishment of an " ignominious burial on the highway, with a
stake driven through the body." This was abolished by an act of
1823, which ordered the burial of the body of a person found to be
felo de se within 24 hours after the coroner's inquest, between the
hours of 9 and 1 2 at night, and without Christian rites of sepulture.
This act was again superseded in 1882 by the Interments (Felo
de se) Act, which permits the interment of any felo de se in the
churchyard or other burial ground of the parish or place in
which by the law or custom of England he might have been
interred but for the verdict. The interment is carried out in
accordance with the Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880 (see
BURIAL AND BURIAL ACTS). The act does not authorize the
performance of any of the rites of Christian burial, but a special
form of service may be used. Formerly the goods and chattels,
but not the land, of a felo de se were forfeited to the crown, but
such forfeitures were abolished by the Forfeiture Act 1870.
(See also SUICIDE.)
FELONY (O. Fr.felonie, horn felon, a word meaning " wicked,"
common to Romanic languages, cf. Italian fello, fellone, the
ultimate origin of which is obscure, but is possibly connected
either with Lat. fel, gall, or fallere, to deceive. The English
" fell " cruel or fierce, is also connected; and the Greek <j>fi\vs,
an impostor, has also been suggested) . Legal writers have sought
to throw light on the nature of felony by examining the supposed
etymology of the word. Coke says it is crimen animo felleo per-
petratum [a crime committed with malicious or evil intent (fee
lohn)}. Spelman connects it with the word fee, signifying fief
or feud; and felony in this way would be equivalent to pretium
feudi, an act for which a man lost or gave up his fee (see Stephen's
Commentaries, vol. iv. p. 7) . And acts involving forfeiture were
styled felonies in feudal law, although they had nothing of a
criminal character about them. A breach of duty on the part
of the vassal, neglect of service, delay in seeking investiture,
and the like were felonies: so were injuries by the lord against
the vassal. Modern writers are now disposed to accept Coke's
definition. In English law, crimes are usually classified as
treason, felony, misdemeanour and summary offence. Some
writers and with some justice treat treason merely as a grave
form of felony and it is so dealt with in the Juries Detention Act
1897. But owing to legislation in and since the time of William
and Mary, the procedure for the trial of most forms of treason
differs from that of felony. The expression summary offence
is ambiguous. Many offences which are at common law or by
statute felonies, or misdemeanours indictable at common law
or by statute, may under certain conditions be tried by a court
244
FELSITE
of summary jurisdiction (q.v.), and many merely statutory
offences which would ordinarily be punishable summarily may
at the election of the accused be tried by a jury on indictment
(Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879, s. 17).
The question whether a particular offence is felony or mis-
demeanour can be answered only by reference to the history
of the offence and not by any logical test. For instance, killing
a horse in an unlicensed place is still felony under a statute of
1786. But most crimes described as felonies are or have been
capital offences at common law or by statute, and have also
entailed on the offender attaint and forfeiture of goods. A few
felonies were not punishable by death, e.g. petty larceny and
mayhem. Where an offence is declared a felony by statute,
the common law punishments and incidents of trial attach,
unless other statutory provision is made (Blackstone, Com-
mentaries, iv. 94).
The chief common law felonies are: homicide, rape, larceny
(i.e. in ordinary language, theft), robbery (i.e. theft with violence),
burglary and kindred offences. Counterfeiting the coin has
been made a felony instead of being treason; and forgery of
most documents has been made a felony instead of being, as it
was at common law, a misdemeanour. At the beginning of the
19th century felony was almost equivalent to capital crime;
but during that century capital punishment was abolished as to
all felonies, except wilful murder, piracy with violence (7 W. IV.
& i Viet. c. 88, s. 2) and offences against the Dockyards,
&c., Protection Act 1772; and by the Forfeiture Act 1870, a
felon no longer forfeits land or goods on conviction, though
forfeiture on outlawry is not abolished. The usual punishment
for felony under the present law is penal servitude or imprison-
ment with or without hard labour. " Every person convicted
of any felony for which no punishment is specially provided by
the law in force for the time being is liable upon conviction
thereof to be sentenced to penal servitude for any period not
exceeding seven years, or to be imprisoned with or without-
hard labour for any term not exceeding two years " (Stephen,
Dig. Cr. Law (6th ed.), art 18, Penal Servitude Act 1891). A
felon may not be fined or whipped on conviction nor put under
recognizance to keep the peace or be of good behaviour except
under statutory provision. (See Offences against the Person Act
1861, ss. 5. 71.)
The result of legislative changes is that at the present time
the only practical distinctions between felony and misdemeanour
are:
1. That a private person may arrest a felon without judicial
authority and that bail on arrest is granted as a matter of discre-
tion and not as of right. Any one who has obtained a drove
of oxen or a flock of sheep by false pretences may go quietly
on his way and no one, not even a peace officer, can apprehend
him without a warrant, but if a man offers to sell another a bit
of dead fence supposed to have been stolen, he not only may
but is required to be apprehended by that person (Greaves,
Criminal Law Consolidation Acts). (See ARREST, BAIL.)
2. That on an indictment for felony counts may not be joined
for different felonies unless they form part of the same transaction.
(See INDICTMENT.)
3. That on a trial for felony the accused has a right peremp-
torily to challenge, or object to, the jurors called to try him, up
to the number of twenty. (See JURY.)
4. That a felon cannot be tried in absentia, and that the jury
who try him may not separate during the trial without leave of
the court, which may not be given in cases of murder.
5. That a special jury cannot be empanelled to try a felony.
6. That peers charged with felony are tried in a special manner.
(See PEERAGE.)
7. That the costs of prosecuting all felonies (except treason
felony) are paid out of public funds: and that a felon may be
condemned to pay the costs of his prosecution and to compen-
sate up to 100 for any loss of property suffered by any person
through or by means of the felony. In the Criminal Code Bills
of 1878-1880 it was proposed to abolish the term felony alto-
gether: and in the Queensland Criminal Code 1899 the term
" crime " is substituted, and within its connotation are included
not only treason and piracy but also perjury.
8. That a sentence of a felon to death, or to penal servitude
or imprisonment with hard labour or for over twelve months,
involves loss of and disqualification for certain offices until the
sentence has been served or a free pardon obtained. (Forfeiture
Act 1870.)
It is a misdemeanour (i.) to compound a felony or to agree
for valuable consideration not to prosecute or to show favour
in such prosecution; (ii.) to omit to inform the authorities of a
felony known to have been committed (see MISPRISION), and,
(iii.) not to assist in the arrest of a felon at the call of an officer
of the law. (See CRIMINAL LAW; MISDEMEANOUR; MISPRISION.)
FELSITE, in petrology, a term which has long been generally
used by geologists, especially in England, to designate fine-
grained igneous rocks of acid (or subacid) composition. As a
rule their ingredients are not determinable by the unaided eye,
but they are principally felspar and quartz as very minute
particles. The rocks are pale-coloured (yellowish or reddish as
a rule), hard, splintery, much jointed and occasionally nodular.
Many felsites contain porphyritic crystals of clear quartz in
rounded blebs, more or less idiomorphic felspar, and occasionally
biotite. Others are entirely fine-grained and micro- or crypto-
crystalline. Occasionally they show a fluxional banding; they
may also be spherulitic or vesicular. Those which carry porphy-
ritic quartz are known as quartz-felsites; the term soda-felsites
has been applied to similar fine-grained rocks rich in soda-felspar.
Although there are few objections to the employment of
felsite as a field designation for rocks having the above char-
acters, it lacks definiteness, and has been discarded by many
petrologists as unsuited for the exact description of rocks,
especially when their microscopic characters are taken into con-
sideration. The felsites accordingly are broken up into "granite-
porphyries," " orthophyres " and " orthoclase-porphyries,"
" felsitic-rhyolites," " keratophyres," " granophyres," " micro-
granites," &c. But felsite or microfelsite is still the generally
accepted designation for that very fine-grained, almost crypto-
crystalline substance which forms the ground-mass of so many
rhyolites, dacites and porphyries.
In the hand specimen it is a dull, lustreless, stony-looking
aggregate. Under the microscope even with high powers and
the very thinnest modern sections, it often cannot be resolved
into its components. In places it may contain determinable
minute crystals of quartz; less commonly it may show grains
which can be proved to be felspar, but usually it consists of an
ultra-microscopic aggregate of fibres, threads and grains, which
react to polarized light in a feeble and indefinite manner.
Spherulitic, spotted, streaky and fluidal structures may appear
in it, and many different varieties have been established on such
characters as these but without much validity.
Its association with the acid rocks, its hardness, method of
weathering and chemical composition, indicate that it is an
intermixture of quartz and acid felspar, and the occasional
presence of these two minerals in well-defined grains confirms
this. Moreover, in many dikes, while the ground-mass is
microcrystalline and consists of quartz and felspar near the centre
of the mass, towards the margins, where it has been rapidly
chilled by contact with the cold surrounding rocks, it is felsitic.
The very great viscosity of acid magmas prevents their molecules,
especially when cooling takes place suddenly, from arranging
themselves to form discrete crystals, and is the principal cause
of the production of felsitic ground-masses. In extreme cases
these conditions hinder crystallization altogether, and glassy
rocks result. Some rocks are felsitic in parts but elsewhere
glassy; and it is not always clear whether the felsite is an original
substance or has arisen by the devitrification of primary glass.
The presence of perlitic structure in some of these felsites points
to the latter conclusion, and the results of an examination of
ancient glasses and of artificial glass which has been slowly
cooled are in accordance with this view. It has been argued that
felsite is a eutectic mixture of quartz and felspar, such that when
solidification takes place and the excess of felspar (or quartz) has
FELSPAR FELT
245
crystallized out it remains liquid till the temperature has fallen
to its freezing point, and then consolidates simultaneously.
This may be so, but analyses show that it has not always the
same composition and consequently that the conditions which
determine its formation are not quite simple. Felsitic rocks are
sometimes silicified and have their matrix replaced by granular
aggregates of cloudy quartz. (J. S. F.)
FELSPAR, or FELDSPAR, a name applied to a group of mineral
silicates of much importance as rock-constituents. The name,
taken from the Ger. Feldspath, was originally written with a
" d " but in 1794 it was written " felspar " by R. Kirwan, on the
assumption that it denoted a mineral of the " fels " rather than
of the " field," and this corrupted form is now in common use in
England. By some of the earlier mineralogists it was written
" feltspar," from the Swedish form jaltspat.
The felspar - group is divided into two subgroups according
to the symmetry of the crystals. Although the crystals of all
felspars present a general resemblance in habit, they are usually
regarded as belonging to two systems, some felspars being mono-
clinic and others anorthic. Figures of the crystals are given in
the articles on the different species. Two cleavages are gener-
ally well marked. In the monoclinic or monosymmetric fel-
spars these, being parallel to the basal pinacoid and clino-
pinacoid, necessarily make an angle of 90, whence the name
orthoclase applied to these minerals; whilst in the anorthic
or asymmetric felspars the corresponding angle is never exactly
90, and from this obliquity of the principal cleavages they are
termed plagioclase (see ORTHOCLASE and PLAGIOCLASE). There
are consequently two series of felspars, one termed orthoclastic
or orthotomoUs, and the other plagioclastic or clinotomous.
F. E. Mallard suggested that all felspars are really asymmetric,
and that orthoclase presents only a pseudo-monosymmetric
habit, due to twinning. Twin-crystals are very common in all
the felspars, as explained under their respective headings.
The two divisions of the felspar-group founded on differences
of crystalline symmetry are subdivided according to chemical
composition. All the felspars are silicates containing aluminium
with some other metallic base or bases, generally potassium,
sodium or calcium, rarely barium, but never magnesium or iron.
The monoclinic series includes common potash-felspar or ortho-
clase (KAlSisOs) and hyalophane, a rare felspar containing
barium (KJBaAliSisOM). The anorthic series includes at one
end the soda-felspar albite (NaAlSi 3 O 8 ) and at the other ex-
tremity the lime-felspar anorthite (CaAlnSijOg). It was sug-
gested by G. Tschermak in 1864 that the other plagioclastic
felspars are isomorphous mixtures in various proportion of albite
(Ab) and anorthite (An). These intermediate members are the
lime-soda felspars known as oligoclase, andesine, labradorite and
bytownite. There are also placed in the anorthic class a potash-
felspar called microcline, and a rare soda-potash-felspar known
as anorthoclase.
The specific gravity of the felspars has been shown by G.
Tschermak and V. Geldschmidt to vary according to their
chemical composition, rising steadily from 2-57 in orthoclase to
2-75 in anorthite. All the felspars have a hardness of 6 to 6-5,
being therefore rather less hard than quartz. Pure felspar is
colourless, but the mineral is usually white, yellow, red or green.
Certain felspars are used as ornamental stones on account of
their colour (see AMAZON STONE). Other felspars are prized for
their pearly opalescence (see MOONSTONE), or for their play of
iridescent colours (see LABRADORITE), or for their spangled
appearance, like aventurine (see SUN-STONE).
Felspar is much used in the manufacture of porcelain by reason
of its fusibility. In England the material employed is mostly
orthoclase from Scandinavia, often known as " Swedish spar."
The high translucency of " ivory porcelain " depends on the
large proportion of felspar in the body. The mineral is also
an important constituent of most ceramic glazes. The melting
points of felspars have been investigated by Prof. J. Joly, Prof. C.
A. Doelter y Cisterich and especially by A. L. Day and E. T.
Allen in the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institute at
Washington.
Among the applications of felspar is that of pure orthoclase
in the manufacture of artificial teeth.
Felspar readily suffers chemical alteration, yielding kaolin (q.v;).
The turbidity of orthoclase is usually due to partial kaolinization.
Secondary mica is also a common result of alteration, and among
other products are pinite, epidote, saussurite, chlorite, wollas-
tonite and various zeolites.
See ALBITE, AMAZON STONE, ANDESINE, ANORTHITE, BYTOWNITE,
LABRADORITE, MICROCLINE,MOONSTONE,OLIGOCLASE,ORTHOCLASE,
PLAGIOCLASE, SUN-STONE.
FELSTED, or FELSTEAD, a village of Essex, England, between
Dunmow and Braintree, and 10 m. from Chelmsford; with a
station on the Great Eastern railway. Felsted is only note-
worthy by reason of its important public school, dating back to
its foundation as a grammar school in 1564 by Richard ist
Baron Rich, who as lord chancellor and chancellor of the court
of augmentations had enriched himself with the spoil of the
adjoining abbey and priory of Little Leez at the dissolution
of the monasteries. It became a notable educational centre for
Puritan families in the I7th century, numbering a hundred or
more pupils, under Martin Holbeach (1600-1670), headmaster
from 1627-1649, and his successors C. Glasscock (from 1650 to
1690), and Simon Lydiatt (1690 to 1702). John Wallis and
Isaac Barrow were educated here, and also four sons of Oliver
Cromwell, Robert, Oliver, Richard (the Protector), and Henry.
Another era of prosperity set in under the headmastership of
William Trivett (1745-1830) between 1778 and 1794; but under
his successors W. J. Carless (from 1794 to 1813) and E. Squire
(from 1813 to 1829) the numbers dwindled. As the result of the
discovery by T. Surridge (headmaster 1835-1850), from research
among the records, that a larger income was really due to the
foundation, a reorganization took place by act of parliament,
and in 1851, under the headmastership of Rev. A. H. Wratislaw,
the school was put under a new governing body (a revised scheme
coming into operation in 1876). The result under Rev. W. S.
Grignon (1823-1907), the headmaster from 1856 to 1875, who
may be considered almost the second founder, was the rapid
development of Felsted into one of the regular public schools
of the modern English type. New buildings on an elaborate
scale arose, the numbers increased to more than 200, and a
complete transformation took place, which was carried on under
his successors D. S. Ingram (from 1875 to 1890), H. A. Dalton
(to 1906), and F. Stephenson, under whom large extensions to
the buildings and playing-fields were made.
See John Sargeaunt, History of Felsted School (1889) ; and Alumni
Felstedienses, by R. J. Beevor, E. T. Roberts and others (1903).
FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du.vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill;
the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum,
" filter "), a fabric produced by the " matting " or " felting "
together of fibrous materials such as wools, hairs, furs, &c. Most
textile fibres (see FIBRES) possess the quality of matting to some
extent, but wools, furs and some few hairs -are the only fibres
which can be felted satisfactorily. It is probable that the quality
of felting must be attributed to the scale structure and waviness
of the wools, furs and hairs referred to. When it is desired
to incorporate non-felting fibres in felt cloths, wool must be
employed to " carry " them.
There are two distinct classes of felts, viz. woven or " thread-
structure " felts, and " fibre " or true felts. In the manufacture
of thread-structure felts, wools possessing the quality of felting
in a high degree are naturally selected, carefully scoured so that
the felting quality is not seriously damaged, spun into woollen
yarn possessing the necessary fibre arrangement and twist,
woven into cloth of such a character that subsequently satis-
factory shrinking or felting may be effected, and finally scoured,
milled in the stocks of machine of both, dyed and finished on the
lines of an ordinary woven fabric. The lighter styles of woven
felts may be composed of a single cloth only, but for the heavier
styles two or more cloths are woven, one on top of the other,
at one and the same time, arrangements being made to stitch
the cloths together during the weaving operation.
Fibre felts are exceedingly interesting from the historical
point of view. It is now generally admitted that the art of
246
FELTHAM FELTON
weaving preceded that of spinning, and it must further be con-
ceded that the art of felting preceded that of weaving, so that the
felt fabric is probably one of the oldest of the various styles of
recognized fabrics. The inhabitants of the middle and northern
regions of Asia seem to have employed felt from time immemorial,
as clothing and also as a covering for their habitations. Most
of the classical writers refer to it and some of them actually
describe its manufacture. Felt was also largely employed by
the ancients for their hats, outer garments, and sometimes as
a species of armour.
Fibre felts may be divided into three classes, viz. ordinary
felts; hat felts; and impregnated felts. As all felts are based
upon the ordinary felt, the process of manufacture of this will
first be described. Of the wools employed the principal are:
East Indian, German or mid-European, New Zealand cross-
breds, and Australian, Cape and Buenos Aires merinos. Vege-
table fibres and silk are also employed, but wool must be used to
" carry " them; thus a good felting wool may be made to carry
its own weight of cotton, hemp, &c. Hairs and furs are princi-
pally used in the hat felts. The average loss upon the wool from
the raw state to the finished felt is 40 to 50%. The order of
the manufacturing processes is as follows: mixing, willowing,
teasing, scribbling and carding. It is interesting to note that
it is not usual to scour felting wools. This is not because they
are really clean some are dirty but because the felting pro-
perty is liable to be interfered with in the scouring operation.
Some wools, however, must be scoured to ensure satisfactory
working in the machines. From the card the wool is delivered
as a gossamer-like film from 50 to 60 in. wide on to an endless
sheet from 30 to 60 yds. long, upon which the felt is built up
film upon film until the required thickness perhaps 4 in. is
obtained. To harden this somewhat tender sheet of felt it is
now passed through an ironing process, effected by either steam-
heated rollers to which a rotatory and vibratory motion is given
playing upon the continually drawn-through cloth; or a huge
vibrating flat-iron, to which the cloth is automatically fed, held
in position and then wound up while the following length to be
treated is drawn under the iron. Soaping, fulling or " felting "
and the ordinary finishing operations including dyeing and
printing if desirable now follow, so that ultimately a strong
firm fabric is turned out. It must be admitted, however, that
the strength is much greater lengthwise than cross-wise, owing
to the parallelization of the fibres induced in the scribbling and
carding operations. Of course, the true felting or contraction
occurs in the fulling or felting stock, the fabric being perpetually
" hammered " in the presence of fulling agents such as soap,
fuller's earth, &c., for a considerable time. The reduction in
width, length and thickness is remarkable. This may be con-
trolled within certain limits. The principal styles of ordinary
fibre-felts are linings for coats, furniture and rubber shoes;
saddlery; seating* for carriages and pews; carpets, surrounds
and under-felts for carpets; mantles, dresses and table-cloths;
felt-slippers; mattress felts; chest-preservers, and shoulder-
pads; steam-engine packing, motor-car and an ti- vibration
felts, shipbuilding felts; drawing-roller felts and gun- wad
felts.
Hat felts may be divided into two classes, viz. those made from
wool and fur respectively. Wool " bodies " used for the lower
quality hats are manufactured in the same way as ordinary felts,
but the " shape " upon which the film issuing from the carder is
built up takes the form of a double cone and thus approximates
to the shape of the two hats ultimately formed. The shape is
further controlled and developed in the fulling or felting opera-
tion. In the fur hat felts an air-blast is employed to carry the
finely separated fibres on to the shape required, upon which
shape the fibres are held in position by suction until the required
thickness is obtained. The structure is then further developed
and " stiffened," i.e. impregnated with certain stiffening agents
according to requirements. If desirable the exterior fibres blown
on to any shape may be of a different material from the body
fabric.
Impregnated felts are simply felts made in the ordinary way
but subsequently impregnated with certain agents which give
a special quality to the fabric. Messrs McNeill & Co., of London,
were the originators of " asphalted-felt " for roofing and, among
other styles, place on the market sheathing felt, inodorous felt,
dry hair felt, foundation felt, &c., &c. A later development,
however, is the impregnated iron-felt manufactured by Messrs
Mitchells, Ashworth, Stansfield & Co., of Waterfoot, near Man-
chester, who not only produce from 70 to 80 % of the ordinary
felts manufactured in Great Britain, but also place on the
market several specialties of which this " iron-felt " is largely
used in the construction of bridges, &c., and as a substitute for
rubber, it being apparently more durable. (A. F. B.)
FELTHAM, or FELLTHAM, OWEN (d. 1668), English moralist,
was the son of Thomas Feltham or Felltham of Mutford in Suffolk.
The date of his birth is given variously as 1602 and 1609. Hs is
famous chiefly as the author of a volume entitled Resolves, Divine,
Moral and Political, containing one hundred short and pithy
essays. To later issues of the Resolves Feltham appended
Lusoria, a collection of forty poems. Hardly anything is known
of his life except that T. Randolph, the adopted " son " of Ben
Jonson, addressed a poem of compliment to him, and became his
friend, and that Feltham attacked Ben Jonson in an ode shortly
before the aged poet's death, but contributed a flattering elegy to
the Jonsonus Virbius in 1638. Early in life Feltham visited
Flanders, and published observations in 1652 under the title of
A Brief Character of the Low Countries. He was a strict high-
churchman and a royalist; he even described Charles I. as
" Christ the Second." Hallam stigmatized Feltham as one of
our worst writers. He has not, indeed, the elegance of Bacon,
whom he emulated, and he is often obscure and affected; but
his copious imagery and genuine penetration give his reflections
a certain charm. To the middle classes of the lyth century
he seemed a heaven-sent philosopher and guide, and was only
less popular than Francis Quarles the poet.
Ejeven editions of the Resolves appeared before 1700. Later
editions by James Gumming (London, 1806; much garbled; has
account of Feltham's life and writings), and O. Smeaton in " Temple
Classics " series (London, 1904).
FELTON, CORNELIUS CONWAY (1807-1862), American
classical scholar, was born on the 6th of November 1807, in West
Newbury, Massachusetts. He graduated at Harvard College in
1827, having taught school in the winter vacations of his sopho-
more and junior years. After teaching in the Livingstone high
school of Geneseo, New York, for two years, he became tutor at
Harvard in 1829, university professor of Greek in 1832, and
Eliot professor of Greek literature in 1834. In 1860 he succeeded
James Walker as president of Harvard, which position he held
until his death, at Chester, Pennsylvania, on the 26th of February
1862. Dr Felton edited many classical texts. His annotations
on Wolf's text of the Iliad (1833) are especially valuable.
Greece, Ancient and Modern (2 vols., 1867), forty-nine lectures
before the Lowell Institute, is scholarly, able and suggestive of
the author's personality. Among his miscellaneous publications
are the American edition of Sir William Smith's History of
Greece (1855) ; translations of Menzel's German Literature (1840),
of Munk's Metresoflhe Greeks and Romans (1844), and of Guyot's
Earth and Man (1849) ; and Familiar Letters from Europe (1865).
FELTON, JOHN (c. 1595-1628), assassin of the ist duke of
Buckingham, was a member of an old Suffolk family established
at Playford. The date of his birth and the name of his father are
unknown, but his mother was Eleanor, daughter of William
Wright, mayor of Durham. He entered the army, and served
as lieutenant in the expedition to Caciz commanded by Sir
Edward Cecil in 1625. His career seems to have been ill-starred
and unfortunate from the beginning. His left hand was early
disabled by a wound, and a morose temper rendered him un-
popular and prevented his advancement. Every application made
to Buckingham for his promotion was reftsed, on account of an
enmity, according to Sir Simonds D'Ewes, which existed between
Felton and Sir Henry Hungate, a favourite of Buckingham. To
his personal application that he could not live without a captaincy
Buckingham replied harshly " that he might hang." Whether he
FELTRE, MORTO DA FENCING
247
took part in the expedition to Rhe in 1627 is uncertain, but there
is no doubt that he continued to be refused promotion, and
that even his scanty pay earned during the Cadiz adventure was
not received. Exasperated by his ill-treatment, his discontent
sharpened by poverty, and his hatred of Buckingham intensified
by a study of the Commons " Remonstrances " of the previous
June, and by a work published by Eglesham, the physician of
James I., in which Buckingham was accused of poisoning the king,
Felton determined to effect his assassination. He bought a
tenpenny knife on Tower Hill, and on his way through Fleet
Street he left his name in a church to be prayed for as " a man
much discontented in mind." He arrived at Portsmouth at
9 o'clock in the morning of the 23rd of August 1628, and immedi-
ately proceeded to No. 10 High Street, where Buckingham was
lodged. Here mingling with the crowd of applicants and un-
noticed he stabbed the duke, who immediately fell dead. Though
escape would have been easy he confessed the deed and was
seized and conveyed to the Tower, his journey thither, such was
the unpopularity of the duke, being accompanied by cries of
" God bless thee " from the people. Charles and Laud desired he
should be racked, but the illegal torture was prevented by the
judges. He was tried before the king's bench on the 27th of
November, pleaded guilty, and was hanged the next day, his
body being exposed in chains subsequently at Portsmouth.
FELTRE, MORTO DA, Italian painter of the Venetian school,
who worked at the close of the 1 5th century and beginning of the
1 6th. His real name appears to have been Pietro Luzzo; he is also
known by the name Zarato or Zarotto, either from the place of his
death or because his father, a surgeon, was in Zara during the
son's childhood: whether he was termed Morto (dead) from his
joyless temperament is a disputed point. He may probably
have studied painting first in Venice, but under what master is
uncertain. At an early age he went to Rome, and investigated
the ancient, especially the subterranean remains, and thence to
Pozzuoli, where he painted from the decorations of antique crypts
or " grotte." The style of fanciful arabesque which he formed for
himself from these studies gained the name of " grottesche,"
whence comes the term "grotesque"; not, indeed, that Morto
was the first painter of arabesque in the Italian Renaissance, for
art of this kind had, apart from his influence, been fully developed,
both in painting and in sculpture, towards 1480, but he may have
powerfully aided its diffusion southwards. His works were
received with much favour in Rome. He afterwards went to
Florence, and painted some fine grotesques in the Palazzo
Pubblico. Returning to Venice towards 1505, he assisted
Giorgione in painting the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, and seems to
have remained with him till 1511. If we may trust Ridolfi,
Morto eloped with the mistress of Giorgione, whose grief at this
transaction brought him to the grave; the allegation, however,
is hardly reconcilable with other accounts. It may have been
in 1515 that Morto returned to his native Feltre, then in a very
ruinous condition from the ravages of war in 1509. There he
executed various works, including some frescoes, still partly
extant, and considered to be almost worthy of the hand of
Raphael, in the loggia beside San Stefano. Towards the age of
forty-five, Morto, unquiet and dissatisfied, abandoned painting
and took to soldiering in the service of the Venetian republic.
He was made captain of a tvoop of two hundred men; and fighting
valorously, he is said to have died at Zara in Dalmatia, in 1519.
This story, and especially the date of it, are questionable: there
is some reason to think that Morto was painting as late as 1522.
One of his pictures is in the Berlin museum, an allegorical subject
of " Peace and War." Andrea Feltrini was his pupil and assistant
as a decorative painter.
FELTRE (anc. Fcllria), a town and episcopal see of Venetia,
Italy, in the province of Belluno, 20 m. W.S.W. of it by rail,
situated on an isolated hill, 885 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901)
5468 (town), 15,243 (commune). The cathedral has a fine poly-
gonal apse of the i6th century. The Palazzo del Consiglio, now
a theatre, is attributed to Palladio. At one end of the chief
square of the town, the Piazza. Maggiore, is the cistern by which
the town is supplied with water, and a large fountain. There
are some remains of the medieval castle. The ancient Feltria,
which lay on the road (Via Claudia) from Opitergium to Triden-
tum, does not seem to have been a place of any importance under
the Romans. Vittorino dei Rambaldoni da Feltre (1378-1446)
was a famous educator and philosopher of his time.
FELUCCA (an Italian word; in forms like the Span, faluca,
Fr. feloitque, it appears in other languages; it is probably of
Arabic origin, cf. fulk, a ship, and falaka, to be round; the
modern Arabic form is falukaK), a type of vessel used in the
Mediterranean for coasters or fishing-boats. It is a long, low
and narrow undecked vessel, built for speed, and propelled by
oars or sails. The sails are lateen-shaped and carried on one or
two masts placed far forward (see BOAT).
FEMALE, the correlative of " male," the sex which performs
the function of conceiving and bearing as opposed to the beget-
ting of young. The word in Middle English isfemelle, adopted
from the French from the Lat. femella, which is a diminutive,
and in classical Latin used strictly as such, of femina, a woman.
The present termination in English is due to a connexion in
ideas with " male." In various mechanical devices, where two
corresponding parts work within the other, the receiving part is
often known as the " female," as for example in the " male "
and " female screw." The O. Fr. feme, modern femme, occurs in
legal phraseology in feme covert, a married woman, i.e. one
protected or covered by a husband, and in feme sole, one not so
protected, a widow or spinster (see WOMEN and HUSBAND AND
WIFE).
FEMERELL, properly FUMERELL (from O. Fr. fumeraille,
Lat. fumus, smoke), the old English term given to the lantern
in the ridge of a hall roof for the purpose of letting out the smoke
of the fire kindled on a central hearth.
FENCING. If by " fencing "the art of fence, i.e. of defence
or offence were meant generally the dexterous use of the sword,
the subject would be wide indeed; as wide, in fact, as the liistory
of the sword (q.v.) itself. But, in its modern acceptation, the
meaning of the word has become considerably restricted. The
scope of investigation must therefore be confined to one kind of
swordsmanship only: to that which depends on the regulated,
artificial conditions of " single combat." It is indeed this play,
hemmed in by many restrictions, which we have come to mean
more specially by " fencing." It differs, of course, in many
respects, from what may be called the art of fighting in the light
of nature. But as its restrictions are among the very elements
which work to the perfection of the play, it is undoubtedly in
the history of swordsmanship as applied to duelling (see DUEL)
that we shall trace the higher development of the art.
It may be said that the history of fencing, therefore, would be
tantamount to the history of private duelling. Now, this is an
ethical subject; one, again, which would carry the investigation
too far; and it need not be taken up farther back than the
middle of the i6th century, when, on the disuse of the medieval
wager of battle, the practice of private duelling began to take
an assured footing in a warlike society. It is curious to mark
that the first cultivation of refined cunning in fence dates from
that period, which corresponds chronologically with the general
disuse of armour, both in battle and in more private encounters.
It is still more curious to note that, in order to fit himself to
meet what was an illegal but aristocratic obligation, the gallant
of those days had to appeal to a class of men hitherto little
considered: to those plebeian adepts, in fact, who for generations
had cultivated skill in the use of hand weapons, on foot and
without armour. Thus it came to pass that the earliest masters
of fence in all countries, namely, the masters of the art of con-
ducting skilfully what was essentially considered as an honourable
encounter, were almost invariably to be found among a some-
what dishonoured gentry gladiators, free companions, pro-'
fessional champions, more or less openly recognized, or bravoes
of the most uncompromising character.
In Germany, which may be considered the cradle of systematic
swordsmanship, these teachers of the sword had, as early as the
1 5th century, formed themselves into gilds; among which the
best known were the Marxbruder, or the Associates of St Marcus
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FENCING
of Lowenberg, who had their headquarters at Frankfort, and
branches in all the more important towns. Similarly, in Spain
and in northern Italy, professional swordsmen were at various
times allowed to form themselves into recognized or at least
tolerated associations.
In England " swordmen " had been looked upon with especial
disfavour by the powers that were, until Henry VIII., who
was a great lover of all manly exercises, found it likewise
advisable to turn their obnoxious existence to a disciplined and
profitable channel by regularizing their position. The most re-
doubtable masters were allowed to form themselves into a
company, with powers to increase their numbers with suitable
and duly tried men, in imitation of the world-famed German
Marxbriider or Marcusbruder. Under these conditions they
were granted the lucrative monopoly of teaching the art of fight
in England. The enormous privileges that the king, in course of
time, conferred on his Corporation of Masters of Defence very
soon enabled it to put down or absorb all the more ferocious of
independent swashbucklers, and thereby to impart to the pro-
fession a moderate degree of respectability under the coat of
arms granted by the royal heralds: gules a sword pendant
argent.
It was in the midst of such corporations and in the fighting
dens of independent swordsmen, therefore, that sprouted the
first buds of systematic swordsmanship. Among the pro-
fessional fencers, curiously and happily for the historian, there
seem to have been a few with a literary turn of mind.
The oldest manuscripts of fence belong to Italy and Germany.
They deal with the methods of carrying out single combats on
foot, with any of the most generally accepted weapons long
sword and short sword, dagger and every kind of knives, mace,
long and short staff, axes, &c., and with the tricks of wrestling
recommendable therefor. Among the most comprehensive in
their scope may be mentioned // Fior di batlaglia di Maestro Fiore
dei Liberi da Premariaco; a work which, although illustrated
with truly Italian taste and grace, shows, as far as its fighting
style is concerned, unmistakable marks of German influence.
The text of the MS. bears the date 1410, but the writer was known
to be flourishing as a master of fence as early as 1383. A reprint
of this invaluable codex has been published, under the care of
Francesco Donati, by the Islituto Italiano d' Arti Grafiche.
Another is the better known Thalhofer's Fecht Buck, gerichtliche
und andere Zweykampfe darstellend (1467), a reprint of which,
with its 268 plates in facsimile, was brought out by Gustave
Hergsell in Prague. The oldest printed book is likewise German:
Ergriindung der ritterlicher Kunst der Fechterei, von Andreas
Paurnfeindt, Freifechter zu Wien (1516). This work, which is
exceedingly rare, is a very complete exponent of the ways of
wielding long and short blades to the utmost of their lethal
capacity. It was reproduced (under various titles, very confus-
ing to the bibliographer) in Frankfort, Augsburg, Strassburg,
and finally done into French under the name of La Noble science
des joueurs d'epSe, published in Paris and Antwerp, 1535.
Following the Germans, the oldest printed books of fence are
Italian. The first French book on the sword is known to be a
translation from the German. Curiously enough, the second, and
one of the most notable, Le Traite de I'epee seule, mere de toutes
armes, of the Sieur de St Didier, published in Paris in 1573, can
be shown to be a transparent adaptation of two Italian treatises,
the Trattalo di scienza d' arme of Camillo Agrippa, and Grassi's
Ragione di adoperar sicuramente I' arme, &c.
It is about this time, namely, the latter half of the 1 6th century,
that swordsmanship pure and simple may be said to find its
origin; for then a great change is perceptible in the nature and
tendency of fence books: they dissociate themselves from
indecorous wrestling tricks, and approximate more and more
to the consideration of what we understand by swordsmanship.
The older works expounded the art of fighting generally; taught
the reader a number of valuable, if not " gentlemanlike,"
dodges for overcoming an adversary at all manner of weapons:
now the lucubrations of fence-masters deal almost exclusively
with the walking sword, that is, the duelling weapon with the
rapier in fact, both with and without its lieutenant, the
dagger.
It must be remembered that at this period private duelling
and cavalier quarrelsomeness amounted to a perfect mania.
The fencing master was no longer merely a teacher of efficacious,
if rascally, tricks; he was becoming a model of gallant deport-
ment; in many cases he was even a recognized arbiter on
matters of honour. He was often a gentleman himself: at all
events he posed as such.
Although the Germans were always redoubtable adepts at
the rougher games of swordsmanship, it is in Italy that is to be
found development of that nimbler, more regulated, more
cunning, better controlled, kind of play which we have learned
to associate with the term " fencing." It was from Italy that
the art of fence first spread over Europe: not from Spain, as
it has been asserted by many writers. The Italians if we take
their early books as evidence, and the fact that their phraseology
was adopted by all Europe were the first to perceive (as soon
as the problem of armour-breaking ceased to be the most im-
portant one in fight) the superior efficiency of the point. They
accordingly reduced the breadth of their sword, modified the
hilt portion thereof to admit of readier thrust action, and
relegated the cut to quite a secondary position in their system.
With this lighter weapon they devised in course of time that
brilliant cunning play known as rapier fence.
The rapier was ultimately adopted everywhere by men of
courtly habit; but, in England at least, it was not accepted
without murmur and vituperation from the older fighting class of
swordsmen, especially from the members and admirers of the
Engh'sh Corporation of Defence Masters. As a body Englishmen
were as conservative then as they are now. They knew the
value of what they had as their own, and distrusted innovations,
especially from foreign quarters. The old sword and the buckler
were reckoned as your true English weapons: they always went
together in fact sword and buckler play in the i6th century was
evidently held to be as national a game as boxing came to be in a
later age. Many are the allusions in contemporary dramatic
literature to this characteristic national distrust of continental
innovations. There is the well-known passage in Porter's play,
The Two Angry Women of Abingdon, for instance: " Sword and
buckler fight," says a sturdy Briton (in much the same tone of
disgust as a British lover of fisticuffs might now assume when
talking of a French " Mounseer's " foil play), " begins to grow
out of use. I am sorry for it. I shall never see good manhood
again. If it be once gone, this poking fight with rapier and dagger
will come up. Then the tall man (that is, a courageous man and
a good sword-and-buckler man) will be spitted like a cat or a
rabbit!" The long-sword, that is, the two-hander, was also an
essentially national weapon. It was a right-down pleasing and
sturdy implement, recalling in good steel the vernacular quarter-
staff of old. It required thews and sinews, and, incidentally,
much beef and ale. The long-sword man looked perhaps with
even greater disfavour than the smaller swashbuckler upon the
new-fangled " bird-spit." " Tut, man," says Justice Shallow,
typical laudator of the good bygone days, on hearing of the
ridiculous Frenchman's skill with his rapier, " I could have told
you more. In these times you stand on distance, your passes,
stoccadoes, and I know not what; 'tis the heart, Master Page;
'tis here, 'tis here. I have seen the time, with my long-sword, I
would have made you four tall fellows skip like rats."
Now, sword-and-buckler and long-sword play was no doubt a
manly pursuit and a useful. But, as an every-day companion,
the long-sword was incongruous to a fastidious cavalier; and,
again, the buckler, indispensable adjunct to the broad swashing
blade of home production, was hardly more suitable. In
Elizabethan days it soon became obvious that the buckler was
inadmissible as an item of gentlemanly attire. It was accordingly
left to the body attendant; and the gallant took kindly to the
fine rapier of Milanese or Toledan make. On the other hand, it is
not difficult to understand the rapid popularity gained among the
gentry by this nimble rapier, so much reviled by the older fighting
men. The rapier, in fact, came in with the taste for " cavalfero "
FENCING
249
style, and may be looked upon as its fit outward symbol already
in the days of Queen Mary. In Elizabeth's reign it was firmly
established as your only gentlemanlike weapon.
The rapier was decidedly a foreigner; yet it suited the
Elizabethan age, for it was decorative as well as practical. Its
play was picturesque, fantastic almost euphuistic, one might
say in ccmparison with the matter-of-fact hanger of older days.
Its phraseology had a quaint, rich, southern smack, which
connoted outlandish experience and gave those conversant with
its intricate distinctions that marvellous character, at once
precious and ruffling, which was so highly appreciated by the
cavalier youth of the time. The rapier in its heyday was an
admirable weapon to look at, a delicious one to wield. And,
besides, in proper hands, it was undoubtedly one that was most
conclusive. It was, in short, as elegant and deadly as its prede-
cessors were sturdy and brutal.
By the time that the most perfect, namely, the Italian, rapier
fence came to be generally taught in England that is, during the
last third of Elizabeth's reign the theory of swordsmanship, as
applied to a single combat, after having passed through many
phases of imperfection, was already tolerably simple and practical.
(The exact story of its evolution may be found in a work now
included in Bonn's Libraries, Schools and Masters of Fence)
What may be considered as one of the cardinal actions of regu-
lated sword-play on foot, namely, the lunge, had already been
discovered. Although a great many movements which, according
to modern notions, would be considered not only unnecessary but
actually pernicious, still formed part of the system, it may be
doubted whether, considering the character of the weapon,
anything very much better could be devised, even in our present
state of knowledge.
For it must be remembered that the evolution of the forms of
the sword and of the theories concerning its most efficient use
are closely connected. It is, in fact, sometimes difficult to
decide whether the change in the shape of the weapon was the
result of a development of a theory; or whether new theories
were elaborated to fit alterations in these shapes due to fashion or
any other reason.
When systematic fence came over to England it was already
much simplified (it should be noted that improvement in the
art, from its earliest days down to the present time, seems always
to have been in the direction of simplification) ; yet, for more
than a century from the appearance of the first real treatise,
simplification never reached that point which would render
impossible a belief in the undoubted efficacy of those " secret
thrusts," of that " universal parry," of those ineluctable passes,
which every master professed to teach. These precious secrets
remain long, among a certain shady class of swordsmen, an object
of untiring study, carried on with much the same faith and zest
as the quest of the alchemist for his powder of projection, or of the
Merchant Adventurer for El Dorado. There can, of course, be no
such thing as an insuperable pass, a secret thrust or parry; every
attack can be parried, every parry can be deceived by suitable
movements. Yet there was some justification for the belief in
the existence of secrets of swordsmanship in days when, as a rule,
lessons of fence were given in jealous privacy; constant practice
at one particular pass, especially with the long rapier, which
required a great deal of muscular strength, might render any
peculiarly fierce, sudden and audacious stroke excessively
dangerous to one who did not happen to have opposed that stroke
before. Undoubtedly there was little in Elizabethan fencing-
schools of what we understand in modern days by loose-play
between the pupils; practice was almost invariably conducted
between scholar and teacher in private; and thus the
opportunities for watching or testing any particular fencer's play
were few. Such an opportunity would, as a rule, only occur on
occasions of an earnest fight; and the possessor of a specially
handy thrust (if it came off at all) would of course take good care
that his opponent should not live to ponder over the secret.
The secret, such as it was, remained. In this guise it was
inevitable that an almost superstitious belief in " secret foynes,"
in the botle secrete of certain practised duellists, should arise.
Be that as it may, there is no doubt that towards the end of
the 1 6th century there were many free-lances in the field of arms
who professed to teach, in exchange for much gold, strokes that
were not to be parried. From one truculent personage, whom
Brant&me mentions, Tappa the Milanese, you could learn how to
cut (if it so took your fancy) both eyes out of your adversary's
face with a rinverso tondo, or circular " reverse of the point."
From Caizo, another Italian teacher, at one time much favoured
by the French court, lessons were to be had in the special art of
ham-stringing. Caizo's botle secrete seems to have been nothing
more nor less than a j also manco, that is, a left-handed drawing
cut, at the inside of the knee. But, as practised and taught by
him, it was infallible. This stroke has come down to us as le
coup de Jarnac a stroke, be it said, which, notwithstanding its
bad name, was quite as fair as any in rapier fence. One Le
Flamand, a French master in Paris, was reputed the inventor of a
jerky time-thrust at the adversary's brows, which was a certainty.
This special foyne, which was merely an imbrocata at the head,
has become legendary in the fencing world as la botle de Nevers.
English fencers have their own legends about " the very butcher
of a silk button," and this brings us to the first writer on the
rapier in England, Vincenzio Saviolo, the great expounder of that
Italianated fence which was so obnoxious to the old masters,
withal so much admired of Elizabethan courtiers; the man, in
short, who there seems to be much internal evidence to show it
was Shakespeare's fencing master.
Vincenzio was not the only foreign master of note established
in London during the latter part of Elizabeth's reign. One,
Signer Rocco, had, we hear, a very gorgeously appointed
academy in Warwick Lane, near St Paul's, where he coined
money rapidly at the expense of gulls and gallants alike. But
this man came to grief ultimately in an encounter with the long-
sword with an old-fashioned English master of defence. Another
popular teacher was a certain " Geronimo " ; but he also met
with a melancholy and premature end by the hands of one Cheef e,
" a tall man in his fight and natural English," says George Silver,
the champion of the Corporation of Masters of Defence. Saviolo,
however, seems to have remained unconquered. In his work
( Vincentio Saviolo, his practise, in two bookes, the first intreating
of the use of the Rapier and Dagger, the second of Honor and
honorable quarrels. London. Printed by John Wolfe, 1595)
are expounded in a most typical manner the principles of rapier
play.
The fencing phraseology of Elizabethan times is highly
picturesque, but with difficulty intelligible in the absence of
practical demonstration. Without going into technical details
it may be pointed out that the long Elizabethan rapier, however
admirably balanced it might otherwise be, was still too heavy to
admit of quick parries with the blade itself. Thrusts, as a rule,
had to be avoided by body movements, by ducking, or by a
vault aside (incartata), or beaten away with the left hand, the
hand being protected with a gauntlet or armed with a dagger.
In fact, one may say that the chief characteristic of Elizabethan
sword-play was the concerted action of the left hand parrying
while the right delivered the attack. Benvolio's description of
Tybalt's fight is graphic:
" With piercing steel he tilts at bold Mercutio's breast,
Who, ail as hot, turns deadly point to point,
And with a martial scorn, with one hand beats
Cold death aside, and with the other
Sends it back to Tybalt, whose dexterity
Retorts it . . ."
Of these body movements, in Saviolo's days, the most approved
were: the incartata, just mentioned; the pass (the " passado,"
in the ruffling Anglo-Italian jargon), that is, passing of one
foot in front of the other whilst delivering the attack; the botta
litnga, or lunge; and the caricado, which was a far-reaching
combination of the two. Of systematic sword movements there
were six: stocata, a thrust delivered with nails up wards; imbrocata,
with nails down; punta-reversa, any thrust delivered from the
left side of the body; mandrilto, a cut from the right; rinverso,
one from the left; slramazone, a right-down blow with the point
of the sword.
25
FENCING
The new art of fence, as systematized by the principles of
rapier play, was on the whole already accepted in England
during the last decade of the i6th century, and was, as we know,
destined to endure. Nevertheless, there were still many partisans
of the older school: lovers of the national short-sword and the
buckler. Their tenets are to be found embodied, in very strenu-
ous language, by the George Silver mentioned above, a member,
it would seem, of the now dwindling company of Masters of
Defence, in his small work: Paradoxe of Defence, wherein is
proved the true ground of fight to be in the short ancient weapons, etc.
Printed in London, 1599. (The work has been reprinted by
Messrs George Bell & Sons.)
The Italians were undoubtedly the leaders in sword-play;
but, towards the beginning of the I7th century, the Spaniards
developed a peculiar school of their own, which for a short while
was all the mode in England as well as in France. The last trace,
be it stated, of that school is now extinct. Yet the Spaniard of
cavalier days was undoubtedly a formidable duellist; that was
no doubt owing to the quality of the man, not of his art. The
Italian's fence was artistic; the Spaniard's dexterity was essen-
tially scientific. In Spain were to be found typically those
" Captains of Complements," who not only understood in their
most intricate mazes the proper " dependencies " for the cartel,
but also the mathematical certainties for the " reason demon-
strative." These Spanish books are marvellously pedantic;
one may as well say it, frankly ridiculous. Spanish masters in-
structed their scholars on mathematical lines, with the help of
diagrams drawn on the floor within a circle, the radius of which
bore certain cryptic proportions to length of human arms and
Spanish swords. The circle was inscribed in squares and inter-
sected by sundry chords bearing occult but, it was held, incon-
trovertible relations to probabilities of strokes and parries.
The scholar was to step from certain intersections to certain
others. If this stepping was correctly done the result was a fore-
gone victory. " A villain," exclaims Mercutio, indignantly,
" who fights by the book of arithmetic." Elizabethan comedies
bring us many an echo of its great expounder of mathematical
swordsmanship, the magnificent Carranza, the primer inventor
de la Ciencia de las Armas, the writer of treatises so abstruse on
" the first and second cause," in questions of honour and sword-
ing, that they have never been quite understood to this day.
Perhaps the most curious matter in connexion with the
Spanish fence is that the most splendid treatise of the sword
published in the French language is in reality purely Spanish
(we have seen that the first was German, and the second an
adaptation of Italian treatises). This third work, Academic de
I' epee de Girard Thibault, d'Anvers, etc., is indeed a monument;
one of the biggest books ever printed, and beyond compare the
biggest book of fence. It was issued in 1628 by the Leiden
Elzevirs, and took fifteen years to complete. Nine reigning
princes and a vast number of private gentlemen subscribed to
meet its stupendous expenses.
This work was spoken of as a " monument." It may, in some
respects, be looked upon as the funeral monument of the old
rapier fence; for soon after that period rose an entirely new
school, one adapted to the use of a less portentous weapon, the
small-sword of French pattern; a school destined to endure,
and to lead to the perfection of our modern escrime.
The evolution of this new school is an instance of the influence
of fashion upon the shape of the sword, and hence upon theories
concerning its use. The French school of fencing may be said
to owe its origin to the adoption, under Louis XIV., of the short
court -sword in place of the over-long wide-hiked rapier of the
older style. With a weapon of such reduced dimensions, of such
reduced weight, the advantage of the dagger as a fencing adjunct
at once ceased to be felt. The dagger, last Gothic remnant,
disappeared accordingly; and there arose rapidly a new system
of play, in which most of the defensive actions were performed
by the blade alone; in which, at the same time (the reduction
in the size and weight of the weapon rendering the efficiency of
the edge almost nugatory in comparison with that of the point),
all cutting action was ultimately discarded.
It is from that date, namely, from the last third of the I7th
century, that the sword, as a fighting implement, becomes
differentiated into two very different directions. The military
weapon becomes the back-sword or sabre; the walking com-
panion and duelling weapon becomes what we now understand
by the small-sword. Two utterly different kinds of fence are
practised: one, that of the back-sword; the other, what we
would now call foil-play.
The magnificent old cut and thrust rapier still flourished, it
is true, in parts of Italy and Spain; but by the end of the iyth
century it had already become an object of ridicule in the
eyes of all persons addicted to ban ton and it must be
remembered that ban ton, on the Continent everywhere and
even in England, at that time, was French ton. The walking
sword, fit for a gentleman's side, was therefore the small-sword
of Versailles pattern. Its use had to be learnt from French
masters of deportment; the old magniloquent Italo-Spanish
rapier jargon was forgotten; French terms, barbarized into
carte, tierce, sagoon, flanquonade, and so forth, were alone under-
stood. In fact, French fencing became as indispensable an
accomplishment to the Georgian gentlemen as the fine Italianated
foyning had been to the Elizabethan.
The new French sword-play was, it must be owned, very neat,
quiet, precise, and, if anything, even more deadly than the old
fence. It was perfect as a decorous mode of fight, and as well
suited to the lace ruffles, to the high perruque and the red heels
of the " beau " as the long cup-hilted rapier had been to the
booted and spurred " cavalier." The essence of its play was
nimbleness of wrist; it required quickness of spirit rather than
muscular vigour. It is to be noted, however, that the same sort
of popular opposition met the invasion of French fencing, in
post-Restoration days, that had been offered to the new-fangled
Italian rapier a century earlier. During the Parliamentary
period the rapier and its attendant dagger had practically dis-
appeared; they were not true warlike weapons, their chief
virtue was for duelling or sudden encounters. But the stout
English back-sword survived; and with it a very definite school
of back-sword play. Under Charles II., the amusement of stage
o prize-fighting with swords had become a la mode. Courteous
assaults at many weapons, of course rebated, had been frequent
functions under the auspices of the Corporation of Masters of
Defence during the second half of the i6th century; it is (be it
remarked) in such sword-matches on the scaffold that we find
the origin of our modern prize-fights at fisticuffs. The first
instance known of a challenge at sharps on the fighting stage is
seen in a cartel sent by George Silver and Toby his son, as
champions of the Corporation of Masters of Defence, to the ob-
noxious " Signers " Saviolo and Geronimo. As a matter of fact,
the latter, having apparently no wish to improve their excellent
social position or to risk forfeiting it, declined this invitation to
a public trial of skill. But the idea was right martial and pleasing
to the English mind, and the fashion of prize-fighting took the
firm hold it retained on English minds till stringent legislation,
not so very long ago, was brought to bear upon it. Be it as it
may, this prize-fighting with swords endured until middle
Georgian days; when, under the impetus given to fistic displays
then by the renowned Figg (who was at one and the same time
the most formidable of English fencers and the first on the long
list of English pugilistic champions), back-swording became
relegated to the provinces, and ultimately dwindled into our
bastard " single-stick."
Fencing, in its restricted sense of purely thrusting play, was
always an " academic " art in England. The first great advocate
and exponent of the new small-sword fence, as taught by the new
French school, was Sir William Hope of Balcomy, at 6ne time
deputy governor of Edinburgh Castle, who wrote a great number
of quaint treatises of great interest to the " operative " as well as
to the "speculative" fencer. Yet, oddly enough, Sir William
Hope was instrumental in endeavouring to push through parlia-
ment a bill for the establishment of a court of honour, the office
of which was to have been the deciding of honourable quarrels,
whenever possible, without appeal to fencing skill. The House,
FENCING
251
however, being at the time excited and busy on the question
of the union of Scotland and England, the bill never became act.
To resume: since it began to be practised as a regulated art
one may say broadly that sword play has already passed through
four main phases. The first belongs to the early Tudor days
of sword and buckler encounters, whereof, if the best theoretical
treatises appeared in Italy, the sturdiest practical exponents
were most probably found in the British Isles. Then came the
age of the rapier, coeval with the general disuse of the buckler.
There may be discerned the dawn of fencing proper, which will
fully arise when, in Caroline times, the outrageous length of
the tucke will at last be sufficiently reduced no longer to require
the dagger as a helpmate. The third was the age of the small-
sword. With its light, elegant and deadly practice we enter a
new atmosphere, so to speak, on fencing ground. Suppleness of
wrist and precision of fingering replace the ramping and traver-
sing, the heavy forcing play, of the Elizabethan. If the rapier
age was well exemplified by Vincent Saviolo, this one was
typified, albeit perhaps at a time when it was already somewhat
on the wane, by the admirable Angelo Tremamondo Malevolti.
In the early days of the small-sword age men still fenced in
play as they fought in earnest. But presently there appeared
on the scene (during the last years of the i8th century) an imple-
ment destined to revolutionize the art and hopelessly to divide
the practice of the school from that of the field: that was the
fencing mask. Before this invention, small-sword play in the
master's room was perforce comparatively cautious, correct,
sure and above all deliberate. The long, excited, argumentative
phrases of modern assaults were unknown; and so was the
almost inevitably consequent scrimmage. But under the pro-
tection of the fencing mask a new school of foil-play was evolved,
one in which swiftness and inveteracy of attack and parry, of
riposte, remise, counter-riposte and reprise, assumed an all-im-
portant character. With the new style began to assert itself
that utter recklessness of " chance hits " which in our days so
markedly differentiates foil-practice from actual duelling. And
this brings us to the fourth phase, the fencing art, to what may
be called the age of the foil.
If anything were required to demonstrate that foil-play has
nowadays passed into the state of what may be called fine art
in athleticism, it would be found in the rise of the method which
French masters particularize as lejeu du terrain, as duelling play
in fact; a play which differs as completely from academic foil-
fencing as cross-country riding in an unknown district from
the haute tcole of horsemanship in the manege. By fencing,
nowadays, that is by foil-play, we have come to mean not simply
fighting for hits, but a strictly regulated game which, being quite
conventional, does not take accidental hits into consideration
at all. This game requires for its perfect display a combination
of artificial circumstances, such as even floors, featherweight
weapons, and an unconditional acceptance of a number of
traditional conventions. Now, for the more utilitarian purposes
of duelling, the major part of the foil fencer's special achievement
and brilliancy has to be uncompromisingly sacrificed in the pres-
ence of the brutal fact that thrusts in the face, or below the waist,
do count, insomuch as they may kill; that accidental hits in the
arm or the leg cannot be disregarded, for they may, and generally
do, put a premature stop to the bout. The " rub on the green "
must be accepted, perforce, and indeed often plays as important
a part in the issue of the game as the player's skill. The fact,
however, that in earnest encounters all conventionalities which
determine the value of a hit vanish, does not in any way justify
the notion, prevalent among many, that a successful hit justifies
any method of planting the same; and that the mere discarding
of all convention in practical sword-play is sufficient to convert
a bad fencer into a dangerous duellist.
It is the recognition of this fact (which, oddly enough, only
came to be generally admitted, and not without reluctance,
by the masters of the art during the last quarter of the ipih
century) which has led to the elaboration of the modified system
of small-sword fence now known as epee play. The new system,
after passing through various rather extravagant phases of its
own, gradually returned to the main principle of sound foil-play,
but shorn of all futile conventions as to the relative values of hits.
In epte play a hit is a hit, whether correctly delivered or reckless,
whether intentional or the result of mere chance, and must, at
the cost of much caution and patience, be guarded against.
Per contra the elaboration by the devotees of the epee of a really
practical system of fence, that is, one applicable to trials in
earnest, has reacted upon the teaching of foil-play by the best
masters of the present day a teaching which, without ceasing
to be academical up to a certain point, takes now cognisance of
the necessity of defending every part of the body as sedulously
as the target of the breast, and, moreover, of warding the many
possibilities of chance hits in contretemps.
In both plays in the highly refined, complicated and brilliant
fence of the first-class " foil," as well as in the simpler and more
cautious operations of the practised duellist the one golden rule
remains, that one so quaintly expressed by M. Jourdain's
maitre d'armes in Moliere's comedy: " Tout le secret des armes ne
consiste qu'en deux choses, a donner et a ne point recevoir."
The point most usually lost sight of by sanguine and self-
reliant scorners of conventionalities is that, although with the
sword it may be comparatively easy at any time " to give," it is
by no means easy to make sure of " giving without receiving."
The mutual simultaneous hit the coup-double is, in fact, the
dread pitfall of all sword-play. For this reason, in courteous
bouts, a hit has no real value, not only when it is actually
cancelled by a counter, but when it is delivered in such a way as
to admit of a counter. In short, the experience of ages and the
careful consideration of probabilities have given birth to the
various make-believes and restrictions that go to make sound
foil-play. These restrictions are destined to act in the same
direction as the warning presence of a sharp point instead of a
button; and thus, as far as possible, to prevent those mutual
hits the contretemps of the old masters which mar the greater
number of assaults. The proper observance of those conventions,
other things being equal, distinguishes the good from the in-
different swordsman, the man who uses his head from him who
rushes blindly where angels fear to tread. So much for foil-
play.
In modern sword-play, on the other hand, is seen the usual
tendency of arts which have reached their climax of complication
to return to comparative simplicity. With reference to actual
duelling, it is a recognized thing that it would be the height of
folly to attempt, sword in hand, the complex attacks, the full-
length lunges, the neat but somewhat weak parries of the foil; so
much so, that many have been led to assert that, for its ultimate
practical purpose (which logically is that of duelling), the
refined art of the foil, requiring so many years of assiduous and
methodical work, is next to useless. It is alleged, as a proof, that
many successful duellists have happened to be indifferent
performers on the fencing floor. Some even maintain that a few
weeks' special work in that restricted very restricted play,
which alone cdn be considered safe on the field of honour, will
produce as good a practical swordsman as any who have walked
the schools for years. Nothing can be further from the truth:
were it but on the ground that the greater includes the less; that
the foil-fencer of standing who can perform with ease and
accuracy all the intricate movements of the assault, who has
trained his hand and eye to the lightning speed of the well-
handled foil, must logically prove more than a match for the more
purely practical but less trained devotees of the epee de combat.
The only difference for him in the two plays is that the latter is
incomparably slower in action, simpler; that it demands above
all things patience and caution; and especially that, instead of
protecting his breast only, the epee fencer must beware of the
wily attack, or the chance hit, at every part of his body, especially
at his sword-hand.
The difference which still exists between the French and
Italian schools of small-sword fence by no means so wide, in
point of theory, as popularly supposed is mainly due to the
dissimilarity of the weapons favoured by the two countries.
The quillons, which are retained to this day in the Italian
252
FENDER FENELON
fioretto and spada, conduce to a freer use of wrist-play and a
straight arm. The French, on the other hand, having long ago
adopted the plain grip both for fleuret and epee, have come to
rely more upon finger-play and a semi-bent arm. Both schools
have long laid claims to an overwhelming superiority, on theo-
retical ground, over their rivals claims which were unwarrant-
able. Indeed, of later days, especially since the evolution of a
special " duelling play," the two schools show a decided tendency,
notwithstanding the difference in the grip of the weapons, towards
a mutual assimilation of principles.
As a duelling weapon as one, that is to say, the practice of
which under the restrictive influence of conventions could
become elaborated into an art the sabre (see SABRE-FENCING)
returned to favour in some countries at the close of the
Napoleonic wars. Considered from the historical point of view,
the modern sabre, albeit now a very distant cousin of the small-
sword, is as direct a descendant as the latter itself of the old cut-
and-thrust rapier. It is curious, therefore, to note that, just as
the practice of the " small " or thrusting sword gave rise to two
rival schools, the French and the Italian, that of the sabre or
cutting sword (it can hardly be called the broadsword, the blade,
for the purposes of duelling play, having been reduced to
slenderest proportions) became split up into two main systems,
Italian and German. And further it is remarkable that the
leading characteristics of the latter should still be, in a manner,
" severity " and steadfastness; and that the former, the Italian,
should rely, as of yore, specially upon agility and insidious
cunning. .__
Concerning the latter-day evolution of that special and still
more conventional system of fence, the SMager or Hau-rapier
play favoured by the German student, from that of the ancestral
rapier, the curious will find a critical account in an article
entitled " SMager ei " which appeared in the Saturday Review,
5th of December 1885.
See also the separate articles on CANE-FENCING (canne);
EPEE-DE-COMBAT; FOIL-FENCING; SABRE-FENCING; and
SINGLE-STICK.
AUTHORITIES. The bibliography of fencing is a copious subject ;
but it has been very completely dealt with in the following works:
Bibliotheca dimicatoria, in the " Fencing, Boxing and Wrestling "
volume of the Badminton library (Longmans) ; A Bibliography of
Fencing and Duelling, by Carl A. Thimm (John Lane). For French
works more especially: La Bibliographic de I'escrime, by Vigeant
(Paris, Motteroz) ; and Ma Collection d'escrime, by the same (Paris,
Quantin). For Italian books: Bibliografia generale della scherma,
by Gelli (Firenza, Niccolai). For Spain and Portugal: Libros
de esgrima espanoles y Portugueses, by Leguina (Madrid, Los
Huerfanos). Both M. Vigeant's and Cav. Gelli's works deal with
the subject generally; but their entries are only critical, or even
tolerably accurate, in the case of books belonging to their own
countries. Concerning the history of the art, Egerton Castle's
Schools and Masters of Fence (George Bell) ; Hutton's The Sword
and the Centuries (Grant Richards) ; and Letainturier-Fradin's Les
Joueurs d'epee d travers les Ages (Paris, Flammarion) cover the ground,
technically and ethically. As typical exponents of the French and
Italian schools respectively may be mentioned here: La Theorie de
I'escrime, by Prevost (Paris, de Brunhof) (this is the work which was
adopted in the Badminton volume on Fencing), and Trattato teorico-
pratico della scherma, by Parise (Rome, Voghera). (E. CA.)
FENDER, a metal guard or defence (whence the name) for a
fire-place. When the open hearth with its logs burning upon dogs
or andirons was replaced by the closed grate, the fender was
devised as a finish to the smaller fire-places, and as a safeguard
against the dropping of cinders upon the wooden floor, which was
now much nearer to the fire. Fenders are usually of steel, brass
or iron, solid or pierced. Those made of brass in the latter part of
the 1 8th and the earlier part of the ipth centuries are by far the
most elegant and artistic. They usually had three claw feet, and
the pierced varieties were often cut into arabesques or con-
ventional patterns. The lyre and other motives of the Empire
style were much used during the prevalence of that fashion. The
modern fender is much lower and is often little more than a kerb;
it is now not infrequently of stone or marble, fixed to the floor.
FlJNELON, BERTRAND DE SALIGNAC, seigneur de la Mothe
(1523-1589), French diplomatist, came of an old family of
P6rigord. After serving in the army he was sent ambassador to
England in 1568. At the request of Charles IX. he endeavoured
to excuse to Elizabeth the massacre of St. Bartholomew as a
necessity caused by a plot which had been laid against the life of
the king of France. For some time after the death of Charles IX.
F6nelon was continued in his office, but he was recalled in 1575
when Catherine de' Medici wished to bring about a marriage
between Elizabeth and the duke of Alencon, and thought that
another ambassador would have a better chance of success in the
negotiation. In 1 582 Fenelon was charged with a new mission to
England, then to Scotland, and returned to France in 1583. He
opposed the Protestants until the end of the reign of Henry III.,
but espoused the cause of Henry IV. He died in 1589. His
nephew in the sixth degree was the celebrated archbishop of
Cambrai.
Fenelon is the author of a number of writings, among which
those of general importance are Memoires touchant I'Angleterre et
la Suisse, on Sommaire de la negociation faite en Angleterre, fan
7577 (containing a number of the letters of Charles and his mother,
relating to Queen Elizabeth, Queen Mary and the Bartholomew
massacre), published in the Memoires of Castelnau (Paris, 1659);
Negociations de la Mothe Fenelon et de Michel, sieur de Mauiiissiere, en
A ngleterre ; and Depdches de M. de la Mothe Fenelon, Instructions au
sieur de la Mauiiissiere, both contained in the edition of Castelnau's
Memoires, published at Brussels in 1731. The correspondence of
Fenelon was published at Paris in 1838-1841, in 7 vols. 8vo.
See " Lettres de Catherine de' Medicis,' edited by Hector de la
Ferriere (1880 seq.) in the Collection de documents inedits sur I'histoire
de France.
FENELON, FRANCOIS DE SALIGNAC DE LA MOTHE (1651-
1715), French writer and archbishop of Cambrai, was born at
the chateau of Fenelon in Perigord on the 6th of August 1651.
His father, Pons, comte de Fenelon, was a country gentleman of
ancient lineage, large family and small estate. Owing to his
delicate health the boy's early education was carried on at home;
though he was able to spend some time at the neighbouring
university of Cahors. In 1666 he came to Paris, undercharge
of his father's brother, Antoine, marquis de Fenelon, a retired
soldier of distinction, well known for his religious zeal. Three
years later he entered the famous theological college of Saint
Sulpice. Here, while imbibing the somewhat mystical piety
of the house, he had an excellent chance of carrying on his
beloved classical studies; indeed, at one time he proposed to
couple sacred and profane together, and go on a missionary
journey to the Levant. " There I shall once more make the
Apostle's voice heard in the Church of Corinth. I shall stand
on that Areopagus where St. Paul preached to the sages of this
world an unknown God. But I do not scorn to descend thence
to the Piraeus, where Socrates sketched the plan of his republic.
I shall mount to the double summit of Parnassus; I shall revel
in the joys of Tempe." Family opposition, however, put an end
to this attractive prospect. F6nelon remained at Saint Sulpice
till 1679, when he was made " superior " of a " New Catholic "
sisterhood in Paris an institution devoted to the conversion of
Huguenot ladies. Of his work here nothing is known for certain.
Presumably it was successful; since in the winter of 1685, just
after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, Fenelon was put
at the head of a number of priests, and sent on a mission to the
Protestants of Saintonge, the district immediately around the
famous Huguenot citadel of La Rochelle. To Ffoelon such
employment was clearly uncongenial; and if he was rather
too ready to employ unsavoury methods such as bribery and
espionage among his proselytes, his general conduct was kindly
and statesmanlike in no slight degree. But neither in his actions
nor in his writings is there the least trace of that belief in liberty
of conscience ascribed to him by 18th-century philosophers.
Tender-hearted he might be in practice; but toleration he declares
synonymous with " cowardly indulgence and false compasssion."
Meanwhile the marquis de Fenelon had introduced his nephew
into the devout section of the court, dominated by Mme de
Maintenon. He became a favourite disciple of Bossuet, and at
the bishop's instance undertook to refute certain metaphysical
errors of Father Malebranche. Followed thereon an independent
philsophical Treatise on the Existence of God, wherein F6nelon
rewrote Descartes in the spirit of St Augustine. More important
FENELON
253
were his Dialogues on Eloquence, wherein he entered an eloquent
plea for greater simplicity and naturalness in the pulpit, and
urged preachers to take the scriptural, natural style of Bossuet
as their model, rather than the coldly analytic eloquence of his
great rival, Bourdaloue. Still more important was his Treatise
on the Education of Girls, being the first systematic attempt
ever made to deal with that subject as a whole. Hence it was
probably the most influential of all Fenelon's books, and guided
French ideas on the question all through the i8th century. It
holds a most judicious balance between the two opposing parties
of the time. On the one side were the prScieuses, enthusiasts
for the " higher " education of their sex; on the other were
the heavy Philistines, so often portrayed by Moliere, who
thought that the less girls knew the better they were likely to
be. Fenelon sums up in favour of the cultivated house- wife;
his first object was to persuade the mothers to take charge of
their girls themselves, and fit them to become wives and mothers
in their turn.
The book brought its author more than literary glory. In
1689 Fenelon was gazetted tutor to the duke of Burgundy,
eldest son of the dauphin, and eventual heir to the crown. The
character of this strange prince has been drawn once for all by
Saint-Simon. Shortly it may be said that he was essentially a
mass of contradictions brilliant, passionate to the point of mania,
but utterly weak and unstable, capable of developing into a
saint or a monster, but quite incapable of becoming an ordinary
human being. Fenelon assailed him on the religious side, and
managed to transform him into a devotee, exceedingly affection-
ate, earnest and religious, but woefully lacking in tact and
common sense. In justice, however, it should be added that
his health was being steadily undermined by a mysterious
internal complaint, and that Fenelon's tutorship came to an end
on his disgrace in 1697, before the pupil was fifteen. The abiding
result xsf his tutorship is a code of carefully graduated moral
lessons the Fables, the Dialogues of the Dead (a series of imagin-
ary conversations between departed heroes), and finally Tele-
maque, where the adventures of the son of Ulysses in search of
a father are made into a political novel with a purpose. Not,
indeed, that Fenelon meant his book to be the literal paper
Constitution some of his contemporaries thought it. Like other
Utopias, it is an easy-going compromise between dreams and
possibilities. Its one object was to broaden Burgundy's mind,
and ever keep before his eyes the " great and holy maxim that
kings exist for the sake of their subjects, not subjects for the sake
of kings." Here and there Fenelon carries his philanthropy to
lengths curiously prophetic of the age of Rousseau fervid
denunciation of war, belief in nature and fraternity of nations.
And he has a truly iSth-century belief in the all-efficiency of
institutions. Mentor proposes to " change the tastes and habits
of the whole people, and build up again from the very found^
ations." Fenelon is on firmer ground when he leads a reaction
against the " mercantile system " of Colbert, with its crushing
restrictions on trade; or when he sings the praises of agriculture,
in the hope of bringing back labour to the land, and thereby
ensuring the physical efficiency of the race. Valuable and far-
sighted as were these ideas, they fitted but ill into the scheme
of a romance. Seldom was Voltaire wider of the mark than when
he called Telemaque a Greek poem in French prose. It is too
motive, too full of ingenious contrivances, to be really Greek.
As, in Fenelon's own opinion, the great merit of Homer was his
" amiable simplicity," so the great merit of Telemaque is the art
that gives to each adventure its hidden moral, to each scene
some sly reflection on Versailles. Under stress of these pre-
occupations, however, organic unity of structure went very much
to the wall, and Telemaque is a grievous offender against its
author's own canons of literary taste. Not that it altogether
lost thereby. There is a curious richness in this prose, so full
of rhythm and harmony, that breaks at every moment into
verse, as it drags itself along its slow and weary way, half-
fainting under an overload of epithets. And although no single
feature of the book is Greek, there hangs round it a moral
fragrance only to be called forth by one who had fulfilled the
vow of his youth, and learnt to breathe, as purely as on " the
double summit of Parnassus," the very essence of the antique.
Telemaque was published in 1699. Four years before, Fenelon
had been appointed archbishop of Cambrai, one of the richest
benefices in France. Very soon afterwards, however, came the
great calamity of his life. In the early days of his tutorship he
had met the Quietist apostle, Mme Guyon (q.v.}, and had been
much struck by some of her ideas. These he developed along lines
of his own, where Christian Neoplatonism curiously mingles with
theories of chivalry and disinterestedness, borrowed from the
precieuses of his own time. His mystical principles are set out
at length in his Maxims of the Saints, published in 1697 (see
QUIETISM). Here he argues that the more love we have for
ourselves, the less we can spare for our Maker. Perfection lies
in getting rid of self-hood altogether in never thinking of our-
selves, or even of the relation in which God stands to us. The
saint does not love Christ as his Redeemer, but only as the
Redeemer of the human race. Bossuet (q.v.) attacked this position
as inconsistent with Christianity. Fenelon promptly appealed
to Rome, and after two years of bitter controversy his book was
condemned by Innocent XII. in 1699. As to the merits of the
controversy opinion will always be divided. On the point of
doctrine all good judges agree that Fenelon- was wrong; though
many still welcome the obiter dictum of Pope Innocent, that
Fenelon erred by loving God too much, and Bossuet by loving
his neighbour too little. Of late years, however, Bossuet has
found powerful defenders; and if they have not cleared his
character from reproach, they have certainly managed to prove
that Fenelon's methods of controversy were not much better
than his. One of the results of the quarrel was Fenelon's banish-
ment from court; for Louis XIV. had ardently taken Bossuet's
side, and brought all the batteries of French influence to bear on
the pope. Immediately on the outbreak of the controversy,
Fenelon was exiled to his diocese, and during the last eighteen
years of his life he was only once allowed to leave it.
To Cambrai, accordingly, all his energies were now directed.
Even Saint-Simon allows that his episcopal duties were perfectly
performed. Tours of inspection, repeated several times a year,
brought him into touch with every corner of his> diocese. It was
administered with great strictness, and yet on broad and liberal
lines. There was no bureaucratic fussiness, no seeking after
popularity; but every man, whether great or small, was treated
exactly as became his station in the world. And Saint-Simon
bears the same witness to his government of his palace. There he
lived with all the piety of a true pastor, yet with all the dignity of a
great nobleman, who was still on excellent terms with the world.
But his magnificence made no one angry, for it was kept up
chiefly for the sake of others, and was exactly proportionate to
his place. With all its luxuries and courtly ease, his house
remained a true bishop's palace, breathing the strictest discipline
and restraint. And of all this chastened dignity the archbishop
was himself the ever-present, ever-inimitable model in all that
he did the perfect churchman, in all the high-bred noble, in all
things, also, the author of Telemaque.
The one great blot on this ideal existence was his persecution of
the Jansenists (see JANSENISM). His theories of life were very
different from theirs; and they had taken a strong line against
his Maxims of the Saints, holding that visionary theories of
perfection were ill-fitted for a world where even the holiest could
scarce be saved. To suppress them, and to gain a better market
for his own ideas, he was even ready to strike up an alliance with
the Jesuits, and force on a reluctant France the doctrine of papal
infallibility. His time was much better employed in fitting his
old pupil, Burgundy, for a kingship that never came. Louis XIV.
seldom allowed them to meet, but for years they corresponded;
and nothing is more admirable than the mingled tact and firmness
with which Fenelon spoke his mind about the prince's faults.
This exchange of letters became still more frequent in 1711,
when the wretched dauphin died and left Burgundy heir-
apparent to the throne. Fenelon now wrote a series of memorable
criticisms on the government of Louis XIV., accompanied by
projects of reform, not always quite so wise. For his practical
254
FENESTELLA FENIANS
political service was to act as an alarm-bell. Much more clearly
than most men, he saw that the Bourbons were tottering to their
fall, but how to prevent that fall he did not know.
Not that any amount of knowledge would have availed. In
1712 Burgundy died, and with him died all his tutor's hopes of
reform. From this moment his health began to fail, though he
mustered strength enough to write a remarkable Letter to the
French Academy in the autumn of 1714. This is really a series of
general reflections on the literary movement of his time. As in
his political theories, the critical element is much stronger than
the constructive. Fenelon was feeling his way away from the
rigid standards of Boileau to " a Sublime so simple and familiar
that all may understand it." But some of his methods were
remarkably erratic; he was anxious, for instance, to abolish
verse, as unsuited to the genius of the French. In other respects,
however, he was far before his age. The 1 7th century has treated
literature as it treated politics and religion; each of the three
was cooped up in a water-tight compartment by itself. Fenelon
was one of the first to break down these partition-walls, and
insist on viewing all three as products of a single spirit, seen at
different angles.
A few weeks after the Letter was written, Fenelon met with a
carriage-accident, and the shock proved too much for his en-
feebled frame. On the 7th of January 1715 he died at the age of
63. Ever since, his character has been a much-discussed enigma.
Bossuet can only be thought of as the high-priest of authority
and common-sense; but Fenelon has been made by turns into a
sentimentalist, a mystical saint, an iSth-century philosophe,
an ultramontane churchman and a hysterical hypocrite. And
each of these views, except the last, contains an element of truth.
More than most men, Fenelon " wanders between two worlds
one dead, the other powerless to be born." He came just at a
time when the characteristic ideas of the i?th century the ideas
of Louis XIV., of Bossuet and Boileau had lost their savour,
and before another creed could arise to take their place. Hence,
like most of those who break away from an established order, he
seems by turns a revolutionist and a reactionary. Such a man
expresses his ideas much better by word of mouth than in the
cold formality of print; and Fenelon's contemporaries thought
far more highly of his conversation than his books. That
downright, gossiping German princess, the duchess of Orleans,
cared little for the Maxims; but she was enraptured by their
author, and his " ugly face, all skin and bone, though he laughed
and talked quite unaffectedly and easily." An observer of very
different mettle, the great lawyer d'Aguesseau, dwells on the
"noble singularity, that gave him an almost prophetic air. Yet
he was neither passionate nor masterful. Though in reality he
governed others, it was always by seeming to give way; and he
reigned in society as much by the attraction of his manners as
by the superior virtue of his parts. Under his hand the most
trifling subjects gained a new importance; yet he treated the
gravest with a touch so light that he seemed to have invented the
sciences rather than learnt them, for he was always a creator,
always original, and himself was imitable of none." Still better is
Saint-Simon's portrait of Fenelon as he appeared about the time
of his appointment to Cambrai tall, thin, well-built, exceedingly
pale, with a great nose, eyes from which fire and genius poured in
torrents, a face curious and unlike any other, yet so striking and
attractive that, once seen, it could not be forgotten. There were
to be found the most contradictory qualities in perfect agreement
with each other gravity and courtliness, earnestness and gaiety,
the man of learning, the noble and the bishop. But all centred in
an air of high-bred dignity, of graceful, polished seemliness and
wit it cost an effort to turn away one's eyes.
AUTHORITIES. The best complete edition of Fenelon was brought
out by the abbe Gosselin of Saint Sulpice (10 vols., Paris, 1851).
Gosselin also edited the Histoire de tendon, by Cardinal Bausset
(4 vols., Paris, 1850). Modern authorities are Fenelon a Cambrai
(Paris, 1885), by Emmanuel de Broglie; Fenelon, by Paul Janet
(Paris, 1892) ; Bossuet et Fenelon, by L. Crousle (2 vols., Paris, 1894) ;
J.Lemaitre, Fenelon(igio) . In English there are: Fenelon, his Friends
and Enemies, by E. K. Sanders (1901); and Francois de Fenelon,
by Lord St Cyres (1906) ; see also the Quarterly Review for January
1902, and M. Masson, Fenelon et Madame Guyon (1907). (St. C.)
('
i
//.
FENESTELLA, Roman historian and encyclopaedic writer,
flourished in the reign of Tiberius. If the notice in Jerome be
correct, he lived from 52 B.C. to A.D. 19 (according to others 3 5 B.C.-
A.D. 36). Taking Varro for his model, Fenestella was one of the
chief representatives of the new style of historical writing which,
in the place of the brilliant descriptive pictures of Livy, discussed
curious and out-of-the-way incidents and customs of political and
social life, including literary history. He was the author of an
Annales, probably from the earliest times down to his own days.
The fragments indicate the great variety of subjects discussed:
the origin of. the appeal to the people (prowcalio); the use of
elephants in the circ.us games; the wearing of gold rings; the
introduction of the olive tree; the material for making the toga;
the cultivation of the soil; certain details as to the lives of Cicero
and Terence. The work was very much used (mention is made of
an abridged edition) by Pliny the elder, Asconius Pedianus (the
commentator on Cicero), Nonius, and the philologists.
Fragments in H. Peter, Historicorum Romanorum fragmenta
1883); see also monographs by L. Mercklin (1844) and J. Poeth
1849); M. Schanz, Geschichte der rom. Litt. ed. 2 (1901); Teuffel,
list, of Roman Literature, p. 259. A work published under the name of
L. Fenestella (De magistratibus et sacerdotiis Romanorum, 1510) is
really by A. D. Fiocchi, canon and papal secretary, and was subse-
quently published as by him (under the latinized form of his name,
Floccus), edited by Aegidius Witsius (1561).
FENESTRATION (from O. Fr. fenestre, modern fenetre, Lat.
fenestra, a window, connected with Gr. $a.ivta>, to show), an
architectural term applied to the arrangement of windows on the
front of a building, more especially when, in the absence of
columns or pilasters separating them, they constitute its chief
architectural embellishment. The term " fenestral " is given to a
frame or " chassis " on which oiled paper or thin cloth was
strained to keep out wind and rain when the windows were not
glazed.
FENIANS, or FENIAN BROTHERHOOD, the name of a modern
Irish- American revolutionary secret society, founded in America
by John O'Mahony (1816-1877) in 1858. The name was derived
from an anglicized version of fiann, feinne, the legendary band
of warriors in Ireland led by the hero Find Mac Cumaifl (see
FINN MAC COOL; and CELT: Celtic Literature: Irish); and it
was given to his organization of conspirators by O'Mahony, who
was a Celtic scholar and had translated Keating's History of
Ireland in 1857. After the collapse of William Smith O'Brien's
attempted rising in 1848, O'Mahony, who was concerned in it,
escaped abroad, and since 1852 had been living in New York.
James Stephens, another of the " men of 1848," had established
himself in Paris, and was in correspondence with O'Mahony
and other disaffected Irishmen at home and abroad. A club
called the Phoenix National and Literary Society, with Jeremiah
Donovan (afterwards known as O'Donovan Rossa) among its
more prominent members, had recently been formed at Skib-
bereen; and under the influence of Stephens, who visited it in
May 1858, it became the centre of preparations for armed re-
bellion. About the same time O'Mahony in the United States
established the " Fenian Brotherhood," whose members bound
themselves by an oath of " allegiance to the Irish Republic, now
virtually established," and swore to take up arms when called
upon and to yield implicit obedience to the commands of their
superior officers. The object of Stephens, O'Mahony and other
leaders of the movement was to form a great league of Irishmen
in all parts of the world against British rule in Ireland. The
organization was modelled on that of the French Jacobins at the
Revolution; there was a " Committee of Public Safety " in
Paris, with a number of subsidiary committees, and affiliated
clubs; its operations were conducted secretly by unknown and
irresponsible leaders; and it had ramifications in every part of
the world, the " Fenians," as they soon came to be generally
called, being found in Australia, South America, Canada, and
above all in the United States, as well as in the large centres
of population in Great Britain such as London, Manchester
and Glasgow. It is, however, noteworthy that Fenianism
never gained much hold on the tenant-farmers or agricultural
labourers in Ireland, although the scurrilous press by which it
FENIANS
255
was supported preached a savage vendetta against the land-
owners, who were to be shot down " as we shoot robbers and
rats." 1 The movement was denounced by the priests of the
Catholic Church.
It was, however, some few years after the foundation of the
Fenian Brotherhood before it made much headway, or at all
events before much was heard of it outside the organization
itself, though it is probable that large numbers of recruits had
enrolled themselves in its " circles." The Phoenix Club con-
spiracy in Kerry was easily crushed by the government, who
had accurate knowledge from an informer of what was going on.
Some twenty ringleaders were put on trial, including Donovan,
and when they pleaded guilty were, with a single exception,
treated with conspicuous leniency. But after a convention held
at Chicago under O'Mahony's presidency in November 1863
the movement began to show signs of life. About the same time
the Irish People, a revolutionary journal of extreme violence, was
started in Dublin by Stephens, and for two years was allowed
without molestation by the government to advocate armed
rebellion, and to appeal for aid to Irishmen who had had military
training in the American Civil War. At the close of that war in
1865 numbers of Irish who had borne arms flocked to Ireland,
and the plans for a rising matured. The government, well served
as usual by informers, now took action. In September 1865 the
Irish People was suppressed, and several of the more prominent
Fenians were sentenced to terms of penal servitude; Stephens,
through the connivance of a prison warder, escaped to France.
The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended in the beginning of 1866,
and a considerable number of persons were arrested. Stephens
issued a bombastic proclamation in America announcing an
imminent general rising in Ireland; but he was himself soon
afterwards deposed by his confederates, among whom dissension
had broken out. A few Irish-American officers, who landed at
Cork in the expectation of commanding an army against England,
were locked up in gaol; some petty disturbances in Limerick
and Kerry were easily suppressed by the police.
In the United States, however, the Fenian Brotherhood, now
under the presidency of W. R. Roberts, continued plotting.
They raised money by the issue of bonds in the name of the
" Irish Republic," which were bought by the credulous in the
expectation of their being honoured when Ireland should be
" a nation once again." A large quantity of arms was purchased,
and preparations were openly made for a raid into Canada, which
the United States government took no steps to prevent. It was
indeed believed that President Andrew Johnson was not indis-
posed to turn the movement to account in the settlement of the
Alabama claims. The Fenian " secretary for war " was General
T. W. Sweeny (1820-1892), who temporarily (Jan. i865-Nov.
1 066) was struck off the American army list. The command
of the expedition was entrusted to John O'Neill, who crossed the
Niagara river at the head of some 800 men on the ist of June
1866, and captured Fort Erie. But large numbers of his men
deserted, and at Ridgeway the Fenians were routed by a battalion
of Canadian volunteers. On the 3rd of June the remnant sur-
rendered to the American warship " Michigan "; and the tardy
issue of President Johnson's proclamation enforcing the laws
of neutrality brought the raid to an ignominious end; the
prisoners were released, and the arms taken from the raiders
were, according to Henri Le Caron, " returned to the Fenian
organization, only to be used for the same purpose some four
years later." In December 1867, John O'Neill became president
of the Brotherhood in America, which in the following year held
a great convention in Philadelphia attended by over 400 properly
accredited delegates, while 6000 Fenian soldiers, armed and in
uniform, paraded the streets. At this convention a second in-
vasion of Canada was determined upon; while the news of the
Clerkenwell explosion in London (see below) was a strong in-
centive to a vigorous policy. Le Caron (q.v.) , who, while acting
as a secret agent of the English government, held the position
of " inspector-general of the Irish Republican Army," asserts
that he " distributed fifteen thousand stands of arms and almost
1 William O'Connor Morris, Ireland 1708-1898, p. 195.
three million rounds of ammunition in the care of the many
trusted men stationed between Ogdensburg and St Albans," in
preparation for the intended raid. It took place in April 1870,
and proved a failure not less rapid or complete than the attempt
of 1866. The Fenians under O'Neill's command crossed the
Canadian frontier near Franklin, Vt., but were dispersed by a
single volley from Canadian volunteers; while O'Neill himself
was promptly arrested by the United States authorities acting
under the orders of President Grant.
Meantime in Ireland, after the suppression of the Irish People,
disaffection had continued to smoulder, and during the latter
part of 1866 Stephens endeavoured to raise funds in America
for a fresh rising planned for the following year. A bold move
on the part of the Fenian " circles " in Lancashire had been
concerted in co-operation with the movement in Ireland. An
attack was to be made on Chester, the arms stored in the castle
were to be seized, the telegraph wires cut, the rolling stock on
the railway to be appropriated for transport to Holyhead, where
shipping was to be seized and a descent made on Dublin before the
authorities should have time to interfere. This scheme was
frustrated by information given to the government by the in-
former John Joseph Corydon, one of Stephens's most trusted
agents. Some insignificant outbreaks in the south and west of
Ireland brought " the rebellion of 1867 " to an ignominious close.
Most of the ringleaders were arrested, but although some of them
were sentenced to death none was executed. On the nth of
September 1867, Colonel Thomas J. Kelly, " deputy central
organizer of the Irish Republic," one of the most dangerous of
the Fenian conspirators, was arrested in Manchester, whither
he had gone from Dublin to attend a council of the English
" centres," together with a companion, Captain Deasy. A plot
to effect the rescue of these prisoners was hatched by Edward
O'Meaher Condon with other Manchester Fenians; and on the
1 8th of September, while Kelly and Deasy were being conveyed
through the city from the court-house, the prison van was
attacked by Fenians armed with revolvers, and in the scuffle
police-sergeant Brett, who was seated inside the van, was shot
dead. Condon, Allen, Larkin, Maguire and O'Brien, who had
taken a prominent part in the rescue, were arrested. All five
were sentenced to death; but Condon, who was an American
citizen, was respited at the request of the United States govern-
ment, his sentence being commuted to penal servitude for life,
and Maguire was granted a pardon. Allen, Larkin, and O'Brien
were hanged on the 23rd of November for the murder of Brett.
Attempts were made at the time, and have since been repeated,
to show that these men were unjustly sentenced, the contention
of their sympathizers being, first, that as " political offenders "
they should not have been treated as ordinary murderers; and,
secondly, that as they had no deliberate intention to kill the
police-sergeant, the shot that caused his death having been fired
for the purpose of breaking open the lock of the van, the crime
was at worst that of manslaughter. But even if these pleas rest
on a correct statement of the facts they have no legal validity,
and they afford no warrant for the title of the " Manchester
martyrs " by which these criminals are remembered among the
more extreme nationalists in Ireland and America. Kelly and
Deasy escaped to the United States, where the former obtained
employment in the New York custom-house.
In the same month, November 1867, one Richard Burke, who
had been employed by the Fenians to purchase arms in Birming-
ham, was arrested and lodged in Clerkenwell prison in London.
While he was awaiting trial a wall of the prison was blown down
by gunpowder, the explosion causing the death of twelve persons,
and the maiming of some hundred and twenty others. This
outrage, for which Michael Barrett suffered the death penalty,
powerfully influenced W. E. Gladstone in deciding that the
Protestant Church of Ireland should be disestablished as a con-
cession to Irish disaffection. In 1870, Michael Davitt (q.v.) was
sentenced to fifteen years' penal servitude for participation in
the Fenian conspiracy; and before he was released on ticket of
leave the name Fenian had become practically obsolete, though
the " Irish Republican Brotherhood " and other organizations
256
FENNEL FENS
In Ireland and abroad carried on the same tradition and pursued
the same policy in later years. In 1879, John Devoy, a member
'of the Fenian Brotherhood, promoted a "new departure" in
America, by which the " physical force party " allied itself with
the " constitutional movement " under the leadership of C. S.
Parnell (q.v.); and the political conspiracy of the Fenians was
combined with the agrarian revolution inaugurated by the Land
League.
See William O'Connor Morris, Ireland from if 98 to 1898 (London,
1898) ; Two Centuries of Irish History, 1691-1876, edited by R. Barry
O'Brien (London, 1907) ; Henri Le Caron, Twenty-five Years in the
Secret Service (London, 1892); PatrickJ. P.Tynan, The Irish National
Invincible* and their Times (London, 1896); Justin M'Carthy, A
History of our own Times (4 vols., London, 1880). (R. J. M.)
FENNEL, Foeniculum vulgare (also known as F. cap iliac eum) ,
a perennial plant of the natural order Umbelliferae, from 2 to
3 or (when cultivated) 4 ft. in height, having leaves three or four
times pinnate, with numerous linear or awl-shaped segments,
and glaucous compound umbels of about 15 or 20 rays, with
no involucres, and small yellow flowers, the petals incurved at
the tip. The fruit is laterally compressed, five-ridged, and has a
large single resin-canal or " vitta " under each furrow. The plant
appears to be of south European origin, but is now met with in
various parts of Britain and the rest of temperate Europe, and
in the west of Asia. The dried fruits of cultivated plants from
Malta have an aromatic taste and odour, and are used for the
preparation of fennel water, valued for its carminative properties.
It is given in doses of i to 2 oz., the active principle being a
volatile oil which is probably the same as oil of anise. The
shoots of fennel are eaten blanched, and the seeds are used for
flavouring. The fennel seeds of commerce are of several sorts.
Sweet or Roman fennel seeds are the produce of a tall perennial
plant, with umbels of 25-30 rays, which is cultivated near Nismes
in the south of France; they are elliptical and arched in form,
about in. long and a quarter as broad, and are smooth exter-
nally, and of a colour approaching a pale green. Shorter and
straighter fruits are obtained from the annual variety of F.
vulgare known as F. Panmorium (Panmuhuri) or Indian fennel,
and are employed in India in curries, and for medicinal purposes.
Other kinds are the German or Saxon fruits, brownish-green in
colour, and between and j in. in length, and the broader but
smaller fruits of the wild or bitter fennel of the south of France.
A variety of fennel, F. duke, having the stem compressed at the
base, and the umbel 6-8 rayed, is grown in kitchen-gardens for
the sake of its leaves.
Giant fennel is the name applied to the plant Ferula communis,
a member of the same natural order, and a fine herbaceous plant,
native in the Mediterranean region, where the pith of the stem
is used as tinder. Hog's or sow fennel is the species Peucedanum
officinale, another member of the Umbelliferae.
FENNER, DUDLEY (c. 1558-1587), English puritan divine,
was born in Kent and educated at Cambridge University.
There he became an adherent of Thomas Cartwright (1535-1603),
and publicly expounded his presbyterian views, with the result
that he was obliged to leave Cambridge without taking his degree.
For some months he seems to have assisted the vicar of Cran-
brook, Kent, but it is doubtful whether he received ordination.
He next followed Cartwright to Antwerp, and, having received
ordination according to rite of the Reformed church, assisted
Cartwright for several years in preaching to the English con-
gregation there. The leniency shown by Archbishop Grindal to
puritans encouraged him to return to England, and he became
curate of Cranbrook in 1583. In the same year, however, he was
one of seventeen Kentish ministers suspended for refusing to sign
an acknowledgment of the queen's supremacy and of the authority
of the Prayer Book and articles. He was imprisoned for a time,
but eventually regained his liberty and spent the remainder of
his life as chaplain in the Reformed church at Middleburgh.
A list of his authentic works is given in Cooper's Athenae Canta-
brigienses (Cambridge, 1858-1861). They rank among the best
expositions of the principles of puritanism.
FENNY STRATFORD, a market town in the Buckingham
parliamentary division of Buckinghamshire, England, 48 m.
N.W. by N. of London on a' branch of the London & North-
Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4799. It lies
in an open valley on the west (left) bank of the Ouzel, where the
great north-western road from London, the Roman Watling
Street, crosses the stream, and is i m. E. of Bletchley, an im-
portant junction on the main line of the North- Western railway.
The church of St Martin was built (c. 1730) on the site of an older
church at the instance of Dr Browne Willis, an eminent antiquary
(d. 1760), buried here; but the building has been greatly enlarged.
A custom instituted by Willis on St Martin's Day (November
nth) includes a service in the church, the firing of some small
cannon called the " Fenny Poppers," and other celebrations.
The trade of the town is mainly agricultural.
FENRIR, or FENRIS, in Scandinavian mythology, a water-
demon in the shape of a huge wolf. He was the offspring of Loki
and the giantess Angurboda, who bore two other children,
Midgard the serpent, and Hel the goddess of death. Fenrir grew
so large that the gods were afraid of him and had him chained up.
But he broke the first two chains. The third, however, was
made of the sound of a cat's footsteps, a man's beard, the roots
of a mountain, a fish's breath and a bird's spittle. This magic
bond was too strong for him until Ragnarok (Judgment Day),
when he escaped and swallowed Odin and was in turn slain by
Vidar, the latter's son.
FENS, 1 a district in the east of England, possessing a distinctive
history and peculiar characteristics. It lies west and south of
the Wash, in Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire and
Norfolk, and extends over more than 70 m. in length (Lincoln to
Cambridge) and some 35 m. in maximum breadth (Stamford to
Brandon in Suffolk), its area being considerably over half a
million acres. Although low and flat, and seamed by innumerable
water-courses, the entire region is not, as the Roman name of
M etaris Aestuarium would imply, a river estuary, but a bay of the
North Sea, silted up, of which the Wash is the last remaining
portion. Hydrographically, the Fens embrace the lower parts
of the drainage-basins of the rivers Witham, Welland, Nene
and Great Ouse; and against these streams, as against the
ocean, they are protected by earthen embankments, 10 to 15 ft.
high. As a rule the drainage water is lifted off the Fens into
the rivers by means of steam-pumps, formerly by windmills.
General History. According to fairly credible tradition, the
first systematic attempt to drain the Fens was made by the
Romans. They dug a catchwater drain (as the artificial fenland
water-courses are called), the Caer or Car Dyke, from Lincoln to
Ramsey (or, according to Stukeley, as far as Cambridge), along
the western edge of the Fens, to carry off the precipitation of the
higher districts which border the fenland, and constructed
alongside the Welland and on the seashore earthen embankments,
of which some 150 m. survive. Mr S. H. Miller is disposed to
credit the native British inhabitants of the Fens with having
executed certain of these works. The Romans also carried
causeways over the country. After their departure from
Britain in the first half of the 5th century the Fens fell into
neglect; and despite the preservation of the woodlands for the
purposes of the chase by the Norman and early Plantagenet
kings, and the unsuccessful attempt which Richard de Rulos,
chamberlain of William the Conqueror, made to drain Deeping
Fen, the fenland region became almost everywhere waterlogged,
and relapsed to a great extent into a state of nature. In addition
to this it was ravaged by serious inundations of the sea, for
example, in the years 1178, 1248 (or 1250), 1288, 1322, 1335,
1467, 1571. Yet the fenland was not altogether a wilderness of
reed-grown marsh and watery swamp. At various spots, more
particularly in the north and in the south, there existed islands of
firmer and higher ground, resting generally on the boulder clays of
the Glacial epochs and on the inter- Glacial gravels of the Palaeo-
ithic age. In these isolated localities members of the monastic
1 The word " fen," a general term for low marshy land or bog, is
common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch ven or veen, Ger. Fenne,
Fehn, Goth.fani, mud; the Indo-European root is seen in Gr. iriJXoj,
mud, Lat. palus, marsh. The word " bog " is from the Irish or
Gaelic bogach, formed from Celtic bog, soft, and meaning therefore
soft, swampy ground.
FENS
257
orders (especially at a later date the Cistercians) began to settle
after about the middle of the 7th century. At Medeshampstead
(i.e. Peterborough), Ely, Crowland, Ramsey, Thorney, Spald-
ing, Peakirk, Swineshead, Tattershall, Kirkstead, Bardney,
Sempringham, Bourne and numerous other places, they made
settlements and built churches, monasteries and abbeys. In
spite of the incursions of the predatory Northmen and Danes in
the pth and loth centuries, and of the disturbances consequent
upon the establishment of the Camp of Refuge by Hereward the
Wake in the fens of the Isle of Ely in the nth century, these
scattered outposts continued to shed rays of civilization across
the lonely Fenland down to the dissolution of the monasteries in
the reign of Henry VIII. Then they, too, were partly overtaken
by the fate which befell the rest of the Fens; and it was only in
the end of the i8th and the beginning of the igth century that the
complete drainage and reclamation of the Fen region was finally
effected. Attempts on a considerable scale were indeed made to
reclaim them in the i7th century, and the work as a whole forms
one of the most remarkable chapters of the industrial history of
England. Thus, the reclamation of the Witham Fens was taken
up by Sir Anthony Thomas, the earl of Lindsey, Sir William
Killigrew, King Charles I., and others in 1631 and succeeding
years; and that of the Deeping or Welland Fens in 1638 by Sir
W. Ayloff, Sir Anthony Thomas and other " adventurers," after
one Thomas Lovell had ruined himself in a similar attempt in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth. The earl of Lindsey received 24,000
acres for his work. Charles I., declaring himself the " under-
taker " of the Holland Fen, claimed 8000 out of its 22,000 acres
as his share.
A larger work than these, however, was the drainage of the
fens of the Nene and the Great Ouse, comprehending the wide
tract known as the Bedford level. This district took name from
the agreement of Francis, earl of Bedford, the principal land-
holder, and thirteen other adventurers, with Charles I. m 1634, to
drain the level, on condition of receiving 95,000 acres of the
reclaimed land. A partial attempt at drainage had been made
(1478-1490) by John Morton, when bishop of Ely, who constructed
Morton's Learn, from Peterborough to the sea, to carry the
waters of the Nene, but this also proved a failure. An act was
passed, moreover, in 1602 for effecting its reclamation; and Lord
Chief-Justice Popham (whose name is preserved in Popham's
Eau, S.E. of Wisbech) and a company of Londoners began the
work in 1605; but the first effectual attempt was that of 1634.
The work was largely directed by the Dutch engineer Cornelius
Vermuyden; who had begun work in the Fens in 1621, and was
knighted in 1628.
Three years after the agreement of the earl of Bedford and his
partners with the king, after an outlay of 100,000 on the
part of the company, the contract was annulled, on the fraudu-
lent plea that the works were insufficient; and an offer was
made by King Charles to undertake its completion on condition
of receiving -57,000 acres in addition to the amount originally
agreed on. This unjust attempt was frustrated by the breaking
out of the civil war; and no further attempt at drainage was
made until 1649, when the parliament reinstated the earl of
Bedford's successor in his father's rights. After an additional
outlay of 300,000, the adventurers received 95,000 acres of
reclaimed land, according to the contract, which, however, fell
far short of repaying the expense of the undertaking. In 1664 a
royal charter was obtained to incorporate the company, which
still exists, and carries on the concern under a governor, 6
bailiffs, 20 conservators, and a commonalty, each of whom must
possess 100 acres of land in the level, and has a voice in the election
of officers. The conservators must each possess not less than 280
acres, the governor and bailiffs each 400 acres. The original
adventurers had allotments of land according to their interest of
the original 95,000 acres; but Charles II., on granting the
charter, took care to secure to the crown a lot of 12,000 acres out
of the 95,000, which, however, is held under the directors,
whereas the allotments are not held in common, though subject
to the laws of the corporation. The level was divided in 1697 into
three parts, called the North, Middle, and South Levels the
x-o
second being separated from the others by the Nene and Old
Bedford rivers.
These attempts failed owing to the determined opposition of
the native fenmen (" stilt-walkers "), whom the drainage and
appropriation of the unenclosed fenlands would deprive of
valuable and long-enjoyed rights of commonage, turbary (turf-
cutting), fishing, fowling, &c. Oliver Cromwell is said to have put
himself at their head and succeeded in stopping all the operations.
When he became Protector, however, he sanctioned Vermuyden's
plans, and Scottish prisoners taken at Dunbar, and Dutch
prisoners taken by Blake in his victory over Van Tromp, were
employed as the workers. Vermuyden's system, however, was
exclusively Dutch; and while perfectly suited to Holland it did
not meet all the necessities of East Anglia. He confined his
attention almost exclusively to the inland draining and embank-
ments, and did not provide sufficient outlet for the waters them-
selves into the sea.
Holland and other Fens on the west side of the Witham were
finally drained in 1767, although not without much rioting and
lawlessness; and a striking account of the wonderful improve-
ments effected by a generation later is recorded in Arthur Young's
General View of the Agriculture of the County of Lincoln (London,
1 799) . The East, West and Wildmore Fens on the east side of the
Witham were drained in 1801-1807 by John Rennie, who carried
off the precipitation which fell on the higher grounds by catch-
water drains, on the principle of the Roman Car Dyke, and
improved the outfall of the river, so that it might the more easily
discharge the Fen water which flowed or was pumped into it.
The Welland or Deeping Fens were drained in 1794, 1801, 1824,
1837 and other years. Almost the only portion of the original
wild Fens now remaining is Wicken Fen, which lies east of the
river Cam and south-east of the Isle of Ely.
The Fen Rivers. The preservation of the Fens depends in an
intimate and essential manner upon the preservation of the
rivers, and especially of their banks. The Witham, known
originally as the Grant Avon, also called the Lindis by Leyland
(Itinerary, vol. vii. p. 41), and in Jean Ingelow's High Tide on the
Lincolnshire Coast, is some 80 m. long, and drains an area of 1079
sq. m. It owes its present condition to engineering works carried
out in the years 1762-1764, 1865, 1881, and especially in 1880-
1884. In 1500 the river was dammed immediately above Boston
by a large sluice, the effect of which was not only to hinder free
navigation up to Lincoln (to which city sea-going vessels used to
penetrate in the I4th and I5th centuries), but also to choke the
channel below Boston with sedimentary matter. The sluice, or
rather a new structure made in 1764-1766, remains; but the
river below Boston has been materially improved (1880-1884),
first by the construction of a new outfall, 3 m. in length, whereby
the channel was not only straightened, but its current carried
directly into deep water, without having to battle against the
often shifting sandbanks of the Wash; and secondly, by the
deepening and regulation of the river-bed up to Boston. The
Welland, which is about 70 m. long, and drains an area of 760 sq.
m., was made to assume its present shape and direction in 1620,
1638, 1650, 1794, and 1835 and following years. The most
radical alteration took place in 1794, when a new outfall was
made from the confluence of the Glen (30 m. long) to the Wash, a
distance of nearly 3 m. The Nene, 90 m. long, and draining an
area of some 1077 sq. m., was first regulated by Bishop Morton,
and it was further improved in 1631, 1721, and especially, under
plans by Rennie and Telford, in 1827-1830 and 1832. The work
done from 1721 onward consisted in straightening the lower
reaches of the stream and in directing and deepening the outfall.
The Ouse (q.v.) or Great Ouse, the largest of the fenland rivers,
seems to have been deflected, at some unknown period, from a
former channel connecting via the Old Croft river with the Nene,
into the Little Ouse below Littleport; and the courses of the two
streams are now linked together by an elaborate network of
artificial drains, the results of the great engineering works
carried out in the Bedford Level in the I7th century. The old
channel, starting from Earith, and known as the Old West river,
carries only a small stream until, at a point above Ely, it joins the
25 8
FENS
Cam. The salient features of the plan executed by Vermuyden 1
for the earl of Bedford in the years 1632-1653 were as follows:
taking the division of the area made in 1697-1698 into (i.) the
North Level, between the river Welland and the river Nene; (ii.)
the Middle Level, between the Nene and the Old Bedford river
(which was made at this time, i.e. 1630); and (iii.) the South
Level, from the Old Bedford river to the south-eastern border of
the fenland. In the North Level the Welland was embanked, the
New South Eau, Peakirk Drain, and Shire Drain made, and the
existing main drains deepened and regulated. In the Middle
Level the Nene was embanked from Peterborough to Guyhirn,
Map of the Fens.
also the Ouse from Earith to Over, both places at the south-west
edge of the fenland; the New Bedford river was made from
Earith to Denver, and the north side of the Old Bedford river and
the south side of the New Bedford river were embanked, a long
narrow " wash," or overflow basin, being left between them;
several large feeding-drains were dug, including the Forty Foot or
Vermuyden's Drain, the Sixteen Foot river, Bevill's river ; and the
Twenty Foot river; and a new outfall was made for the Nene,
and Denver sluice (to dam the old circuitous Ouse) constructed.
In the South Level Sam's Cut was dug and the rivers were
embanked. Since that period the mouth of the Ouse has been
straightened above and below King's Lynn (1795-1821), a new
straight cut made between Ely and Littleport, the North Level
Main Drain and the Middle Level Drain constructed, and the
1 The principles upon which he proceeded are set forth in his
Discourse touching the Draining of the Great Fennes (1642), reprinted
in Fenland Notes and Queries (1898), pp. 26-38 and 81-87.
meres of Ramsey, Whittlesey (1851-1852), &c., drained and
brought under cultivation. A considerable barge traffic is
maintained on the Ouse below St Ives, on the Cam up to Cam-
bridge, the Lark and Little Ouse, and the network of navigable
cuts between the New Bedford river and Peterborough. The
Nene, though locked up to Northampton, and connected from
that point with the Grand Junction canal, is practically unused
above Wansford, and traffic is small except below Wisbech.
The effect of the drainage schemes has been to lower the level
of the fenlands generally by some 18 in., owing to the shrinkage of
the peat consequent upon the extraction of so much of its
contained water; and this again has tended, on the one
hand, to diminish the speed and erosive power of the
fenland rivers, and, on the other, to choke up their
respective outfalls with the sedimentary matters which
they themselves sluggishly roll seawards.
The Wash. From this it will be plain that the Wash
(q.v.) is being silted up by riverine detritus. The forma-
tion of new dry land, known at first as " marsh," goes
on, however, but slowly. During the centuries since
the Romans are believed to have constructed the sea-
banks which shut out the ocean, it is computed that
an area of not more than 60,000 to 70,000 acres has
been won from the Wash, embanked, drained and
brought more or less under cultivation. The greatest
gain has been at the direct head of the bay, between
the Welland and the Great Ouse, where the average
annual accretion is estimated at 10 to u lineal feet.
On the Lincolnshire coast, farther north, the average
annual gain has been not quite 2 ft.; whilst on the
opposite Norfolk coast it has been little more than 6 in.
annually. On the whole, some 3 5 ,000 acres were enclosed
in the I7th century, about 19,000 acres during the i8th,
and about 10,000 acres during the igth century.
The first comprehensive scheme for regulating the
outfall channels and controlling the currents of the
Fen rivers seems to be that proposed by Nathaniel
Kinderley in 1751. His idea 2 was to link the Nene with
the Ouse by means of a new cut to be made through the
marshland, and guide the united stream through a
further new cut " under Wotten and Wolverton
through the Marshes till over against Inglesthorp or
Snetsham, and there discharge itself immediately into
the Deeps of Lyn Channel." In a similar way the
Witham, " when it has received the Welland from
Spalding," was to be carried " to some convenient place
over against Wrangle or Friskney, where it may be dis-
charged into Boston Deeps." This scheme was still
further improved upon by Sir John Rennie, who, in a
report which he drew up in 1839, recommended that the
outfalls of all four rivers should be directed by means
of fascined channels into one common outfall, and that
the land lying between them should be enclosed as
rapidly as it consolidated. By this means he esti-
mated that 150,000 acres would be won to cultivation.
But beyond one or two abortive or half-hearted attempts,
e.g. by the Lincolnshire Estuary Company in 1851, and in
1876 and subsequent years by the Norfolk Estuary Company,
no serious effort has ever been made to execute either of these
schemes.
Climate. The annual mean temperature, as observed at Boston,
in the period 1864-1885, is 48-7 F.; January, 36-5; July,
62-8; and as observed at Wisbech, for the period 1861-1875,
49-1. The average mean rainfall for the seventy-one years
1830-1900, at Boston, was 22-9 in.; at Wisbech for the fifteen
years 1860-1875, 24-2 in., and for the fifteen years 1866-1880,
26-7 in.; and at Maxey near Peterborough, 21-7 for the nine-
teen years 1882-1900. Previous to the drainage of the Fens,
ague, rheumatism, and other ailments incidental to a damp
1 Set forth in The Present State of the Navigation of the Towns of
Lyn, Wisbeach, Spalding and Boston (2nd ed., London, 1851), pp. 82
seq.
FENTON, EDWARD FENTON, ELIJAH
climate were widely prevalent, but at the present day the Fen
country is as healthy as the rest of England; indeed, there is
reason to believe that it is conducive to longevity.
Historical Notes. The earliest inhabitants of this region of
whom we have record were the British tribes of the Iceni con-
federation; the Romans, who subdued them, called them
Coriceni or Coritani. In Saxon times the inhabitants of the
Fens were known (e.g. to Bede) as Gyrvii, and are described as
traversing the country on stilts. Macaulay, writing of the year
1689, gives to them the name of Breedlings, and describes them
as " a half-savage population . . . who led an amphibious life,
sometimes wading, sometimes rowing, from one islet of firm
ground to another." In the end of the i8th century those who
dwelt in the remoter parts were scarcely more civilized, being
known to their neighbours by the expressive term of " Slodgers."
These rude fen-dwellers have in all ages been animated by a
tenacious love of liberty. Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, the
worthy foe of the Romans; Hereward the Saxon, who defied
William the Conqueror; Cromwell and his Ironsides, are repre-
sentative of the fenman's spirit at its best. The fen peasantry
showed a stubborn defence of their rights, not only when they
resisted the encroachments and selfish appropriations of the
" adventurers " in the i7th century, in the Bedford Level, in
Deeping Fen, and in the Witham Fens, and again in the i8th
century, when Holland Fen was finally enclosed, but also in the
Peasants' Rising of 1381, and in the Pilgrimage of Grace in the
reign of Henry VIII. So long as the Fens were unenclosed and
thickly studded with immense " forests " of reeds, and innumer-
able marshy pools and " rows " (channels connecting the pools),
they abounded in wild fowl, being regularly frequented by various
species of wild duck and geese, garganies, polchards, shovelers,
teals, widgeons, peewits, terns, grebes, coots, water-hens, water-
rails, red-shanks, lapwings, god-wits, whimbrels, cranes, bitterns,
herons, swans, ruffs and reeves. Vast numbers of these were
taken in decoys 1 and sent to the London markets. At the same
time equally vast quantities of tame geese were reared in the
Fens, and driven by road 2 to London to be killed at Michaelmas.
Their down, feathers and quills (for pens) were also a considerable
source of profit. The Fen waters, too, abounded in fresh-water
fish, especially pike, perch, bream, tench, rud, dace, roach, eels
and sticklebacks. The Witham, on whose banks so many
monasteries stood, was particularly famous for its pike; as
were certain of the monastic waters in the southern part of the
Fens for their eels. The soil of the reclaimed Fens is of excep-
tional fertility, being almost everywhere rich in humus, which is
capable not only of producing very heavy crops of wheat and
other corn, but also of fattening live-stock with peculiar ease.
Lincolnshire oxen were famous in Elizabeth's time, and are
specially singled out by Arthur Young, 3 the breed being the
shorthorn. Of the crops peculiar to the region it must suffice to
mention the old British dye-plant woad, which is still grown on a
small scale in two or three parishes immediately south of Boston;
hemp, which was extensively grown in the i8th century, but is
not now planted; and peppermint, which is occasionally grown,
e.g. at Deeping and Wisbech. In the second half of the igth
century the Fen country acquired a certain celebrity in the world
of sport from the encouragement it gave to speed skating.
Whenever practicable, championship and other racing meetings
are held, chiefly at Littleport and Spalding. The little village
of Welney, between Ely and Wisbech, has produced some of the
most notable of the typical Fen skaters, e.g. " Turkey " Smart
and " Fish " Smart.
Apart from fragmentary ruins of the former monastic buildings
of Crowland, Kirkstead and other places, the Fen country of
Lincolnshire (division of Holland) is especially remarkable for
the size and beauty of its parish churches, mostly built of
Barnack rag from Northamptonshire. Moreover, in the posses-
1 For descriptions of these see Oldfield, Appendix, pp. 2-4, of
A Topographical and Historical Account of Wainfleet (London, 1829) ;
and Miller and Skertchly, The Fenland, pp. 369-375.
1 See De Foe's account in A Tour through the Eastern Counties,
1722 (1724-1725).
1 General View, pp. 174-194 and 288-304.
259
sion of such buildings as Ely cathedral and the parish church
of King's Lynn, other parts of the Fens must be considered
only less rich in ecclesiastical architecture. Using these fine
opportunities, the Fen folk have long cultivated the science
of campanology.
Dialect. Owing to the comparative remoteness of their
geographical situation, and the relatively late period at which
the Fens were definitely enclosed, the Fenmen have preserved
several dialectal features of a distinctive character, not the least
interesting being their close kinship with the classical English
of the present day. Professor E. E. Freeman (Longman's
Magazine, 1875) reminded modern Englishmen that it was a
native of the Fens, " a Bourne man, who gave the English
language its present shape." This was Robert Manning, or
Robert of Brunne, who in or about 1303 wrote The Handlynge
Synne. Tennyson's dialect poems, The Northern Farmer, &c.,
do not reproduce the pure Fen dialect, but rather the dialect of
the Wold district of mid Lincolnshire.
AUTHORITIES. Sir William Dugdale, History of Imbanking and
Draining (2nd ed., London, 1772); W. Elstobb, A Historical Account
of the Great Level (Lynn, 1793); W. Chapman, Facts and Remarks
relative to the Witham and the Wetland (Boston, 1800); S. Wells,
History and Drainage of the Great Level of the Fens (2 vols., London,
1828 and 1830); P. Thompson, History of Boston (Boston, 1856);
Baldwin Latham, Papers on the Drainage of the Fens, read before the
Society of Engineers, 3rd November 1862; N. and A. Goodman,
Handbook of Fen Skating (London, 1882); Moore, Associated
Architectural Societies' Reports and Papers (1893); Fenland Notes
and Queries, and Lincolnshire Notes and Queries, passim; W. H.
Wheeler, A History of the Fens of South Lincolnshire, pp. 223 et seq.
(2nd ed., Boston, 1897). Various phases of Fen life, mostly of the
past, are described in Charles Kingsley's Hereward the Wake (Cam-
bridge, 1866); Baring Gould's Cheap-Jack Zita (London, 1893);
Manville Fenn's Dick o' the Fens (London, 1887) ; and J. T. Bealby's
A Daughter of the Fen (London, 1896). Q. T. BE.)
FENTON, EDWARD (d. 1603), English navigator, son of
Henry Fenton and brother of Sir Geoffrey Fenton (<?..), was a
native of Nottinghamshire. In 1577 he sailed, in command of
the " Gabriel," with Sir Martin Frobisher's second expedition
for the discovery of the north-west passage, and in the following
year he took part as second in command in Frobisher's third
expedition, his ship being the " Judith." He was then employed
in Ireland for a time, but in 1582 he was put in charge of an
expedition which was to sail round the Cape of Good Hope to the
Moluccas and China, his instructions being to obtain any know-
ledge of the north-west passage that was possible without
hindrance to his trade. On this unsuccessful voyage he got
no farther than Brazil, and throughout he was engaged in
quarrelling with his officers, and especially with his lieutenant,
William Hawkins, the nephew of Sir John Hawkins, whom he had
in irons when he arrived back in the Thames. In 1588 he had
command of the " Mary Rose," one of the ships of the fleet that
was formed to oppose the Armada. He died fifteen years after-
wards.
FENTON, ELIJAH (1683-1730), English poet, was born at
Shelton near Newcastle-under-Lyme, of an old Staffordshire
family, on the 25th of May 1683. He graduated from Jesus
College, Cambridge, in 1704, but was prevented by religious
scruples from taking orders. He accompanied the earl of Orrery
to Flanders as private secretary, and on returning to England
became assistant in a school at Headley, Surrey, being soon
afterwards appointed master of the free grammar school at
Sevenoaks in Kent. In 1710 he resigned his appointment in the
expectation of a place from Lord Bolingbroke, but was dis-
appointed. He then became tutor to Lord Broghill, son of his
patron Orrery. Fenton is remembered as the coadjutor of
Alexander Pope in his translation of the Odyssey. He was re-
sponsible for the first, fourth, nineteenth and twentieth books, for
which he received 30x3. He died at East Hampstead, Berkshire,
on the i6th of July 1730. He was buried in the parish church,
and his epitaph was written by Pope.
Fenton also published Oxford and Cambridge Miscellany Poems
(1707); Miscellaneous Poems (1717); Mariamne, a tragedy (1723);
an edition (1725) of Milton's poems, and one of Waller (1729) with
elaborate notes. See W. W. Lloyd, Elijah Fenton, his Poetry and
Friends (1894).
260
FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY FEOFFMENT
FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY (c. 1539-1608), English writer and
politician, was the son of Henry Fenton, of Nottinghamshire.
He was brother of Edward Fenton the navigator. He is said
to have visited Spain and Italy in his youth; possibly he went
to Paris in Sir Thomas Hoby's train in 1566, for he was living
there in 1567, when he wrote Certaine tragicall discourses written
oute of Frenche and Latin. This book is a free translation of
Francois de Belleforest's French rendering of Matteo Bandello's
Novelle. Till 1579 Fenton continued his literary labours,
publishing Monophylo in 1572, Golden epistles gathered out of
Guevarae's workes as other authors . . . 1575, and various re-
ligious tracts of strong protestant tendencies. In 1 579 appeared
the Historie of Guicciardini, translated out of French by G. F.
and dedicated to Elizabeth. Through Lord Burghley he ob-
tained, in 1580, the post of secretary to the new lord deputy of
Ireland, Lord Grey de Wilton, and thus became a fellow worker
with the poet, Edmund Spenser. From this time Fenton
abandoned literature and became a faithful if somewhat un-
scrupulous servant of the crown. He was a bigoted protestant,
longing to use the rack against " the diabolicall secte of Rome,"
and even advocating the assassination of the queen's most
dangerous subjects. He won Elizabeth's confidence, and the
hatred of all his fellow-workers, by keeping her informed of
every one's doings in Ireland. In 1587 Sir John Perrot arrested
Fenton, but the queen instantly ordered his release. Fenton
was knighted in 1589, and in 1590-1591 he was in London as
commissioner on the impeachment of Perrot. Full of dislike
of the Scots and of James VI. (which he did not scruple to utter),
on the latter's accession Fenton's post of secretary was in danger,
but Burghley exerted himself in his favour, and in 1604 it was
confirmed to him for life, though he had to share it with Sir
Richard Coke. Fenton died in Dublin on the I9th of October
1608, and was buried in St Patrick's cathedral. He married in
June 1585, Alice, daughter of Dr Robert Weston, formerly
lord chancellor of Ireland, and widow of Dr Hugh Brady, bishop
of Meath, by whom he had two children, a son, Sir William Fenton,
and a daughter, Catherine, who in 1603 married Richard Boyle,
ist earl of Cork.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Harl. Soc. publications, vol. iv., Visitation of
Nottinghamshire, 1871; Roy. Hist. MSS. Comm. (particularly
Hatfield collection); Calendar of State papers, Ireland (very full),
domestic, Carew papers; Lismore papers, ed. A. B. Grosart (1886
1888) ; Certaine tragicall Discourses, ed. R. L. Douglas (2 vols.,
1898), Tudor Translation series, vols. xix., xx. (introd.).
FENTON, LAVINIA (1708-1760), English actress, was prob-
ably the daughter cf a naval lieutenant named Beswick, but
she bore the name of her mother's husband. Her first appear-
ance was as Monimia in Otway's Orphans, in 1726 at the Hay-
market. She then joined the company of players at the theatre
in Lincoln's Inn Fields, where her success and beauty made her
the toast of the beaux. It was in Gay's Beggar's Opera, as Polly
Peachum, that Miss Fenton made her greatest success. Her
pictures were in great demand, verses were written to her and
books published about her, and she was the most talked-of person
in London. Hogarth's picture shows her in one of the scenes,
with the duke of Bolton in a box. After appearing in several
comedies, and then in numerous repetitions of the Beggar's Opera,
she ran away with her lover Charles Paulet, 3rd duke of Bolton,
a man much older than herself, who, after the death of his wife
in 1751, married her. Their three children all died young. The
duchess survived her husband and died on the 24th of January
1760.
FENTON, a town of Staffordshire, England, on the. North
Staffordshire railway, adjoining the east side of Stoke-on-Trent,
in which parliamentary and municipal borough it is included.
Pop. (1891) 16,998; (1901) 22,742. The manufacture of earthen-
ware common to the district (the Potteries) employs the bulk
of the large industrial population.
FENUGREEK, in botany, Trigonella Foenum-graecum (so
called from the name given to it by the ancients, who used it as
fodder for cattle), a member of a genus of leguminous herbs very
similar in habit and in most of their characters to the species of
the genus Medicago. The leaves are formed of three obovate
leaflets, the middle one of which is stalked; the flowers are
solitary, or in clusters of two or three, and have a campanulate,
5-cleft calyx; and the pods are many-seeded, cylindrical or
flattened, and straight or only slightly curved. The genus is
widely diffused over the south of Europe, West and Central
Asia, and the north of Africa, and is represented by several
species in Australia. Fenugreek is indigenous to south-eastern
Europe and western Asia, and is cultivated in the Mediterranean
region, parts of central Europe, and in Morocco, and largely
in Egypt and in India. It bears a sickle-shaped pod, containing
from 10 to 20 seeds, from which 6% of a fetid, fatty and bitter
oil can be extracted by ether. In India the fresh plant is em-
ployed as an esculent. The seed is an ingredient in curry
powders, and is used for flavouring cattle foods. It was formerly
much esteemed as a medicine, and is still in repute in veterinary
practice.
FENWICK, SIR JOHN (c. 1645-1697), English conspirator,
was the eldest son of Sir William Fenwick, or Fenwicke, a
member of an old Northumberland family. He entered the army,
becoming major-general in 1688, but before this date he had been
returned in succession to his father as one of the members of
parliament for Northumberland, which county he represented
from 1677 to 1687. He was a strong partisan of King James II.,
and in 1685 was one of the principal supporters of the act of
attainder against the duke of Monmouth; but he remained in
England when William III. ascended the throne three years
later. He began at once to plot against the new king, for which
he underwent a short imprisonment in 1689. Renewing his
plots on his release, he publicly insulted Queen Mary in 1691,
and it is practically certain that he was implicated in the schemes
for assassinating William which came to light in 1695 and 1696.
After the seizure of his fellow-conspirators, Robert Charnock
and others, he remained in hiding until the imprudent conduct
of his friends in attempting to induce one of the witnesses against
him to leave the country led to his arrest in June in 1696. To
save himself he offered to reveal all he knew about the Jacobite
conspiracies; but his confession was a farce, being confined to
charges against some of the leading Whig noblemen, which were
damaging, but not conclusive. By this time his friends had
succeeded in removing one of the two witnesses, and in these
circumstances it was thought that the charge of treason must
fail. The government, however, overcame this difficulty by
introducing a bill of attainder, which after a long and acrimonious
discussion passed through both Houses of Parliament. His wife
persevered in her attempts to save his life, but her efforts were
fruitless, and Fenwick was beheaded in London on the 28th of
January 1697, with the same formalities as were usually observed
at the execution of a peer. By his wife, Mary (d. 1 708) , daughter
of Charles Howard, ist earl of Carlisle, he had three sons and one
daughter. Macaulay says that " of all the Jacobites, the most
desperate characters not excepted, he (Fenwick) was the only
one for whom William felt an intense personal aversion "; and
it is interesting to note that Fenwick's hatred of the king is said
to date from the time when he was serving in Holland, and was
reprimanded by William, then prince of Orange.
FEOFFMENT, in English law, during the feudal period, the
usual method of granting or conveying a freehold or fee. For the
derivation of the word see FIEF and FEE. The essential elements
were livery of seisin (delivery of possession), which consisted in
formally giving to the feoffee on the land a clod or turf, or a
growing twig, as a symbol of the transfer of the land, and words by
the feoffor declaratory of his intent to deliver possession to the
feoffee with a " limitation " of the estate intended to be trans-
ferred. This was called livery in deed. Livery in law was made
not on but in sight of this land, the feoffor saying to the feoffee,
" I give you that land; enter and take possession." Livery in
law, in order to pass the estate, had to be perfected by entry by
the feoffee during the joint lives of himself and the feoffor. It
was usual to evidence the feoffment by writing in a charter or
deed of feoffment; but writing was not essential until the
Statute of Frauds; now, by the Real Property Act 1845, a
conveyance of real property is void unless evidenced by deed, and
FERDINAND
261
thus feoffments have been rendered unnecessary and superfluous.
All corporeal hereditaments were by that act declared to be in
grant as well as livery, i.e. they could be granted by deed without
livery. A feoffment might be a tortious conveyance, i.e. if a
person attempted to give to the feoffee a greater estate than he
himself had in the land, he forfeited the estate of which he was
seised. (See CONVEYANCING; REAL PROPERTY.)
FERDINAND (Span. Fernando or Hernando; Ital. Ferdi-
nando or Ferrante; in O. H. Ger. Herinand, i.e. " brave in the
host, "from O. H. G. Heri, '"army," A. S. here, Mod. Ger. Heer,a.nd
the Goth. nan]>jan, " to dare "), a name borne at various times by
many European sovereigns and princes, the more important of
whom are noticed below in the following order: emperors, kings
of Naples, Portugal, Spain (Castile, Leon and Aragon) and the
two Sicilies; then the grand duke of Tuscany, the prince of
Bulgaria, the duke of Brunswick and the elector of Cologne.
FERDINAND I. (1503-1564), Roman emperor, was born at
Alcala de Henares on the loth of March 1503, his father being
Philip the Handsome, son of the emperor Maximilian I., and his
mother Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, king and
queen of Castile and Aragon. Philip died in 1506 and Ferdinand,
educated in Spain, was regarded with especial favour by his
maternal grandfather who wished to form a Spanish-Italian
kingdom for his namesake. This plan came to nothing, and the
same fate attended a suggestion made after the death of Maxi-
milian in 1519 that Ferdinand, and not his elder brother Charles,
afterwards the emperor Charles V., should succeed to the imperial
throne. Charles, however, secured the Empire and the whole of
the lands of Maximilian and Ferdinand, while the younger
brother was perforce content with a subordinate position. Yet
some provision must be made for Ferdinand. In April 1521 the
emperor granted to him the archduchies and duchies of upper
and lower Austria, Carinthia, Styria and Carniola, adding soon
afterwards the county of 'Tirol and the hereditary possessions of
the Habsburgs in south-western Germany. About the same time
the archduke was appointed to govern the duchy of Wurttemberg,
which had come into the possession of Charles V. ; and in May
1521 he was married at Linz to Anna (d. 1547), a daughter of
Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, a union which had been
arranged some years before by the emperor Maximilian. In 1521
also. he was made president of the council of regency (Reichs-
regiment), appointed to govern Germany during the emperor's
absence, and the next five years were occupied with imperial
business, in which he acted as his brother's representative, and in
the government of the Austrian lands.
In Austria and the neighbouring duchies Ferdinand sought at
first to suppress the reformers and their teaching, and this was
possibly one reason why he had some difficulty in quelling
risings in the districts under his rule after the Peasants' War
broke out in 1524. But a new field was soon opened for his
ambition. In August 1526 his childless brother-in-law, Louis II.,
king of Hungary and Bohemia, was killed at the battle of
Mohacs, and the archduke at once claimed both kingdoms, both
by treaty and by right of his wife. Taking advantage of the
divisions among his opponents, he was chosen king of Bohemia in
October 1526, and crowned at Prague in the following February,
but in Hungary he was less successful. John Zapolya, supported
by the national party and soon afterwards by the Turks, offered
a sturdy resistance, and although Ferdinand was chosen king at
Pressburg in December 1526, and after defeating Zapolya at
Tokay was crowned at Stuhlweissenburg in November 1527, he
was unable to take possession of the kingdom. The Bavarian
Wittelsbachs, incensed at not securing the Bohemian throne, were
secretly intriguing with his foes; the French, after assisting
spasmodically, made a formal alliance with Turkey in 1535; and
Zapolya was a very useful centre round which the enemies of the
Habsburgs were not slow to gather. A truce made in 1 533 was
soon broken, and the war dragged on until 1538, when by the
treaty of Gross wardein, Hungary was divided between the
claimants. The kingly title was given to Zapolya, but Ferdinand
was to follow him on the throne. Before this, in January 1531, he
had been chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at Cologne,
and his coronation took place a few days later at Aix-la-Chapelle.
He had thoroughly earned this honour by his loyalty to his
brother, whom he had represented at several diets. In religious
matters the king was now inclined, probably owing to the Turkish
danger, to steer a middle course between the contending parties,
and in 1532 he agreed to the religious peace of Nuremberg,
receiving in return from the Protestants some assistance for the
war against the Turks. In 1534, however, his prestige suffered a
severe rebuff. Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his associates had
succeeded in conquering Wurttemberg on behalf of its exiled
duke, Ulrich (q.v.), and, otherwise engaged, neither Charles nor
Ferdinand could send much help to their lieutenants. They
were consequently obliged to consent to the treaty of Cadan,
made in June 1534, by which the German king recognized
Ulrich as duke of Wurttemberg, on condition that he held his
duchy under Austrian suzerainty.
In Hungary the peace of 1538 was not permanent. When
Zapolya died in July 1540 a powerful faction refused to admit
the right of Ferdinand to succeed him, and put forward his young
son John Sigismund as a candidate for the throne. The cause of
John Sigismund was espoused by the Turks and by Ferdinand's
other enemies, and, unable to get any serious assistance from the
imperial diet, the king repeatedly sought to make peace with the
sultan, but his envoys were haughtily repulsed. In 1544,
however, a short truce was made. This was followed by others,
and in 1547 one was concluded for five years, but only on con-
dition that Ferdinand paid tribute for the small part of Hungary
which remained in his hands. The struggle was renewed in 1551
and was continued in the same desultory fashion until 1562, when
a truce was made which lasted during theremainderof Ferdinand's
lifetime. During the war of the league of Schmalkalden in 1546
and 1547 the king had taken the field primarily to protect
Bohemia, and after the conclusion of the war he put down a
rising in this country with some 'rigour. He appears during
these years to have governed his lands with vigour and success,
but in imperial politics he was merely the representative and
spokesman of the emperor. About 1546, however, he began to
take up a more independent position. Although Charles had
crushed the league of Schmalkalden he had refused to restore
Wurttemberg to Ferdinand; and he gave further offence by
seeking to secure the succession of his son Philip, afterwards king
of Spain, to the imperial throne. Ferdinand naturally objected,
but in 1 5 5 1 his reluctant consent was obtained to the plan that, on
the proposed abdication of Charles, Philip should be chosen king
of the Romans, and should succeed Ferdinand himself as emperor.
Subsequent events caused the scheme to be dropped, but it had a
somewhat unfortunate sequel for Charles, as during the short war
between the emperor and Maurice, elector of Saxony, in 1552
Ferdinand's attitude was rather that of a spectator and mediator
than of a partisan. There seems, however, to be no truth in the
suggestion that he acted treacherously towards his brother, and
was in alliance with his foes. On behalf of Charles he negotiated
the treaty of Passau with Maurice in 1552, and in 1555 after the
conduct of imperial business had virtually been made over to him,
and harmony had been restored between the brothers, he was
responsible for the religious peace of Augsburg. Early in 1558
Charles carried out his intention to abdicate the imperial throne,
and on the 24th of March Ferdinand was crowned as bis successor
at Frankfort. Pope Paul IV. would not recognize the new
emperor, but his successor Pius IV. did so in 1559 through the
mediation of Philip of Spain. The emperor's short reign was
mainly spent in seeking to settle the religious differences of
Germany, and in efforts to prosecute the Turkish war more
vigorously. His hopes at one time centred roun<J the council of
Trent which resumed its sittings in 1562, but he was unable to
induce the Protestants to be represented. Although he held
firmly to the Roman Catholic Church he sought to obtain
tangible concessions to her opponents; but he refused to
conciliate the Protestants by abrogating the clause concerning
ecclesiastical reservation in the peace of Augsburg, and all his
efforts to bring about reunion were futile. He did indeed secure
the privilege of communion in both kinds from Pius IV. for the
262
FERDINAND II., ROMAN EMPEROR
laity in Bohemia and in various parts of Germany, but the hearty
support which he gave the Jesuits shows that he had no sympathy
with Protestantism, and was only anxious to restore union in the
Church. In November 1562 he obtained the election of his son
Maximilian as king of the Romans, and having arranged a
partition of his lands among his three surviving sons, died in
Vienna on the 2Sth of July 1564. His family had consisted of
six sons and nine daughters.
In spite of constant and harassing engagements Ferdinand was
fairly successful both as king and emperor. He sought to
consolidate his Austrian lands, reformed the monetary system in
Germany, and reorganized the AuliQ council (Reichshofrat).
Less masterful but more popular than his brother, whose
character overshadows his own, he was just and tolerant, a good
Catholic and a conscientious ruler.
See the article on CHARLES V. and the bibliography appended
thereto. Also, A. Ulloa, Vita del potentissimo e christianissimo
imperatpre Ferdinando primo (Venice, 1565); S. Schard, Epitome
return in variis orbis partibus a confirmaiione Ferdinandi I. (Basel,
1574); F. B. von Bucholtz, Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands
des Ersten (Vienna, 1831-1838) ; K. Oberleitner, Osterreichs Finanzen
und Kriegswesen unter Ferdinand I. (Vienna, 1859); A. Rezek,
Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands I. in Bohmen (Prague, 1878);
E. Rosenthal, Die Behordenorganisation Kaiser Ferdinands I.
(Vienna, 1887); and W. Bauer, Die Anfange Ferdinands I. (Vienna,
1907).
FERDINAND II. (1578-1637), Roman emperor, was the eldest
son of Charles, archduke of Styria (d. 1590), and his wife Maria,
daughter of Albert IV., duke of Bavaria and a grandson of the
emperor Ferdinand I. Born at Gratz on the 9th of July 1578, he
was trained by the Jesuits, finishing his education at the university
of Ingolstadt, and became the pattern prince of the counter-
reformation. In 1596 he undertook the government of Styria,
Carinthia and Carniola, and after a visit to Italy began an
organized attack on Protestantism which under his father's rule
had made great progress in these archduchies; and although
hampered by the inroads of the Turks, he showed his indifference
to the material welfare of his dominions by compelling many of
his Protestant subjects to choose between exile and conversion,
and by entirely suppressing Protestant worship. He was not,
however, unmindful of the larger interest of his family, or of the
Empire which the Habsburgs regarded as belonging to them by
hereditary right. In 1606 he joined his kinsmen in recognizing
his cousin Matthias as the head of the family in place of the
lethargic Rudolph II.; but he shrank from any proceedings
which might lead to the deposition of the emperor, whom he
represented at the diet of Regensburg in 1608; and his conduct
was somewhat ambiguous during the subsequent quarrel between
Rudolph and Matthias.
In the first decade of the i7th century the house of Habsburg
seemed overtaken by senile decay, and the great inheritance of
Charles V. and Ferdinand I. to be threatened with disintegration
and collapse. The reigning emperor, Rudolph II., was inert and
childless; his surviving brothers, the archduke Matthias (after-
wards emperor), Maximilian (1558-1618) and Albert (1559-1621),
all men of mature age, were also without direct heirs; the racial
differences among its subjects were increased by their religious
animosities; and it appeared probable that the numerous
enemies of the Habsburgs had only to wait a few years and then to
divide the spoil. In spite of the recent murder of Henry IV. of
France, this issue seemed still more likely when Matthias suc-
ceeded Rudolph as emperor in 1612. The Habsburgs, however,
were not indifferent to the danger, and about 1615 it was agreed
that Ferdinand, who already had two sons by his marriage with
his cousin Maria Anna (d. 1616), daughter of William V., duke of
Bavaria, should be the next emperor, and should succeed Matthias
in the elective kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia. The obstacles
which impeded the progress of the scheme were gradually over-
come by the energy of the archduke Maximilian. The elder
archdukes renounced their rights in the succession; the claims of
Philip III. and the Spanish Habsburgs were bought off by a
promise of Alsace; and the emperor consented to his super-
cession in Hungary and Bohemia. In 1617 Ferdinand, who was
just concluding a war with Venice, was chosen king of Bohemia,
and in 1618 king of Hungary; but his election as German king,
or king of the Romans, delayed owing to the anxiety of Melchior
Klesl (q.v.) to conciliate the protestant princes, had not been
accomplished when Matthias died in March 1619. Before this
event, however, an important movement had begun in Bohemia.
Having been surprised into choosing a devoted Roman Catholic as
their king, the Bohemian Protestants suddenly realized that their
religious, and possibly their civil liberties, were seriously menaced,
and deeds of aggression on the part of Ferdinand's representatives
showed that this was no idle fear. Gaining the upper hand they
declared Ferdinand deposed, and elected the elector palatine of
the Rhine, Frederick V., in his stead; and the struggle between
the rivals was the beginning of the Thirty Years' War. At the
same time other difficulties confronted Ferdinand, who had not
yet secured the imperial throne. Bethlen Gabor, prince of
Transylvania, invaded Hungary, while the Austrians rose and
joined the Bohemians; but having seen his foes retreat from
Vienna, Ferdinand hurried to Frankfort, where he was chosen
emperor on the 28th of August 1619.
To deal with the elector palatine and his allies the new emperor
allied himself with Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria, and the
Catholic League, who drove Frederick from Bohemia in 1620,
while Ferdinand's Spanish allies devastated the Palatinate.
Peace having been made with Bethlen Gabor in December 1621,
the first period of the war ended in a satisfactory fashion for the
emperor, and he could turn his attention to completing the work
of crushing the Protestants, which had already begun in his
archduchies and in Bohemia. In 1623 the Protestant clergy
were expelled from Bohemia; in 1624 all worship save that of
the Roman Catholic church was forbidden; and in 1627 an order
of banishment against all Protestants was issued. A new con-
stitution made the kingdom hereditary in the house of Habsburg,
gave larger powers to the sovereign, and aimed at destroying the
nationality of the Bohemians. Similar measures in Austria
led to a fresh rising which was put down by the aid of the
Bavarians in 1627, and Ferdinand could fairly claim that in
his hereditary lands at least he had rendered Protestantism
innocuous.
The renewal of the Thirty Years' War in 1625 was caused
mainly by the emperor's vigorous championship of the cause
of the counter-reformation in northern and north-eastern
Germany. Again the imperial forces were victorious, chiefly
owing to the genius of Wallenstein, who raised and led an army
in this service, although the great scheme of securing the
southern coast of the Baltic for the Habsburgs was foiled partly
by the resistance of Stralsund. In March 1629 Ferdinand and
his advisers felt themselves strong enough to take the important
step towards which their policy in the Empire had been steadily
tending. Issuing the famous edict of restitution, the emperor
ordered that all lands which had been secularized since 1552, the
date of the peace of Passau, should be restored to the church,
and prompt measures were taken to enforce this decree. Many
and powerful interests were vitally affected by this proceeding,
and] the result was the outbreak of the third period of the war,
which was less favourable to the imperial arms than the preced-
ing ones. This comparative failure was due, in the initial
stages of the campaign, to Ferdinand's weakness in assenting
in 1630 to the demand of Maximilian of Bavaria that Wallen-
stein should be deprived of his command, and also to the genius
of Gustavus Adolphus; and in its later stages to his insistence
on the second removal of Wallenstein, and to his complicity in
the assassination of the general. This deed was followed by the
peace of Prague, concluded in 1635, primarily with John
George I., elector of Saxony, but soon assented to by other
princes; and this treaty, which made extensive concessions to
the Protestants, marks the definite failure of Ferdinand to crush
Protestantism in the Empire, as he had already done in Austria
and Bohemia. It is noteworthy, however, that the emperor
refused to allow the inhabitants of his hereditary dominions to
share in the benefits of the peace. During these years Ferdinand
had also been menaced by the secret or open hostility of France.
A dispute over the duchies of Mantua and Monferrato was
FERDINAND III. FERDINAND I. OF NAPLES
263
ended by the treaty of Cherasco in 1631, but the influence of
France was employed at the imperial diets and elsewhere in
thwarting the plans of Ferdinand and in weakening the power
of the Ilabsburgs. The last important act of the emperor was
to secure the election of his son Ferdinand as king of the Romans.
An attempt in 1630 to attain this end had failed, but in December
1636 the princes, meeting at Regensburg, bestowed the coveted
dignity upon the younger Ferdinand. A few weeks afterwards,
on the 1 5th of February 1637, the emperor died at Vienna,
leaving, in addition to the king of the Romans, a son Leopold
William (1614-1662), bishop of Passau and Strassburg. Fer-
dinand's reign was so occupied with the Thirty Years' War and
the struggle with the Protestants that he had little time or
inclination for other business. It is interesting to note, however,
that this orthodox and Catholic emperor was constantly at
variance with Pope Urban VIII. The quarrel was due princi-
pally, but not entirely, to events in Italy, where the pope sided
with France in the dispute over the succession to Mantua and
Monferrato. The succession question was settled, but the
enmity remained; Urban showing his hostility by preventing
the election of the younger Ferdinand as king of the Romans
in 1630, and by turning a deaf ear to the emperor's repeated
requests for assistance to prosecute the war against the heretics.
Ferdinand's character has neither individuality nor interest,
but he ruled the Empire during a critical and important period.
Kind and generous to his dependents, his private life was simple
and blameless, but he was to a great extent under the influence
of his confessors.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief authorities for Ferdinand's life and
reign are F. C. Khevenhiller, Annales Ferdinandei (Regensburg,
1640-1646); F. van Hurter, Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II.
(Schaffhausen, 1850-1855); Korrespondenz Kaiser Ferdinands II.
mil P. Becanus und P. W. Lamormaini, edited by B. Dudik (Vienna,
1848 fol.) ; and F. Stieve, in the Allegmeine deutsche Biographie,
Bandvi. (Leipzig, 1877). See also the elaborate bibliography in the
Cambridge Modern History, vol. iv. (Cambridge, 1906).
FERDINAND III. (1608-1657), Roman emperor, was the
elder son of the emperor Ferdinand II., and was born at Gratz
on the i3th of July 1608. Educated by the Jesuits, he was
crowned king of Hungary in December 1625, and king of Bohemia
two years later, and soon began to take part in imperial business.
Wallenstein, however, refused to allow him to hold a command
in the imperial army; and henceforward reckoned among his
enemies, the young king was appointed the successor of the
famous general when he was deposed in 1634; and as commander-
in-chief of the imperial troops he was nominally responsible for
the capture of Regensburg and Donauworth, and the defeat of
the Swedes at Nordlingen. Having been elected king of the
Romans, or German king, at Regensburg in December 1636,
Ferdinand became emperor on his father's death in the following
February, and showed himself anxious to put an end to the
Thirty Years' War. He persuaded one or two princes to assent
to the terms of the treaty of Prague; but a general peace was
delayed by his reluctance to grant religious liberty to the
Protestants, and by his anxiety to act in unison with Spain.
In 1640 he had refused to entertain the idea of a general amnesty
suggested by the diet at Regensburg; but negotiations for
peace were soon begun, and in 1648 the emperor assented to the
treaty of Westphalia. This event belongs rather to the general
history of Europe, but it is interesting to note that owing
to Ferdinand's insistence the Protestants in his hereditary
dominions did not obtain religious liberty at this settlement.
After 1648 the emperor was engaged in carrying out the terms
of the treaty and ridding Germany of the foreign soldiery. In
1656 he sent an army into Italy to assist Spain in her struggle
with France, and he had just concluded an alliance with Poland
to check the aggressions of Charles X. of Sweden when he died
on the 2nd of April 1657. Ferdinand was a scholarly and cul-
tured man, an excellent linguist and a composer of music.
Industrious and popular in public life, his private life was
blameless; and although a strong Roman Catholic he was less
fanatical than his father. His first wife was Maria Anna (d.
1646), daughter of Philip III. of Spain, by whom he had three
sons: Ferdinand, who was chosen king of the Romans in 1653,
and who died in the following year; Leopold, who succeeded
his father on the imperial throne; and Charles Joseph (d. 1664),
bishop of Passau and Breslau, and grand-master of the Teutonic
order. The emperor's second wife was his cousin Maria (d. 1 649) ,
daughter of the archduke Leopold; and his third wife was
Eleanora of Mantua (d. 1686). His musical works, together with
those of the emperors Leopold -I. and Joseph I., have been
published by G. Adler (Vienna, 1892-1893).
See M. Koch, Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter der Reeierune
Ferdinands III. (Vienna, 1865-1866).
FERDINAND I. (1793-1875), emperor of Austria, eldest son
of Francis I. and of Maria Theresa of Naples, was born at Vienna
on the igth of April 1793. In his boyhood he suffered from
epileptic fits, and could therefore not receive a regular education.
As his health improved with his growth and with travel, he was
not set aside from the succession. In 1830 his father caused him
to be crowned king of Hungary, a pure formality, which gave
him no power, and was designed to avoid possible trouble in the
future. In 1831 he was married to Anna, daughter of Victor
Emmanuel I. of Sardinia. The marriage was barren. When
Francis I. died on the znd of March 1835, Ferdinand was recog-
nized as his successor. But his incapacity was so notorious that
the conduct of affairs was entrusted to a council of state, consist-
ing of Prince Metternich (q.v.) with other ministers, and two
archdukes, Louis and Francis Charles. They composed the
Staatsconferenz, the ill-constructed and informal regency which
led the Austrian dominions to the revolutionary outbreaks of
1846-1849. (See AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.) The emperor, who was
subject to fits of actual insanity, and in his lucid intervals was
weak and confused in mind, was a political nullity. His personal
amiability earned him the affectionate pity of his subjects, and
he became the hero of popular stories which did not tend to main-
tain the dignity of the crown. It was commonly said that 'having
taken refuge on a rainy day in a farmhouse he was so tempted
by the smell of the dumplings which the farmer and his family
were eating for dinner, that he insisted on having one. His
doctor, who knew them to be indigestible, objected, and there-
upon Ferdinand, in an imperial rage, made the answer:
" Kaiser bin i', und Kntidel muss i' haben " (I am emperor, and
will have the dumpling) which has become a Viennese proverb.
His popular name of Der Giilige (the good sort of man) expressed
as much derision as affection. Ferdinand had good taste for
art and music. Some modification of the tight-handed rule of
his father was made by the Slaatsconferenz during his reign. In
the presence of the revolutionary troubles, which began with
agrarian riots in Galicia in 1846, and then spread over the whole
empire, he was personally helpless. He was compelled to escape
from the disorders of Vienna to Innsbruck on the I7th of May
1848. He came back on the invitation of the diet on the I2th
of August, but soon had to escape once more from the mob of
students and workmen who were in possession of the city. On
the 2nd of December he abdicated at Olmtitz in favour of his
nephew, Francis Joseph. He lived under supervision by doctors
and guardians at Prague till his death on the 2gth of June
1875-
See Krones von Marchland, Grundriss der osterreichischen
Geschichte (Vienna, 1882), which gives an ample bibliography;
Count F. Hartig, Genesis der Revolution in Osterreich (Leipzig,
1850), an enlarged English translation will be found in the 4th
volume of W. Coxe's House of Austria (London, 1862).
FERDINAND I. (1423-1494), also called Don Ferrante, king
of Naples, the natural son of Alphonso V. of Aragon and I. of
Sicily and Naples, was born in 1423. In accordance with his
father's will, he succeeded him on the throne of Naples in 1458,
but Pope Calixtus III. declared the line of Aragon extinct and
the kingdom a fief of the church. But although he died before
he could make good his claim (August 1458), and the new Pope
Pius II. recognized Ferdinand, John of Anjou, profiting by the
discontent of the Neapolitan barons, decided to try to regain
the throne conquered by his ancestors, and invaded Naples.
Ferdinand was severely defeated by the Angevins and the rebels
at Sarno in July 1460, but with the help of Alessandro Sforza
264
FERDINAND II. AND IV. (NAPLES)
and of the Albanian chief, Skanderbeg, who chivalrously came
to the aid of the prince whose father had aided him, he triumphed
over bis enemies, and by 1464 had re-established his authority
in the kingdom. In 1478 he allied himself with Pope Sixtus IV.
against Lorenzo de' Medici, but the latter journeyed alone to
Naples when he succeeded in negotiating an honourable peace
with Ferdinand. In 1480 the Turks captured Otranto, and
massacred the majority of the inhabitants, but in the following
year it was retaken by his son Alphonso, duke of Calabria. His
oppressive government led in 1485 to an attempt at revolt on
the part of the nobles, led by Francesca Coppola and Antonello
Sanseverino and supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; the rising
having been crushed, many of the nobles, notwithstanding
Ferdinand's promise of a general amnesty, were afterwards
treacherously murdered at his express command. In 1493
Charles VIII. of France was preparing to invade Italy for the
conquest of Naples, and Ferdinand realized that this was a greater
danger than any he had yet faced. With almost prophetic
instinct he warned the Italian princes of the calamities in store
for them, but his negotiations with Pope Alexander VI. and
Ludovico il Moro, lord of M Ian, having failed, he died in
January 1494, worn out with anxiety. Ferdinand was gifted
with great courage and real political ability, but his method of
government was vicious and disastrous. His financial adminis-
tration was based on oppressive and dishonest monopolies, and
he was mercilessly severe and utterly treacherous towards his
enemies.
AUTHORITIES. Codice Aragonese, edited by F. Trinchera (Naples,
1866-1874); P- Giannone, Istoria Civile del Regno di Napoli; I.
Alvini, De gestis regum Neapol. ab Aragonia (Naples, 1588); S. de
Sismondi, Histoire des republiques italiennes, vols. v. and vi. (Brussels,
1838) ; P. Villari, Machiavelli, pp. 60-64 (Engl. transl.. London, 1892) ;
for the revolt of the nobles in 1485 see Camillo Porzio, La Congiura
dei Baroni (first published Rome, 1565; many subsequent editions),
written in the Royalist interest. (L. V. *)
/FERDINAND II. (1469-1496), king of Naples, was the grand-
son of the preceding, and son of Alphonso II. Alphonso finding
his tenure of the throne uncertain on account of the approaching
invasion of Charles VIII. of France and the general dissatis-
faction of his subjects, abdicated in his son's favour in 1495, but
notwithstanding this the treason of a party in Naples rendered
it impossible to defend the city against the approach of
Charles VIII. Ferdinand fled to Ischia; but when the French
king left Naples with most of his army, in consequence of the
formation of an Italian league against him, he returned, defeated
the French garrisons, and the Neapolitans, irritated by the
conduct of their conquerors during the occupation of the city,
received him back with enthusiasm; with the aid of the great
Spanish general Gonzalo de Cordova he was able completely to
rid his state of its invaders shortly before his death, which
occurred on the 7th of September 1496.
For authorities see under FERDINAND I. of Naples; for the
exploits of Gonzalo de Cordova see H. P. del Pulear, Cronica del
gran capitano don Gonzalo de Cordoba (new ed., Madrid, 1834).
FERDINAND IV. (1751-1825), king of Naples (III. of Sicily,
and I. of the Two Sicilies), third son of Don Carlos of Bourbon,
king of Naples and Sicily (afterwards Charles III. of Spain),
was born in Naples on the i2th of January 1751. When his
father ascended the Spanish throne in 1759 Ferdinand, in accord-
ance with the treaties forbidding the union of the two crowns,
succeeded him as king of Naples, under a regency presided over
by the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci. The latter, an able, ambitious
man, wishing to keep the government as much as possible in his
own hands, purposely neglected the young king's education,
and encouraged him in his love of pleasure, his idleness and his
excessive devotion to outdoor sports. Ferdinand grew up
athletic, but ignorant, ill-bred, addicted to the lowest amuse-
ments; he delighted in the company of the lazzaroni (the most
degraded class of the Neapolitan people), whose dialect and
habits he affected, and he even sold fish in the market, haggling
over the price.
His minority ended in 1767, and his first act was the expulsion
of the Jesuits. The following year he married Maria Carolina,
daughter of the empress Maria Theresa. By the marriage con-
tract the queen was to have a voice in the council of state after
the birth of her first son, and she was not slow to avail herself
of this means of political influence. Beautiful, clever and
proud, like her mother, but cruel and treacherous, her ambition
was to raise the kingdom of Naples to the position of a great
power; she soon came to exercise complete sway over her stupid
and idle husband, and was the real ruler of the kingdom. Tanucci,
who attempted to thwart her, was dismissed in 1777, and the
Englishman Sir John Acton (1736), who in 1779 was appointed
director of marine, succeeded in so completely winning the
favour of Maria Carolina, by supporting her in her scheme to
free Naples from Spanish influence and securing a rapprochement
with Austria and England, that he became practically and after-
wards actually prime minister. Although not a mere grasping
adventurer, he was largely responsible for reducing the internal
administration of the country to an abominable system of
espionage, corruption and cruelty. On the outbreak of the
French Revolution the Neapolitan court was not hostile to the
movement, and the queen even sympathized with the revolu-
tionary ideas of the day. But when the French monarchy was
abolished and the royal pair beheaded, Ferdinand and Carolina
were seized with a feeling of fear and horror and joined the first
coalition against France in 1793. Although peace was made
with France in 1796, 'the demands of the French Directory,
whose troops occupied Rome, alarmed the king once more, and
at his wife's instigation he took advantage of Napoleon's absence
in Egypt and of Nelson's victories to go to war. He marched
with his army against the French and entered Rome (29th of
November), but on the defeat of some of his columns he hurried
back to Naples, and on the approach of the French, fled on board
Nelson's ship the " Vanguard " to Sicily, leaving his capital in
a state of anarchy. The French entered the city in spite of the
fierce resistance of the lazzaroni, who were devoted to the king,
and with the aid of the nobles and bourgeois established the
Parthenopaean Republic (January 1799). When a few weeks
later the French troops were recalled to the north of Italy,
Ferdinand sent an expedition composed of Calabrians, brigands
and gaol-birds, under Cardinal Ruffo, a man of real ability,
great devotion to the king, and by no means so bad as he has
been painted, to reconquer the mainland kingdom. Ruffo was
completely successful, and reached Naples in May. His army
and the lazzaroni committed nameless atrocities, which he
honestly tried to prevent, and the Parthenopaean Republic
collapsed.
The savage punishment of the Neapolitan Republicans is
dealt with in more detail under NAPLES, NELSON and CARACCIOLO,
but it is necessary to say here that the king, and above all the
queen, were particularly anxious that no mercy should be shown
to the rebels, and Maria Carolina made use of Lady Hamilton,
Nelson's mistress, to induce him to execute her own spiteful
vengeance. Her only excuse is that as a sister of Marie Antoin-
ette the very name of Republican or Jacobin filled her with
loathing. The king returned to Naples soon afterwards, and
ordered wholesale arrests and executions of supposed Liberals,
which continued until the French successes forced him to agree
to a treaty in which amnesty for members of the French party
was included. When war broke out between France and Austria
in 1805, Ferdinand signed a treaty of neutrality with the former,
but a few days later he allied himself with Austria and allowed
an Anglo-Russian force to land at Naples. The French victory
at Austerlitz enabled Napoleon to despatch an army to southern
Italy. Ferdinand with his usual precipitation fled to Palermo
(23rd of January 1806), followed soon after by his wife and son,
and on the I4th of February the French again entered Naples.
Napoleon declared that the Bourbon dynasty had forfeited the
crown, and proclaimed his brother Joseph king of Naples and
Sicily. But Ferdinand continued to reign over the latter king-
dom under British protection. Parliamentary institutions of a
feudal type had long existed in the island, and Lord William
Bentinck (g.f.), the British minister, insisted on a reform of the
constitution on English and French lines. The king indeed
practically abdicated his power, appointing his son Francis
FERDINAND I. (PORTUGAL) FERDINAND I. (CASTILE) 265
regent, and the queen, at Bentinck's instance, was exiled to
Austria, where she died in 1814.
After the fall of Napoleon, Joachim Murat, who had succeeded
Joseph Bonaparte as king of Naples in 1808, was dethroned, and
Ferdinand returned to Naples. By a secret treaty he had bound
himself not to advance further in a constitutional direction than
Austria should at any time approve; but, though on the whole
he acted in accordance with Metternich's policy of preserving
the status quo, and maintained with but slight change Murat's
laws and administrative system, he took advantage of the
situation to abolish the Sicilian constitution, in violation of his
oath, and to proclaim the union of the two states into the king-
dom of the Two Sicilies (December I2th, 1816). He was now
completely subservient to Austria, an Austrian, Count Nugent,
being even made commander-in-chief of the army; and for four
years he reigned as a despot, every tentative effort at the ex-
pression of liberal opinion being ruthlessly suppressed. The
result was an alarming spread of the influence and activity of
the secret society of the Carbonari (q.v.), which in time affected
a large part of the army. In July 1820 a military revolt broke
out under General Pepe, and Ferdinand was terrorized into
subscribing a constitution on the model of the impracticable
Spanish constitution of 1812. On the other hand, a revolt in
Sicily, in favour of the recovery of its independence, was sup-
pressed by Neapolitan troops.
The success of the military revolution at Naples seriously
alarmed the powers of the Holy Alliance, who feared that it
might spread to other Italian states and so lead to that general
European conflagration which it was their main preoccupation
to avoid (see EUROPE: History). After long diplomatic negotia-
tions, it was decided to hold a congress ad hoc at Troppau
(October 1820). The main results of this congress were the issue
of the famous Troppau Protocol, signed by Austria, Prussia
and Russia only, and an invitation to King Ferdinand to attend
the adjourned congress at Laibach (1821), an invitation of
which Great Britain approved " as implying negotiation " (see
TROPPAU, LAIBACH, Congresses of). At Laibach Ferdinand
played so sorry a part as to provoke the contempt of those whose
policy it was to re-establish him in absolute power. He had
twice sworn, with gratuitous solemnity, to maintain the new
constitution; but he was hardly out of Naples before he re-
pudiated his oaths and, in letters addressed to all the sovereigns
of Europe, declared his acts to have been null and void. An
attitude so indecent threatened to defeat the very objects of the
reactionary powers, and Gentz congratulated the congress that
these sorry protests would be buried in the archives, offering
at the same time to write for the king a dignified letter in which
he should express his reluctance at having to violate his oaths
in the face of irresistible force ! But, under these circumstances,
Metternich had no difficulty in persuading the king to allow an
Austrian army to march into Naples " to restore order."
The campaign that followed did little credit either to the
Austrians or the Neapolitans. The latter, commanded by
General Pepe (q.v.), who made no attempt to defend the difficult
defiles of the Abruzzi, were defeated, after a half-hearted struggle
at Rieti (March 7th, 1821), and the Austrians entered Naples.
The parliament was now dismissed, and Ferdinand inaugurated
an era of savage persecution, supported by spies and informers,
against the Liberals and Carbonari, the Austrian commandant
in vain protesting against the savagery which his presence alone
rendered possible.
Ferdinand died on the 4th of January 1825. Few sovereigns
have left behind so odious a memory. His whole career is one
long record of perjury, vengeance and meanness, unredeemed by
a single generous act, and his wife was a worthy helpmeet and
actively co-operated in his tyranny.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The standard authority on Ferdinand's reign is
Pietro Colletta's Storia del Reame di Napoli (2nd ed., Florence, 1848),
which, although heavily written and not free from party passion,
is reliable and accurate ; L. Conforti, Napcli net 1700 (Naples, 1886) ;
G. Pepe, Memorie (Paris, 1847), a most valuable book; C. Auriol,
La France, I'Angleterre, et Naples (Paris, 1906); for the Sicilian
period and the British occupation, G. Bianco, La Sicilia durante
I'occupazione Inglese (Palermo, 1902), which contains many new.
documents of importance; Freiherr A. von Helfert has attempted
the impossible task of whitewashing Queen Carolina in his Konigin
Karolina von Neapel und Sicilien (Vienna, 1878), and Maria Karolina
von Oesterreich (Vienna, 1884); he has also written a useful life of
Fabrizio Ruffo (Italian edit., Florence, 1885); for the Sicilian
revolution of 1820 see G. Bianco's La Rivoluzione in Sicilia del 1820
(Florence, 1905), and M. Amari's Carteggio (Turin, 1896), (L. V.*)
FERDINAND I., king of Portugal (1345-1383), sometimes
referred to as el Gentil (the Gentleman), son of Pedro I. of
Portugal (who is not to be confounded with his Spanish con-
temporary Pedro the Cruel), succeeded his father in 1367. On
the death of Pedro of Castile in 1369, Ferdinand, as great-
grandson of Sancho IV. by the female line, laid claim to the
vacant throne, for which the kings of Aragon and Navarre, and.
afterwards the duke of Lancaster (married in 1370 to Constance,
the eldest daughter of Pedro), also became competitors. Mean-
while Henry of Trastamara, the brother (illegitimate) and con-
queror of Pedro, had assumed the crown and taken the field.
After one or two indecisive campaigns, all parties were ready to
accept the mediation of Pope Gregory XI. The conditions of the
treaty, ratified in 1371, included a marriage between Ferdinand
and Leonora of Castile. But before the union could take place
the former had become passionately attached to Leonora Tellez,
the wife of one of his own courtiers, and having procured a
dissolution of her previous marriage, he lost no time in making
her his queen. This strange conduct, although it raised a serious
insurrection in Portugal, did not at once result in a war with
Henry; but the outward concord was soon disturbed by the
intrigues of the duke of Lancaster, who prevailed on Ferdinand
to enter into a secret treaty for the expulsion of Henry from his
throne. The war which followed was unsuccessful; and peace
was again made in 1373. On the death of Henry in 1379, the
duke of Lancaster once more put forward his claims, and again
found an ally in Portugal; but, according to the Continental
annalists, the English proved as offensive to their companions
in arms as to their enemies in the field; and Ferdinand made
a peace for himself at Badajoz in 1382, it being stipulated that
Beatrix, the heiress of Ferdinand, should marry King John
of Castile, and thus secure the ultimate union of the crowns.
Ferdinand left no male issue when he died on the 22nd of October
1383, and the direct Burgundian line, which had been in possession
of the throne since the days of Count Henry (about 1112), became
extinct. The stipulations of the treaty of Badajoz were set
aside, and John, grand-master of the order of Aviz, Ferdinand's
illegitimate brother, was proclaimed. This led to a war which
lasted for several years.
FERDINAND I., El Magno or " the Great," king of Castile
(d. 1065), son of Sancho of Navarre, was put in possession of
Castile in 1028, on the murder of the last count, as the heir of his
mother Elvira, daughter of a previous count of Castile. He
reigned with the title of king. He married Sancha, sister and
heiress of Bermudo, king of Leon. In 1038 Bermudo was killed
in battle with Ferdinand at Tamaron, and Ferdinand then took
possession of Leon by right of his wife, and was recognized in
Spain as emperor. The use of the title was resented by the
emperor Henry IV. and by Pope Victor II. in 1055, as implying
a claim to the headship of Christendom, and as a usurpation
on the Holy Roman Empire. It did not, however, mean more
than that Spain was independent of the Empire, and that the
sovereign of Leon was the chief of the princes of the peninsula.
Although Ferdinand had grown in power by a fratricidal strife
with Bermudo of Leon, and though at a later date he defeated
and killed his brother Garcia of Navarre, be ranks high among
the kings of Spain who have been counted religious. To a large
extent he may have owed his reputation to the victories over
the Mahommedans, with which he began the period of the great
reconquest. But there can be no doubt that Ferdinand was
profoundly pious. Towards the close of his reign he sent a special
embassy to Seville to bring back the body of Santa Justa. The
then king of Seville, Motadhid, one of the small princes who
had divided the caliphate of Cordova, was himself a sceptic and
poisoner, but he stood in wholesome awe of the power of the
266
FERDINAND II.-V. (SPAIN)
Christian king. He favoured the embassy in every way, and
when the body of Santa Justa could not be found, helped the
envoys who were also aided by a vision seen by one of them in
a dream, to discover the body of Saint Isidore, which was
reverently carried away to Leon. Ferdinand died on the feast
of Saint John the Evangelist, the 24th of June 1065, in Leon,
with many manifestations of ardent piety having laid aside
his crown and royal mantle, dressed in the frock of a monk and
lying on a bier, covered with ashes, which was placed before the
altar of the church of Saint Isidore.
FERDINAND II., king of Leon only (d. 1188), was the son
of Alphonso VII. and of Berenguela, of the house of the counts
of Barcelona. On the division of the kingdoms which had
obeyed his father, he received Leon. His reign of thirty years
was one of strife marked by no signal success or reverse. He
had to contend with his unruly nobles, several of whom he put
to death. During the minority of his nephew Alphonso VIII. of
Castile he endeavoured to impose himself on the kingdom as
regent. On the west he was in more or less constant strife with
Portugal, which was in process of becoming an independent
kingdom. His relations to the Portuguese house must have
suffered by his repudiation of his wife Urraca, daughter of
Alphonso I. of Portugal. Though he took the king of Portugal
prisoner in 1180, he made no political use of his success. He
extended his dominions southward in Estremadura at the ex-
pense of the Moors. Ferdinand, who died in 1188, left the
reputation of a good knight and hard fighter, but did not display
political or organizing faculty.
FERDINAND III., El Santo or "the Saint," king of Castile
(1199-1252), son of Alphonso IX. of Leon, and of Berengaria,
daughter of Alphonso VIII. of Castile, ranks among the greatest
of the Spanish kings. The marriage of his parents, who were
second cousins, was dissolved as unlawful by the pope, but the
legitimacy of the children was recognized. Till 1217 he lived
with his father in Leon. In that year the young king of Castile,
Henry, was killed by accident. Berengaria sent for her son
with such speed that her messenger reached Leon before the news
of the death of the king of Castile, and when he came to her she
renounced the crown in his favour. Alphonso of Leon considered
himself tricked, and the young king had to begin his reign by a
war against his father and a faction of the Castilian nobles.
His own ability and the remarkable capacity of his mother
proved too much for the king of Leon and his Castilian allies.
Ferdinand, who showed himself docile to the influence of Beren-
garia, so long as she lived, married the wife she found for him,
Beatrice, daughter of the emperor Philip (of Hohenstaufen) , and
followed her advice both in prosecuting the war against the Moors
and in the steps which she took to secure his peaceful succession
to Leon on the death of his father in 1231. After the union of
Castile and Leon in that year he began the series of campaigns
which ended by reducing the Mahommedan dominions in Spain
to Granada. Cordova fell in 1236, and Seville in 1248. The
king of Granada did homage to Ferdinand, and undertook to
attend the cortes when summoned. The king was a severe
persecutor of the Albigenses, and his formal canonization was
due as much to his orthodoxy as to his crusading by Pope
Clement X. in 1671. He revived the university first founded
by his grandfather Alphonso VIII., and placed it at Salamanca.
By his second marriage with Joan (d. 1279), daughter of Simon,
of Dammartin, count of Ponthieu, by right of his wife Marie,
Ferdinand was the father of Eleanor, the wife of Edward I. of
England.
FERDINAND IV., El Emplazado or " the Summoned," king
of Castile (d. 1312), son of Sancho El Bravo, and his wife
Maria de Molina, is a figure of small note in Spanish history.
His strange title is given him in the chronicles on the strength
of a story that he put two brothers of the name of Carvajal to
death tyrannically, and was given a time, a plazo, by them in
which to answer for his crime in the next world. But the tale
is not contemporary, and is an obvious copy of the story told
of Jacques de Molay, grand-master of the Temple, and Philippe
Le Bel. Ferdinand IV. succeeded to the throne when a boy of
six. His minority was a time of anarchy. He owed his escape
from the violence of competitors and nobles, partly to the tact
and undaunted bravery of his mother Maria de Molina, and
partly to the loyalty of the citizens of Avila, who gave him
refuge within their walls. As a king he proved ungrateful to his
mother, and weak as a ruler. He died suddenly in his tent at
Jaen when preparing for a raid into the Moorish territory of
Granada, on the 7th of September 1312.
FERDINAND I., king of Aragon (1373-1416), called "of
Antequera," was the son of John I. of Castile by his wife Eleanor,
daughter of the third marriage of Peter IV. of Aragon. His
surname " of Antequera " was given him because he was besieg-
ing that town, then in the hands of the Moors, when he was told
that the cortes of Aragon had elected him king in succession to his
uncle Martin, the last male of the old line of Wilfred the Hairy.
As infante of Castile Ferdinand had played an honourable part.
When his brother Henry III. died at Toledo, in 1406, the cortes
was sitting, and theinobles offered to make him king in preference
to his nephew John. Ferdinand refused to despoil his brother's
infant son, and even if he did not act on the moral ground he
alleged, his sagacity must have shown him that he would be at
the mercy of the men who had chosen him in such circumstances.
As co-regent of the kingdom with Catherine, widow of Henry III.
and daughter of John of Gaunt by his marriage with Constance,
daughter of Peter the Cruel and Maria de Padilla, Ferdinand
proved a good ruler. He restrained the follies of his sister-in-law,
and kept the realm quiet, by firm government, and by prosecuting
the war with the Moors. As king of Aragon his short reign of
two years left him little time to make his mark. Having been
bred in Castile, where the royal authority was, at least in theory,
absolute, he showed himself impatient under the checks imposed
on him by the fueros, the chartered rights of Aragon and Cata-
lonia. He particularly resented the obstinacy of the Barcelonese,
who compelled the members of his household to pay municipal
taxes. His most signal act as king was to aid in closing the
Great Schism in the Church by agreeing to the deposition of the
antipope Benedict XIV., an Aragonese. He died at Ygualada
in Catalonia on the 2nd of April 1416.
FERDINAND V. of Castile and Leon, and II. of Aragon
(1452-1516), was the son of John I. of Aragon by his second
marriage with Joanna Henriquez, of the family of the hereditary
grand admirals of Castile, and was born at Sos in Aragon on the
i6th of March 1452. Under the name of "the Catholic" and
as the husband of Isabella, queen of Castile, he played a great
part in Europe. His share in establishing the royal authority
in all parts of Spain, in expelling the Moors from Granada, in the
conquest of Navarre, in forwarding the voyages of Columbus,
and in contending with France for the supremacy in Italy, is
dealt with elsewhere (see SPAIN: History). In personal char-
acter he had none of the attractive qualities of his wife. It may
fairly be said of him that he was purely a politician. His marri-
age in 1469 to his cousin Isabella of Castile was dictated by the
desire to unite his own claims to the crown, as the head of the
younger branch of the same family, with hers, in case Henry IV.
should die childless. When the king died in 1474 he made an
ungenerous attempt to procure his own proclamation as king
without recognition of the rights of his wife. Isabella asserted
her claims firmly, and at all times insisted on a voice in the
government of Castile. But though Ferdinand had sought a
selfish political advantage at his wife's expense, he was well aware
of her ability and high character. Their married life was dignified
and harmonious; for Ferdinand had no common vices, and
their views in government were identical. The king cared for
nothing but dominion and political power. His character
explains the most ungracious acts of his life, such as his breach
of his promises to Columbus, his distrust of Ximenez and of the
Great Captain. He had given wide privileges to Columbus on
the supposition that the discoverer would reach powerful king-
doms. When islands inhabited by feeble savages were dis-
covered, Ferdinand appreciated the risk that they might become
the seat of a power too strong to be controlled, and took
measures to avert the danger. He feared that Ximinez and the
FERDINAND VI. VII. (SPAIN)
267
Great Captain would become too independent, and watched
them in the interest of the royal authority. Whether he ever
boasted, as he is said to have boasted, that he had deceived
Louis XII. of France twelve times, is very doubtful; but it is
certain that when Ferdinand made a treaty, or came to an
understanding with any one, the contract was generally found
to contain implied meanings favourable to himself which the
other contracting party had not expected. The worst of his
character was prominently shown after the death of Isabella
in 1504. He endeavoured to lay hands on the regency of Castile
in the name of his insane daughter Joanna, and without regard
to the claims of her husband Philip of Habsburg. The hostility
of the Castilian nobles, by whom he was disliked, baffled him
for a time, but on Philip's early death he reasserted his authority.
His second marriage with Germaine of Foix in 1505 was appar-
ently contracted in the hope that by securing an heir male he
might punish his Habsburg son-in-law. Aragon did not recog-
nize the right of women to reign, and would have been detached
together with Catalonia, Valencia and the Italian states if he
had had a son. This was the only occasion on which Ferdinand
allowed passion to obscure his political sense, and lead him into
acts which tended to undo his work of national unification. As
king of Aragon he abstained from inroads on the liberties of his
subjects which might have provoked rebellion. A few acts of
illegal violence are recorded of him as when heinvited a notorious
demagogue of Saragossa to visit him in the palace, and caused
the man to be executed without form of trial. Once when presid-
ing over the Aragonese cortes he found himself sitting in a
thorough draught and ordered the window to be shut, adding
in a lower voice, " If it is not against thefueros." But his ill-will
did not go beyond such sneers. He was too intent on building
up a great state to complicate his difficulties by internal troubles.
His arrangement of the convention of Guadalupe, which ended
the fierce Agrarian conflicts of Catalonia, was wise and profitable
to the country, though it was probably dictated mainly by a wish
to weaken the landowners by taking away their feudal rights.
Ferdinand died at Madrigalejo in Estremadura on the 23rd of
February 1516.
The lives of the kings of this name before Ferdinand V. are con-
tained in the chronicles, and in the Anales de Aragon of Zurita, and
the History of Spain by Mariana. Both deal at length with the
life of Ferdinand V. Prescott's History of the Reign of Ferdinand
and Isabella, in any of its numerous editions, gives a full life of him
with copious references to authorities.
FERDINAND VI., king of Spain (1713-1759), second son of
Philip V., founder of the Bourbon dynasty, by his first marriage
with Maria Louisa of Savoy, was born at Madrid on the 23rd
of September 1713. His youth was depressed. His father's
second wife, Elizabeth Farnese, was a managing woman, who
had no affection except for her own children, and who looked
upon her stepson as an obstacle to their fortunes. The hypo-
chondria of his father left Elizabeth mistress of the palace.
Ferdinand was married in 1729 to Maria Magdalena Barbara,
daughter of John V. of Portugal. The very homely looks of his
wife were thought by observers to cause the prince a visible
shock when he was first presented to her. Yet he became deeply
attached to his wife, and proved in fact nearly as uxorious as his
father. Ferdinand was by temperament melancholy, shy and
distrustful of his own abilities. When complimented on his
shooting, he replied, " It would be hard if there were not some-
thing I could do." As king he followed a steady policy of neu-
trality between France and England, and refused to be tempted
by the offers of either into declaring war on the other. In his
life he was orderly and retiring, averse from taking decisions,
though not incapable of acting firmly, as when he cut short the
dangerous intrigues of his able minister Ensenada by dismiss-
ing and imprisoning him. Shooting and music were his only
pleasures, and he was the generous patron of the famous singer
Farinelli (q.v.), whose voice soothed his melancholy. The death
of his wife Barbara, who had been devoted to him, and who care-
fully abstained from political intrigue, broke his heart. Between
the date of her death in 1758 and his own on the roth of August
1759 he fell into a state of prostration in which he would not
even dress, but wandered unshaven, unwashed and in a night-
gown about his park. The memoirs of the count of Fernan
Nunez give a shocking picture of his death-bed.
A good account of the reign and character of Ferdinand VI. will
be found in vol. iv. of Coxe s Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the
House of Bourbon (London, 1815). See also Vida de Carlos III., by
the count of Fernan Nunez, ed. M. Morel Fatio and Don A. Paz y
Melia (1898).
FERDINAND VII., king of Spain (1784-1833), the eldest son
of Charles IV., king of Spain, and of his wife Maria Louisa of
Parma, was born at the palace of San Ildefonso near Balsain in
the Somosierra hills, on the I4th of October 1784. The events
with which he was connected were many, tragic and of the widest
European interest. In his youth he occupied the painful position
of an heir apparent who was carefully excluded from all share in
government by the jealousy of his parents, and the prevalence
of a royal favourite. National discontent with a feeble govern-
ment produced a revolution in 1808 by which he passed to the
throne by the forced abdication of his father. Then he spent
years as the prisoner of Napoleon, and returned in 1814 to find
that while Spain was fighting for independence in his name a new
world had been born of foreign invasion and domestic revolution.
He came back to assert the ancient doctrine that the sovereign
authority resided in his person only. Acting on this principle he
ruled frivolously, and with a wanton indulgence of whims. In
1820 his misrule provoked a revolt, and he remained in the hands
of insurgents till he was released by foreign intervention in 1823.
When free, he revenged himself with a ferocity which disgusted
his allies. In his last years he prepared a change in the order of
succession established by his dynasty in Spain, which angered
a large part of the nation, and made a civil war inevitable.
We have to distinguish the part of Ferdinand VII. in all these
transactions, in which other and better men were concerned.
It can confidently be said to have been uniformly base. He had
perhaps no right to complain that he was kept aloof from all
share in government while only heir apparent, for this was the
traditional practice of his family. But as heir to the throne
he had a right to resent the degradation of the crown he was to
inherit, and the power of a favourite who was 'his mother's lover.
If he had put himself at the head of a popular rising he would
have been followed, and would have had a good excuse. His
course' was to enter on dim intrigues at the instigation of his first
wife, Maria Antonietta of Naples. After her death in 1806 he
was drawn into other intrigues by flatterers, and, in October
1807, was arrested for the conspiracy of the Escorial. The
conspiracy aimed at securing the help of the emperor Napoleon.
When detected, Ferdinand betrayed his associates, and grovelled
to his parents. When his father's abdication was extorted by a
popular riot at Aranjuez in March 1808, he ascended the throne
not to lead his people manfully, but to throw himself into the
hands of Napoleon, in the fatuous hope that the emperor would
support him. He was in his turn forced to make an abdication
and imprisoned in France, while Spain, with the help of England,
fought for its life. At Valanjay, where he was sent as a prisoner
of state, he sank contentedly into vulgar vice, and did not scruple
to applaud the French victories over the people who were suffer-
ing unutterable misery in his cause. When restored in March
1814, on the fall of Napoleon, he had just cause to repudiate the
impracticable constitution made by the cortes without his
consent. He did so, and then governed like an evil-disposed
boy indulging the merest animal passions, listening to a small
camarilla of low-born favourites, changing his ministers every
three months, and acting on the impulse of whims which were
sometimes mere buffoonery, but were at times lubricous, or
ferocious. The autocratic powers of the Grand Alliance, though
forced to support him as the representative of legitimacy in Spain,
watched his proceedings with disgust and alarm. " The king,"
wrote Gentz to the hospodar Caradja on the ist of December
1814, "himself enters the houses of his first ministers, arrests
them, and hands them over to their cruel enemies "; and again,
on the i4th of January 1815, " The king has so debased himself
that he has become no more than the leading police agent and
gaoler of his country." When at last the inevitable revolt came
268 FERDINAND II. (SICILY) FERDINAND III. (TUSCANY)
in 1 820 he grovelled to the insurgents as he had done to his parents,
descending to the meanest submissions while fear was on him,
then intriguing and, when detected, grovelling again. When at
the beginning of 1823, as a result of the congress of Verona, the
French invaded Spain, 1 " invoking the God of St Louis, for the
sake of preserving the throne of Spain to a descendant of Henry
IV., and of reconciling that fine kingdom with Europe," and in
May the revolutionary party carried Ferdinand to Cadiz, he
continued to make promises of amendment till he was free.
Then, in violation of his oath to grant an amnesty, he revenged
himself for three years of coercion by killing on a scale which
revolted his " rescuers," and against which the duke of
Angouleme, powerless to interfere, protested by refusing the
Spanish decorations offered him for his services. During his
last years Ferdinand's energy was abated. He no longer changed
ministers every few months as a sport, and he allowed some of
them to conduct the current business of government. His habits
of life were telling on him. He became torpid, bloated and
horrible to look at. After his fourth marriage in 1829 with Maria
Christina of Naples, he was persuaded by his wife to set aside
the law of succession of Philip V., which gave a preference to all
the males of the family in Spain over the females. His marriage
had brought him only two daughters. When well, he consented
to the change under the influence of his wife. When ill, he was
terrified by priestly advisers, who were partisans of his brother
Don Carlos. What his final decision was is perhaps doubtful.
His wife was mistress by his death-bed, and she could put the
words she chose into the mouth of a dead man and could move
the dead hand at her will. Ferdinand died on the 2pth of Sep-
tember 1833. It had been a frequent saying with the more zealous
royalists of Spain that a king must be wiser than his ministers,
for he was placed on the throne and directed by God. Since
the reign of Ferdinand VII. no one has maintained this un-
qualified version of the great doctrine of divine right.
King Ferdinand VII. kept a diary during the troubled years
1820-1823, which has been published by the count de Casa Valencia.
FERDINAND II. (1810-1859), king of the Two Sicilies, son of
Francis I., was born at Palermo on the I2th of January 1810.
In his early years he was credited with Liberal ideas and he was
fairly popular, his free and easy manners having endeared him
to the lazzaroni. On succeeding his father in 1830, he published
an edict in which he promised to " give his most anxious atten-
tion to the impartial administration of justice," to reform the
finances, and to " use every effort to heal the wounds which had
afflicted the kingdom for so many years "; but these promises
seem to have been meant only to lull discontent to sleep, for
although he did. something for the economic development of
the kingdom, the existing burden of taxation was only slightly
lightened, corruption continued to flourish in all departments
of the administration, and an absolutism was finally established
harsher than that of all his predecessors, and supported by even
more extensive and arbitrary arrests. Ferdinand was naturally
shrewd, but badly educated, grossly superstitious and possessed
of inordinate self-esteem. Though he kept the machinery of
his kingdom fairly efficient, and was a patriot to the extent of
brooking no foreign interference, he made little account of the
wishes or welfare of his subjects. In 1832 he married Cristina,
daughter of Victor Emmanuel I., king of Sardinia, and shortly
after her death in 1836 he took for a second wife Maria Theresa,
daughter of archduke Charles of Austria. After his Austrian
alliance the bonds of despotism were more closely tightened, and
the increasing discontent of his subjects was manifested by
various abortive attempts at insurrection;' in 1837 there was a
rising in Sicily in consequence of the outbreak of cholera, and in
1843 the Young Italy Society tried to organize a general rising,
which, however, only manifested itself in a series of isolated out-
breaks. The expedition of the Bandiera brothers (q.v.) in 1844,
although it had no practical result, aroused great ill-feeling owing
to the cruel sentences passed on the rebels. In January 1848
a rising in Sicily was the signal for revolutions all over Italy and
Europe; it was followed by a movement in Naples, and the king
1 Louis XVIII. 's speech from the throne, Jan. 28, 1823.
granted a constitution which he swore to observe. A dispute,
however, arose as to the nature of the oath which should be taken
by the members of the chamber of deputies, and as neither the
king nor the deputies would yield, serious disturbances broke
out in the streets of Naples on the isth of May; so the king,
making these an excuse for withdrawing his promise, dissolved
the national parliament on the i3th of March 1849. He retired
to Gaeta to confer with various deposed despots, and when the
news of the Austrian victory at Novara (March 1849) reached
him, he determined to return to a reactionary policy. Sicily,
whence the Royalists had been expelled, was subjugated by
General Filangieri (q.v.), and the chief cities were bombarded,
an expedient which won for Ferdinand the epithet of " King
Bomba." During the last years of his reign espionage and
arbitrary arrests prevented all serious manifestations of dis-
content among his subjects. In 1851 the political prisoners of
Naples were calculated by Mr Gladstone in his letters to Lord
Aberdeen (1851) to number 15,000 (probably the real figure was
nearer 40,000), and so great was the scandal created by the pre-
vailing reign of terror, and the abominable treatment to which
the prisoners were subjected, that in 1856 France and England
made diplomatic representations to induce the king to mitigate
his rigour and proclaim a general amnesty, but without success.
An attempt was made by a soldier to assassinate Ferdinand in
1856. He died on the 22nd of May 1856, just after the declara-
tion of war by France and Piedmont against Austria, which was
to result in the collapse of his kingdom and his dynasty. He
was bigoted, cruel, mean, treacherous, though not without a
certain bonhomie; the only excuse that can -be made for him
is that with his heredity and education a different result could
scarcely be expected.
See Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Naples and. Sicily,
1848-1849, presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of
Her Majesty, 4th May 1849; Two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen, by
the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, 1st ed., 1851 (an edition published
in 1852 and the subsequent editions contain an Examination of the
Official Reply of the Neapolitan Government) ; N. Nisco, Ferdinando II.
il suo regno (Naples, 1884) ; H. Remsen Whitehouse, The Collapse of
the Kingdom of Naples (New York, 1899) ; R. de Cesare, La Caduta
d' un Regno, vol. i. (Citta di Castello, 1900), which contains a great
deal of fresh information, but is badly arranged and not always
reliable. (L. V.*)
FERDINAND III. (1769-1824), grand duke of Tuscany, and
archduke of Austria, second son of the emperor Leopold II.,
was born on the 6th of May 1769. On his father becoming
emperor in 1790, he succeeded him as grand duke of Tuscany.
Ferdinand was one of the first sovereigns to enter into diplomatic
relations with the French republic (1793); and although, a few
months later, he was compelled by England and Russia to join
the coalition against France, he concluded peace with that
power in 1795, and by observing a strict neutrality saved his
dominions from invasion by the French, except for a temporary
occupation of Livorno, till 1799, when he was compelled to vacate
his throne, and a provisional Republican government was estab-
lished at Florence. Shortly afterwards the French arms suffered
severe reverses in Italy, and Ferdinand was restored to his
territories; but in 1801, by the peace of Luneville, Tuscany
was converted into the kingdom of Etruria, and he was again
compelled to return to Vienna. In lieu of the sovereignty of
Tuscany, he obtained in 1802 the electorship of Salzburg, which
he exchanged by the peace of Pressburg in 1805 for that of Wiirz-
burg. In 1806 he was admitted as grand duke of Wurzburg to the
confederation of the Rhine. He was restored to the throne of
Tuscany after the abdication of Napoleon in 1814 and was re-
ceived with enthusiasm by the people, but had again to vacate
his capital for a short time in 1815, when Murat proclaimed war
against Austria. The final overthrow of the French supremacy
at the battle of Waterloo secured him, however, in the un-
disturbed possession of his grand duchy during the remainder
of his life. The restoration in Tuscany was not accompanied by
the reactionary excesses which characterized it elsewhere, and
a large part of the French legislation was retained. His
prime minister was Count V. Fossombroni (q.v.). The mild
rule of Ferdinand, his solicitude for the welfare of his subjects,
FERDINAND (BULGARIA) FERDINAND (COLOGNE) 269
his enlightened patronage of art and science, his encouragement
of commerce, and his toleration render him an honourable ex-
ception to the generality of Italian princes. At the same time
his paternal despotism tended to emasculate the Tuscan char-
acter. He died in June 1824, and was succeeded by his son
Leopold II. (q.v.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. von Reumont, Geschichte Toscanas (Gotha,
1877); and " Federico Manfredini e la politica Toscana nei primi
anni di Ferdinando III." (in the Archivio Slorico Italiano, 1877);
Emmer, Erzherzog Ferdinand III., Grossherzog von Toskana (Salz-
burg, 1871) ; C. Tivaroni, L' Italia durante il dominio francese , ii. 1-44
(Turin, 1889), and L' Italia durante il dominio austriaco, ii. I-l8
(Turin, 1893). See also under FOSSOMBRONI; VITTORIO; and
CAPPONI, GINO.
FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA,
king of Bulgaria (1861- ), fifth and youngest son of Prince
Augustus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was born on the 26th of
February 1861. Great care was exercised in his education, and
every encouragement given to the taste for natural history which
he exhibited at an early age. In 1879 he travelled with his
brother Augustus to Brazil, and the results of their botanical
observations were published at Vienna, 1883-1888, under the
title of Itinera Principum S. Coburgi. Having been appointed
to a lieutenancy in the 2nd regiment of Austrian hussars, he
was holding this rank when, by unanimous vote of the National
Assembly, he was elected prince of Bulgaria, on the 7th of July
1887, in succession to Prince Alexander, who had abdicated on
the 7th of September preceding. He assumed the government
on the I4th of August 1887, for Russia for a long time refused
to acknowledge the election, and he was accordingly exposed to
frequent military conspiracies, due to the influence or attitude
of that power. The firmness and vigour with which he met all
attempts at revolution were at length rewarded, and his election
was confirmed in March 1896 by the Porte and the great powers.
On the aoth of April 1893 he married Marie Louise de Bourbon
(d. 1899), eldest daughter of Duke Robert of Parma, and in May
following the Grand Sobranye confirmed the title of Royal High-
ness to the prince and his heir. The prince adhered to the
Roman Catholic faith, but his son and heir, the young Prince
Boris, was received into the Orthodox Greek Church on the
I4th of February 1896. Prince Boris, to whom the tsar
Nicholas III. became godfather, accompanied his father to
Russia in 1898, when Prince Ferdinand visited St Petersburg
and Moscow, and still further strengthened the bond already
existing between Russia and Bulgaria. In 1908 Ferdinand
married Eleanor (b. 1860), a princess of the house of Reuss.
Later in the year, in connexion with the Austrian annexation
of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the crisis with Turkey, he proclaimed
the independence of Bulgaria, and took the title of king or tsar.
(See BULGARIA, and EUROPE: History.)
FERDINAND, duke of Brunswick (1721-1792), Prussian
general field marshal, was the fourth son of Ferdinand Albert,
duke of Brunswick, and was born at Wolfenbiittel on the i2th
of January 1721. He was carefully educated with a view to a
military career, and in his twentieth year he was made chief of a
newly-raised Brunswick regiment in the Prussian service. He
was present in the battles of Mollwitz and Chotusitz. In suc-
cession to Margrave Wilhelm of Brandenburg, killed at Prague
(1744), Ferdinand received the command of Frederick the
Great's Leibgarde battalion, and at Sohr (1745) he distinguished
himself so greatly at the head of his brigade that Frederick
wrote of him, " le Prince Ferdinand s'est surpasse." The height
which he captured was defended by his brother Ludwig as an
officer of the Austrian service, and another brother of Duke
Ferdinand was killed by his side in the charge. During the ten
years' peace he was in the closest touch with the military work
of Frederick the Great, who supervised the instruction of the
guard battalion, and sought to make it a model of the whole
Prussian army. Ferdinand was, moreover, one of the most
intimate friends of the king, and thus he was peculiarly fitted
for the tasks which afterwards fell to his lot. In this time he
became successively major-general and lieutenant-general. In
the first campaign of the Seven Years' War Ferdinand com-
manded one of the Prussian columns which converged upon
Dresden, and in the operations which led up to the surrender of
the Saxon army at Pirna (1756), and at the battle of Lobositz,
he led the right wing of the Prussian infantry. In 1757 he was
present, and distinguished himself, at Prague, and he served also
in the campaign of Rossbach. Shortly after this he was ap-
pointed to command the allied forces which were being organized
for the war in western Germany. He found this army dejected
by a reverse and a capitulation, yet within a week of his taking
up the command he assumed the offensive, and thus began the
career of victory which made his European reputation as a
soldier. His conduct of the five campaigns which followed (see
SEVEN YEARS' WAR) was naturally influenced by the teachings
of Frederick, whose pupil the duke had been for so many years.
Ferdinand, indeed, approximated more closely to Frederick in
his method of making war than any other general of the time.
Yet his task was in many respects far more difficult than that of
the king. Frederick was the absolute master of his own homo-
geneous army, Ferdinand merely the commander of a group of
contingents, and answerable to several princes for the troops
placed under his control. The French were by no means despi-
cable opponents in the field, and their leaders, if not of the first
grade, were cool and experienced veterans. In 1758 he fought
and won the battle of Crefeld, several marches beyond the
Rhine ; but so advanced a position he could not well maintain,
and he fell back to the Lippe. He resumed a bold offensive in
1759, only to be repulsed at Bergen (near Frankfort-on-Main).
On the ist of August of this year Ferdinand won the brilliant
victory of Minden (q.v.). Vellinghausen. Wilhelmsthal, War-
burg and other victories attested the increasing power of Ferdi-
nand in the following campaigns, and Frederick, hard pressed in
the eastern theatre of war, owed much of his success in an almost
hopeless task to the continued pressure exerted by Ferdinand in
the west. In promoting him to be a field marshal (November
1758) Frederick acknowledged his debt in the words, " Je n'ai
fait que ce que je dois, mon cher Ferdinand." After Minden,
King George II. gave the duke the order of the Garter, and the
thanks of the British parliament w.ere voted on the same occasion
to the " Victor of Minden." After the war he was honoured by
other sovereigns, and he received the rank of field marshal and
a regiment from the Austrians. During the War of American
Independence there was a suggestion, which came to nothing, of
offering him the command of the British forces. He exerted
himself to compensate those who had suffered by the Seven
Years' War, devoting to this purpose most of the small income he
received from his various offices and the rewards given to him
by the allied princes. The estrangement of Frederick and
Ferdinand in 1766 led to the duke's retirement from Prussian
service, but there was no open breach between the old friends,
and Ferdinand visited the king in 1772, 1777, 1779 and 1782.
After 1766 he passed the remainder of his life at his castle of
Veschelde, where he occupied himself in building and other im-
provements, and became a patron of learning and art, and a
great benefactor of the poor. He died on the 3rd of July 1792.
The merits, civil and military, of the prince were recognized by
memorials not only in Prussia and Hanover, but also in Denmark,
the states of western Germany and England. The Prussian
memorials include an equestrian statue at Berlin (1863).
See E. v. L. Knesebeck, Ferdinand, Herzog von Braunschweig und
Liineburg, wdhrend des Siebenjdhrigen Kriegs (2 vols., Hanover,
1857-1858); Von Westphalen, Geschichte der Feldziige des Herzogs
Ferdinands von Braunschweig-Liineburg (5 vols., Berlin, 1859-1872);
v. d. Osten, Tagebuch desHerzogl. Gen. Adjutantenv. Reden (Hamburg,
1805); v. Schafer, Vie militaire du marechal Prince Ferdinand
(Magdeburg, 1796; Nuremberg, 1798) ; also the CEuvres of Frederick
the Great, passim, and authorities for the SEVEN YEARS' WAR.
FERDINAND (1577-1650), elector and archbishop of Cologne,
son of William V., duke of Bavaria, was born on the 7th of
October 1577. Intended for the church, he was educated by the
Jesuits at the university of Ingolstadt, and in 1595 became
coadjutor archbishop of Cologne. He became elector and arch-
bishop in 1612 on the death of his uncle Ernest, whom he also
succeeded as bishop of Liege, Munster and Hildesheim. He
270
FERENTINO FERGHANA
endeavoured resolutely to root out heresy in the lands under his
rule, and favoured the teaching of the Jesuits in every possible
way. He supported the league founded by his brother Maxi-
milian I., duke of Bavaria, and wished to involve the leaguers
in a general attack on the Protestants of north Germany. The
cool political sagacity of the duke formed a sharp contrast to
the impetuosity of the archbishop, and he refused to accede to
his brother's wish; but, in spite of these temporary differences,
Ferdinand sent troops and money to the assistance of the league
when the Thirty Years' War broke out in 1619. The elector's
alliance with the Spaniards secured his territories to a great
extent from the depredations of the war until the arrival of
the Swedes in Germany in 1630, when the extension of the area
of the struggle to the neighbourhood of Cologne induced him
to enter into negotiations for peace. Nothing came of these
attempts until 1647, when he joined his brother Maximilian in
concluding an armistice with France and Sweden at Ulm. The
elector's later years were marked by a conflict with the citizens
of Li6ge; and when the peace of Westphalia freed him from his
enemies, he was able to crush the citizens and deprive them of
many privileges. Ferdinand, who had held the bishopric of
Paderborn since 1618, died at Arnsberg on the I3th of September
1650, and was buried in the cathedral at Cologne.
See L. Ennen, Frankreich und der Niederrhein oder Geschichte von
Stadt und Kurstadt Koln seit demjojahrigen Kriege, Band i. (Cologne,
1855-1856).
FERENTINO (anc. Ferentinum, to be distinguished from
Ferentum or Ferentinum in Etruria), a town and episcopal see
of Italy, in the province of Rome, from which it is 48 m.
E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 7957 (town), 12,279 (commune). It
is picturesquely situated on a hill 1290 ft. above sea-level, and
still possesses considerable remains of ancient fortifications.
The lower portion of the outer walls, which probably did not
stand free, is built of roughly hewn blocks of a limestone which
naturally splits into horizontal layers; above this in places is
walling of rectangular blocks of tufa. Two gates, the Porta
Sanguinaria (with an arch with tufa voussoirs), and the Porta
S. Maria, a double gate constructed entirely of rectangular blocks
of tufa, are preserved. Outside this gate is the tomb of A.
Quinctilius Priscus, a citizen of Ferentinum, with a long inscrip-
tion cut in the rock. See Th. Mommsen in Corp. Inscrip. Lat. x.
(Berlin, 1883), No. 5853.
The highest part of the town, the acropolis, is fortified also;
it has massive retaining walls similar to those of the lower town.
At the eastern corner, under the present episcopal palace, the
construction is somewhat more careful. A projecting rectan-
gular terrace has been erected, supported by walls of quadri-
lateral blocks of limestone arranged almost horizontally; while
upon the level thus formed a building of rectangular blocks of
local travertine was raised. The projecting cornice of this
building bears two inscriptions of the period of Sulla, recording
its construction by two censors (local officials); and in the in-
terior, which contains several chambers, there is an inscription
of the same censors over one of the doors, and another over a
smaller external side door. The windows lighting these chambers
come immediately above the cornice, and the wall continues
above them again. The whole of this construction probably
belongs to one period (Mommsen, op. cit. No. 5837 seq.). The
cathedral occupies a part of the level top of the ancient acropolis;
it was reconstructed on the site of an older church in 1099-1118;
the interior was modernized in 1693, but was restored to its
original form in 1902. It contains a fine canopy in the " Cosma-
tesque " style (see Relazione dei laiiori eseguiti doll' ufficio tecnico
per la conservazione dei monumenti di Rome a provincia, Rome,
I 93, ! 75 seq.). The Gothic church of S. Maria Maggiore, in the
lower town (i3th-i4th century), has a very fine exterior; the
interior, the plan of which is a perfect rectangle, has been spoilt
by restoration. There are several other Gothic churches in the
town.
Ferentinum was the chief town of the Hernici; it was captured
from them by the Romans in 364 B.C. and took no part in the
rising of 306 B.C. The inhabitants became Roman citizens after
195 B.C., and the place later became a municipium. It lay just
above the Via Latina and, being a strong place, served for the
detention of hostages. Horace praises its quietness, and it does
not appear much in later history. (T. As.)
See further Ashby, Rom. Mitteil. xxiv. (1909).
FERENTUM, or FERENTINUM, an ancient town of Etruria,
about 6 m. N. of Viterbo (the ancient name of which is unknown)
and 3^ m. E. of the Via Cassia. It was the birthplace (32 A.D.) of
the emperor Otho, was destroyed in the 1 1 th century, and is now
entirely deserted, though it retains its ancient name. It occupied
a ridge running from east to west, with deep ravines on three
sides. There are some remains of the city walls, and of various
Roman structures, but the most important ruin is that of the
theatre. The stage front is still standing; it is pierced by seven
openings with flat arches, and shows traces of reconstruction.
Thejiecropolis was on the hill called Talone on the north-east.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883),
i. 156; Nolizie degli scavi, 1900, 401; 1902, 84; 1905, 31.
FERETORY (from Lat. feretrum, a bier, from ferre, to bear),
in architecture, the enclosure or chapel within which the
" fereter " shrine, or tomb (as in Henry VII. 's chapel), was
placed.
FERGHANA, or FERGANA, a province of Russian Turkestan,
formed in 1876 out of the former khanate of Khokand. It is
bounded by the provinces of Syr-darya on the N. and N.W.,
Samarkand on the W., and Semiryechensk on the N.E., by
Chinese Turkestan (Kashgaria) on the E., and by Bokhara and
Afghanistan on the S. Its southern limits, on the Pamirs, were
fixed by an Anglo-Russian commission in 1885, from Zor-kul
(Victoria Lake) to the Chinese frontier; and Shignan, Roshan
and Wakhan were assigned to Bokhara in exchange for part of
Darvaz (on the left bank of the Panj), which was given to-
Afghanistan. The area amounts to some 53,000 sq. m., of which.
17,600 sq. m. are on the Pamirs. The most important part of
the province is a rich and fertile valley (1200-1500 ft.), opening
towards the S.W. Thence the province stretches northwards
across the mountains of the Tian-shan system and southwards
across the Alai and Trans- Alai Mts., which reach their highest
point in Peak Kaufmann (23,000 ft.), in the latter range. The
valley owes its fertility to two rivers, the Naryn and the Kara-
darya, which unite within its confines, near Namangan, to form
the Syr-darya or Jaxartes. These streams, and their numerous
mountain affluents, not only supply water for irrigation, but
also bring down vast quantities of sand, which is deposited
alongside their courses, more especially alongside the Syr-darya
where it cuts its way through the Khojent-Ajar ridge, forming
there the Karakchikum. This expanse of moving sands, cover-
ing an area of 750 sq. m., under the influence of south-west winds,
encroaches upon the agricultural districts. The climate of this
valley is dry and warm. In March the temperature reaches
68 F., and then rapidly rises to 95 in June, July and August.
During the five months following April no rain falls, but it begins
again in October. Snow and frost (down to 4 F.) occur in
December and January.
Out of some 3,000,000 acres of cultivated land, about two-
thirds are under constant irrigation and the remaining third
under partial irrigation. The soil is admirably cultivated, the
principal crops being wheat, rice, barley, maize, millet, lucerne,
tobacco, vegetables and fruit. Gardening is conducted with a
high degree of skill and success. Large numbers of horses,
cattle and sheep are kept, and a good many camels are bred.
Over 17,000 acres are planted with vines, and some 350,000
acres are under cotton. Nearly 1,000,000 acres are covered with
forests. The government maintains a forestry farm a tMarghelan,
from which 120,000 to 200,000 young trees are distributed free
every year amongst the inhabitants of the province.
Silkworm breeding, formerly a prosperous industry, has
decayed, despite the encouragement of a state farm at New
Marghelan. Coal, iron, sulphur, gypsum, rock-salt, lacustrine
salt and naphtha are all known to exist, but only the last two
are extracted. Some seventy or eighty factories are engaged
in cotton cleaning; while leather, saddlery, paper and cutlery
FERGUS FALLS FERGUSON, ADAM
are the principal products of the domestic industries. A con-
siderable trade is carried on with Russia; raw cotton, raw silk,
tobacco, hides, sheepskins, fruit^and cotton and leather goods are
exported, and manufactured wares, textiles, tea and sugar are
imported and in part re-exported to Kashgaria and Bokhara.
The total trade of Ferghana reaches an annual value of nearly
3,500,000. A new impulse was given to trade by the extension
(1899) of the Transcaspian railway into Ferghana and by the
opening of the Orenburg-Tashkent railway (1906). The routes
to Kashgaria and the Pamirs are mere bridle-paths over the
mountains, crossing them by lofty passes. For instance, the
passes of Kara-kazyk (14,400 ft.) and Tenghiz-bai (11,200 ft.),
both passable all the year round, lead from Marghelan to Kara-
teghin and the Pamirs, while Kashgar is reached via Osh and
Gulcha, and then over the passes of Terek-davan (12,205 ft.;
open all the year round) , Taldyk ( 1 1 , 500 f t.) , Archat ( 1 1 ,600 f t.) ,
and Shart-davan (14,000 ft.). Other passes leading out of the
valley are the Jiptyk (12,460 ft.), S. of Khokand; the Isfairam
(12,000 ft.), leading to the glen of the Surkhab, and the Kavuk
(13,000 ft.), across the Alai Mts.
The population numbered 1,571, 243 in 1 897 , and of that number
707,132 were women and 286,369 were urban. In 1906 it was
estimated at 1,796,500. Two-thirds of the total are Sarts and
Uzbegs (of Turkic origin). They live mostly in the valley;
while the mountain slopes above it are occupied by Kirghiz,
partly nomad and pastoral, partly agricultural and settled.
The other races are Tajiks, Kashgarians, Kipchaks, Jews and
Gypsies. The governing classes are of course Russians, who
constitute also the merchant and artizan classes. But the
merchants of West Turkestan are called all over central Asia
Andijanis, from the town of Andijan in Ferghana. The great
mass of the population are Mussulmans (1,039,115 in 1897).
The province is divided into five districts, the chief towns of
which are New Marghelan, capital of the province (8977 in-
habitants in 1897), Andijan (49,682 in 1900), Khokand (86,704
in 1900), Namangan (61,906 in 1897), and Osh (37,397 in
1900); but Old Marghelan (42,855 in 1900) and Chust (13,686
in 1897) are also towns of importance. For the history, see
KHOKAND. (P.A.K.; J.T.BE.)
FERGUS FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Otter Tail
county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Red river, 170 m. N.W. of
Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 3772; (1900) 6072, of whom 2131
were foreign-born; (1905) 6692; (1910) 6887. A large part
of the population is of Scandinavian birth or descent. Fergus
Falls is served by the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific
railways. Situated in the celebrated " park region " of the state,
the city possesses great natural beauty, which has been enhanced
by a system of boulevards and well-kept private lawns. Lake
Alice, in the residential district, adds to the city's attractions.
The city has a public library, a county court house, St Luke's
hospital, the G. B. Wright memorial hospital, and a city hall.
It is the seat of a state hospital for the insane (1887) with about
1600 patients, of a business college, of the Park Region Luther
College (Norwegian Lutheran, 1892), and of the North-western
College (Swedish Lutheran; opened in 1901). It has one of
the finest water-powers in the state. Flour is the principal
product; among others are woollen goods, foundry and machine-
shop products, wooden ware, sash, doors and blinds, caskets,
shirts, wagons and packed meats. The city owns and operates
its water-works and its electric-lighting plant. Fergus Falls was
settled about 1859 and was incorporated in 1863.
FERGUSON, ADAM (1723-1816), Scottish philosopher and
historian, was born on the 2oth of June 1723, at Logierait,
Perthshire. He was educated at Perth grammar school and the
university of St Andrews. In 1745, owing to his knowledge of
Gaelic, he was appointed deputy chaplain of the 43rd (afterwards
the 42nd) regiment (the Black Watch), the licence to preach
being granted him by special dispensation, although he had not
completed the required six years of theological study. At the
battle of Fontenoy (1745) Ferguson fought in the ranks through-
out the day, and refused to leave the field, though ordered to
do so by his colonel. He continued attached to the regiment till
271
1754, when, disappointed at not obtaining a living, he abandoned
the clerical profession and resolved to devote himself to literary
pursuits. In January 1757 he succeeded David Hume as
librarian to the faculty of advocates, but soon relinquished this
office on becoming tutor in the family of Lord Bute.
In 1759 Ferguson was appointed professor of natural philo-
sophy in the university of Edinburgh, and in 1764 was trans-
ferred to the chair of " pneumatics " (mental philosophy) " and
moral philosophy." In i767,againstHume'sadvice,hepublished
his Essay on the History of Civil Society, which was well received
and translated into several European languages. In 1776
appeared his (anonymous) pamphlet on the American revolution
in opposition to Dr Price's Observations on the Nature of Civil
Liberty, in which he sympathized with the views of the British
legislature. In 1778 Ferguson was appointed secretary to the
commission which endeavoured, but without success, to
negotiate an arrangement with the revolted colonies. In 1783
appeared his History of the Progress and Termination of the
Roman Republic; it was very popular, and went through several
editions. Ferguson was led to undertake this work from a con-
viction that the history of the Romans during the period of their
greatness was a practical illustration of those ethical and political
doctrines which were the object of his special study. The history
is written in an agreeable style and a spirit of impartiality, arid
gives evidence of a conscientious use of authorities. The in-
fluence of the author's military experience shows itself in certain
portions of the narrative. Finding himself unequal to the labour
of teaching, he resigned his professorship in 1785, and devoted
himself to the revision of his lectures, which he published (1792)
under the title of Principles of Moral and Political Science.
When in his seventieth year, Ferguson, intending to prepare
a new edition of the history, visited Italy and some of the prin-
cipal cities of Europe, where he was received with honour by
learned societies. From 1795 he resided successively at the old
castle of Neidpath near Peebles, at Hallyards on Manor Water
and at St Andrews, where he died on the 22nd of February 1816.
In his ethical system Ferguson treats man throughout as a
social being, and illustrates his doctrines by political examples.
As a believer in the progression of the human race, he placed the
principle of moral approbation in the attainment of perfection.
His speculations were carefully criticized by Cousin (see his
Cours d'histoire de la philosophic morale au dix-huitieme siecle,
pt. ii., 1839-1840): " We find in his method the wisdom and
circumspection of the Scottish school, with something more
masculine and decisive in the results. The principle of perfection
is a new one, at once more rational and comprehensive than
benevolence and sympathy, which in our view places Ferguson
as a moralist above all his predecessors." By this principle
Ferguson endeavours to reconcile all moral systems. With
Hobbes and Hume he admits the power of self-interest or utility,
and makes it enter into morals as the law of self-preservation.
Hutcheson's theory of universal benevolence and Smith's idea
of sympathy he combines under the law of society. But, as these
laws are the means rather than the end of human destiny, they
are subordinate to a supreme end, and this supreme end is per-
fection. In the political part of his system Ferguson follows
Montesquieu, and pleads the cause of well-regulated liberty and
free government. His contemporaries, with the exception of
Hume, regarded his writings as of great importance; in point of
fact they are superficial. The facility of their style and the
frequent occurrence of would-be weighty epigrams blinded his
critics to the fact that, in spite of his recognition of the import-
ance of observation, he made no real contribution to political
theory (see Sir Leslie Stephen, English Thought in the Eighteenth
Century, x. 89-90).
The chief authority for Ferguson's life is the Biographical Sketch
by John Small (1864); see also Public Characters (1799-1800);
Gentleman's Magazine,!. (l8i6supp.); W. R. Chambers's Biographical
Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ; memoir by Principal Lee in early
editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica ; J. McCosh, The Scottish
Philosophy (1875) ; articles in Dictionary of National Biography and
Edinburgh Review (January 1867) ; Lord Henry Cockburn, Memorials
of his Time (1856).
FERGUSON, J. FERGUSON, SIR S.
272
FERGUSON, JAMES (1710-1776), Scottish mechanician and
astronomer, was born near Rothiemay in Banffshire on the 25th
of April 1710, of parents in very humble circumstances. He
first learned to read by overhearing his father teach his elder
brother, and with the help of an old woman was " able," he says
in his autobiography, " to read tolerably well before his father
thought of teaching him." After receiving further instruction
in reading from his father, who also taught him to write, he was
sent at the age of seven for three months to the grammar school
at Keith. His taste for mechanics was about this time accident-
ally awakened on seeing his father making use of a lever to
raise a part of the roof of his house an exhibition of seeming
strength which at first " excited his terror as well as wonder."
In 1720 he was sent to a neighbouring farm to keep sheep, where
in the daytime he amused himself by making models of mills
and other machines, and at night in studying the stars. After-
wards, as a servant with a miller, and then with a doctor, he met
with hardships which rendered his constitution feeble through
life. Being compelled by his weak health to return home, he
there amused himself with making a clock having wooden wheels
and a whalebone spring. When slightly recovered he showed
this and some other inventions to a neighbouring gentleman,
who engaged him to clean his clocks, and also desired him to
make his house his home. He there began to draw patterns for
needlework, and his success in this art led him to think of
becoming a painter. In 1734 he went to Edinburgh, where he
began to take portraits in miniature, by which means, while
engaged in his scientific studies, he supported himself and his
family for many years. Subsequently he settled at Inverness,
where he drew up his Astronomical Rotula for showing the
motions of the planets, places of the sun and moon, &c., and in
1743 went to London, which was his home for the rest of his life.
He wrote various papers for the Royal Society, of which he
became a fellow in 1763, devised astronomical and mechanical
models, and in 1 748 began to give public lectures on experimental
philosophy. These he repeated in most of the principal towns
in England. His deep interest in his subject, his clear explana-
tions, his ingeniously constructed diagrams, and his mechanical
apparatus rendered him one of the most successful of popular
lecturers on scientific subjects. It is, however, as the inventor
and improver of astronomical and other scientific apparatus,
and as a striking instance of self-education, that he claims a
place among the most remarkable men of science of his country.
During the latter years of his life he was in receipt of a pension
of 50 from the privy purse. He died in London on the I7th of
November 1776.
Ferguson's principal publications are Astronomical Tables (1763);
Lectures on Select Subjects (isted., 1761, edited by Sir David Brewster
in 1805) ; Astronomy explained upon Sir Isaac Newton's Principles
(1756, edited by Sir David Brewster in 1811) ; and Select Mechanical
Exercises, with a Short Account of the Life of the Author, written
by himself (1773). This autobiography is included in a Life by E.
Henderson, LL.D. (ist ed., 1867; 2nd, 1870), which also containsa full
description of Ferguson's principal inventions, accompanied with
illustrations. See also The Story of the Peasant-Boy Philosopher, by
Henry Mayhew (1857).
FERGUSON, ROBERT (c. 1637-1714), British conspirator
and pamphleteer, called the " Plotter," was a son of William
Ferguson (d. 1699) of Badifurrow, Aberdeenshire, and after
receiving a good education, probably at the university of Aber-
deen, became a Presbyterian minister. According to Bishop
Burnet he was cast out by the Presbyterians; but whether this
be so or net, he soon made his way to England and became vicar
of Godmersham, Kent, from which living he was expelled by
the Act of Uniformity in 1662. Some years later, having gained
meanwhile a reputation as a theological controversialist and
become a person of importance among the Nonconformists, he
attracted the notice of the earl of Shaftesbury and the party
which favoured the exclusion of the duke of York (afterwards
King James II.) from the throne, and he began to write political
pamphlets just at the time when the feeling against the Roman
Catholics was at its height. In 1680 he wrote " A Letter to a
Person of Honour concerning the ' Black Box,' " in which he
supported the claim of the duke of Monmouth to the crown
against that of the duke of York; returning to the subject after
Charles II. had solemnly denied the existence of a marriage
between himself and Lucy Waters. He took an active part in
the controversy over the Exclusion Bill, and claimed to be the
author of the whole of the pamphlet " No Protestant Plot "
(1681), parts of which are usually ascribed to Shaftesbury.
Ferguson was deeply implicated in the Rye House Plot, although
he asserted that he had frustrated both this and a subsequent
attempt to assassinate the king, and he fled to Holland with
Shaftesbury in 1682, returning to England early in 1683. For
his share in another plot against Charles II. he was declared an
outlaw, after which he entered into communication with Argyll,
Monmouth and other malcontents. Ferguson then took a leading
part in organizing the rising of 1685. Having overcome Mon-
mouth's reluctance to take part in this movement, he accom-
panied the duke to the west of England and drew up the manifesto
against James II., escaping to Holland after the battle of Sedge-
moor. He landed in England with William of Orange in 1688,
and aided William's cause with his pen; but William and his
advisers did not regard him as a person of importance, although
his services were rewarded with a sinecure appointment in the
Excise. Chagrined at this treatment, Ferguson was soon in
correspondence with the exiled Jacobites. He shared in all the
plots against the life of William, and after his removal from
the Excise in 1692 wrote violent pamphlets against the govern-
ment. Although he was several times arrested on suspicion, he
was never brought to trial. He died in great poverty in 1714,
leaving behind him a great and deserved reputation for treachery.
It has been thought by Macaulay and others that Ferguson led
the English government to believe that he was a spy in their
interests, and that his frequent escapes from justice were due
to official connivance. In a proclamation issued for his arrest
in 1683 he is described as " a tall lean man, dark brown hair,
a great Roman nose, thin- jawed, heat in his face, speaks in the
Scotch tone, a sharp piercing eye, stoops a little in the shoulders."
Besides numerous pamphlets Ferguson wrote: History of the
Revolution (1706); Qualifications requisite in a Minister of Stale
(1710); and part of the History of all the Mobs, Tumults and
Insurrections in Great Britain (London, 1715).
See James Ferguson, Robert Ferguson, the Plotter (Edinburgh, 1887),
which gives a favourable account of Ferguson.
FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL (1810-1886), Irish poet and anti-
quary, was born at Belfast, on the loth of March 1810. He
was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, was called to the Irish
bar in 1838, and was made Q.C. in 1859, but in 1867 retired
from practice upon his appointment as deputy-keeper of the
Irish records, then in a much neglected condition. He was
an excellent civil servant, and was knighted in 1878 for his
services to the department. His spare time was given to general
literature, and in particular to poetry. He had long been a
leading contributor to the Dublin University Magazine and to
Blackwood, where he had published his two literary master-
pieces, " The Forging of the Anchor," one of the finest of modern
ballads, and the humorous prose extravaganza of " Father Tom
and the Pope." He published Lays of the Western Gael in 1865,
Poems in 1880, and in 1872 Congal, a metrical narrative of the
heroic age of Ireland, and, though far from ideal perfection,
perhaps the most successful attempt yet made by a modern Irish
poet to revivify the spirit of the past in a poem of epic propor-
tions. Lyrics have succeeded better in other hands; many of
Ferguson's pieces on modern themes, notably his " Lament for
Thomas Davis " (1845), are, nevertheless, excellent. He was an
extensive contributor on antiquarian subjects to the Transactions
of the Royal Irish Academy, and was elected its president in
1882. His manners were delightful, and his hospitality was
boundless. He died at Howth on the gth of August 1886. His
most important antiquarian work, Ogham Inscriptions in Ireland,
Wales, Scotland, was published in the year after his death.
See Sir Samuel Ferguson in the Ireland of his Day (1896), by his
wife, Mary C. Ferguson ; also an article by A. P. Graves in A Treasury
of Irish Peetry in the English Tongue (1900), edited by Stopford
Brooke and T. W. Rolleston.
FERGUSSON, J, FERGUSSON, SIR W.
FERGUSSON, JAMES (1808-1886), Scottish writer on archi-
tecture, was born at Ayr on the 22nd of January 1808. His
father was an army surgeon. After being educated first at the
Edinburgh high school, and afterwards at a private school at
Hounslow, James went to Calcutta as partner in a mercantile
house. Here he was attracted by the remains of the ancient
architecture of India, little known or understood at that time.
The successful conduct of an indigo factory, as he states in his
own account, enabled him in about ten years to retire from
business and settle in London. The observations made on
Indian architecture were first embodied in his book on The
Rock-cut Temples of India, published in 1 845. The task of analys-
ing the historic and aesthetic relations of this type of ancient
buildings led him further to undertake a historical and critical
comparative survey of the whole subject of architecture in The
Handbook of Architecture, a work which first appeared in 1855.
This did not satisfy him, and the work was reissued ten years
later in a much more extended form under the title of The History
of Architecture. The chapters on Indian architecture, which had
been considered at rather disproportionate length in the Hand-
book, were removed from the general History, and the whole of
this subject treated more fully in a separate volume, The History
of Indian and Eastern Architecture, which appeared in 1876, and,
although complete in itself, formed a kind of appendix to The
History of Architecture. Previously to this, in 1862, he issued
his History of Modern Architecture, in which the subject was
continued from the Renaissance to the present day, the period
of " modern architecture " being distinguished as that of re-
vivals and imitations of ancient styles, which began with the
Renaissance. The essential difference between this and the
spontaneously evolved architecture of preceding ages Fergusson
was the first clearly to point out and characterize. His treatise
on The True Principles of Beauty in Art, an early publication,
is a most thoughtful metaphysical study. Some of his essays
on special points in archaeology, such as the treatise on The
Mode in which Light was introduced into Greek Temples, included
theories which have not received general acceptance. His real
monument is his History of Architecture (later edition revised by
R. Phene Spiers), which, for grasp of the whole subject, compre-
hensiveness of plan, and thoughtful critical analysis, sta.nds
quite alone in architectural literature. He received the gold
medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1871.
Among his works, besides those already mentioned, are: A
Proposed New System of Fortification (1849), Palaces of Nineveh
and Persepolis restored (1851), Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
restored (1862), Tree and Serpent Wotship (1868), Rude Stone
Monuments in all Countries (1872), and The Temples of the Jews
and the other Buildings in the Haram Area at Jerusalem (1878).
The sessional papers of the Institute of British Architects in-
clude papers by him on The History of the Pointed Arch,
Architecture of Southern India, Architectural Splendour of the
City of Beejapore, On the Erechlheum and on the Temple of
Diana at Ephesus.
Although Fergusson never practised architecture he took a
keen interest in all the professional work of his time. He was
adviser with Austen Layard in the scheme of decoration for the
Assyrian court at the Crystal Palace, and indeed assumed in
1856 the duties of general manager to the Palace Company, a
post which he held for two years. In 1847 Fergusson had pub-
lished an " Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem," in
which he had contended that the " Mosque of Omar " was the
identical church built by Constantine the Great over the tomb
of our Lord at Jerusalem, and that it, and not the present church
of the Holy Sepulchre, was the genuine burial-place of Jesus.
The burden of this contention was further explained by the
publication in 1860 of his Notes on the Site of the Holy Sepulchre
at Jerusalem; and The Temples of the Jews and the other Buildings
in the Haram Area at Jerusalem, published in 1878, was a still
completer elaboration of these theories, which are said to have
been the origin of the establishment of the Palestine Exploration
fund. His manifold activities continued till his death, which
took place in London on the pth of January 1886.
273
FERGUSSON, ROBERT (1750-1774), Scottish poet, son of Sir
William Fergusson, a clerk in the British Linen Company, was
born at Edinburgh on the 5th of September 1750. Robert was
educated at the grammar school of Dundee, and at the university
of St Andrews, where he matriculated in 1765. His father died
while he was still at college; but a bursary enabled him to com-
plete his four years of study. He refused to study for the church,
and was too nervous to study medicine as his friends wished.
He quarrelled with his uncle, John Forbes of Round Lichnot,
Aberdeenshife, and went to Edinburgh, where he obtained
employment as copying clerk in a lawyer's office. In this humble
occupation he passed the remainder of his life. While at college
he had written a clever elegy on Dr David Gregory, and in 1771
he began to contribute verses regularly to Ruddiman's Weekly
Magazine. He was a member of the Cape Club, celebrated by him
in his poem of " Auld Reekie." " The Knights of the Cape "
assembled at a tavern in Craig's Close, in the vicinity of the
Cross; each member had a name and character assigned to him,
which he was required to maintain at all gatherings of the order.
David Herd (1732-1810), the collector of the classic edition of
Ancient and Modern Scottish Songs (1776), was sovereign of the
Cape (in which he was known as " Sir Scrape ") when Fergusson
was dubbed a knight of the order, with the title of " Sir Pre-
centor," in allusion to his fine voice. Alexander Runciman, the
historical painter, his pupil Jacob More, and Sir Henry Raeburn
were all members. The old minute books of the club abound
with pencilled sketches by them, one of the most interesting of
which, ascribed to Runciman's pencil, is a sketch of Fergusson
in his character of " Sir Precentor."
Fergusson's gaiety and wit made him an entertaining com-
panion, and he indulged too freely in the convivial habits of the
time. After a meeting with John Brown of Haddington he
became, however, very serious, and would read nothing but his
Bible. A fall by which his head was severely injured aggravated
symptoms of mental aberration which had begun to show
themselves; and after about two months' confinement in the
old Darien House then the only public asylum in Edinburgh
the poet died on the i6th of October 1774.
Fergussons' poems were collected in the year before his death.
The influence of his writings on Robert Burns is undoubted.
His " Leith Races " unquestionably supplied the model for the
" Holy Fair." Not only is the stanza the same, but the Mirth
who plays the part of conductor to Fergusson, and the Fun who
renders a like service to Burns, are manifestly conceived on the
same model. " The Mutual Complaint of Plainstanes and
Causey " probably suggested " The Brigs of Ayr "; " On seeing
a Butterfly in the Street " has reflections in it which strikingly
correspond with " To a Mouse "; nor will a comparison of " The
Farmer's Ingle " of the elder poet with " The Cottar's Saturday
Night " admit of a doubt as to the influence of the city-bred
poet's muse on that exquisite picturing of homely peasant life.
Burns was himself the first to render a generous tribute to the
merits of Fergusson; on his visit to Edinburgh in 1787 he sought
out the poet's grave, and petkioned the authorities of the
Canongate burying-ground for permission to erect the memorial
stone which is preserved in the existing monument. The date
there assigned for his birth differs from the one given above,
which rests on the authority of his younger sister Margaret.
The first edition of Fergusson's poems was published by Ruddiman
at Edinburgh in 1773, and a supplement containing additional poems,
in 1 779. A second edition appeared in 1 785. There are later editions,
by Robert Chambers (1850) and Dr A. B. Grpsart (1851). A life of
Fergusson is included in Dr David Irving's Lives of the Scottish Poets,
and in Robert Chambers's Lives of Illustrious and Distinguished
Scotsmen.
FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1808-1877), British
surgeon, the son of James Fergusson of Lochmaben, Dumfries-
shire, was born at Prestonpans, East Lothian, on the zoth of
March 1808. After receiving his early education at Lochmaben
and the high school of Edinburgh, he entered the university
of Edinburgh with the view of studying law, but soon after-
wards abandoned his intention and became a pupil of the
anatomist Robert Knox (1791-1862), whose demonstrator he was
274
FERINGHI FERMANAGH
appointed at the age of twenty. In 1836 he succeeded Robert
Listen as surgeon to the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and coming
to London in 1840 as professor of surgery in King's College,
and surgeon to King's College Hospital, he acquired a command-
ing position among the surgeons of the metropolis. He revived
the operation for cleft-palate, which for many years had fallen
into disrepute, and invented a special mouth-gag for the same.
He also devised many other surgical instruments, chief among
which, and still in use to-day, are his bone forceps, lion forceps
and vaginal speculum. In 1866 he was created a baronet.
He died in London on the loth of February 1877. As a surgeon
Fergusson's greatest merit is that of having introduced the
practice of " conservative surgery," by which he meant the
excision of a joint rather than the amputation of a limb. He
made his diagnosis with almost intuitive certainty; as an
operator he was characterized by self-possession in the most
critical circumstances, by minute attention to details and by
great refinement of touch, and he relied more on his mechanical
dexterity than on complicated instruments. He was the author
of The Progress of Anatomy and Surgery in the Nineteenth Century
(1867), and of a System of Practical Surgery (1842), which went
through several editions.
FERINGHI, or FERINGHEE, a Frank (Persian, Farangi). This
term for a European is very old in Asia, and was originally used
in a purely geographical sense, but now generally carries a hostile
or contemptuous significance. The combatants on either side
during the Indian Mutiny called each other Feringhies and
Pandies.
FERISHTA, MAHOMMED KASIM (c. i57o-c. 1611), Persian
historian, was born at Astrabad, on the shores of the Caspian
Sea. While he was still a child his father was summoned away
from his native country into Hindostan, where he held high office
in the Deccan; and by his influence the young Ferishta received
court promotion. In 1589 Ferishta removed to Bijapur, where
he spent the remainder of his life under the immediate protection
of the shah Ibrahim Adil II., who engaged him to write a history
of India. At the court of this monarch he died about 1611. In
the introduction to his work a resume is given of the history of
Hindostan prior to the times of the Mahommedan conquest, and
also of the victorious progress of the Arabs through the East.
The first ten books are each occupied with a history of the kings
of one of the provinces; the eleventh book gives an account of
the Mussulmans of Malabar; the twelfth a history of the Mussul-
man saints of India; and the conclusion treats of the geography
and climate of India. Ferishta is reputed one of the most trust-
worthy of the Oriental historians, and his work still maintains
a high place as an authority. Several portions of it have been
translated into English; but the best as well as the most com-
plete translation is that published by General J. Briggs under
the title of The History of the Rise of the Mahometan Power in
India (London, 1829, 4 vols. 8vo). Several additions were
made by Briggs to the original work of Ferishta, but he omitted
the whole of the twelfth book, and various other passages which
had been omitted in the copy from which he translated.
FERMANAGH, a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster,
bounded N.W. by Donegal, N.E. by Tyrone, E. by Monaghan
and S.W. by Cavan and Leitrim. The area is 457,369 acres or
about 715 sq. m. The county is situated mostly in the basin
of the Erne, which divides the county into two nearly equal
sections. Its surface is hilly, and its appearance (in many parts)
somewhat sterile, though in the main, and especially in the
neighbourhood of Lough Erne, it is picturesque and attractive.
The climate, though moist, is healthy, and the people are gener-
ally tall and robust. The chief mountains are Cuilcagh (2188 ft.),
partly in Leitrim and Cavan, Belmore (1312), Glenkeel (1223),
North Shean (1135), Tappahan (mo), Carnmore (1034).
Tossett or Toppid and Turaw mountains command extensive
prospects, and form striking features in the scenery of the county.
But the most distinguishing features of Fermanagh are the
Upper and Lower Loughs Erne, which occupy a great extent of
its surface, stretching for about 45 m. from S.E. to N.W. These
lakes are expansions of the river Erne, which enters the county
from Cavan at Wattle Bridge. It passes Belturbet, the Loughs
Erne, Enniskillen and Belleek, on its way to the Atlantic, into
which it descends at Ballyshannon. At Belleek it forms a con-
siderable waterfall and is here well known to sportsmen for its
good salmon fishing. Trout are taken in most of the loughs,
and pike of great size in the Loughs Erne. There are several
mineral springs in the county, some of them chalybeate, others
sulphurous. At Belcoo, near Enniskillen, there is a famous well
called Daragh Phadric, held in repute by the peasantry for its
cure of paralytic and other diseases; and 4 m. N.W. of the same
town, at a place called " the Daughton," are natural caves of
considerable size.
This county includes in the north an area of the gneiss that is
discussed under county Donegal, and, west of Omagh, a meta-
morphic region that stretches in from the central axis of Tyrone.
A fault divides the latter from the mass of red-brown Old Red
Sandstone that spreads south nearly to Enniskillen. Lower
Carboniferous sandstone and h'mestone occur on the north of
Lower Lough Erne. The limestone forms fine scarps on the
southern side of the lake, capped by beds regarded as the
Yoredale series. The scenery about the two Loughs Macnean
is carved out in similarly scarped hills, rising to 2188 ft. in Cuil-
cagh on the south. The " Marble Arch " cave near Florence-
court, with its emerging river, is a characteristic example of
the subterranean waterways in the limestone. Upper Lough
Erne is a typical meandering lake of the limestone lowland, with
outliers of higher Carboniferous strata forming highlands north-
east and south-west of it.
With the exception of the pottery works at Belleek, where
iridescent ware of good quality is produced, Fermanagh has no
distinguishing manufactures. It is chiefly an agricultural
county. The proportion of tillage to pasture is roughly as i to
z\. Cattle and poultry are the principal classes of live stock.
Oats and potatoes are the crops most extensively cultivated.
The north-western division of the Great Northern railway passes
through the most populous portion of the county, one branch
connecting Enniskillen with Clones, another connecting Ennis-
killen with Londonderry via Omagh, and a third connecting
Bundoran Junction with Bundoran, in county Donegal. The
Sligo, Leitrim & Northern Counties railway connects with the
Great Northern at Enniskillen, and the Clogher Valley light
railway connects southern county Tyrone with the Great
Northern at Maguiresbridge.
The population (74,170 in 1891; 65,430 in 1901; almost
wholly rural) shows a decrease among the most serious of the
county populations of Ireland. It includes 55% of Roman
Catholics and about 35% of Protestant Episcopalians. Ennis-
killen (the county town, pop. 5412) is the only town of import-
ance, the rest being little more than villages. The principal are
Lisnaskea,Irvinestown(f ormerly Lowtherstown) , Maguiresbridge,
Tempo, Newtownbutler, Belleek, Derrygonnelly and Kesh, at
which fairs are held. Garrison, a fishing station on the wild
Lough Melvin, and Pettigo, near to the lower Lough Erne, are
market villages. Fermanagh returns two members to parlia-
ment, one each for the north and south divisions. It comprises
eight baronies and nineteen civil parishes. The assizes are held
at Enniskillen, quarter sessions at Enniskillen and Newtown-
butler. The headquarters of the constabulary are at Enniskillen.
Ecclesiastically it belongs to the Protestant and Roman
Catholic dioceses of Clogher and Kilmore.
By the ancient Irish the district was called Feor-magh-Eanagh,
or the " country of the lakes " (lit. " the mountain-valley marsh
district "); and also Magh-uire, or " the country of the waters."
A large portion was occupied by the Guarii, the ancestors of the
MacGuires or Maguires, a name still common in the district.
This family was so influential that for centuries the county was
called after it Maguire's Country, and one of the towns still
existing bears its name, Maguiresbridge. Fermanagh was
formed into a county on the shiring of Ulster in 1585 by Sir
John Perrot, and was included in the well-known scheme of
colonization of James I., the Plantation of Ulster. In 1689
battles were fought between William III.'s army and the Irish
FERMAT FERMENTATION
275
under Macarthy (for James II.), Lisnaskea (26th July) and
Newtownbutler (soth July). The chief place of interest to the
antiquary is Devenish Island in Lough Erne, about 2^ m. N.W.
from Enniskillen (q.v.), with its ruined abbey, round tower and
cross. In various places throughout the county may be seen the
ruins of several ancient castles, Danish raths or encampments,
and tumuli, in the last of which urns and stone coffins have
sometimes been found. The round tower on Devenish Island
is one of the finest examples in the country.
FERMAT, PIERRE DE (1601-1665), French mathematician,
was born on the I7th of August 1601, at Beaumont-de-Lomagne
near Montauban. While still young, he, along with Blaise
Pascal, made some discoveries in regard to the properties of
numbers, on which he afterwards built his method of calculating
probabilities. He discovered a simpler method of quadrating
parabolas than that of Archimedes, and a method of finding the
greatest and the smallest ordinates of curved lines analogous
to that of the then unknown differential calculus. His great
work De maximis et minimis brought him into conflict with Ren6
Descartes, but the dispute was chiefly due to a want of ex-
plicitness in the statement of Fermat (see INFINITESIMAL CAL-
CULUS). His brilliant researches in the theory of numbers entitle
him to rank as the founder of the modern theory. They origin-
ally took the form of marginal notes in a copy of Sachet's
Diophanlus, and were published in 1670 by his son Samuel, who
incorporated them in a new edition of this Greek writer. Other
theorems were published in his Opera Varia, and in John Wallis's
Commercium epislolicum (1658). He died in the belief that he had
found a relation which every prime number must satisfy, namely
2 2n -f-i = a prime. This was afterwards disproved by Leonhard
Euler for the case when #=5. Fermat' s Theorem, if p is prime
and a is prime to p then a *~*-i is divisible by p, was first given
in a letter of 1640. Fermat's Problem is that x"-\-y n =z n is im-
possible for integral values of x, y and z when n is greater than 2.
Fermat was for some time councillor for the parliament of
Toulouse, and in the discharge of the duties of that office he was
distinguished both for legal knowledge and for strict integrity
of conduct. Though the sciences were the principal objects of
his private studies, he was also an accomplished general scholar
and an excellent linguist. He died at Toulouse on the I2th of
January 1665. He left a son, Samuel de Fermat (1630-1690)
who published translations of several Greek authors and wrote
certain books on law in addition to editing his father's works.
The Opera mathematica of Fermat were published at Toulouse, in
2 vols. folio, 1670 and 1679. The first contains the " Arithmetic
of Diophantus," with notes and additions. The second includes a
" Method for the Quadrature of Parabolas," and a treatise " on
Maxima and Minima, on Tangents, and on Centres of Gravity,"
containing the same solutions of a variety of problems as were after-
wards incorporated into the more extensive method of fluxions by
Newton and Leibnitz. In the same volume are treatises on "Geo-
metric Loci, or Spherical Tangencies," and on the " Rectification of
Curves," besides a restoration of " Apollonius's Plane Loci," together
with the author's correspondence addressed to Descartes, Pascal,
Roberval, Huygens and others. The CEuvres of Fermat have been
re-edited by P. Tannery and C. Henry (Paris, 1891-1894).
See Paul Tannery, " Sur la date des principales decouvertes de
Fermat," in the Bulletin Darboux (1883); and " Les Manuscrits de
Fermat," in the Annales de la faculte des lettres de Bordeaux.
FERMENTATION. The process of fermentation in the pre-
paration of wine, vinegar, beer and bread was known and
practised in prehistoric times. The alchemists used the terms
fermentation, digestion and putrefaction indiscriminately; any
reaction in which chemical energy was displayed in some form
or other such, for instance, as the effervescence occasioned by
the addition of. an acid to an alkaline solution was described
as a fermentation (Lat. fervere, to boil); and the idea of the
" Philosopher's Stone " setting up a fermentation in the common
metals and developing the essence or germ, which should trans-
mute them into silver or gold, further complicated the concep-
tion of fermentation. As an outcome of this alchemical doctrine
the process of fermentation was supposed to have a purifying and
elevating effect on the bodies which had been submitted to its
influence. Basil Valentine wrote that when yeast was added to
wort " an internal inflammation is communicated to the liquid,
so that it raises in itself, and thus the segregation and separation
of the feculent from the clear takes place." Johann Becher,
in 1669, first found that alcohol was formed during the fermenta-
tion of solutions of sugar; he distinguished also between
fermentation and putrefaction. In 1697 Georg Stahl admitted
that fermentation and putrefaction were analogous processes,
but that the former was a particular case of the latter.
The beginning of definite knowledge on the phenomenon of
fermentation may be dated from the time of Antony Leeuwen-
hoek, who in 1680 designed a microscope sufficiently powerful
to render yeast cells and bacteria visible; and a description of
these organisms, accompanied by diagrams, was sent to the
Royal Society of London. This investigator just missed a great
discovery, for he did not consider the spherical forms to be living
organisms but compared them with starch granules. It was not
until 1803 that L. J. Thenard stated that yeast was the cause of
fermentation, and held it to be of an animal nature, since it con-
tained nitrogen and yielded ammonia on distillation, nor was
it conclusively proved that the yeast cell was the originator of
fermentation until the researches of C. Cagniard de la Tour,
T. Schwann and F. Kutzing from 1836 to 1839 settled the point.
These investigators regarded yeast as a plant, and Meyer gave
to the germs the systematic name of " Saccharomyces " (sugar
fungus). In 1830-1840 J. von Liebig attacked the doctrine that
fermentation was caused by micro-organisms, and enunciated
his theory of mechanical decomposition. He held that every
fermentation consisted of molecular motion which is transmitted
from a substance in a state of chemical motion that is, of de-
composition to other substances, the elements of which are
loosely held together. It is clear from Liebig's publications
that he first regarded yeast as a lifeless, albuminoid mass; but,
although later he considered they were living cells, he would
never admit that fermentation was a physiological process, the
chemical aspect being paramount in the mind of this distinguished
investigator.
In 1857 Pasteur decisively proved that fermentation was a phy-
siological process, for he showed that the yeast which produced
fermentation was no dead mass, as assumed by Liebig, but
consisted of living organisms capable of growth and multiplica-
tion. His own words are: " The chemical action of fermenta-
tion is essentially a correlative phenomenon of a vital act,
beginning and ending with it. I think that there is never any
alcoholic fermentation without there being at the same time
organization, development and multiplication of globules, or
the continued consecutive life of globules already formed."
Fermentation, according to Pasteur, was caused by the growth
and multiplication of unicellular organisms out of contact with
free oxygen, under which circumstance they acquire tie power
of taking oxygen from chemical compounds in the medium in
which they are growing. In other words " fermentation is life
without air, or life without oxygen." This theory of fermenta-
tion was materially modified in 1892 and 1894 by A. J. Brown,
who described experiments which were in disagreement with
Pasteur's dictum. A. J. Brown writes: " If for the theory
' life without air ' is substituted the consideration that yeast cells
can use oxygen in the manner of ordinary aerobic fungi, and
probably do require it for the full completion of their life-
history, but that the exhibition of their fermentative functions
is independent of their environment with regard to free
oxygen, it will be found that there is nothing contradictory
in Pasteur's experiments to such a hypothesis."
Liebig and Pasteur were in agreement on the point that fer-
mentation is intimately connected with the presence of yeast
in the fermenting liquid, but their explanations concerning the
mechanism of fermentation were quite opposed. According to
M. Traube (1858), the active cause of fermentation is due to the
action of different enzymes contained in yeast and not to the
yeast cell itself. As will be seen later this theory was confirmed
by subsequent researches of E. Fischer and E. Buchner.
In 1879 C. Nageli formulated his well-known molecular-
physical theory, which supported Liebig's chemical theory on
the one hand and Pasteur's physiological hypothesis on the
276
FERMENTATION
other: " Fermentation is the transference of the condition of
motion of the molecules, atomic groups and atoms of the various
compounds constituting the living plasma, to the fermenting
material, in consequence of which equilibrium in the molecules
of the latter is destroyed, the result being their disintegration."
He agreed with Pasteur that the presence of living cells is essen-
tial to the transformation of sugar into alcohol, but dissented
from the view that the process occurs within the cell. This
investigator held that the decomposition of the sugar molecules
takes place outside the cell wall. In 1894 and 1895, Fischer, in a
remarkable series of papers on the influence of molecular structure
upon the action of the enzyme, showed that various species of
yeast behave very differently towards solutions of sugars. For
example, some species hydrolyse came sugar and maltose, and
then carry on fermentation at the expense of the simple sugars
(hexoses) so formed. Saccharomyces Marxianus will not hydro-
lyse maltose, but it does attack cane sugar and ferment the pro-
ducts of hydrolysis. Fischer next suggested that enzymes can
only hydrolyse those sugars which possess a molecular structure
in harmony with their own, or to use his ingenious 3 analogy,
" the one may be said to fit into the other as a key fits into a
lock." The preference exhibited by yeast cells for sugar mole-
cules is shared by mould fungi and soluble enzymes in their
fermentative actions. Thus, Pasteur showed that PenicUlium
glaucum, when grown in an aqueous solution of ammonium
racemate, decomposed the dextro-tartrate, leaving the laevo-
tartrate, and the solution which was originally inactive to
polarized light became dextro-rotatory. Fischer found that
the enzyme " invertase," which is present in yeast, attacks
methyl-rf-glucoside but not methyl-J-glucoside.
In 1897 Buchner submitted yeast to great pressure, and
isolated a nitrogenous substance, enzymic in character, which
he termed " zymase." This body is being continually formed
in the yeast cell, and decomposes the sugar which has diffused
into the cell. The freshly-expressed yeast juice causes concen-
trated solutions of cane sugar, glucose, laevulose and maltose to
ferment with the production of alcohol and carbon dioxide, but
not milk-sugar and mannose. In this respect the plasma
behaves in a similar manner towards the sugars as does the
living yeast cell. Pasteur found that, when cane sugar was
fermented by yeast, 49-4% of carbonic acid and 51-1% of
alcohol were produced; with expressed yeast juice cane sugar
yields 47 % of carbonic acid and 47-7% of alcohol. According
to Buchner the fermentative activity of yeast-cell juice is not
due to the presence of living yeast cells, or to the action of living
yeast protoplasm, but it is caused by a soluble enzyme. A.
Macfadyen, G. H. Morris and S. Rowland, in repeating Buchner's
experiments, found that zymase possessed properties differing
from all other enzymes, thus: dilution with twice its volume
of water practically destroys the fermentative power of the yeast
juice. These investigators considered that differences of this
nature cannot be explained by the theory that it is a soluble
enzyme, which brings about the alcoholic fermentation of sugar.
The remarkable discoveries of Fischer and Buchner to a great
extent confirm Traube's views, and reconcile Liebig's and
Pasteur's theories. Although the action of zymase may be
regarded as mechanical, the enzyme cannot be produced by
any other than living protoplasm.
Pasteur's important researches mark an epoch in the technical
aspect of fermentation. His investigations on vinegar-making
revolutionized that industry, and he showed how, instead of
waiting two or three months for the elaboration of the process,
the vinegar could be made in eight or ten days by exposing the
vats containing the mixture of wine and vinegar to a tempera-
ture of 20 to 25 C., and sowing with a small quantity of the
acetic organism. To the study of the life-history of the butyric
and acetic organisms we owe the terms " anaerobic " and
" aerobic." His researches from 1860 and onwards on the
then vexed question of spontaneous generation proved that,
in all cases where spontaneous generation appeared to have
taken place, some defect or other was in the experiment. Al-
though the direct object of Pasteur was to prove a negative,
yet it was on these experiments that sterilization as known to
us was developed. It is only necessary to bear in mind the great
part played by sterilization in the laboratory, and pasteuriza-
tion on the fermentation industries and in the preservation
of food materials. Pasteur first formulated the idea that bacteria
are responsible for the diseases of fermented liquids; the corol-
lary of this was a demand for pure yeast. He recommended that
yeast should be purified by cultivating it in a solution of sugar
containing tartaric acid, or, in wort containing a small quantity
of phenol. It was not recognized that many of the diseases of
fermented liquids are occasioned by foreign yeasts; moreover,
this process, as was shown later by Hansen, favours the develop-
ment of foreign yeasts at the expense of the good yeast.
About this time Hansen, who had long been engaged in re-
searches on the biology of the fungi of fermentation, demon-
strated that yeast free from bacteria could nevertheless occasion
diseases in beer. This discovery was of great importance to the
zymo-technical industries, for it showed that bacteria are not
the only undesirable organisms which may occur in yeast.
Hansen set himself the task of studying the properties of the
varieties of yeast, and to do this he had to cultivate each variety
in a pure state. Having found that some of the commonest
diseases of beer, such as yeast turbidity and the objectionable
changes in flavour, were caused not by bacteria but by certain
species of yeast, and, further, that different species of good
brewery yeast would produce beers of different character, Hansen
argued that the pitching yeast should consist only of a single
species namely, that best suited to the brewery in question.
These views met with considerable opposition, but in 1890
Professor E. Duclaux stated that the yeast question as regards
low fermentation has been solved by Hansen's investigations.
He emphasized the opinion that yeast derived from one cell was
of no good for top fermentation, and advocated Pasteur's
method of purification. But in the course of time, notwith-
standing many criticisms and objections, the reform spread from
bottom fermentation to top fermentation breweries on the
continent and in America. In the United Kingdom the employ-
ment of brewery yeasts selected from a single cell has not come
into general use; it may probably be accounted for in a great
measure by conservatism and the wrong application of Hansen's
theories.
Pure Citltivalion of Yeasts. The methods which were first
adopted by Hansen for obtaining pure cultures of yeast were
similar in principle to one devised by J. Lister for isolating a
pure culture of lactic acid bacterium. Lister determined the
number of bacteria present in a drop of the liquid under examina-
tion by counting, and then diluted this with a sufficient quantity
of sterilized water so that each drop of the mixture should con-
tain, on an average, less than one bacterium. A number of flasks
containing a nutrient medium were each inoculated with one
drop of this mixture; it was found that some remained sterile,
and Lister assumed that the remaining flasks each contained
a pure culture. This method did not give very certain results,
for it could not be guaranteed that the growth in the inoculated
flask was necessarily derived from a single bacterium. Hansen
counted the number of yeast cells suspended in a drop of liquid
diluted with sterilized water. A volume of the diluted yeast
was introduced into flasks containing sterilized wort, the degree
of dilution being such that only a small proportion of the flasks
became infected. The flasks were then well shaken, and the yeast
cell or cells settled to the bottom, and gave rise to a separate
yeast speck. Only those cultures which contained a single yeast
speck were assumed to be pure cultivations. "By this method
several races of Saccharomycetes and brewery yeasts were
isolated and described.
The next important advance was the substitution of solid for
liquid media; due originally to Schroter. R. Koch subsequently
improved the method. He introduced bacteria into liquid
sterile, nutrient gelatin. After being well shaken, the liquid
was poured into a sterile glass Petrie dish and covered with a
moist and sterile bell-jar. It was assumed that each separate
speck contained a pure culture. Hansen pointed out that this
FERMENTATION
277
was by no means the case, for it is more difficult to separate the
cells from each other in the gelatin than in the liquid. To obtain
an absolutely pure culture with certainty it is necessary, even
when the gelatin method is employed, to start from a single cell.
To effect this some of the nutrient gelatin containing yeast cells
is placed on the under-surface of the cover-glass of the moist
chamber. Those cells are accurately marked, the position of
which is such that the colonies, to which they give rise, can grow
to their full size without coming into contact with other colonies.
The growth of the marked cells is kept under observation for
three or four days, by which time the colonies will be large
enough to be taken out of the chamber and placed in flasks.
The contents of the flasks can then be introduced into larger
flasks, and finally into an apparatus suitable for making enough
yeast for technical purposes. Such, in brief, are the methods
devised by that brilliant investigator Hansen; and these
methods have not only been the basis on which our modern
knowledge of the Saccharomycetes is founded, but are the only
means of attack which the present-day observer has at his
disposal.
From the foregoing it will be seen that the term fermentation
has now a much wider significance than when it was applied
to such changes as the decomposition of must or wort with the
production of carbon dioxide and alcohol. Fermentation now
includes all changes in organic compounds brought about by
ferments elaborated in the living animal or vegetable cell. There
are two distinct types of fermentation: (i) those brought about
by living organisms (organized ferments), and (2) those brought
about by non-living or unorganized ferments (enzymes). The
first class include such changes as the alcoholic fermentation
of sugar solutions, the acetic acid fermentation of alcohol, the
lactic acid fermentation of milk sugar, and the putrefaction of
animal and vegetable nitrogenous matter. The second class
include all changes brought about by the agency of enzymes,
such as the action of diastase on starch, invertase on cane sugar,
glucase on maltose, &c. The actions are essentially hydrolytic.
Biological Aspect of Yeast. The Saccharomycetes belong to
that division of the Thallophyta called the Hyphomycetes or
Fungi (q.v.). Two great divisions are recognized in the Fungi:
(i.) the Phy corny cetes or Algal Fungi, which retain a definitely
sexual method of reproduction as well as asexual (vegetative)
methods, and (ii.) the My corny cetes, characterized by extremely
reduced or very doubtful sexual reproduction. The Mycomy-
cetes may be divided as follows: (A) forms bearing both
sporangia and conidia (see FUNGI), (B) forms bearing conidia
only, e.g. the common mushroom. Division A comprises (a)
the true Ascomyceles, of which the moulds Eurotium and Peni-
cillium are examples, and (6) the Hemiasci, which includes the
yeasts. The gradual disappearance of the sexual method of
reproduction, as we pass upwards in the fungi from the points
of their departure from the Algae, is an important fact, the last
traces of sexuality apparently disappearing in the ascomycetes.
With certain rare exceptions the Saccharomycetes have three
methods of asexual reproduction:
1. The most common. The formation of buds which separate
to form new cells. A portion of the nucleus of the parent cell
makes its way through the extremely narrow neck into the
daughter cell. This method obtains when yeast is vigorously
fermenting a saccharine solution.
2. A division by fission followed by Endogenous spore
formation, characteristic of the Schizosaccharomycetes. Some
species show fermentative power.
3. Endospore formation, the conditions for which are as
follows: (i) suitable temperature, (2) presence of air, (3)
presence of moisture, (4) young and vigorous cells, (5) a food
supply in the case of one species at least is necessary, and is in
no case prejudicial. In some cases a sexual act would appear
to precede spore formation. In most cases four spores are formed
within the cell by free formation. These may readily be
seen after appropriate staining.
In some of the true Ascomycetes, such as Penicillium giaucum,
the conidia if grown in saccharine solutions, which they have
the power of fermenting, develop single cell yeast-like forms,
and do not at any rate for a time produce again the char-
acteristic branching mycelium. This is known as the Torula
condition. It is supposed by some that Saccharomyces is a very
degraded Ascomycete, in which the Torula condition has become
fixed.
The yeast plant and its allies are saprophytes and form no
chlorophyll. Their extreme reduction in form and loss of
sexuality may be correlated with the saprophytic habit, the
proteids and other organic material required for the growth and
reproduction being appropriated ready synthesized, the plant
having entirely lost the power of forming them for itself, as
evidenced by the absence of chlorophyll. The beer yeast
5. cerevisiae, is never found wild, but the wine yeasts occur
abundantly in the soil of vineyards, and so are always present on
the fruit, ready to ferment the expressed juice.
Chemical Aspect of Alcoholic Fermentation. Lavoisier was
the first investigator to study fermentation from a quantitative
standpoint. He determined the percentages of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen in the sugar and in the products of fermentation, and
concluded that sugar in fermenting breaks up into alcohol,
carbonic acid and acetic acid. The elementary composition of
sugar and alcohol was fixed in 1815 by analyses made by Gay-
Lussac, Thenard and de Saussure. The first-mentioned chemist
proposed the following formula to represent the change which
takes place when sugar is fermented :
C 6 H 12 O 6 = 2CO 2 + 2C 2 H 6 O.
Sugar. Carbon dioxide. Alcohol.
This formula substantially holds good to the present day,
although a number of definite bodies other than carbon dioxide
and alcohol occur in small and varying quantities, according
to the conditions of the fermentation and the medium fermented.
Prominent among these are glycerin and succinic acid. In this
connexion Pasteur showed that 100 parts of cane sugar on in-
version gave 105-4 parts of invert sugar, which, when fermented,
yielded 51-1 parts alcohol, 49-4 carbonic acid, 0-7 succinic acid,
3-2 glycerin and i-o unestimated. A. Bechamp and E. Duclaux
found that acetic acid is formed in small quantities during
fermentation; aldehyde has also been detected. The higher
alcohols such as propyl, isobutyl, amyl, capryl, oenanthyl and
caproyl, have been identified; and the amount of these vary
according to the different conditions of the fermentation. A
number of esters are also produced. The characteristic flavour
and odour of wines and spirits is dependent on the proportion of
higher alcohols, aldehydes and esters which may be produced.
Certain yeasts exercise a reducing action, forming sulphur-
etted hydrogen, when sulphur is present. The " stinking fer-
mentations " occasionally experienced in breweries probably
arise from this, the free sulphur being derived from the hops.
Other yeasts are stated to form sulphurous acid in must and
wort. Another fact of considerable technical importance is,
that the various races of yeast show considerable differences in
the amount and proportion of fermentation products other than
ethyl alcohol and carbonic acid which they produce. From
these remarks it will be clear that to employ the most suitable
kind of yeast for a given alcoholic fermentation is of funda-
mental importance in certain industries. It is beyond the scope
of the present article to attempt to describe the different forms
of budding fungi (Saccharomyces), mould fungi and bacteria
which are capable of fermenting sugar solutions. Thus, six
species isolated by Hansen, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. Pas-
teurianus I., 1 II., III., and 5. ellipsoideus, contained invertase
and maltase, and can invert and subsequently ferment cane sugar
and maltose. S. exiguus and S. Ludwigii contain only invertase
and not maltase, and therefore ferment cane sugar but not
maltose. 5. apiculatus (a common wine yeast) contains neither
of these enzymes, and only ferments solutions of glucose or
laevulose.
Previously to Hansen's work the only way of differentiating
1 Hansen found there were three species of spore-bearing Saccharo-
mycetes and that these could be subdivided into varieties. Thus,
5. cerevisia.e 1., S. cerevisiae II., S. Pasteurianus I., &c.
278
FERMO FERNANDEZ, A.
yeasts was by studying morphological differences with the aid
of the microscope. Max Reess distinguished the species accord-
ing to the appearance of the cells thus, the ellipsoidal cells were
designated Saccharomyces ellipsoideus, the sausage-shaped
Saccharomyces Pasteurianus, and so on. It was found by
Hansen that the same species of yeast can assume different
shapes; and it therefore became necessary to determine how
the different varieties of yeast could be distinguished with
certainty. The formation of spores in yeast (first discovered
by T. Schwann in 1839) was studied by Hansen, who found that
each species only developed spores between certain definite
temperatures. The time taken for spore formation varies greatly ;
thus, at 52 F., 5. cerevisiae takes 10, S. Pasteurianus I. and II.
about 4, 5. Pasteurianus III. about 7, and S. ellipsoideus about
4^ days. The formation of spores is used as an analytical
method for determining whether a yeast is contaminated with
another species, for example: a sample of yeast is placed on a
gypsum or porcelain block saturated with water; if in ten days
at a temperature of 52 F. no spores make their appearance, the
yeast in question may be regarded as 5. cerevisiae, and not
associated with 5. Pasteurianus or 5. ellipsoideus.
The formation of films on fermented liquids is a well-known
phenomenon and common to all micro-organisms. A free still
surface with a direct access of air are the necessary conditions.
Hansen showed that the microscopic appearance of film cells
of the same species of Saccharomycetes varies according to the
temperature of growth; the limiting temperatures of film for-
mation, as well as the time of its appearance for the different
species, also vary.
In the zymo-technical industries the various species of yeast
exhibit different actions during fermentations. A well-known
instance of this is the " top " and " bottom " brewery fermen-
tations (see BREWING). In a top fermentation typical of
English breweries the yeast rises, in a bottom fermentation,
as the phrase implies, it settles in the vessel. Sometimes a
bottom yeast may for a time exhibit signs of a top fermentation.
It has not, however, been possible to transform a typical top yeast
into a permanent typical bottom yeast. There appear to be
no true distinctive characteristics for these two types. Their
selection for a particular purpose depends upon some special
quality which they possess; thus for brewing certain essentials
are demanded as regards stability, clarification, taste and smell;
whereas, in distilleries, the production of alcohol and a high
multiplying power in the yeast are required. Culture yeasts
have also been successfully employed in the manufacture of wine
and cider. By the judicious selection of a type of yeast it is
possible to improve the bouquet, and from an inferior must
obtain a better wine or cider than would otherwise be produced.
Certain acid fermentations are of common occurrence. The
Bacterium acidi lacti described by Pasteur decomposes milk
sugar into lactic acid. Bacillus amylobacler usually accom-
panies the lactic acid organism, and decomposes lactic and other
higher acids with formation of butyric acid. Moulds have been
isolated which occasion the formation of citric acid from glucose.
The production of acetic acid from alcohol has received much
attention at the hands of investigators, and it has an important
technical aspect in the manufacture of vinegar. The pheno-
menon of nitrification (see BACTERIOLOGY, AGRICULTURE and
MANURE), i.e. the formation of nitrites and nitrates from am-
monia and its compounds in the soil, was formerly held to be a
purely chemical process, until Schloesing and Miintz suggested
in 1877 that it was biological. It is now known that the action
takes place in two stages; the ammonium salt is first oxidized
to the nitrite stage and subsequently to the nitrate. (J. L. B.)
FERMO (anc. Fir mum Picenum), a town and archiepiscopal
see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Ascoli Piceno, on a
hill with a fine view, 1046 ft. above sea-level, on a branch from
Porto S. Giorgio on the Adriatic coast railway. Pop. (1901)
town, 16,577, commune 20,542. The summit of the hill was
occupied by the citadel until 1446. It is crowned by the
cathedral, reconstructed in 1227 by Giorgio da Como; the fine
facade and campanile of this period still remain, and the side
portal is good; the beautiful rose- window over the main door
dates from 1348. In the porch are several good tombs, including
one of 1366 by Tura da Imola, and also the modern monument
of Giuseppe Colucci, a famous writer on the antiquities of
Picenum. The interior has been modernized. The building is
now surrounded by a garden, with a splendid view. Against the
side of the hill was built the Roman theatre; scanty traces of
an amphitheatre also exist. Remains of the city wall, of rect-
angular blocks of hard limestone, may be seen just outside the
Porta S. Francesco; whether the walling under the Casa Porti
belongs to them is doubtful. The medieval battlemented walls
superposed on it are picturesque. The church of S. Francesco
has a good tower and choir in brickwork of 1 240, the rest having
been restored hi the i?th century. Under the Dominican
monastery is a very large Roman reservoir in two storeys, belong-
ing to the imperial period, divided into many chambers, at least
24 on each level, each 30 by 20 ft., for filtration (see G. de Minicis
in A nnali dell' Istituto, 1 846, p. 46 ; 1 8 58 , p. 1 2 5) . The piazza con-
tains the Palazzo Comunale, restored in 1446, with a statue of
Pope Sixtus V. in front of it. TheBiblioteca Comunale contains
a collection of inscriptions and antiquities. Porto S. Giorgio
has a fine castle of 1269, blocking the valley which leads to
Fermo.
The ancient Firmum Picenum was founded as a Latin colony
in 264 B.C., after the conquest of the Picentes, as the local head-
quarters of the Roman power, to which it remained faithful.
It was originally governed by five quaestors. It was made a
colony with full rights after the battle of Philippi, the 4th legion
being settled there. It lay at the junction of roads to Pausulae,
Urbs Salvia and Asculum, being connected with the coast road by
a short branch road from Castellum Firmanum (Porto S. Giorgio).
In the loth century it became the capital of the Marchia Firmana.
In 1199 it became a free city, and remained independent until
1550, when it became subject to the papacy. (T. As.)
FERMOY, a market town in the east riding of Co. Cork,
Ireland, in the north-east parliamentary division, 21 m. by
road N.E. of Cork, and 14 m. E. of Mallow by a branch of the
Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 6126. It is situated on the river Blackwater, which
divides the town into two parts, the larger of which is on the
southern bank, and there the trade of the town, which is chiefly
in flour and agricultural produce, is mainly carried on. The
town has several good streets and some noteworthy buildings.
Of the latter, the most prominent are the military barracks on
the north bank of the river, the Protestant church, the Roman
Catholic cathedral and St Colman's Roman Catholic college.
Fermoy rose to importance only at the beginning of the igth
century, owing entirely to the devotion of John Anderson, a
citizen, on becoming landlord. The town is a centre for salmon
and trout fishing on the Blackwater and its tributary the
Funshion. The neighbouring scenery is attractive, especially
in the Glen of Araglin, once famed for its ironworks.
FERN (from O. Eng. fearn, a word common to Teutonic
languages, cf. Dutch varen, and Ger. Farn; the Indo-European
root, seen in the Sanskrit parna, a feather, shows the primary
meaning; cf. Gr. irrepov, feather, irrtpls, fern), a name often
used to denote the whole botanical class of Pteridophytes,
including both the true ferns, Filicales, by far the largest group
of this class in the existing flora, and the fern-like plants,
Equisetales, Sphenophyllales, Lycopodiales (see PTERIDOPHYTA).
FERNANDEZ, ALVARO, one of the leading Portuguese ex-
plorers of the earlier isth century, the age of Henry the Navi-
gator. He was brought up (as a page or esquire) in the household
of Prince Henry, and while still " young and audacious " took
an important part in the discovery of " Guinea." He was a
nephew of Joao Gonjalvez Zarco, who had rediscovered the
Madeira group in Henry's service (1418-1420), and had become
part-governor of Madeira and commander of Funchal; when
the great expedition of 1445 sailed for West Africa he was
entrusted by his uncle with a specially fine caravel, under par-
ticular injunctions to devote himself to discovery, the most
cherished object of his princely master, so constantly thwarted.
FERNANDEZ, D. FERNANDINA
279
Fernandez,as a pioneer, outstripped all otherservantsof the prince
at this time. After visiting the mouth of the Senegal, rounding
Cape Verde, and landing in Goree (?), he pushed on to the " Cape
of Masts " (Cabo dos Matos, or Mastos, so called from its tall
spindle-palms), probably between Cape Verde and the Gambia,
the most southerly point till then attained. Next year (1446) he
returned, and coasted on much farther, to a bay one hundred
and ten leagues " south " (i.e. S.S.E.) of Cape Verde, perhaps
in the neighbourhood of Konakry and the Los Islands, and but
little short of Sierra Leone. This record was not broken till
1461, when Sierra Leone was sighted and named. A wound,
received from a poisoned arrow in an encounter with natives,
now compelled Fernandez to return to Portugal, where he was
received with distinguished honour and reward by Prince Henry
and the regent of the kingdom, Henry's brother Pedro.
See Gomes Eannes de Azurara, Chronica de . . . Guine, chs.
Ixxv., Ixxxvii. ; Joao de Barros, Asia, Decade I., bk. i. chs. xiii,, xiv.
FERNANDEZ, DIEGO, a Spanish adventurer and historian
of the 1 6th century. Born at Palencia, he was educated for the
church, but about 1545 he embarked for Peru, where he served
in the royal army under Alonzo de Alvarado. Andres Hurtado
de Mendoza, marquess of Canete, who became viceroy of Peru in
1655, bestowed on Fernandez the office of chronicler of Peru;
and in this capacity he wrote' a narrative of the insurrection of
Francisco Hernandez Giron, of the rebellion of Gonzalo Pizarro,
and of the administration of Pedro de la Gasca. The whole work,
under the title Primera y segunda parte de la Historia del Piru,
was published at Seville in 1571 and was dedicated to King
Philip II. It is written in a clear and intelligible style, and with
more art than is usual in the compositions of the time. It gives
copious details, and, as he had access to the correspondence
and official documents of the Spanish leaders, it is, although
necessarily possessing bias, the fullest and most authentic record
existing of the events it relates.
A notice of the work will be found in W. H. Prescott's History of
the Conquest of Peru (new ed., London, 1902).
FERNANDEZ, JOHN (Joao, Joam), Portuguese traveller of the
1 5th century. He was perhaps the earliest of modern explorers
in the upland of West Africa, and a pioneer of the European
slave- and gold-trade of Guinea. We first hear of him (before
1445) as a captive of the Barbary Moors in the western Medi-
terranean; while among these he acquired a knowledge of
Arabic, and probably conceived the design of exploration in the
interior of the continent whose coasts the Portuguese were now
unveiling. In 1445 he volunteered to stay in Guinea and gather
what information he could for Prince Henry the Navigator;
with this object he accompanied An tarn Goncalvez to the
" River of Gold " (Rio d'Ouro, Rio de Oro) in 23 40' N., where
he landed and went inland with some native shepherds. He
stayed seven months in the country, which lay just within
Moslem Africa, slightly north of Pagan Negroland (W. Sudan) ;
he was taken off again by An tarn Goncalvez at a point farther
down the coast, near the " Cape of Ransom " (Cape Mirik), in
19 22' 14"; and his account of his experiences proved of great
interest and value, not only as to the natural features, climate,
fauna and flora of the south-western Sahara, but also as to the
racial affinities, language, script, religion, nomad habits, and
trade of its inhabitants. These people though Mahommedans,
maintaining a certain trade in slaves, gold, &c., with the Bar-
bary coast (especially with Tunis), and classed as " Arabs,"
" Berbers," and " Tawny Moors " did not then write or speak
Arabic. In 1446 and 1447 John Fernandez accompanied other
expeditions to the Rio d'Ouro and other parts of West Africa
in the service of Prince Henry. He was personally known to
Gomes Eannes de Azurara, the historian of this early period of
Portuguese expansion; and from Azurara's language it is clear
that Fernandez' revelation of unknown lands and races was fully
appreciated at home.
See Azurara, Chronica de . . . Guine, chs. xxix., xxxii., xxxiv.,
xxxv., Ixxvii., Ixxviii., xc., xci., xciii.
FERNANDEZ, JUAN (fl. c. 1570), Spanish navigator and dis-
coverer. While navigating the coasts of South America it
occurred to him that the south winds constantly prevailing
near the shore, and retarding voyages between Peru and Chile,
might not exist farther out at sea. His idea proved correct, and
by the help of the trade winds and some currents at a distance
from the coast he sailed with such rapidity (thirty days) from
Callao to Chile that he was apprehended on a charge of sorcery.
His inquisitors, however, accepted his natural explanation of
the marvel. During one of his voyages in 1563 (from Lima to
Valdivia) Fernandez discovered the islands which now bear his
name. He was so enchanted with their beauty and fertility that
he solicited the concession of them from the Spanish government.
It was granted in 1572, but a colony which he endeavoured to
establish at the largest of them (Isla Mas-a-Tierra) soon broke
up, leaving behind the goats, whose progeny were hunted by
Alexander Selkirk. In 1574 Fernandez discovered St Felix and
St Ambrose islands (in 27 S., 82 7' W.); and in 1576, while
voyaging in the" southern ocean, he is said to have sighted not
only Easter Island, but also a continent, which was probably
Australia or New Zealand if the story (rejected by most critics,
but with reservations as to Easter Island) is to be accepted.
See J. L. Arias, Memoir recommending to the king the conversion
of the new discovered islands (in Spanish, 1609; Eng. trans., 1773);
Ulloa, Relacion del Viaje, bk. ii. ch. iv. ; Alexander Dalrymple, An
Historical Collection of the several Voyages and Discoveries in the
South Pacific Ocean (London, 1769-1771); Freville, Voyages de la
Mer du Sud par les Espagnols.
FERNANDEZ, LUCAS, Spanish dramatist, was born at Sala-
manca about the middle of the 1 5th century. Nothing is known
of his life, and he is represented by a single volume of plays,
Farsas y tglogas al modo y estilo pastoril (1514). In his secular
pieces a comedia and twofarsas he introduces few personages,
employs the simplest possible action, and burlesques the lan-
guage of the uneducated class; the secular and devout elements
are skilfully intermingled in his two Farsas del nascimiento de
Nuestro Senor Jesucristo. But the best of his dramatic essays
is the Auto de la Pasion, a devout play intended to be given on
Maundy Thursday. It is written in the manner of Encina, with
less spontaneity, but with a sombre force to which Encina
scarcely attained.
Fernandez' plays were reprinted by the Spanish Academy in 1867.
FERNANDINA, a city, a port of entry, and the county-seat of
Nassau ccunty, Florida, U.S.A., a winter and summer resort,
in the N.E. part of the state, 36 m. N.E. of Jacksonville, on
Amelia Island (about 22 m. long and from m. to i m. wide),
which is separated from the mainland by an arm of the sea, known
as Amelia river and bay. Pop. (1900) 3245; (1905, state census),
4959 (2957 negroes); (1910) 3482. Fernandina is served by the
Seaboard Air Line railway, and by steamship lines connecting
with domestic and foreign ports; its harbour, which has the
deepest water on the E. coast of Florida, opens on the N. to
Cumberland Sound, which was improved by the Federal govern-
ment, beginning in 1879, reducing freight rates at Fernandina
by 25 to 40%. Under an act of 1907 the channel of Fernandina
harbour, 1300 ft. wide at the entrance and about 2 m. long, was
dredged to a depth of 20 to 24 ft. at mean low water with a
width of 400 to 600 ft. The " inside " water-route between
Savannah, Georgia and Fernandina is improved by the Federal
government (1892 sqq.) and has a 7-ft. channel. The principal
places of interest are " Amelia Beach," more than 20 m. long
and 200 ft. wide, connected with the city by a compact shell road
nearly 2 m. long and by electric line; the Amelia Island light-
house, in the N. end of the island, established in 1836 and re-
built in 1880; Fort Clinch, at the entrance to the harbour;
Cumberland Island, in Georgia, N. of Amelia Island, where land
was granted to General Nathanael Greene after the War of
American Independence by the state of Georgia; and Dunge-
ness, the estate of the Carnegie family. Ocean City, on Amelia
Beach, is a popular pleasure resort. The principal industries
are the manufacture of lumber, cotton, palmetto fibres, and
cigars, the canning of oysters, and the building and repair of
railway cars. The foreign exports, chiefly lumber, railway ties,
cotton, phosphate rock, and naval stores, were valued at
$9,346,704 in 1907; and the imports in 1907 at $116,514.
The harbour of Fernandina was known to the early explorers
280
FERNANDO DE NORONHA FERNANDO PO
of Florida, and it was here that Dominic de Gourgues landed
when he made his expedition against the Spanish at San Mateo
in 1568. An Indian mission was established by Spanish priests
later in the same century, but it was not successful. When
Georgia was founded, General James Oglethorpe placed a military
guard on Amelia Island to prevent sudden attack upon his
colony by the Spanish, and the first blood shed in the petty
warfare between Georgia and Florida was the murder of two
unarmed members of the guard by a troop of Spanish soldiers
and Indians in 1739. The first permanent settlement was made
by the Spanish in 1808, at what is now the village of Old Fernan-
dina, about i m. from the city. The island was a centre for
smuggling during the period of the embargo and non-importation
acts preceding the war of 1812. This was the pretext for General
George Matthews (1738-1812) to gather a band of adventurers
at St Mary's, Georgia, invade the island, and capture Fernandina
in 1812. In the following year the American forces were with-
drawn. In 1817 Gregor MacGregor, a filibuster who had aided
the Spanish provinces of South America in their revolt against
Spain, fitted out an expedition in Baltimore and seized Fer-
nandina, but departed soon after. Later in the same year
Louis Aury, another adventurer, appeared with a small force
from Texas, and took possession of the place in the name of the
Republic of Mexico. In the following year Aury was expelled
by United States troops, who held Fernandina in trust for
Spain until Florida was finally ceded to the United States in
1821. Fernandina was first incorporated in 1859. In 1861
Fort Clinch was seized by the Confederates, and Fernandina
harbour was a centre of blockade running in the first two years
of the Civil War. In 1862 the place was captured by a Federal
naval force from Port Royal, South Carolina, commanded by
Commodore S. F. Du Pont.
FERNANDO DE NORONHA [Fernao de N.], an island in the
South Atlantic, 125 m. from the coast of Brazil, to which country
it belongs, in 3 50' S., 32 25' W. It is about 7 m. long and i^
wide, and some other islets lie adjacent to it. Its surface is
rugged, and it contains a number of rocky hills from 500 to
700 ft. high, and one peak towering to the height of 1089 ft. It
is formed of basalt, trachyte and phonolite, and the soil is very
fertile. The climate is healthy. It is defended by forts, and
serves as a place of banishment for criminals from Brazil. The
next largest island of the group is about a mile in circumference,
and the others are small barren rocks. The population is about
2000, all males, including some 1400 criminals, .and a garrison
of 1 50. Communication is maintained by steamer with Pernam-
buco. The island takes name from its Portuguese discoverer
(1503), the count of Noronha.
FERNANDO PO, or FERNANDO Poo, a Spanish island on the
west coast of Africa, in the Bight of Biafra, about 20 m. from
the mainland, in 3 12' N. and 8 48' E. It is of volcanic origin,
related to the Cameroon system of the adjacent mainland, is the
largest island in the Gulf of Guinea, is 44 m. long from N.N.E.
to S.S.W., about 20 m. broad, and has an area of about 780 sq. m.
Fernando Po is noted for its beautiful aspect, seeming from a
short distance to be a single mountain rising from the sea, its
sides covered with luxuriant vegetation. The shores are steep
and rocky and the coast plain narrow. This plain is succeeded
by the slopes of the mountains which occupy the rest of the
island and culminate in the magnificent cone of Clarence Peak
or Pico de Santa Isabel (native name Owassa). Clarence Peak,
about 10,000 ft. high, 1 is in the north-central part of the island.
In the south Musolo Mt. attains a height of 7400 ft. There are
numerous other peaks between 4000 and 6000 ft. high. The
mountains contain craters and crater lakes, and are covered, most
of them to their summits, with forests. Down the narrow inter-
vening valleys rush torrential streams which have cut deep beds
through the coast plains. The trees most characteristic of the
forest are oil palms and tree ferns, but there are many varieties,
including ebony, mahogany and the African oak. The under-
growth is very dense; it includes the sugar-cane and cotton
and indigo plants. The fauna includes antelopes, monkeys,
1 The heights given by explorers vary from 9200 to 10,800 ft.
lemurs, the civet cat, porcupine, pythons and green tree-snakes,
crocodiles and turtles. The climate is very unhealthy in the
lower districts, where malarial fever is common. The mean
temperature on the coast is 78 Fahr. and varies little, but in
the higher altitudes there is considerable daily variation. The
rainfall is very heavy except during November-January, which
is considered the dry season.
The inhabitants number about 25,000. In addition to about
500 Europeans, mostly Spaniards and Cubans, they are of two
classes, the Bubis or Bube (formerly also called Ediya), who
occupy the interior, and the coast dwellers, a mixed Negro race,
largely descended from slave ancestors with an admixture of
Portuguese and Spanish blood, and known to the Bubis as
" Portos " a corruption of Portuguese. The Bubis are of
Bantu stock and early immigrants from the mainland. Physic-
ally they are a finely developed race, extremely jealous of their
independence and unwilling to take service of any kind with
Europeans. They go unclothed, smearing their bodies with a
kind of pomatum. They stick pieces of wood in the lobes of their
ears, wear numerous armlets made of ivory, beads or grass, and
always wear hats, generally made of palm leaves. Their weapons
are mainly of wood; stone axes and knives were in use as late
as 1858. They have no knowledge of working iron. Their
villages are built in the densest parts of the forest, and care is
taken to conceal the approach to them. The Bubis are sports-
men and fishermen rather than agriculturists. The staple foods
of the islanders generally are millet, rice, yams and bananas.
Alcohol is distilled from the sugar-cane. The natives possess
numbers of sheep, goats and fowls.
The principal settlement is Port Clarence (pop. 1500), called
by the Spaniards Santa Isabel, a safe and commodious harbour
on the north coast. In its graveyard are buried Richard Lander
and several other explorers of West Africa. Port Clarence is
unhealthy, and the seat of government has been removed to
Basile, a small town 5 m. from Port Clarence and over 1000 ft.
above the sea. On the west coast are the bay and port of San
Carlos, on the east coast Concepcion Bay and town. The chief
industry until the close of the igth century was the collection of
palm-oil, but the Spaniards have since developed plantations
of cocoa, coffee, sugar, tobacco, vanilla and other tropical plants.
The kola nut is also cultivated. The cocoa plantations are of
most importance. The amount of cocoa exported in 1905 was
1800 tons, being 370 tons above the average export for the pre-
ceding five years. The total value of the trade of the island
(1900-1905) was about 250,000 a year.
History. The island was discovered towards the close of the
1 5th century by a Portuguese navigator called Fernao do Po, who,
struck by its beauty, named it Formosa, but it soon came to be
called by the name of its discoverer. 3 A Portuguese colony was
established in the island, which together with Annobon was
ceded to Spain in 1778. The first attempts of Spain to develop
the island ended disastrously, and in 1827, with the consent of
Spain, the administration of the island was taken over by Great
Britain, the British " superintendent " having a Spanish com-
mission as governor. By the British Fernando Po was used as
a naval station for the ships engaged in the suppression of the
slave trade. The British headquarters were named Port Clarence
and the adjacent promontory Cape William, in honour of the
duke of Clarence (William IV.). In 1844 the Spaniards reclaimed
the island, refusing to sell their rights to Great Britain. They
did no more at that time, however, than hoist the Spanish flag,
appointing a British resident, John Beecroft, governor. Beecroft,
who was made British consul in 1849, died in 1854. During the
British occupation a considerable number of Sierra Leonians,
West Indians and freed slaves settled in the island, and English
became and remains the common speech of the coast peoples.
In 1858 a Spanish governor was sent out, and the Baptist
missionaries who had laboured in the island since 1843 were
compelled to withdraw. They settled in Ambas Bay on the
"Some authorities maintain that another Portuguese seaman,
Lopes Gonsalves, was the discoverer of the island. The years 1469,
147 1 and 1486 are variously given as those of the date of the discovery.
FERNEL FEROZEPUR
281
neighbouring mainland (see CAMEROON). The Jesuits who suc-
ceeded the Baptists were also expelled, but mission and educa-
tional work is now carried on by other Roman Catholic agencies,
and (since 1870) by the Primitive Methodists. In 1879 the
Spanish government recalled its officials, but a few years later,
when the partition of Africa was being effected, they were re-
placed and a number of Cuban political prisoners were deported
thither. Very little was done to develop the resources of the
island until after the loss of the Spanish colonies in the West
Indies and the Pacific, when Spain turned her attention to her
African possessions. Stimulated by the success of the Portu-
guese cocoa plantations in the neighbouring island of St Thomas,
the Spaniards started similar plantations, with some measure of
success. The strategical importance and commercial possi-
bilities of the island caused Germany and other powers to ap-
proach Spain with a view to its acquisition, and in 1900 the
Spaniards gave France, in return for territorial concessions on
the mainland, the right of pre-emption over the island and her
other West African possessions.
The administration of the island is in the hands of a governor-
general, assisted by a council, and responsible to the ministry
of foreign affairs at Madrid. The governor-general has under his
authority the sub-governors of the other Spanish possessions
in the Gulf of Guinea, namely, the Muni River Settlement,
Corisco and Annobon (see those articles). None of these
possessions is self-supporting.
See E. d'Almonte, " Someras Notas . . . de la isla de Fernando
Poo y de la Guinea continental espanola," in Bol. Real. Soc. Ceog. of
Madrid (1902) ; and a further article in the Riv. Geog. Col. of Madrid
(1908); E. L. Vilches, "Fernando Poo y la Guinea espanola," in
the Bol. Real. Soc. Geog. (1901); San Javier, Tres Anas en Fernando
Poo (Madrid, 1875); O. Baumann, Eine africanische Tropeninsel:
Fernando Poo und die Bube (Vienna, 1888); Sir H. H. Johnston,
George Grenfell and the Congo . . . and Notes on Fernando Po
(London, 1908) ; Mary H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, ch. iii.
(London, 1897); T. J. Hutchinson, sometime British Consul at
Fernando Po, Impressions of Western Africa, chs. xii. and xiii.
(London, 1858), and Ten Years' Wanderings among the Ethiopians,
chs. xvii. and xviii. (London, 1861). For the Bubi language see
J. Clarke, The Adeeyah Vocabulary (1841), and Introduction to the
Fernandian Tongue (184.8). Consult also Wanderings in West Africa
(1863) and other books written by Sir Richard Burton as the result
of his consulship at Fernando Po, 1861-1865, and the works cited
under MUNI RIVER SETTLEMENTS.
FERNEL, JEAN FRANCOIS (1497-1558), French physician,
was born at Clermont in 1497, and after receiving his early
education at his native town, entered the college of Sainte-Barbe,
Paris. At first he devoted himself to mathematical and astro-
nomical studies; his Cosmotheoria (1528) records a determination
of a degree of the meridian, which he made by counting the re-
volutions of his carriage wheels on a journey between Paris and
Amiens. But from 1534 he gave himself up entirely to medicine,
in which he graduated in 1530. His extraordinary general
erudition, and the skill and success with which he sought to
revive the study of the old Greek physicians, gained him a great
reputation, and ultimately the office of physician to the court.
He practised with great success, and at his death in 1558 left
behind him an immense fortune. He also wrote Monalo-
sphaerium, sive astrolabii genus, generalis horarii structura et
usus (1526); De proportionibus (1528); De evacuandi ratione
(1545); De abditis rerum causis (1548); and Medicina ad
Henricum II. (1554).
FERNIE, an important city in the east Kootenay district of
British Columbia. Pop. about 4000. It is situated on the Crow's
Nest branch of the Canadian Pacific railway, at the junction of
Coal Creek with the Elk river, and owes its importance to the
extensive coal mines in its vicinity. There are about 500 coke
ovens in operation at Fernie, which supply most of the smelting
plants in southern British Columbia with fuel.
FERNOW, KARL LUDW1G (1763-1808), German art-critic
and archaeologist, was born in Pomerania on the igth of
November 1763. His father was a servant in the household of
the lord of Blumenhagen. At the age of twelve he became
clerk to a notary, and was afterwards apprenticed to a druggist.
While serving his time he had the misfortune accidentally to
shoot a young man who came to visit him; and although through
the intercession of his master he escaped prosecution, the un-
toward event weighed heavily on his mind, and led him at the
close of his apprenticeship to quit his native place. He obtained
a situation at Liibeck, where he had leisure to cultivate his
natural taste for drawing and poetry. Having formed an
acquaintance with the painter Carstens, whose influence was an
important stimulus and help to him, he renounced his trade of
druggist, and set up as a portrait-painter and drawing-master.
At Ludwigslust he fell in love with a young girl, and followed
her to Weimar; but failing in his suit, he went next to Jena.
There he was introduced to Professor Reinhold, and in his house
met the Danish poet Baggesen. The latter invited him to accom-
pany him to Switzerland and Italy, a proposal which he eagerly
accepted (1794) for the sake of the opportunity of furthering his
studies in the fine arts. On Baggesen's return to Denmark,
Fernow, assisted by some of his friends, visited Rome and made
some stay there. He now renewed his intercourse with Carstens,
who had settled at Rome, and applied himself to the study of
the history and theory of the fine arts and of the Italian language
and literature. Making rapid progress, he was soon qualified to
give a course of lectures on archaeology, which was attended
by the principal artists then at Rome. Having married a Roman
lady, he returned in 1802 to Germany, and was appointed in the
following year professor extraordinary of Italian literature at
Jena. In 1804 he accepted the post of librarian to Amelia,
duchess-dowager of Weimar, which gave him the leisure he
desired for the purpose of turning to account the literary and
archaeological researches in which he had engaged at Rome.
His most valuable work, the Romische Sludien, appeared in 3
vols. (1806-1808). Among his other works are Das Leben
des Kiinstlers Carstens (1806), Ariosto's Lebenslauf (1809), and
Francesco Pelrarca (1818). Fernow diedat Weimar, December,
1808.
A memoir of his life by Johanna Schopenhauer, mother of the
philosopher, Arthur Schopenhauer, appeared in 1810, and a complete
edition of his works in 1829.
FEROZEPUR, or FIROZPUR, a town and district of British
India, in the Jullundur division of the Punjab. The town is a
railway junction connecting the North- Western and Rajputana
railways, and is situated about 4 m. from the present south
bank of the Sutlej. Pop. (1901) 49,341. The arsenal is the
largest in India, and Ferozepur is the headquarters of a brigade
in the 3rd division of the northern army corps. British rule was
first established at Ferozepur in 1835, when, on the failure of
heirs to the Sikh family who possessed it, a small territory 86 m.
in extent became an escheat to the British government, and the
present district has been gradually formed around this nucleus.
The strategic importance of Ferozepur was at this time very
great; and when, in 1839, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry)
Lawrence took charge of the station as political officer, it was the
outpost of British India in the direction of the Sikh power.
Ferozepur accordingly became the scene of operations during the
first Sikh War. The Sikhs crossed the Sutlej in December 1845,
and were defeated successively at Mudki, Ferozepur, Aliwal and
Sobraon; after which they withdrew into their own territory,
and peace was concluded at Lahore. At the time of the mutiny
Ferozepur cantonments contained two regiments of native
infantry and a regiment of native cavalry, together with the 6ist
Foot and two companies of European artillery. One of the
native regiments, the 57th, was disarmed; but the other, the
45th, broke into mutiny, and, after an unsuccessful attempt
to seize the magazine, which was held by the Europeans, pro-
ceeded to join the rebel forces in Delhi. Throughout the mutiny
Ferozepur remained in the hands of the English.
Ferozepur has rapidly advanced in material prosperity of late
years, and is now a very important seat of commerce, trade being
mainly in grain. The main streets of the city are wide and well
paved, and the whole is enclosed by a low brick wall. Great im-
provements have been made in the surroundings of the city.
The cantonment lies 2 m. to the south of the city, and is con-
nected with it by a good metalled road.
282
FEROZESHAH FERRAR
The DISTRICT OF FEROZEPUR comprises an area of 4302 sq. m.
The surface is level, with the exception of a few sand-hills in the
south and south-east. The country consists of two distinct tracts,
that liable to annual fertilizing inundations from the Sutlej,
known as the bhet, and the rohi or upland tract. The only river
is the Sutlej, which runs along the north-western boundary.
The principal crops are wheat, barley, millet, gram, pulses, oil-
seeds, cotton, tobacco, &c. The manufactures are of the
humblest kind, consisting chiefly of cotton and wool-weaving,
and are confined entirely to the supply of local wants. The
Lahore and Ludhiana road runs for 51 m. through the district,
and forms an important trade route. The North-Western, the
Southern Punjab, and a branch of the Rajputana-Malwa rail-
ways serve the district. The other important towns and seats
of commerce are Fazilka (pop. 8505), Dharmkot (6731), Moga
(6725), and Muktsar (6389). Owing principally to the dryness
of its climate, Ferozepur has the reputation of being an excep-
tionally healthy district. In September and October, however,
after the annual rains, the people suffer a good deal from remit-
tent fever. In 1901 the population was 958,072. Distributaries
of the Sirhind canal water the whole district.
FEROZESHAH, a village in the Punjab, India, notable as the
scene of one of the chief battles in the first Sikh War. The battle
immediately succeeded that of Mudki, and was fought on the
2ist and 22nd of December 1845. During its course Sir Hugh
Gough, the British commander, was overruled by the governor-
general, Lord Hardirige, who was acting as his second in com-
mand (see SIKH WARS). At the end of the first day's fighting
the British had occupied the Sikh position, but had not gained
an undisputed victory. On the following morning the battle
was resumed, and the Sikhs were reinforced by a second army
under Tej Singh; but through cowardice or treachery Tej Singh
withdrew at the critical moment, leaving the field to the British.
In the course of the fight the British lost 694 killed and 1721
wounded, the vast majority being British troops, while the Sikhs
lost 100 guns and about 5000 killed and wounded.
FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANCOIS CLAUDE, COMTE (1751-
1825), French statesman and political writer, was born in Paris
on the 4th of July 1751, and became a member of the paflement
of Paris at eighteen. He left France with the first party of
emigrants, and attached himself to the prince of Conde; later
he was a member of the council of regency formed by the comte
de Provence after the death of Louis XVI. He lived at Regens-
burg until 1801, when he returned to France, though he still
sought to serve the royalist cause. In 1814 Ferrand was made
minister of state and postmaster-general. He countersigned
the act of sequestration of Napoleon's property, and introduced
a bill for the restoration of the property of the emigrants,
establishing a distinction, since become famous, between royalists
of la ligne droile and those of la ligne courbe. At the second
restoration Ferrand was again for a short time postmaster-
general. He was also made a peer of France, member of the
privy council, grand-officer and secretary of the orders of Saint
Michel and the Saint Esprit, and in 1816 member of the Academy,
He continued his active support of ultra-royalist views until his
death, which took place in Paris on the I7th of January 1825.
Besides a large number of political pamphlets, Ferrand is the
author of L' Esprit de Vhistoire, ou Lettres d'un pere a son fils sur la
maniere d'etudier Vhistoire (4 vols., 1802), which reached seven
editions, the last number in 1826 having prefixed to it a biographical
sketch of the author by his nephew Hericart de Thury; Eloge
historique de Madame Elisabeth de France (1814); CEuvres drama-
tiques (1817); Theorie des revolutions rapprochee des eaenements qui
en ont ete Vorigine, le developpement, ou la suite (4 vols., 1817); and
Histoire des trois demembrements de la Pologne, pour faire suite d
VHistoire de I' anarchic de Pologne par Rulhiere (3 vols., 1820).
FERRAR, NICHOLAS (1592-1637), English theologian, was
born in London in 1592 and educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge,
graduating in 1610. He was obliged for some years to travel for
his health, but on returning to England in 1618 became actively
connected with the Virginia Company. When this company
was deprived of its patent in 1623 Ferrar turned his attention
to politics, and was elected to parliament. But he soon decided
to devote himself to a religious life; he purchased the manor
of Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, where he organized a
small religious community. Here, in 1626, he was ordained a
deacon by Laud, and declining preferment, he lived an austere,
almost monastic life of study and good works. He died on the
4th of December 1637, and the house was despoiled and the
community broken up ten years later. There are extant a
number of " harmonies " of the Gospel, printed and bound by
the community, two of them by- Ferrar himself. One of the
latter was made for Charles I. on his request, after a visit in
1633 to see the " Arminian Nunnery at Little Gidding, " which
had been the subject of some scandalous and undeserved
criticism.
FERRAR, ROBERT (d. 1555), bishop of St David's and
martyr, born about the end of the isth century of a Yorkshire
family, is said to have been educated at Cambridge, whence he
proceeded to Oxford and became a canon regular of St Augustine.
He came under the influence of Thomas Gerrard and Lutheran
theology, and was compelled to bear a faggot with Anthony
Dalaber and others in 1528. He graduated B.D. in 1533, accom-
panied Bishop Barlow on his embassy to Scotland in 1535, and
was made prior of St Oswald's at Nostell near Pontefract. At
the dissolution he surrendered his priory without compunction
to the crown, and received a liberal pension. For the rest of
Henry's reign his career is obscure; perhaps he fled abroad on
the enactment of the Six Articles. He certainly married, and
is said to have been made Cranmer's chaplain, and bishop of
Sodor and Man; but he was never consecrated to that see.
After the accession of Edward VI., Ferrar was, probably
through the influence of Bishop Barlow, appointed chaplain to
Protector Somerset, a royal visitor, and bishop of St David's
on Barlow's translation to Bath and Wells in 1548. He was
the first bishop appointed by letters patent under the act passed
in 1547 without the form of capitular election; and the service
performed at his consecration was also novel, being in English;
he also preached at St Paul's on the nth of November clad
only as a priest and not as a bishop, and inveighed against vest-
ments and altars. At St David's he had trouble at once with his
singularly turbulent chapter, who, finding that he was out of
favour at court since Somerset's fall in 1549, brought a long list of
fantastic charges against him. He had taught his child to whistle,
dined with his servants, talked of " worldly things such as bak-
ing, brewing, enclosing, ploughing and mining," preferred walking
to riding, and denounced the debasement of the coinage. He
seems to have been a kindly, homely, somewhat feckless person
like many an excellent parish priest, who did not conceal his
indignation at some of Northumberland's deeds. He had voted
against the act of November 1 549 for a reform of the canon law,
and on a later occasion his nonconformity brought him into
conflict with the Council; he was also the only bishop who
satisfied Hooper's test of sacramental orthodoxy. The Council
accordingly listened to the accusations of Ferrar's chapter, and
in 1552 he was summoned to London and imprisoned on a charge
of praemunire incurred by omitting the king's authority in a
commission which he issued for the visitation of his diocese.
Imprisonment on such a charge under Northumberland might
have been expected to lead to liberation under Mary. But Ferrar
had been a monk and was married. Even so, it is difficult to see
on what legal ground he was kept in the queen's bench prison
after July 1553; for Mary herself was repudiating the royal
authority in religion. Ferrar's marriage accounts for the loss
of his bishopric in March 1554, and his opinions for his further
punishment. As soon as the heresy laws and ecclesiastical
jurisdiction had been re-established, Ferrar was examined by
Gardiner, and then with signal indecency sent down to be tried
by Morgan, his successor in the bishopric of St David's. He
appealed from Morgan's sentence to Pole as papal legate, but in
vain, and was burnt at Caermarthen on the 3oth of March 1555.
It was perhaps the most wanton of all Mary's acts of persecution;
Ferrar had been no such protagonist of the Reformation as
Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper and Latimer; he had had nothing
to do with Northumberland's or Wyatt's conspiracy. He had
FERRARA FERRARA-FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF
283
taken no part in politics, and, so far as is known, had not said a
word or raised a hand against Mary. He was burnt simply
because he could not change his religion with the law and would
not pretend that he could; and his execution is a complete
refutation of the idea that Mary only persecuted heretics because
and when they were traitors.
See Dictionary of National Biography, xviii. 380-382, and authorities
there cited. Also Acts of the Privy Council (1550-1554.); H. A. L.
Fisher, Political History of England, vol. vi.
(A. F. P.)
FERRARA, a city and archiepiscopal see of Emilia, Italy,
capital of the province of Ferrara, 30 m. N.N.E. of Bologna,
situated 30 ft. above sea-level on the Po di Vomano, a branch
channel of the main stream of the Po, which is 35 m. N. Pop.
(1901) 32,968 (town), 86,392 (commune). The town has broad
streets and numerous palaces, which date from the i6th century,
when it was the seat of the court of the house of Este, and had,
it is said, 100,000 inhabitants.
The most prominent building is the square castle of the house
of Este, in the centre of the town, a brick building surrounded
by a moat, with four towers. It was built after 1385 and partly
restored in 1554; the pavilions on the top of the towers date
from the latter year. Near it is the hospital of S. Anna, where
Tasso was confined during his attack of insanity (1579-1586).
The Palazzo del Municipio, rebuilt in the i8th century, was the
earlier residence of the Este family. Close by is the cathedral
of S. Giorgio, consecrated in 1135, when the Romanesque lower
part of the main facade and the side facades were completed.
It was built by Guglielmo degli Adelardi (d. 1146), who is buried
in it. The upper part of the main facade, with arcades of pointed
arches, dates from the I3th century, and the portal has recum-
bent lions and elaborate sculptures above. The interior was
restored in the baroque style in 1712. The campanile, in the
Renaissance style, dates from 1451-1493, but the last storey was
added at the end of the i6th century. Opposite the cathedral
is the Gothic Palazzo della Ragione, in brick (1315-1326), now
the law-courts. A little way off is the university, which has
faculties of law, medicine and natural science (hardly 100
students in all); the library has valuable MSS., including part
of that of the Orlando Furioso and letters by Tasso. The other
churches are of less interest than the cathedral, though S.
Francesco, S. Benedetto, S. Maria in Vado and S. Cristoforo are
all good early Renaissance buildings. The numerous early Re-
naissance palaces, often with good terra-cotta decorations, form
quite a feature of Ferrara; few towns of Italy have so many
of them proportionately, though they are mostly comparatively
small in size. Among them may be noted those in the N.
quarter (especially the four at the intersection of its two main
streets), which was added by Ercole (Hercules) I. in 1492-1505,
from the plans of Biagio Rossetti, and hence called the " Addizione
Erculea." The finest of these is the Palazzo de' Diamanti, so
called from the diamond points into which the blocks of stone
with which it is faced are cut. It contains the municipal picture
gallery, with a large number of pictures of artists of the school
of Ferrara. This did not require prominence until the latter
half of the isth century, when its best masters were Cosimo
Tura (1432-1495), Francesco Cossa (d. 1480) and Ercole dei
Roberti (d. r496). To this period are due famous frescoes in the
Palazzo Schifanoia, which was built by the Este family; those of
the lower row depict the life of Borso of Este, in the central
row are the signs of the zodiac, and in the upper are allegorical
representations of the months. The vestibule was decorated
with stucco mouldings by Domenico di Paris of Padua. The
building also contains fine choir-books with miniatures, and a
collection of coins and Renaissance medals. The simple house
of Ariosto, erected by himself after 1526, in which he died in
1532, lies farther west. The best Ferrarese masters of the i6th
century of the Ferrara school were Lorenzo Costa (1460-1535),
and Dosso Dossi (1479-1542), the most eminent of all, while
Benvenuto Tisi (Garofalo, 1481-1559) is somewhat monotonous
and insipid.
The origin of Ferrara is uncertain, and probabilities are against
the supposition that it occupies the site of the ancient Forum
Alieni. It was probably a settlement formed by the inhabitants
of the lagoons at the mouth of the Po. It appears first in a
document of Aistulf of 753 or 754 as a city forming part of the
exarchate of Ravenna. After 984 we find it a fief of Tedaldo,
count of Modena and Canossa, nephew of the emperor Otho I.
It afterwards made itself independent, and in 1101 was taken
by siege by the countess Matilda. At this time it was mainly
dominated by several great families, among them the Adelardi.
In 1146 Guglielmo, the last of the Adelardi, died, and his
property passed, as the dowry of his niece Marchesella, to
Azzolino d' Este. There was considerable hostility between the
newly entered family and the Salinguerra, but after considerable
struggles Azzo Novello was nominated perpetual podesta in
1242; in 1259 he took Ezzelino of Verona prisoner in battle.
His grandson, Obizzo II. (1264-1293), succeeded him, and the
pope nominated him captain-general and defender of the states
of the Church; and the house of Este was from henceforth
settled in Ferrara. Niccolo III. (1393-1441) received several
popes with great magnificence, especially Eugene IV., who held
a council here in 1438. His son Borso received the fiefs of
Modena and Reggio from the emperor Frederick III. as first
duke in 1452 (in which year Girolamo Savonarola was born here),
and in 1470 was made duke of Ferrara by Pope Paul II. Ercole I.
(1471-1505) carried on a war with Venice and increased the
magnificence of the city. His son Alphonso I. married Lucrezia
Borgia, and continued the war with Venice with success. In
1509 he was excommunicated by Julius II., and attacked the
pontifical army in 1 5 1 2 outside Ravenna, which he took. Gaston
de Foix fell in the battle, in which he was supporting Alphonso.
With the succeeding popes he was able to make peace. He was
the patron of Ariosto from 1518 onwards. His son Ercole II.
married Renata, daughter of Louis XII. of France; he too
embellished Ferrara during his reign (1534-1559)- His son
Alphonso II. married Barbara, sister of the emperor Maxi-
milian II. He raised the gloiy of Ferrara to its highest point,
and was the patron of Tasso and Guarini, favouring, as the
princes of his house had always done, the arts and sciences. He
had no legitimate male heir, and in 1597 Ferrara was claimed as
a vacant fief by Pope Clement VIII., as was also Comacchio.
A fortress was constructed by him on the site of the castle of
Tedaldo, at the W. angle of the town. The town remained a
part of the states of the Church, the fortress being occupied by
an Austrian garrison from 1832 until 1859, when it became part
of the kingdom of Italy.
A considerable area within the walls of Ferrara is unoccupied
by buildings, especially on the north, where the handsome
Renaissance church of S. Cristoforo, with the cemetery,
stands; but modern times have brought a renewal of industrial
activity. Ferrara is on the main line from Bologna to Padua
and Venice, and has branches to Ravenna and Poggio Rusco
(for Suzzara).
See G. Agnelli, Ferrara e Pomposa (Bergamo, 1902) ; E. G. Gardner,
Dukes and Poets of Ferrara (London, 1904).
FERRARA-FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF (1438 ff.). The council
of Ferrara and Florence was the culmination of a series of futile
medieval attempts to reunite the Greek and Roman churches.
The emperor, John VI. Palaeologus, had been advised by his
experienced father to avoid all serious negotiations, as they had
invariably resulted in increased bitterness; but John, in view
of the rapid dismemberment of his empire by the Turks, felt
constrained to seek a union. The situation was, however, com-
plicated by the strife which broke out between the pope (Eugenius
IV.) and the oecumenical council of Basel. Both sides sent
embassies to the emperor at Constantinople, as both saw the
importance of gaining the recognition and support of the East,
for on this practically depended the victory in the struggle
between papacy and council for the supreme jurisdiction over
the church (see COUNCILS). The Greeks, fearing the domination
of the papacy, were at first more favourably inclined toward
the conciliar party; but the astute diplomacy of the Roman
representatives, who have been charged by certain Greek writers
with the skilful use of money and of lies, won over the emperor.
284
FERRARI, GAUDENZIO
With a retinue of about 700 persons, entertained in Italy at the
pope's expense, he reached Ferrara early in March 1438. Here
a council had been formally opened in January by the papal
party, a bull of the previous year having promptly taken advan-
tage of the death of the Emperor Sigismund by ordering the
removal of the council of Basel to Ferrara; and one of the first
acts of the assemblage at Ferrara had been to excommunicate
the remnant at Basel. A month after the coming of the Greeks,
the Union Synod was solemnly inaugurated on the pth of April
1438. After six months of negotiation, the first formal session
was held on the 8th of October, and o'n the I4th the real
issues were reached. The time-honoured question of the filioque
was still in the foreground when it seemed for several reasons
advisable to transfer the council to Florence: Ferrara was
threatened by condottieri, the pest was raging; Florence
promised a welcome subvention, and a situation further inland
would make it more difficult for uneasy Greek bishops to flee
the synod.
The first session at Florence and the seventeenth of the union
council took place on the 26th of February 1439; there ensued
long debates and negotiations on the filioque, in which Markos
Eugenikos, archbishop of Ephesus, spoke for the irreconcilables;
but the Greeks under the leadership of Bessarion, archbishop
of Nicaea, and Isidor, metropolitan of Kiev, at length made a
declaration on the filioque (4th of June), to which all save Markos
Eugenikos subscribed. On the next topic of importance, the
primacy of the pope, the project of union nearly suffered ship-
wreck; but here a vague formula was finally constructed which,
while acknowledging the pope's right to govern the church,
attempted to safeguard as well the rights of the patriarchs.
On the basis of the above-mentioned agreements, as well as of
minor discussions as to purgatory and the Eucharist, the decree
of union was drawn up in Latin and in Greek, and signed on the
5th of July by the pope and the Greek emperor, and all the
members of the synod save Eugenikos and one Greek bishop
who had fled; and on the following day it was solemnly pub-
lished in the cathedral of Florence. The decree explains the
filioque in a manner acceptable to the Greeks, but does not
require them to insert the term in their symbol; it demands
that celebrants follow the custom of their own church as to the
employment of leavened or unleavened bread in the Eucharist.
It states essentially the Roman doctrine of purgatory, and asserts
the world- wide primacy of the pope as the " true vicar of Christ
and the head of the whole Church, the Father and teacher of all
Christians "; but, to satisfy the Greeks, inconsistently adds that
all the rights and privileges of the Oriental patriarchs are to be
maintained unimpaired. After the consummation of the union
the Greeks remained in Florence for several weeks, discussing
matters such as the liturgy, the administration of the sacraments,
and divorce; and they sailed from Venice to Constantinople
in October.
The council, however, desirous of negotiating unions with the
minor churches of the East, remained in session for several years,
and seems never to have reached a formal adjournment. The
decree for the Armenians was published on the 22nd of November
1439; they accepted the filioque and the Athanasian creed,
rejected Monophysitism and Monothelitism, agreed to the de-
veloped scholastic doctrine concerning the seven sacraments,
and conformed their calendar to the Western in certain points.
On the 26th of April 1441 the pope announced that the synod
would be transferred to the Lateran; but before leaving Florence
a union was negotiated with the Oriental Christians known as
Jacobites, through a monk named Andreas, who, at least as
regards Abyssinia, acted in excess of his powers. The Decretum
pro Jacobitis, published on the 4th of February 1442, is, like
that for the Armenians, of high dogmatic interest, as it summar-
izes the doctrine of the great medieval scholastics on the points
in controversy. The decree for the Syrians, published at the
Lateran on the soth of September 1444, and those for the
Chaldeans (Nestorians) and the Maronites (Monothelites), pub-
lished at the last known session of the council on the 7th of
August 1445, added nothing of doctrinal importance. Though
the direct results of these unions were the restoration of prestige
to the absolutist papacy and the bringing of Byzantine men of
letters, like Bessarion, to the West, the outcome was on the
whole disappointing. Of the complicated history of the
" United " churches of the East it suffices to say that Rome
succeeded in securing but fragments, though important frag-
ments, of the greater organizations. As for the Greeks, the union
met with much opposition, particularly from the monks, and was
rejected by three Oriental patriarchs at a synod of Jerusalem in
1443; and after various ineffective attempts to enforce it, the
fall of Constantinople in 1453 put an end to the endeavour. As
Turkish interests demanded the isolation of the Oriental
Christians from their western brethren, and as the orthodox
Greek nationalists feared Latinization more than Mahommedan
rule, a patriarch hostile to the union was chosen, and a synod
of Constantinople in 1472 formally rejected the decisions of
Florence.
AUTHORITIES, Hardouin, vol. 9; Mansi, vols. 31 A, 31 B, 35;
Sylvester Sguropulus (properly Syropulus), Vera historia Unionis,
transl. R. Creyghton (Hague, 1660) ; Cecconi, Studi storici sul
concilia di Firenze (Florence, 1869), (appendix); J. Zhishman, Die
Unionsverhandlungen . . . bis zum Condi von Ferrara (Vienna,
1858); Gorski, of Moscow, 1847, The History of the Council of
Florence, trans, from the Russian by Basil Pppoff, ed. by J. M.
Neale (London, 1861); C. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vol. 7
(Freiburg i. B., 1874), 659-761, 793 ff., 814 ff. ; H. Vast, Le Cardinal
Bessarion (Paris, 1878), 53-113; A. Warschauer, Vber die Quellen
zur Geschichte des Flprentiner Concils (Breslau, 1881), (Dissertation);
M. Creighton, A History of the Papacy during the Period of the Refor-
mation, vol. 2 (London, 1882), 173-194 (vivid); Knopfler, in Wetzer
and Welte's Kirchenlexikon, vol. 4 (2nd ed., Freiburg i. B., 1885),
1363-1380 (instructive); L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. I
(London, 1891), 315 ff. ; F. Kattenbusch, Lchrbuch der vergleichenden
Confessionskunde, vol. I (Freiburg i. B., 1892), 128 ff. ; N. Kalogeras,
archbishop of Patras, " Die Verhandlungen zwischen der orthodox-
katholischen Kirche und dem Konzil von Basel fiber die Wieder-
vereinigung der Kirchen " (Internationale Theologische Zeitschrift),
vol. i (Bern, 1893, 39-57) ; P. Tschackert, in Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyklopddie, vol. 6 (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1899), 45-48 (good biblio-
graphy); Walter Norden, Das Papsttum und Byzanz: Die Trennung
der beiden Machte und das Problem ihrer Wiedervereinigune bis 1453
(Berlin, 1903), 712 ff. (W. W. R.*)
FERRARI, GAUDENZIO (1484-1549), Italian painter and
sculptor, of the Milanese, or more strictly the Piedmontese,
school, was born at Valduggia, Piedmont, and is said (very
dubiously) to have learned the elements of painting at Vercelli
from Girolamo Giovenone. He next studied in Milan, in the
school of Scotto, and some say of Luini; towards 1504 he
proceeded to Florence, and afterwards (it used to be alleged) to
Rome. His pictorial style may be considered as derived mainly
from the old Milanese school, with a considerable tinge of the
influence of Da Vinci, and later on of Raphael; in his personal
manner there was something of the demonstrative and fantastic.
The gentler qualities diminished, and the stronger intensified,
as he progressed. By 1524 he was at Varallo in Piedmont, and
here, in the chapel of the Sacro Monte, the sanctuary of the
Piedmontese pilgrims, he executed his most memorable work.
This is a fresco of the Crucifixion, with a multitude of figures,
no less than twenty-six of them being modelled in actual relief,
and coloured; on the vaulted ceiling are eighteen lamenting
angels, powerful in expression. Other leading examples are the
following. In the Royal Gallery, Turin, a " Pieta," an able early
work. In the Brera Gallery, Milan, " St Katharine miraculously
preserved from the Torture of the Wheel," a very characteristic
example, hard and forcible in colour, thronged in composition,
turbulent in emotion; also several frescoes, chiefly from the
church of Santa Maria della Pace, three of them being from the
history of Joachim and Anna. In the cathedral of Vercelli, the
choir, the " Virgin with Angels and Saints under an Orange
Tree." In the refectory of San Paolo, the " Last Supper." In
the church of San Cristoforo, the transept (in 1532-1535), a
series of paintings in which Ferrari's scholar Lanini assisted him;
by Ferrari himself are the " Birth of the Virgin," the " Annun-
ciation," the " Visitation," the " Adoration of the Shepherds
and Kings," the " Crucifixion," the " Assumption of the Virgin,"
all full of life and decided character, though somewhat mannered.
FERRARI, GIUSEPPE FERREIRA
285
In the Louvre, " St Paul Meditating." IrrVarallo, convent of the
Minorites (1507), a " Presentation in the Temple," and " Christ
among the Doctors," and (after 1510) the " History of Christ,"
in twenty-one subjects; also an ancona in six compartments,
named the " Ancona di San Gaudenzio." In Santa Maria di
Loreto, near Varallo (after 1527), an " Adoration." In the
church of Saronno, near Milan, the cupola (1535), a " Glory of
Angels," in which the beauty of the school of Da Vinci alternates
with bravura of foreshortenings in the mode of Correggio. In
Milan, Santa Maria delle Grazie (1542), the " Scourging of Christ,"
an " Ecce Homo " and a " Crucifixion." The " Scourging," or
else a " Last Supper," in the Passione of Milan (unfinished), is
regarded as Ferrari's latest work. He was a very prolific painter,
distinguished by strong expression, animation and fulness of
composition, and abundant invention; he was skilful in painting
horses, and his decisive rather hard colour is marked by a
partiality for shot tints in drapery. In general character, his
work appertains more to the isth than the i6th century. His
subjects were always of the sacred order. Ferrari's death took
place in Milan. Besides Lanini, already mentioned, Andrea
Solario, Giambattista della Cerva and Fermo Stella were three
of his principal scholars. He is represented to us as a good man,
attached to his country and his art, jovial and sometimes
facetious, but an enemy cf scandal. The reputation which he
enjoyed soon after his death was very great, but it has not fully
stood the test of time. Lomazzo went so far as to place him
seventh among the seven prime painters of Italy.
See G. Bordiga, two works concerning Gaudenzio Ferrari (1821 and
1835); G. Colombo, Vita ed opere di Gaudenzio Ferrari (1881);
Ethel Halsey, Gaudenzio Ferrari (in the series Great Masters, 1904).
There was another painter nearly contemporary with Gaudenzio,
Difendente Ferrari, also of the Lombard school. His celebrity is by
no means equal to that of Gaudenzio; but Kugler (1887, as edited
by Layard) pronounced him to be "a good and original colourist,
and the best artist that Piedmont has produced." (W. M. R.)
FERRARI, GIUSEPPE (1812-1876), Italian philosopher,
historian and politician*, was born at Milan on the 7th of March
1812, and died in Rome on the 2nd of July 1876. He studied law
at Pa via, and took the degree of doctor in 1831. A follower of
Romagnosi (d. 1835) and Giovan Battista Vico (q.v.), his first
works were an article in the Biblioteca Italiana entitled " Mente
di Gian Domenico Romagnosi " (1835), and a complete edition
of the works of Vico, prefaced by an appreciation (1835). Find-
ing Italy uncongenial to his ideas, he went to France and, in
1839, produced in Paris his Vico et I' Italic, followed by La
Nouvelle Religion de Campanella and La Theorie de I'erreur.
On account of these works he was made Docteur-es-lettres of the
Sorbonne and professor of philosophy at Rochefort (1840). His
views, however, provoked antagonism, and in 1842 he was
appointed to the chair of philosophy at Strassburg. After fresh
trouble with the clergy, he returned to Paris and published a
defence of his theories in a work entitled Idees sur la politique
de Platon et d'Aristole. After a short connexion with the college
at Bourges, he devoted himself from 1849 to 1858 exclusively to
writing. The works of this period are Les Philosophes Salaries,
Machiavel juge des revolutions de noire temps (1849), La Federa-
zione repubblicana (1851), La Filosofia della rivoluzione (1851),
L' Italia dopo il colpo di Stato (1852), Histoire des revolutions, ou
Guelfes et Gibelins (1858; Italian trans., 1871-1873). In 1850
he returned to Italy, where he opposed Cavour, and upheld
federalism against the policy of a single Italian monarchy. In
spite of this opposition, he held chairs of philosophy at Turin,
Milan and Rome in succession, and during several administrations
represented the college of Gavirate in the chamber. He was a
member of the council of education and was made senator on the
1 5th of May 1876. Amongst other works may be mentioned
Hisloire de la raison d'etat, La China et I' Europa, Corso d' istoria
degli scrittori politici italiani. A sceptic in philosophy and a
revolutionist in politics, rejoicing in controversy of all kinds, he
was admired as a man, as an orator, and as a writer.
See Marro Macchi, Annuario istorico italiano (Milan, 1877);
Mazzoleni, Giuseppe Ferrari; Werner, Die ital. Philosophic des IQ.
Jahrh. vol. 3 (Vienna, 1885); Uberweg, History of Philosophy (Eng.
trans, ii. 461 foil.).
FERRARI, PAOLO (1822-1889), Italian dramatist, was born
at Modena. After producing some minor pieces, in 1852 he
made his reputation as a playwright with Goldoni e le sue sedici
commedie. Among numerous later plays his comedy Parini e
la salira (1857) had considerable success. Ferrari may be
regarded as a follower of Goldoni, modelling himself on the
French theatrical methods. His collected plays were published
in 1877-1880.
FERREIRA, ANTONIO (1528-1569), Portuguese poet, was a
native of Lisbon ; his father held the post of escrivao de fazenda
in the house of the duke of Coimbra at Setubal, so that he must
there have met the great adventurer Mendes Pinto. In 1547-
1548 he went to the university of Coirnbra, and on the i6th of
July 1551 took his bachelor's degree. The Sonnets forming the
First Book in his collected works date from 1552 and contain the
history of his early love for an unknown lady. They seem to
have been written in Coimbra or during vacations in Lisbon;
and if some are dry and stilted, others, like the admirable
No. 45, are full of feeling and tears. The Sonnets in the Second
Book were inspired by D. Maria Pimentel, whom he afterwards
married, and they are marked by that chastity of sentiment,
seriousness and ardent patriotism which characterized the man
and the writer. Ferreira's ideal, as a poet, was to win " the
applause of the good," and, in the preface to his poems, he says,
" I am content with this glory, that I have loved my land and
my people." He was intimate with princes, nobles and the most
distinguished literary men of the time, such as the scholarly
Diogo de Teive and the poets Bernardes, Caminha and Corte-
Real, as well as with the aged Sa de Miranda, the founder of the
classical school of which Ferreira became the foremost repre-
sentative.
The death in 1554 of Prince John, the heir to the throne, drew
from him, as from Camoens, Bernardes and Caminha, a poetical
lament, which consisted of an elegy and two eclogues, imitative
of Virgil and Horace, and devoid of interest. On the i4th of
July 1555 he took his doctor's degree, an event which was cele-
brated, according to custom, by a sort of Roman triumph, and
he stayed on as a professor, finding Coimbra with its picturesque
environs congenial to his poetical tastes and love of a country
life. The year 1557 produced his sixth elegy, addressed to the
son of the great Albuquerque, a poem of noble patriotism
expressed in eloquent and sonorous verse, and in the next year
he married. After a short and happy married life, his wife died,
and the ninth sonnet of Book 2 describes her end in moving
words. This loss lent Ferreira's verse an added austerity, and
the independence of his muse is remarkable when he addresses
King Sebastian and reminds him of his duties as well as his
rights. On the i4th of October 1567 he became Disembargador
da Casa do Civel, and had to leave the quiet of Coimbra for Lisbon.
His verses tell how he disliked the change, and how the bustle of
the capital, then a great commercial emporium, made him sad
and almost tongue-tied for poetry. The intrigues and moral
twists of the courtiers and traders, among whom he was forced
to live, hurt his fine sense of honour, and he felt his mental
isolation the more, because his friends were few and scattered
in that great city which the discoveries and conquests of the
Portuguese had made the centre of a world empire. In 1 569 a
terrible epidemic of carbunculous fever broke out and carried
off 50,000 inhabitants of Lisbon, and, on the 29th of November,
Ferreira, who had stayed there doing his duty when others fled,
fell a victim.
Horace was his favourite poet, erudition his muse, and his
admiration of the classics made him disdain the popular poetry
of the Old School (Escola Velha) represented by Gil Vicente.
His national feeling would not allow him to write in Latin or
Spanish, like most of his contemporaries, but his Portuguese is
as Latinized as he could make it, and he even calls his poetical
works Poemas Lusitanos. Si de Miranda had philosophized in
the familiar redondilha, introduced the epistls and founded the
comedy of learning. It was the beginning of a revolution, which
Ferreira completed by abandoning the hendecasyllable for the
Italian decasyllabic, and by composing the noble and austere
286
FERREL'S LAW FERRERS, HOUSE OF
Roman poetry of his letters, odes and elegies. It was all done
of set purpose, for he was a reformer conscious of his mission
and resolved to carry it out. The gross realism of the popular
poetry, its lack of culture and its carelessness of form, offended
his educated taste, and its picturesqueness and ingenuity made
no appeal to him. It is not surprising, however, that though
he earned the applause of men of letters he failed to touch the
hearts of his countrymen. Ferreira wrote the Terentian prose
comedy Bristo, at the age of twenty-five (1553), and dedicated
it to Prince John in the name of the university. It is neither
a comedy of character nor manners, but its vis comica lies in its
plot and situations. The Cioso, a later product, may almost
be called a comedy of character. Castro is Ferreira's most con-
siderable work, and, in date, is the first tragedy in Portuguese,
and the second in modern European literature. Though
fashioned on the great models of the ancients, it has little plot or
action, and the characters, except that of the prince, are ill-
designed. It is really a splendid poem, with a chorus which
sings the sad fate of Ignez in musical odes, rich in feeling and
grandeur of expression. Her love is the chaste, timid affection
of a wife and a vassal rather than the strong passion of a mistress,
but Pedro is really the man history describes, the love-fettered
prince whom the tragedy of Ignez's death converted into the cruel
tyrant. King Alfonso is little more than a shadow, and only
meets Ignez once, his son never; while, stranger still, Pedro and
Ignez never come on the stage together, and their love is merely
narrated. Nevertheless, Ferreira merits all praise for choosing
one of the most dramatic episodes in Portuguese history for his
subject, and though it has since been handled by poets of renown
in many differenc languages, none has been able to surpass the
old master.
The Castro was first printed in Lisbon in 1587, and it is included in
Ferreira's Poemas, published in 1598 by his son. It has been trans-
lated by Musgrave (London, 1825), and the chorus of Act I. appeared
again in English in the Savoy for July 1896. It has also been done
into French and German. The Bristo and Cioso first appeared
with the comedies of Sa de Miranda in Lisbon in 1622. There is
a good modern edition of the Complete Works of Ferreira (2
vols., Paris, 1865). See Castilho's Antonio Ferreira (3 vols., Rio,
1865), which contains a full biographical and critical study with
extracts. (E. PR.)
FERREL'S LAW, in physical geography. " If a body moves
in any direction on the earth's surface, there is a deflecting force
arising from the earth's rotation, which deflects it to the right
in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemi-
sphere." This law applies to every body that is set in motion
upon the surface of the rotating earth, but usually the duration
of the motion of any body due to a single impulse is so brief,
and there are so many frictional disturbances, that it is not easy
to observe the results of this deflecting force. The movements
of the atmosphere, however, are upon a scale large enough to
make this observation easy, and the simplest evidence is obtained
from a study of the direction of the air movements in the great
wind systems of the globe. (See METEOROLOGY.)
FERRERS, the name of a great Norman-English feudal house,
derived from Ferrieres-St-Hilaire, to the south of Bernay, in
Normandy. Its ancestor Walkelin was slain in a feud during
the Conqueror's minority, leaving a son Henry, who took part
in the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday survey his fief
extended into fourteen counties, but the great bulk of it was in
Derbyshire and Leicestershire, especially the former. He him-
self occurs in Worcestershire as one of the royal commissioners
for the survey. He established his chief seat at Tutbury Castle,
Staffordshire, on the Derbyshire border, and founded there a
Cluniac priory. As was the usual practice with the great Norman
houses, his eldest son succeeded to Ferrieres, and, according to
Stapleton, he was ancestor of the Oakham house of Ferrers,
whose memory is preserved by the horseshoes hanging in the hall
of their castle. Robert, a younger son of Henry, inherited his
vast English fief, and, for his services at the battle of the Standard
(1138), was created earl of Derby by Stephen. He appears to
have died a year after.
Both the title and the arms of the earls have been the subject
of much discussion, and they seem to have been styled indiffer-
ently earls of Derby or Nottingham (both counties then forming
one shrievalty) or of Tutbury, or simply (de) Ferrers. Robert,
the 2nd earl, who founded Merevale Abbey, was father of William,
the 3rd earl, who began the opposition of his house to the crown
by joining in the great revolt of 1173, when he fortified his castles
of Tutbury and Duffield and plundered Nottingham, which was
held for the king. On his subsequent submission his castles
were razed. Dying at the siege of Acre, 1190, he was succeeded
by his son William, who attacked Nottingham on Richard's
behalf in 1194, but whom King John favoured and confirmed
in the earldom of Derby, 1199. A claim that he was heir to the
honour of Peveral of Nottingham, which has puzzled genealo-
gists, was compromised with the king, whom the earl thenceforth
stoutly supported, being with him at his death and witnessing
his will, with his brother-in-law the earl of Chester, and with
William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, whose daughter married
his son. With them also he acted in securing the succession
of the young Henry, joining in the siege of Mountsorrel and the
battle of Lincoln. But he was one of those great nobles who
looked with jealousy on the rising power of the king's favourites.
In 1227 he was one of the earls who rose against him on behalf
of his brother Richard and made him restore the forest charters,
and in 1237 he was one of the three counsellors forced on the king
by the barons. His influence had by this time been further
increased by the death, in 1232, of the earl of Chester, whose
sister, his wife, inherited a vast estate between the Ribble and
the Mersey. On his death in 1247, his son William succeeded
as sth earl, and inherited through his wife her share of the great
possessions of the Marshals, earls of Pembroke. By his second
wife, a daughter of the earl of Winchester, he was father of
Robert, 6th and last earl. Succeeding as a minor in 1254,
Robert had been secured by the king, as early as 1249, as a
husband for his wife's niece, Marie, daughter of Hugh, count of
Angouleme, but, in spite of this, he joined the opposition in
1263 and distinguished himself by his violence. He was one
of the five earls summoned to Simon de Montfort's parliament,
though, on taking the earl of Gloucester's part, he was arrested
by Simon. In spite of this he was compelled on the king's
triumph to forfeit his castles and seven years' revenues. In
1266 he broke out again in revolt on his own estates in Derby-
shire, but was utterly defeated at Chesterfield by Henry " of
Almain," deprived of his earldom and lands and imprisoned.
Eventually, in 1269, he agreed to pay 50,000 for restoration,
and to pledge all his lands save Chartley and Holbrook for its
payment. As he was not able to find the money, the lands passed
to the king's son, Edmund, to whom they had been granted on
his forfeiture.
The earl's son John succeeded to Chartley, a Staffordshire
estate long famous for the wild cattle in its chase, and was sum-
moned as a baron in 1299, though he had joined the baronial
opposition in 1297. On the death, in 1450, of the last Ferrers
lord of Chartley, the barony passed with his daughter to the
Devereux family and then to the Shirleys, one of whom was
created Earl Ferrers in 1711. The barony has been in abeyance
since 1855.
The line of Ferrers of Groby was founded by William, younger
brother of the last earl, who inherited from his mother Margaret
de Quinci her estate of Groby in Leicestershire, and some Ferrers
manors from his father. His son was summoned as a baron in
1300, but on the death of his descendant, William, Lord Ferrers
of Groby, in 1445, the barony passed with his granddaughter
to the Grey family and was forfeited with the dukedom of Suffolk
in 1554. A younger son of William, the last lord, married the
heiress of Tamworth Castle, and his line was seated at Tamworth
till 1680, when an heiress carried it to a son of the first Earl
Ferrers. From Sir Henry, a younger son of the first Ferrers of
Tamworth, descended Ferrers of Baddesley Clinton, seated there
in the male line till towards the end of the igth century. The
line of Ferrers of Wemme was founded by a younger son of
Lord Ferrers of Chartley, who married the heiress of Wemme,
Co. Salop, and was summoned as a baron in her right; but it
FERRERS, EARL FERRIER, J. F.
287
ended with their son. There are doubtless male descendants
of this great Norman house still in existence.
Higham Ferrers, Northants, and Woodham Ferrers, Essex,
take their names from this family. It has been alleged that they
bore horseshoes for their arms in allusion to Ferrieres (i.e. iron-
works); but when and why they were added to their coat is a
moot point.
See Dugdale's Baronage; ]. R. Planche's The Conqueror and his
Companions; G. E. C(okayne)'s Complete Peerage; Chronicles
and Memorials (Rolls Series) ; T. Stapleton's Rotuli Scaccarii Nor-
mannie, (J. H. R.)
FERRERS, LAURENCE SHIRLEY, 4111 EARL (1720-1760),
the last nobleman in England to suffer a felon's death, was born
on the 1 8th of August 1720. There was insanity in his family,
and from an early age his behaviour seems to have been eccentric,
and his temper violent, though he was quite capable of manag-
ing his business affairs. In 1758 his wife obtained a separation
from him for cruelty. The Ferrers estates were then vested
in trustees, the Earl Ferrers secured the appointment of an old
family steward, Johnson, as receiver of rents. This man faith-
fully performed his duty as a servant to the trustees, and did
not prove amenable to Ferrer's personal wishes. On the i8th
of January 1760, Johnson called at the earl's mansion at Staunton
Harold, Leicestershire, by appointment, and was directed to his
lordship's study. Here, after some business conversation, Lord
Ferrers shot him. In the following April Ferrers was tried for
murder by his peers in Westminster Hall. His defence, which
he conducted in person with great ability, was a plea of insanity,
and it was supported by considerable evidence, but he was found
guilty. He subsequently said that he had only pleaded insanity
to oblige his family, and that he had himself always been ashamed
of such a defence. On the 5th of May 1760, dressed in a light-
coloured suit, embroidered with silver, he was taken in his own
carriage from the Tower of London to Tyburn and there hanged.
It has been said that as a concession to his order the rope used
was of silk.
See Peter Burke, Celebrated Trials connected with the Aristocracy
in the Relations of Private Life (London, 1849); Edward Walford,
Tales of our Great Families (London, 1877) ; Howell's State Trials
(1816), xix. 885-980.
FERRET, a domesticated, and frequently albino breed of
quadruped, derived from the wild polecat (Putorius foetidus,
or P. putorius), which it closely resembles in size, form, and
habits, and with which it interbreeds. It differs in the colour of
its fur, which is usually yellowish-white, and of its eyes, which
are pinky-red. The " polecat-ferret " is a brown breed, appar-
ently the product of the above-mentioned cross. The ferret
attains a length of about 14 in., exclusive of the tail, which
measures 5 in. Although exhibiting considerable lameness, it
seems incapable of attachment, and when not properly fed, or
when irritated, is apt to give painful evidence of its ferocity.
It is chiefly employed in destroying rats and other vermin, and
in driving rabbits from their burrows. The ferret is remarkably
prolific, the female bringing forth two broods annually, each
numbering from six to nine young. It is said to occasionally
devour its young immediately after birth, and in this case
produces another brood soon after. The ferret was well known
to the Romans, Strabo stating that it was brought from Africa
into Spain, and Pliny that it was employed in his time in rabbit-
hunting, under the name Viverra; the English name is not
derived from this, but from Fr. furet, Late Lat. furo, robber.
The date of its introduction into Great Britain is uncertain,
but it has been known in England for at least 600 years.
The ferret should be kept in dry, clean, well-ventilated hutches,
and fed twice daily on bread, milk, and meat, such as rabbits'
and fowls' livers. When used to hunt rabbits it is provided with
a muzzle, or, better and more usual, a cope, made by looping
and knotting twine about the head and snout, in order to prevent
it killing its quarry, in which case it would gorge itself and go
to sleep in the hole. As the ferret enters the hole the rabbits
flee before it, and are shot or caught by dogs as they break
ground. A ferret's hold on its quarry is as obstinate as that of
a bulldog, but can easily be broken by a strong pressure of
the thumb just above the eyes. Only full-grown ferrets are
" worked to " rats. Several are generally used at a time and
without copes, as rats are fierce fighters.
See Ferrets, by Nicholas Everitt (London, 1897).
FERRI, GIRO (1634-1689), Roman painter, the chief disciple
and successor of Pietro da Cortona. He was born in the Roman
territory, studied under Pietro, to whom he became warmly
attached, and, at an age a little past thirty, completed the paint-
ing of the ceilings and other internal decorations begun by his
instructor in the Pitti palace, Florence. He also co-operated
in or finished several other works by Pietro, both in Florence
and in Rome, approaching near to his style and his particular
merits, but with less grace of design and native vigour, and in
especial falling short of him in colour. Of his own independent
productions, the chief is an extensive series of scriptural frescoes
in the church of S. Maria Maggiore in Bergamo; also a painting
(rated as Ferri's best work) of St Ambrose healing a sick person,
the principal altarpiece in the church of S. AmbrogiodellaMassima
in Rome. The paintings of the cupola of S. Agnese in the same
capital might rank even higher than these; but this labour
remained uncompleted at the death of Ferri, and was marred by
the performances of his successor Corbellini. He executed also
a large amount of miscellaneous designs, such as etchings and
frontispieces for books; and he was an architect besides. Ferri
was appointed to direct the Florentine students in Rome, and
Gabbiani was one of his leading pupils. As regards style, Ferri
ranks as chief of the so-called Machinists, as opposed to the
school founded by Sacchi, and continued by Carlo Maratta.
He died in Rome his end being hastened, as it is said, by
mortification at his recognized inferiority to Bacciccia in colour.
FERRI, LUIGI (1826-1895), Italian philosopher, was born at
Bologna on the isth of June 1826. His education was obtained
mainly at the Ecole Normale in Paris, where his father, a painter
and architect, was engaged in the construction of the Theatre
Italien. From his twenty-fifth year he began to lecture in the
colleges of Evreux, Dieppe, Blois and Toulouse. Later, he was
lecturer at Annecy and Casal-Montferrat, and became head of
the education department under Mamiani in 1860. Three years
later he was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Istituto
di Perfezionamento at Florence, and, in 1871, was made professor
of philosophy in the university of Rome. On the death of
Mamiani in 1885 he became editor of the Filosofia delle scuole
italiane, the title of which he changed to Rivista italiana di
filosofia. He wrote both on psychology and on metaphysics, but
is known especially as a historian of philosophy. His original
work is eclectic, combining the psychology of his teachers, Jules
Simon, Saisset and Mamiani, with the idealism of Rosmini and
Gioberti. Among his works may be mentioned Studii sulla
coscienza; II Fenomeno nelle sue relazioni con la sensazione;
Delia idea del vero; Delia filosofia del diritto presso Aristotile
(1885); II Genio di Aristotile; La Psicologia di Pietro Pomponazzi
(1877), and, most important, Essai sur I'histoire de la philosophic
en Italic au XIX' siecle (Paris, 1869), and La Psychologic de
I' association depuis Hobbes jusqu'a nos jours.
FERRIER, ARNAUD DU (c. 1508-1585), French jurisconsult
and diplomatist, was born at Toulouse about 1508, and practised
as a lawyer first at Bourges, afterwards at Toulouse. Councillor
to the parlement of the latter town, and then to that of Rennes,
he later became president of the parlement of Paris. He repre-
sented Charles IX., king of France, at the council of Trent in
1562, but had to retire in consequence of the attitude he had
adopted, and was sent as ambassador to Venice, where he
remained till 1567, returning again in 1570. On his return to
France he came into touch with the Calvinists whose tenets
he probably embraced, and consequently lost his place in the
privy council and part of his fortune. As compensation, Henry,
king of Navarre, appointed him his chancellor. He died in the
end of October 1585.
See also E. Fremy, Un Ambassadeur liberal sous Charles IX et
Henri III, Arnaud du Ferrier (Paris, 1880).
FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK (1808-1864), Scottish
metaphysical writer, was born in Edinburgh on the i6th of
288
FERRIER, P. FERRIER, S. E.
June 1808, the son of John Ferrier, writer to the signet. His
mother was a sister of John Wilson (Christopher North). He was
educated at the university of Edinburgh and Magdalen College,
Oxford, and subsequently, his metaphysical tastes having
been fostered by his intimate friend, Sir William Hamilton,
spent some time at Heidelberg studying German philosophy.
In 1842 he was appointed professor of civil history in Edinburgh
University, and in 1845 professor of moral philosophy and political
economy at St Andrews. He was twice an unsuccessful candidate
for chairs in Edinburgh, for that of moral philosophy on Wilson's
resignation in 1852, and for that of logic and metaphysics in
1856, after Hamilton's death. He remained at St Andrews till
his death on the nth of June 1864. He married his cousin,
Margaret Anne, daughter of John Wilson. He had five children,
one of whom became the wife of Sir Alexander Grant.
Ferrier's first contribution to metaphysics was a series of
articles in Blackwood's Magazine (1838-1839), entitled An
Introduction to the Philosophy of Consciousness. In these he
condemns previous philosophers for ignoring in their psycho-
logical investigations the fact of consciousness, which is the
distinctive feature of man, and confining their observation
to the so-called " states of the mind." Consciousness comes
into manifestation only when the man has used the word " I "
with full knowledge of what it means. This notion he must
originate within himself. Consciousness cannot spring from
the states which are its object, for it is in antagonism to them.
It originates in the will, which in the act of consciousness puts
the " I " in the place of our sensations. Morality, conscience,
and responsibility are necessary results of consciousness. These
articles were succeeded by a number of others, of which the
most important were The Crisis of Modern Speculation (1841),
Berkeley and Idealism (1842), and an important examination
of Hamilton's edition of Reid (1847), which contains a vigorous
attack on the philosophy of common sense. The perception of
matter is pronounced to be the ne plus ultra of thought, and
Reid, for presuming to analyse it, is declared to be a representa-
tionist in fact, although he professed to be an intuitionist. A
distinction is made between the " perception of matter " and
" our apprehension of the perception of matter." Psychology
vainly tries to analyse the former. Metaphysic shows the
latter alone to be analysable, and separates the subjective
element, " our apprehension," from the objective element,
" the perception of matter," not matter per se, but the percep-
tion of matter is the existence independent of the individual's
thought. It cannot, however, be independent of thought. It
must belong to some mind, and is therefore the property of the
Divine Mind. There, he thinks, is an indestructible foundation
for the a priori argument for the existence of God.
Ferrier's matured philosophical doctrines find expression in
the Institutes of Metaphysics (1854), in which he claims to have
met the twofold obligation resting on every system of philosophy,
that it should be reasoned and true. His method is that of
Spinoza, strict demonstration, or at least an attempt at it.
All the errors of natural thinking and psychology must fall under
one or other of three topics: Knowing and the Known, Ignor-
ance, and Being. These are all-comprehensive, and are therefore
the departments into which philosophy is divided, for the sole
end of philosophy is to correct the inadvertencies of ordinary
thinking.
The problems of knowing and the known are treated in the
" Epistemology or Theory of Knowing." The truth that " along
with whatever any intelligence knows it must, as the ground
or condition of its knowledge, have some cognizance of itself,"
is the basis of the whole philosophical system. Object+subject,
thing-)- me, is the only possible knowable. This leads to the
conclusion that the only independent universe which any mind
can think of is the universe in synthesis with some other mind
or ego.
The leading contradiction which is corrected in the " Agnoi-
ology or Theory of Ignorance " is this: that there can be an
ignorance of that of which there can be no knowledge. Ignorance
is a defect. But there is no defect in not knowing what cannot
be known by any intelligence (e.g. that two and two make five),
and therefore there can be an ignorance only of that of which
there can be a knowledge, i.e. of some-object-^/ws-some-subject.
The knowable alone is the ignorable. Ferrier lays special claim
to originality for this division of the Institutes.
The " Ontology or Theory of Being " forms the third and
final division. It contains a discussion of the origin of knowledge,
in which Ferrier traces all the perplexities and errors of philo-
sophers to the assumption of the absolute existence of matter.
The conclusion arrived at is that the only true real and inde-
pendent existences are minds-together-with-that-which-they-
apprehend, and that the one strictly necessary absolute existence
is a supreme and infinite and everlasting mind in synthesis with
all things.
Ferrier's works are remarkable for an unusual charm and sim-
plicity of style. These qualities are especially noticeable in the
Lectures on Creek Philosophy, one of the best introductions on the
subject in the English language. A complete edition of his philo-
sophical writings was published in 1875, with a memoir by E. L.
Lushington ; see also monograph by E. S. Haldane in the Famous
Scots Series.
FERRIER, PAUL (1843- ), French dramatist, was born
at Montpellier on the 2gth of March 1843. He had already
produced several comedies when in 1873 be secured real success
with two short pieces, Chez I'avocat and Les Incendies de Massou-
lard. Others of his numerous plays are Les Compensations (1876);
L'Art de tromper les femmes (1890), with M. Najac. One of
Ferrier's greatest triumphs was the production with Fabrice
Carre of Josephine vendue par ses saurs (1886), an opera bouffe
with music by Victor Roger. His opera libretti include La
Marocaine (1879), music of J. Offenbach; Le Chevalier d'Har-
menlal (1896) after the play of Dumas pere, for the music of
A. Messager; La Fille de Tabarin (1901), with Victorien Sardou,
music of Gabriel Pierne.
FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONE (1782-1854), Scottish
novelist, born in Edinburgh on the 7th of September 1782, was
the daughter of James Ferrier, for some years factor to the duke
of Argyll, and at one time one of the clerks of the court of session
with Sir Walter Scott. Her mother was a Miss Coutts, the
beautiful daughter of a Forfarshire farmer. James Frederick
Ferrier, noticed above, was Susan Ferrier's nephew.
Miss Ferrier's first novel, Marriage, was begun in concert with
a friend, Miss Clavering, a niece of the duke of Argyll; but this
lady only wrote a few pages, and Marriage, completed by Miss
Ferrier as early as 1810, appeared in 1818. It was followed in
1824 by The Inheritance, a better constructed and more mature
work; and the last and perhaps best of her novels, Destiny,
dedicated to Sir Walter Scott (who himself undertook to strike
the bargain with the publisher Cadell), appeared in 1831. All
these novels were published anonymously; but, with their
clever portraiture of contemporary Scottish life and manners,
and even recognizable caricatures of some social celebrities of
the day, they could not fail to become popular north of the Tweed.
" Lady MacLaughlan " represents Mrs Seymour Darner in dress
and Lady Frederick Campbell, whose husband, Lord Ferrier,
was executed in 1760, in manners. Mary, Lady Clark, well
known in Edinburgh, figured as " Mrs Fox " and the three maiden
aunts were the Misses Edmonstone. Many were the conjectures
as to the authorship of the novels. In the Nodes Ambrosianae
(November 1826), James Hogg is made to mention The In-
heritance, and adds, " which I aye thought was written by
Sir Walter, as weel's Marriage, till it spunked out that it was
written by a leddy." Scott himself gave Miss Ferrier a very
high place indeed among the novelists of the day. In his diary
(March 27, 1826), criticizing a new work which he had been
reading, he says, " The women do this better. Edgeworth,
Ferrier, Austen, have all given portraits of real society far
superior to anything man, vain man, has produced of the like
nature." Another friendly recognition of Miss Ferrier is to be
found at the conclusion of his Tales of my Landlord, where Scott
calls her his " sister shadow," the still anonymous author of
" the very lively work entitled Marriage." Lively, indeed, all
Miss Ferrier's works are, written in clear, brisk English, and
FERROL FERRULE
289
with an inexhaustible fund of humour. It is true her books
portray the eccentricities, the follies, and foibles of the society in
which she lived, caricaturing with terrible exactness its hypocrisy,
boastfulness, greed, affectation, and undue subservience to public
opinion. Yet Miss Ferrier wrote'less to reform than to amuse.
In this she is less like Miss Edgeworth than Miss Austen. Miss
Edge worth was more of a moralist; her wit is not so involuntary,
her caricatures not always so good-natured. But Miss Austen
and Miss Ferrier were genuine humorists, and with Miss Ferrier
especially a keen sense of the ludicrous was always dominant.
Her humorous characters are always her best. It was no doubt
because she felt this that in the last year of her life she regretted
not having devoted her talents more exclusively to the service of
religion. But if she was not a moralist, neither was she a cynic;
and her wit, even where it is most caustic, is never uncharitable.
Miss Ferrier's mother died in 1797, and from that date she
kept house for her father until his death in 1829. She lived
quietly at Morningside House and in Edinburgh for more than
twenty years after the publication of her last work. The
pleasantest picture that we have of her is in Lockhart's de-
scription of her visit to Scott in May 1831. She was asked there
to help to amuse the dying master of Abbotsford, who, when
he was not writing Count Robert of Paris, would talk as brilliantly
as ever. Only sometimes, before he had reached the point in a
narrative, " it would seem as if some internal spring had given
way." He would pause, and gaze blankly and anxiously round
him. " I noticed," says Lockhart, " the delicacy of Miss Ferrier
on such occasions. Her sight was bad, and she took care not to
use her glasses when he was speaking; and she affected to be also
troubled with deafness, and would say, ' Well, I am getting as
dull as a post; I have not heard a word since you said so-and-
so,' being sure to mention a circumstance behind that at which
he had really halted. He then took up the thread with his
habitual smile of courtesy as if forgetting his case entirely in
the consideration of the lady's infirmity."
Miss Ferrier died on the 5th of November 1854, at her brother's
house in Edinburgh. She left among her papers a short un-
published article, entitled " Recollections of Visits to Ashestiel
and Abbotsford." This is her own very interesting account of
her long friendship with Sir Walter Scott, from the date of her
first visit to him and Lady Scott at Ashestiel, where she went
with her father in the autumn of 1811, to her last sad visit
to Abbotsford in 1831. It contains some impromptu verses
written by Scott in her album at Ashestiel.
Miss Ferrier's letters to her sister, which contained much interesting
biographical matter, were destroyed at her particular request, but a
volume of her correspondence with a memoir by her grand-nephew,
John Ferrier, was published in 1898.
FERROL [El Ferrol\, a seaport of north-western Spain, in
the province of Corunna; situated 12 m. N.E. of the city of
Corunna, and on the Bay of Ferrol, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean.
Pop. (1900) 25,281. Together with San Fernando, near Cadiz,
and Cartagena, Ferrol is governed by an admiral, with the
special title of captain-general; and it ranks beside these two
ports as one of the principal naval stations of Spain. The town
is beautifully situated on a headland overlooking the bay, and
is surrounded by rocky hills which render it invisible from the
sea. Its harbour, naturally one of the best in Europe, and the
largest in Spain except those of Vigo and Corunna, is deep,
capacious and secure; but the entrance is a narrow strait about
2 m. long, which admits only one vessel at a time, and is com-
manded by modern and powerfully armed forts, while the neigh-
bouring heights are also crowned by defensive works. Ferrol is
provided with extensive dockyards, quays, warehouses and
an arsenal; most of these, with the palace of the captain-general,
the bull-ring, theatres, and other principal buildings, were built
or modernized between 1875 an d 1905. The local industries are
mainly connected with the shipping trade, or the refitting of
warships. Owing to the lack of railway communication, and
the competition of Corunna at so short a distance, Ferrol is not
a first-class commercial port; and in the early years of the 2oth
century its trade, already injured by the loss to Spain of Cuba
x. 19
and Porto Rico in 1898, showed little prospect of improvement.
The exports are insignificant, and consist chiefly of wooden
staves and beams for use as pit-props; the chief imports are
coal, cement, timber, iron and machinery. In 1904, 282 vessels
of 155,881 tons entered the harbour. In the same year the con-
struction of a railway to the neighbouring town of Betanzos
was undertaken, and in 1909 important shipbuilding operations
were begun.
Ferrol was a mere fishing village until 1752, when Ferdinand VI.
began to fit it for becoming an arsenal. In 1799 the British
made a fruitless attempt to capture it, but on the 4th of
November 1805 they defeated the French fleet in front of the
town, which they compelled to surrender. On the 27th of
January 1809 it was through treachery delivered over to the
French, but it was vacated by them on the 22nd of July. On
the 1 5th of July 1823 another blockade was begun by the French,
and Ferrol surrendered to them on the 27th of August.
FERRUCCIO, or FERRUCCI, FRANCESCO (1480-1530),
Florentine captain. After spending a few years as a merchant's
clerk he took to soldiering at an early age, and served in the
Bande Nere in various parts of Italy, earning a reputation as a
daring fighter and somewhat of a swashbuckler. When Pope
Clement VII. and the emperor Charles V. decided to reinstate
the Medici in Florence, they made war on the Florentine republic/
and Ferruccio was appointed Florentine military commissioner
at Empoli, where he showed great daring and resource by his
rapid marches and sudden attacks on the Imperialists. Early
in 1530 Volterra had thrown off Florentine allegiance and
had been occupied by an Imperialist garrison, but Ferruccio
surprised and recaptured the city. During his absence, however,
the Imperialists captured Empoli by treachery, thus cutting
off one of the chief avenues of approach to Florence. Ferruccio
proposed to the government of the republic that he should
march on Rome and terrorize the pope by the threat of a sack
into making peace with Florence on favourable terms, but
although the Var committee appointed him commissioner-
general for the operations outside the city, they rejected his
scheme as too audacious. Ferruccio then decided to attempt
a diversion by attacking the Imperialists in the rear and started
from Volterra for the Apennines. But at Pisa he was laid up
for a month with a fever a misfortune which enabled the enemy
to get wind of his plan and to prepare for his attack. At the end
of July Ferruccio left Pisa at the head of about 4000 men, and
although the besieged in Florence, knowing that a large part
of the Imperialists under the prince of Orange had gone to meet
Ferruccio, wished to co-operate with the latter by [means of a
sortie, they were prevented from doing so by their own traitorous
commander-in-chief, Malatesta Baglioni. Ferruccio encountered
a much larger force of the enemy on the 3rd of August at Gavi-
nana; a desperate battle ensued, and at first the Imperialists
were driven back by Ferruccio's fierce onslaught and the prince
of Orange himself was killed, but reinforcements under Fabrizio
Maramaldo having arrived, the Florentines were almost annihil-
ated and Ferruccio was wounded and captured. Maramaldo
out of personal spite despatched the wounded man with his own
hand. This defeat sealed the fate of the republic, and nine days
later Florence surrendered. Ferruccio was one of the great
soldiers of the age, and his enterprise is the finest episode of the
last days of the Florentine republic. See also under FLORENCE
and MEDICI.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. Sassetti, Vita di Francesco Ferrucci, written
in the l6th century and published in the Archivio storico, vol. iv.
pt. ii. (Florence, 1853), with an introduction by C. Monzani; E.
Aloisi, La Battaglia di Gavinana (Bologna, 1881); cf. P. yillari's
criticism of the latter work, " Ferruccio e Maramaldo," in his Arte,
storia, e filosofia (Florence, 1884) ; Gino Capponi, Storia della re-
pubblica di Firenze, vol. ii. (Florence, 1875).
FERRULE, a small metal cap or ring used for holding parts
of a rod, &c., together, and for giving strength to weakened
materials, or especially, when attached to the end of a stick,
umbrella, &c., for preventing wearing or splitting. The word
is properly verrel or verril, in which form it was used till the
1 8th century, and is derived through the O. Fr. virelle, modern
290
virole, from a Latin diminutive viriola of viriae, bracelets. The
form in which the word is now known is due to the influence
of Latin ferrum, iron. " Ferrule " must be distinguished from
" ferule " or " ferula," properly the Latin name of the " giant
fennel." From the use of the stalk of this plant as a cane or
rod for punishment, comes the application of the word to many
instruments used in chastisement, more particularly a short
flat piece of wood or leather shaped somewhat like the sole of a
boot, and applied to the palms of the hand. It is the common
form of disciplinary instrument in Roman Catholic schools;
the pain inflicted is exceedingly sharp and immediate, but the
effects are momentary and leave no chance for any dangerous
results. The word is sometimes applied to the ordinary cane as
used by schoolmasters.
FERRY, JULES FRANCOIS CAMILLE (1832-1893), French
statesman, was born at Saint Die (Vosges) on the 5th of April
1832. He studied law, and was called to the bar at Paris, but
soon went into politics, contributing to various newspapers,
particularly to the Temps. He attacked the Empire with great
violence, directing his opposition especially against Baron
Haussmann, prefect of the Seine. Elected republican deputy
for Paris in 1869, he protested against the declaration of war
with Germany, and on the 6th of September 1870 was appointed
prefect of the Seine by the government of national defence.
In this position he had the difficult task of administering Paris
during the siege, and after the Commune was obliged to resign
(5th of June 1871). From 1872-1873 he was sent by Thiers
as minister to Athens, but returned to the chamber as deputy
for the Vosges, and became one of the leaders of the republican
party. When the first republican ministry was formed under
W. H. Waddington on the 4th of February 1879, he was one of
its members, and continued in the ministry until the 3oth of
March 1885, except for two short interruptions (from the loth of
November 1881 to the 3oth of January 1882, and from the agth
of July 1882 to the 2ist of February 1883), first as minister
of education and then as minister of foreign aTffairs. He was
twice premier (1880-1881 and 1883-1885). Two important
works are associated with his administration, the non-clerical
organization of public education, and the beginning of the
colonial expansion of France. Following the republican
programme he proposed to destroy the influence of the clergy
in the university. He reorganized the committee of public
education (law of the 27th of February 1880), and proposed
a regulation for the conferring of university degrees, which,
though rejected, aroused violent polemics because the 7th
article took away from the unauthorized religious orders the right
to teach. He finally succeeded in passing the great law of the
28th of March 1882, which made primary education in France
free, non-clerical and obligatory. In higher education the
number of professors doubled under his ministry. After the
military defeat of France by Germany in 1870, he formed the
idea of acquiring a great colonial empire, not to colonize it, but
for the sake of economic exploitation. He directed the negotia-
tions which led to the establishment of a French protectorate
in Tunis (1881), prepared the treaty of the i7th of December
1885 for the occupation of Madagascar; directed the exploration
of the Congo and of the Niger region; and above all he organized
the conquest of Indo-China. The excitement caused at Paris
by an unimportant reverse of the French troops at Lang-son
caused his downfall (3oth of March 1885), but the treaty of
peace with China (gth of June 1885) was his work. He still
remained an influential member of the moderate republican
party, and directed the opposition to General Boulanger. After
the resignation of President Grevy (2nd of December 1887),
he was a candidate for the presidency of the republic, but the
radicals refused to support him, and he withdrew in favour of
Sadi Carnot. The violent polemics aroused against him at this
time caused a madman to attack him with a revolver, and he
died from the wound, on the i7th of March 1893. The chamber
of deputies voted him a state funeral.
See Fxlg. Zevort, fiisloire de la troisilme Republique; A. Rambaud,
Jules Ferry (Paris, 1903).
FERRY, JULES FERSEN, F. A.
FERRY (from the same root as that of the verb " to fare,"
to journey or travel, common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger.
fahren; it is connected with the root of Gr. iropos, way, and
Lat. portare, to carry), a place where boats ply regularly across
a river or arm of the sea for the conveyance of goods and persons.
The word is also applied to the boats employed (ferry boats).
In a car-ferry or train-ferry railway cars or complete trains are
conveyed across a piece of water in vessels which have railway
lines laid on their decks, so that the vehicles run on and off them
on their own wheels. In law the right of ferrying persons or
goods across a particular river or strait, and of exacting a reason-
able toll for the service, belongs, like the right of fair and market,
to the class of rights known as franchises. Its origin must be
by statute, royal grant, or prescription. It is wholly unconnected
with the ownership or occupation of land, so that the owner
of the ferry need not be proprietor of the soil on either side of
the water over which the right is exercised. He is bound to
maintain safe and suitable boats ready for the use of the public,
and to employ fit persons as ferrymen. As a correlative of
this duty he has a right of action, not only against those who
evade or refuse payment of toll when it is due, but also against
those who disturb his franchise by setting up a new ferry, so
as to diminish his custom, unless a change of circumstances, such
as an increase of population near the ferry, justify other means
of passage, whether of the same kind or not. See also WATER
RIGHTS.
FERSEN, FREDRIK AXEL, COUNT VON (1719-1794),
Swedish politician, was a son of Lieutenant-General Hans
Reinhold Fersen and entered the Swedish Life Guards in 1740,
and from 1743 to 1748 was in the French service (Royal-Suldois) ,
where he rose to the rank of brigadier. In the Seven Years' War
Fersen distinguished himself during the operations round Use-
dom and Wollin (1759), when he inflicted serious loss on the
Prussians. But it is as a politician that he is best known. At
the diet of 1755-1756 he was elected landtmarskalk, or marshal
of the diet, and from henceforth, till the revolution of 1772,
led the Hat party (see SWEDEN: History). In 1756 he defeated
the projects of the court for increasing the royal power; but,
after the disasters of the Seven Years' War, gravitated towards
the court again and contributed, by his energy and eloquence, to
uphold the tottering Hats for several years. On the accession of
the Caps to power in 1766, Fersen assisted the court in its
struggle with them by refusing to employ the Guards to keep
order in the capital when King Adolphus Frederick, driven to
desperation by the demands of the Caps, publicly abdicated, and
a seven days' interregnum ensued. At the ensuing diet of 1769,
when the Hats returned to power, Fersen was again elected
marshal of the diet; but he made no attempt to redeem his
pledges to the crown prince Gustavus, as to a very necessary
reform of the constitution, which he had made before the elec-
tions, and thus involuntarily contributed to the subsequent
establishment of absolutism. When Gustavus III. ascended
the throne in 1772, and attempted to reconcile the two factions
by a composition which aimed at dividing all political power
between them, Fersen said he despaired of bringing back, in a
moment, to the path of virtue and patriotism a people who
had been running riot for more than half a century in the wilder-
ness of political licence and corruption. Nevertheless he con-
sented to open negotiations with the Caps, and was the principal
Hat representative on the abortive composition committee.
During the revolution of August 1772, Fersen remained a passive
spectator of the overthrow of the constitution, and was one of
the first whom Gustavus summoned to his side after his triumph.
Ye* his relations with the king were never cordial. The old
party-leader could never forget that he had once been a power
in the state, and it is evident, from his Historiska Skrifter, how
jealous he was of Gustavus's personal qualities. There was a
slight collision between them as early as the diet of 1778; but
at the diet of 1786 Fersen boldly led the opposition against the
king's financial measures (see GUSTAVUS III.) which were conse-
quently rejected; while in private interviews, if his own account
of them is to be trusted, he addressed his sovereign with
FERSEN, H. A.
291
outrageous insolence. At the diet of 1789 Fersen marshalled the
nobility around him for a combat d oulrance against the throne
and that, too, at a time when Sweden was involved in two
dangerous foreign wars, and national unity was absolutely
indispensable. This tactical blunder cost him his popularity
and materially assisted the secret operations of the king. Ob-
struction was Fersen's chief weapon, and he continued to post-
pone the granting of subsidies by the house of nobles for some
weeks. But after frequent stormy scenes in the diet, which were
only prevented from becoming melees by Fersen's moderation,
or hesitation, at the critical moment, he and twenty of his friends
of the nobility were arrested (i?th February 1789) and the
opposition collapsed. Fersen was speedily released, but hence-
forth kept aloof from politics, surviving the king two years.
He was a man of great natural talent, with an imposing presence,
and he always bore himself like the aristocrat he was. But his
haughtiness and love of power are undeniable, and he was perhaps
too great a party-leader to be a great statesman. Yet for seven-
teen years, with very brief intervals, he controlled the destinies
of Sweden, and his influence in France was for some time pretty
considerable. His Historiska Skrifter, which are a record of
Swedish history, mainly autobiographical, during the greater
part of the i8th century, is excellent as literature, but somewhat
unreliable as an historical document, especially in the later
parts.
See C. G. Malmstrom, Sveriges politiska Historia (Stockholm,
1855-1865); R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. (London, 1895); C. T.
Odhner, Sveriges politiska Historia under Gustaf III.'s Regering
(Stockholm, 1885, &c.) ; F. A. Fersen, Historiska Skrifter (Stockholm,
1867-1872). (R. N. B.)
FERSEN, HANS AXEL, COUNT VON (1755-1810), Swedish
statesman, was carefully educated at home, at the Carolinum
at Brunswick and at Turin. In 1779 he entered the French
military service (Royal-Baviere), accompanied General Rocham-
beau to America as his adjutant, distinguished himself during
the war with England, notably at the siege of Yorktown, 1781,
and in 1785 was promoted to be colonel proprietaire of the
regiment Royal-Suedois. The young nobleman was, from the
first, a prime favourite at the French court, owing, partly to
the recollection of his father's devotion to France, but princi-
pally because of his own amiable and brilliant qualities. The
queen, Marie Antoinette, was especially attracted by the grace
and wit of le beau Fersen, who had inherited his full share
of the striking handsomeness which was hereditary in the
family.
It is possible that Fersen would have spent most of his life at
Versailles, but for a hint from his own sovereign, then at Pisa,
that he desired him to join his suite. He accompanied Gustavus
III. in his Italian tour and returned home with him in 1784.
When the war with Russia broke out, in 1788, Fersen accom-
panied his regiment to Finland, but in the autumn of the same
year was sent to France, where the political horizon was already
darkening. It was necessary for Gustavus to have an agent
thoroughly in the confidence of the French royal family, and, at
the same time, sufficiently able and audacious to help them in
their desperate straits, especially as he had lost all confidence
in his accredited minister, the baron de Stael. With his usual
acumen, he fixed upon Fersen, who was at his post early in 1790.
Before the end of the year he was forced to admit that the cause
of the French monarchy was hopeless so long as the king and
queen of France were nothing but captives in their own capital,
at the mercy of an irresponsible mob. He took a leading part
in the flight to Varennes. He found most of the requisite funds
at the last moment. He ordered the construction of the famous
carriage for six, in the name of the baroness von Korff, and kept
it in his hotel grounds, rue Matignon, that all Paris might get
accustomed to the sight of it. He was the coachman of the fiacre
which drove the royal family from the Carrousel to the Porte
Saint-Martin. He accompanied them to Bondy, the first stage
of their journey.
In August 1791, Fersen was sent to Vienna to induce the em-
peror Leopold to accede to a new coalition against revolutionary
France, but he soon came to the conclusion that the Austrian
court meant to do nothing at all. At his own request, therefore,
he was transferred to Brussels, where he could be of more service
to the queen of France. In February 1792, at his own
mortal peril, he once more succeeded in reaching Paris with
counterfeit credentials as minister plenipotentiary to Portugal.
On the i3th he arrived, and the same evening contrived to steal
an interview with the queen unobserved. On the following day
he was with the royal family from six o'clock in the evening till
six o'clock the next morning, and convinced himself that a second
flight was physically impossible. On the afternoon of the 2ist
he succeeded in paying a third visit to the Tuileries, stayed
there till midnight and succeeded, with great difficulty, in
regaining Brussels on the 27th. This perilous expedition, a
monumental instance of courage and loyalty, had no substantial
result. In 1797 Fersen was sent to the congress of Rastatt as
the Swedish delegate, but in consequence of a protest from the
French government, was not permitted to take part in it.
During the regency of the duke of Sudermania (1792-1796)
Fersen, like all the other Gustavians, was in disgrace; but, on
Gustavus IV. attaining his majority in 1796, he was welcomed
back to court with open arms, and reinstated in all his offices
and dignities. In 1801 he was appointed Riksmarskalk ( = earl-
marshal). On the outbreak of the war with Napoleon, Fersen
accompanied Gustavus IV. to Germany to assist him in gaining
fresh allies. He prevented Gustavus from invading Prussia in
revenge for the refusal of the king of Prussia to declare war
against France, and during the rest of the reign was in semi-
disgrace, though generally a member of the government when
the king was abroad.
Fersen stood quite aloof from the revolution of 1809. (See
SWEDEN: History.) His sympathies were entirely with Prince
Gustavus, son of the unfortunate Gustavus IV., and he was
generally credited with the desire to see him king. When the
newly elected successor to the throne, the highly popular prince
Christian Augustus of Augustenburg, died suddenly in Skine
in May 1810, the report spread that he had been poisoned, and
that Fersen and his sister, the countess Piper, were accessories.
The source of this equally absurd and infamous libel has never
been discovered. But it was eagerly taken up by the anti-
Gustavian press, and popular suspicion was especially aroused
by a fable called " The Foxes " directed against the Fersens,
which appeared in Nya Fasten. When, then, on the 2oth of
June 1810, the prince's body was conveyed to Stockholm, and
Fersen, in his official capacity as Riksmarskalk, received it at the
barrier and led the funeral cortege into the city, his fine carriage
and his splendid robes seemed to the people an open derision
of the general grief. The crowd began to murmur and presently
to fling stones and cry " murderer ! " He sought refuge in a
house in the Riddarhus Square, but the mob rushed after him,
brutally maltreated him and tore his robes to pieces. To quiet
the people and save the unhappy victim, two officers volunteered
to conduct him to the senate house and there place him in arrest.
But he had no sooner mounted the steps leading to the entrance
than the crowd, which had followed him all the way beating him
with sticks and umbrellas, made a rush at him, knocked him down,
and kicked and trampled him to death. This horrible outrage,
which lasted more than an hour, happened, too, in the presence
of numerous troops, drawn up in the Riddarhus Square, who
made not the slightest effort to rescue the Riksmarskalk from
his tormentors. In the circumstances, one must needs adopt
the opinion of Fersen's contemporary, Baron Gustavus Armfelt,
" One is almost tempted to say that the government wanted to
give the people a victim to play with, just as when one throws
something to an irritated wild beast to distract its attention.
The more I consider it all, the more I am certain that the mob
had the least to do with it. ... But in God's name what were
the troops about? How could such a thing happen in broad
daylight during a procession, when troops and a military escort
were actually present ? " The responsibility certainly rests
with the government of Charles XIII., which apparently in-
tended to intimidate the Gustavians by the removal of one of
292
FESCA FESCH
their principal leaders. Armfelt escaped in time, so Fersen fell
the victim.
See R. M. Klinckowstrom, Le Comte de Fersen et la cour de France
(Paris, 1877; Eng. ed., London, 1902); Historia om Axel von
Fersens mord (Stockholm, 1844) ; R. N. Bain, Gustavus III., vol. ii.
(London, 1895) ; P. Gaulot, Un Ami de la reine (Paris, 1892) ; F. F.
Flach, Grefve Hans Axel von Fersen (Stockholm, 1896) ; E. Tegner,
Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1883-1887). (R. N. B.)
FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST (1789-1826), German violinist
and composer of instrumental music, was born on the isth of
February 1789 at Magdeburg, where he received his early musical
education. He completed his studies at Leipzig under Eberhard
Miiller, and at the early age of fifteen appeared before the public
with several concert! for the violin, which were received with
general applause, and resulted in his being appointed leading
violinist of the Leipzig orchestra. This position he occupied till
1806, when he became concert-master to the duke of Oldenburg.
In 1808 he was appointed solo- violinist by King Jerome of West-
phalia at Cassel, and there he remained till the end of the French
occupation (1814), when he went to Vienna, and soon afterwards
to Carlsruhe, having been appointed concert-master to the grand-
duke of Baden. His failing health prevented him from enjoying
the numerous and well-deserved triumphs he owed to his art,
and in 1826 he died of consumption at the early age of thirty-
seven. As a virtuoso Fesca ranks amongst the best masters
of the German school of violinists, the school subsequently of
Spohr and of Joachim. Especially as leader of a quartet he is
said to have been unrivalled with regard to classic dignity and
simplicity of style. Amongst his compositions, his quartets for
stringed instruments and other pieces of chamber music are the
most remarkable. His two operas, Canlemira and Omar and Leila,
were less successful, lacking dramatic power and originality.
He also wrote some sacred compositions, and numerous songs
and vocal quartets.
FESCENNIA, an ancient city of Etruria, which is probably
to be placed immediately to the N. of the modern Corchiano,
6 m. N.W. of Civita Castellana (see FALERII). The Via Amerina
traverses it. G. Dennis (Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, London,
1883, i. 115 proposed to place it at the Riserva S. Silvestro,
3 m. E. of Corchiano, nearer the Tiber, where remains of Etruscan
walls exist. At Corchiano itself, however, similar walls may be
traced, and the site is a strong and characteristic one a triangle
between two deep ravines, with the third (west) side cut off by
a ditch. Here, too, remains of two bridges may be seen, and
several rich tombs have been excavated.
See A. Buglione, " Conte di Monale," in Romische Mitteilungen
(1887), p. 21 seq.
FESCENNINE VERSES (Fescennina carmina), one of the
earliest kinds of Italian poetry, subsequently developed into
the Satura and the Roman comic drama. Originally sung at
village harvest-home rejoicings, they made their way into the
towns, and became the fashion at religious festivals and private
gatherings especially weddings, to which in later times they
were practically restricted. They were usually in the Saturnian
metre and took the form of a dialogue, consisting of an inter-
change of extemporaneous raillery. Those who took part in them
wore masks made of the bark of trees. At first harmless and
good-humoured, if somewhat coarse, these songs gradually out-
stripped the bounds of decency; malicious attacks were made
upon both gods and men, and the matter became so serious that
the law intervened and scurrilous personalities were forbidden
by the Twelve Tables (Cicero, De re publica, iv. 10). Specimens
of the Fescennines used at weddings are the Epithalamium of
Manlius (Catullus, Ixi. 122) and the four poems of Claudian in
honour of the marriage of Honorius and Maria; the first, how-
ever, is distinguished by a licentiousness which is absent in the
latter. Ausonius in his Cento nuptialis mentions the Fescennines
of Annianus Faliscus, who lived in the time of Hadrian. Various
derivations have been proposed for Fescennine. According to
Festus, they were introduced from Fescennia in Etruria, but
there is no reason to assume that any particular town was
specially devoted to the use of such songs. As an alternative
Festus suggests a connexion with fascinum, either because the
Fescennina were regarded as a protection against evil influences
(see Munro, Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus, p. 76) or
because fascinum ( = phallus), as the symbol of fertility, would
from early times have been naturally associated with harvest
festivals. H. Nettleship, in an article on " The Earliest Italian
Literature " (Journal of Philology, xi. 1882), in support of
Munro's view, translates the expression " verses used by
charmers," assuming a uounfescennus, connected with fas fari.
The locus classicus in ancient literature is Horace, Epistles, ii.
I. 139; see also Virgil, Georgics, ii. 385; Tibullus ii. I. 55; E.
Hoffmann, " Die Fescenninen," in Rheinisches Museum, Ii. p. 320
(1896) ; art. LATIN LITERATURE.
FESCH, JOSEPH (1763-1839), cardinal, was born at Ajaccio
on the 3rd of January 1763. His father, a Swiss officer in the
service of the Genoese Republic, had married the mother of
Laetitia Bonaparte, after the decease of her first husband.
Fesch therefore stood almost in the relation of an uncle to the
young Bonapartes, and after the death of Lucien Bonaparte,
archdeacon of Ajaccio, he became for a time the protector and
patron of the family. In the year 1789, when the French
Revolution broke out, he was archdeacon of Ajaccio, and, like
the majority of the Corsicans, he felt repugnance for many of
the acts of the French government during that period; in parti-
cular he protested against the application to Corsica of the act
known as the " Civil Constitution of the Clergy " (July 1790).
As provost of the " chapter " in that city he directly felt the
pressure of events; for on the suppression of religious orders
and corporations, he was constrained to retire into private life.
Thereafter he shared the fortunes of the Bonaparte family
in the intrigues and strifes which ensued. Drawn gradually
by that family into espousing the French cause against Paoli
and the Anglophiles, he was forced to leave Corsica and to
proceed with Laetitia and her son to Toulon, in the early part
of the autumn of 1793. Failing to find clerical duties at that
time (the period of the Terror), he entered civil life, and served
in various capacities, until on the appointment of Napoleon
Bonaparte to the command of the French ." Army of Italy "
he became a commissary attached to that army. This part of
his career is obscure and without importance. His fortunes
rose rapidly on the attainment of the. dignity of First Consul
by his former charge, Napoleon, after the coup d'etat of Brumaire
(November 1799). Thereafter, when the restoration of the
Roman Catholic religion was in the mind of the First Consul,
Fesch resumed his clerical vocation and took an active part
in the complex negotiations which led to the signing of the
Concordat with the Holy See on the isth of July 1801. His
reward came in the prize of the archbishopric of Lyons, on the
duties of which he entered in August 1802. Six months later
he received a still more signal reward for his past services, being
raised to the dignity of cardinal.
In 1804 on the retirement of Cacault from the position of
French ambassador at Rome, Fesch received that important
appointment. He was assisted by Chateaubriand, but soon
sharply differed with him on many questions. Towards the
close of the year 1804 Napoleon entrusted to Fesch the difficult
task of securing the presence of Pope Pius VII. at the forth-
coming coronation of the emperor at Notre Dame, Paris (Dec.
2nd, 1804). His tact in overcoming the reluctance of the pope
to be present at the coronation (it was only eight months after
the execution of the due d'Enghien) received further recognition.
He received the grand cordon of the Legion of Honour, became
grand-almoner of the empire and had a seat in the French
senate. He was to receive further honours. In 1806 one of the
most influential of the German clerics, Karl von Dalberg, then
prince bishop of Regensburg, chose him to be his coadjutor
and designated him as his successor.
Events, however, now occurred which overclouded his pros-
pects. In the course of the years 1806-1807 Napoleon came
into sharp collision with the pope on various matters both
political and religious. Fesch sought in vain to reconcile the
two potentates. Napoleon was inexorable in his demands,
and Pius VII. refused to give way where the discipline and
FESSA FESSLER
293
vital interests of the church seemed to be threatened. The
emperor on several occasions sharply rebuked Fesch for what
he thought to be weakness and ingratitude. It is clear, however,
that the cardinal went as far as possible in counselling the
submission of the spiritual to the civil power. For a time he
was not on speaking terms with the pope; and Napoleon re-
called him from Rome.
Affairs came to a crisis in the year 1809, when Napoleon
issued at Vienna the decree of the xyth of May, ordering the
annexation of the papal states to the French empire. In that
year Napoleon conferred on Fesch the archbishopric of Paris,
but he refused the honour. He, however, consented to take
part in an ecclesiastical commission formed by the emperor
from among the dignitaries of the Gallican Church, but in 1810
the commission was dissolved. The hopes of Fesch with respect
to Regensburg were also damped by an arrangement of the year
1810 whereby Regensburg was absorbed in Bavaria.
In the year 1811 the emperor convoked a national council
of Gallican clerics for the discussion of church affairs, and
Fesch was appointed to preside over their deliberations. Here
again, however, he failed to satisfy the inflexible emperor and
was dismissed to his diocese. The friction between uncle and
nephew became more acute in the following year. In June
1812, Pius VII. was brought from his first place of detention,
Savona, to Fontainebleau, where he was kept under surveillance
in the hope that he would give way in certain matters relating
to the Concordat and in other clerical affairs. Fesch ventured
to write to the aged pontiff a letter which came into the hands
of the emperor. His anger against Fesch was such that he
stopped the sum of 150,000 florins which had been accorded
to him. The disasters of the years 1812-1813 brought Napoleon
to treat Pius VII. with more lenity and the position of Fesch
thus became for a time less difficult. On the first abdication
of Napoleon (April nth, 1814) and the restoration of the Bour-
bons, he, however, retired to Rome where he received a welcome.
The events of the Hundred Days (March-June, 1815) brought
him back to France; he resumed his archiepiscopal duties at
Lyons and was further named a member of the senate. On
the second abdication of the emperor (June 22nd, 1815) Fesch
retired to Rome, where he spent the rest of his days in dignified
ease, surrounded by numerous masterpieces of art, many of
which he bequeathed to the city of Lyons. He died at Rome
on the i3th of May 1839.
See J. B. Monseigneur Lyonnet, Le Cardinal Fesch (2 vols., Lyons,
1841); Ricard, Le Cardinal Fesch (Paris, 1893); H. Welschinger,
Le Pape et I'empereur (Paris, 1905); F. Masson, Napoleon et sa
famille (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).
FESSA, a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars.
The town is situated in a fertile plain in 29 N. and 90 m. from
Shiraz, and has a population of about 5000. The district has
forty villages and extends about 40 m. north-south from Runiz
to Nasslrabad and 16 m. east-west from Vasilabad to Deh
Dasteh (Dastajah); it produces much grain, dates, tobacco,
opium and good fruit,
FESSENDEN, WILLIAM PITT (1806-1869), American states-
man and financier, was born in Boscawen, New Hampshire,
on the 1 6th of October 1806. After graduating at Bowdoin
College in 1823, he studied law, and in 1827 was admitted to
the bar, .eventually settling in Portland, Maine, where for two
years he was associated in practice with his father, Samuel
Fessenden (1784-1869), a prominent lawyer and anti-slavery
leader. In 1832 and in 1840 Fessenden was a representative in
the Maine legislature, and in 1841-1843 was a Whig member of
the national House of Representatives. When his term in this
capacity was over, he devoted himself unremittingly and with
great success to the law. He became well known, also, as an
eloquent advocate of slavery restriction. In 1845-1846 and
1853-1854 he again served in the state House of Representatives,
and in 1854 was chosen by the combined votes of Whigs
and Anti-Slavery Democrats to the United States Senate.
Within a fortnight after taking his seat he delivered a speech
in opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which at once
made him a force in the congressional anti-slavery contest.
From then on he was one of the most eloquent and frequent
debaters among his colleagues, and in 1859, almost without
opposition, he was re-elected to the Senate as a member of the
Republican party, in the organization of which he had taken
an influential part. He was a delegate in 1861 to the Peace
Congress, but after the actual outbreak of hostilities he insisted
that the war should be prosecuted vigorously. As chairman
of the Senate Committee on Finance, his services were second
in value only to those of President Lincoln and Secretary Salmon
P. Chase in efforts to provide funds for the defence of the Union;
and in July 1864 Fessenden succeeded Chase as secretary of
the treasury. The finances of the country in the early summer
of 1864 were in a critical condition; a few days before leaving
office Secretary Chase had been compelled to withdraw from
the market $32,000,000 of 6% bonds, on account of the lack
of acceptable bids; gold had reached 285 and was fluctuating
between 225 and 250, while the value of the paper dollar had
sunk as low as 34 cents. It was Secretary Fessenden's policy
to avoid a further increase of the circulating medium, and to
redeem or consolidate the temporary obligations outstanding.
In spite of powerful pressure the paper currency was not increased
a dollar during his tenure of the office. As the sales of bonds and
treasury notes were not sufficient for the needs of the Treasury,
interest-bearing certificates of indebtedness were issued to
cover the deficits; but when these began to depreciate the
secretary, following the example of his predecessors, engaged
the services of the Philadelphia banker Jay Cooke (q.v.) and
secured the consent of Congress to raise the balance of the
$400,000,000 loan authorized on the 3oth of June 1864 by the
sale of the so-called " seven-thirty " treasury notes (i.e. notes
bearing interest at 7-3% payable in currency in three years or
convertible at the option of the holder into 6% 5-20 year gold
bonds). Through Cooke's activities the sales became enormous;
the notes, issued in denominations as low as $50, appealed to
the patriotic impulses of the people who could not subscribe
for bonds of a higher denomination. In the spring of 1865
Congress authorized an additional loan of $600,000,000 to be
raised in the same manner, and for the first time in four years
the Treasury was able to meet all its obligations. After thus
securing ample funds for the enormous expenditures of the
war, Fessenden resigned the treasury portfolio in March 1865,
and again took his seat in the Senate, serving till his death.
In the Senate he again became chairman of the finance com-
mittee, and also of the joint committee on reconstruction.
He was the author of the report of this last committee (1866),
in which the Congressional plan of reconstruction was set forth
and which has been considered a state paper of remarkable
power and cogency. He was not, however, entirely in accord
with the more radical members of his own party, and this
difference was exemplified in his opposition to the impeachment
of President Johnson and subsequently in his voting for Johnson's
acquittal. He bore with calmness the storm of reproach from
his party associates which followed, and lived to regain the
esteem of those who had attacked him. He died at Portland,
Maine, on the 6th of September 1869.
See Francis Fessenden, Life and Public Services of William Pitt
Fessenden (2 vols., Boston, 1907).
FESSLER, IGNAZ AURELIUS (1756-1839), Hungarian
ecclesiastic, historian and freemason, was born on the i8th of
May 1756 at the village of Zurany in the county of Moson.
In 1773 he joined the order of Capuchins, and in 1779 was
ordained priest. He had meanwhile continued his classical
and philological studies, and his liberal views brought him into
frequent conflict with his superiors. In 1784, while at the
monastery of Modling, near Vienna, he wrote to the emperor
Joseph II., making suggestions for the better education of the
clergy and drawing his attention to the irregularities of the
monasteries. The searching investigation which followed
raised up against him many implacable enemies. In 1784 he
was appointed professor of Oriental languages and hermeneutics
in the university of Lemberg, when he took the degree of doctor
294
FESTA FETIS
of divinity; and shortly afterwards he was released from his
monastic vows on the intervention of the emperor. In 1788 he
brought out his tragedy of Sidney, an expose of the tyranny of
James II. and of the fanaticism of the papists in England. This
was attacked so violently as profane and revolutionary that he
was compelled to resign his office and seek refuge in Silesia.
In Breslau he met with a cordial reception from G. W. Korn
the publisher, and was, moreover, subsequently employed by
the prince of Carolath-Schonaich as tutor to his sons. In 1791
Fessler was converted to Lutheranism and next year contracted
an unhappy marriage, which was dissolved in 1802, when he
married again. In 1796 he went to Berlin, where he founded
a humanitarian society, and was commissioned by the free-
masons of that city to assist Fichte in reforming the statutes
and ritual of their lodge. He soon after this obtained a govern-
ment appointment in connexion with the newly-acquired
Polish provinces, but in consequence of the battle of Jena (1806)
he lost this office, and remained in very needy circumstances
until 1809, when he was summoned to St Petersburg by Alexander
I., to fill the post of court councillor, and the professorship of
oriental languages and philosophy at the Alexander-Nevski
Academy. This office, however, he was soon obliged to resign,
owing to his alleged atheistic tendencies, but he was subsequently
nominated a member of the legislative commission. In 1815
he went with his family to Sarepta, where he joined the Moravian
community and again became strongly orthodox. This cost
him the loss of his salary, but it was restored to him in 1817.
In November 1820 he was appointed consistorial president of
the evangelical communities at Saratov and subsequently
became chief superintendent of the Lutheran communities in
St Petersburg. Fessler's numerous works are all written in
German. In recognition of his important services to Hungary
as a historian, he was in 1831 elected a corresponding member
of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He died at St Petersburg
on the 1 5th of December 1839.
Fessler was a voluminous writer, and during his life exercised
great influence; but, with the possible exception of the history
of Hungary, none of his books has any value now. He did not
pretend to any critical treatment of his materials, and most
of his historical works are practically historical novels. He did
much, however, to make the study of history popular. His
most important works are Die Geschichten der Ungarn und
ihrer Landsassen (10 vols. Leipzig, 1815-1825); Marcus
Aurelius (3 vols., Breslau, 1700-1792; 3rd edition, 4 vols., 1799);
Aristides und Themislokles (2 vols., Berlin, 1792; 3rd edition,
1818); Atttta, Konig der Hunnen (Breslau, 1794); Mathias
Corvinus (2 vols., Breslau, 1793-1794); and Die drei grossen
Konige der Hungarn aus dem Arpadischen Stamme (Breslau,
1808).
See Fessler's Riickblicke auf seine siebzigjahrige Pilgerschaft
(Breslau, 1824; 2nd edition, Leipzig, 1851).
FESTA, CONST ANZO (c. 1495-1545), Italian singer and
musical composer, became a member of the Pontifical choir in
Rome in 1517, and soon afterwards maestro at the Vatican.
His motets and madrigals (the first book of which appeared in
1537) excited Dr Burney's warm praise in his History of Music;
and, among other church music, his Te Deum (published in
1596) is still sung at important services in Rome. His madrigal,
called in English " Down in a flow'ry vale," is well known.
FESTINIOG (or FFESTINIOG), a town of Merionethshire,
North Wales, at the head of the Festiniog valley, 600 ft. above
the sea, in the midst of rugged scenery, near the stream Dwyryd,
31 m.' from Conway. Pop. of urban district (1901), n,43S-
There are many large slate quarries in this parish, especially
at Blaenau Festiniog, the junction of three railways, London &
North Western, Great Western and Festiniog, a narrow-gauge
line between Portmadoc and Duffws. This light railway runs
at a considerable elevation (some 700 ft.), commanding a view
across the valley and lake of Tan y Bwlch. Lord Lyttelton's
letter to Mr Bower is a well-known panegyric on Festiniog.
Thousands of workmen are employed in the slate quarries.
The Cynfael falls are famous. Near are Beddau gwyr Ardudwy
(the graves of the men of Ardudwy), memorials of a fight to
recover women of the Clwyd valley from the men of Ardudwy.
Near, too, is a rock named " Hugh Lloyd's pulpit " (Lloyd lived
in the time of Charles I., Cromwell and Charles II.).
FESTOON (from Yr.feston, Ital. festone, from a Late Lat./w/o,
originally a " festal garland," Lat. feslum, feast), a wreath or
garland, and so in architecture a conventional arrangement of
flowers, foliage or fruit bound together and suspended by ribbons,
either from a decorated knot, or held in the mouths of lions,
or suspended across the bank of bulls' heads as in the Temple
of Vesta at Tivoli. The " motif" is sometimes known as a " swag."
It was largely employed both by the Greeks and Romans and
formed the principal decoration of altars, friezes and panels.
The ends of the ribbons are sometimes formed into bows or
twisted curves; when in addition a group of foliage or flowers
is suspended it is called a " drop." Its origin is probably due
to the representation in stone of the garlands of natural flowers,
&c., which were hung up over an entrance doorway on ffite days,
or suspended round the altar.
FESTUS (? RUFUS or Rurrus), one of the Roman writers of
breviaria (epitomes of Roman history). The reference to the
defeat of the Goths at Noviodunum (A.D. 369) by the emperor
Valens, and the fact that the author is unaware of the constitution
of Valentia as a province (which took place in the same year)
are sufficient indication to fix the date of composition. Mommsen
identifies the author with Rufius Festus, proconsul of Achaea
(366), and both with Rufius Festus Avienus (q.v.), the translator
of Aratus. But the absence of the name Rufius in the best MSS.
is against this. Others take him to be Festus of Tridentum,
magister memoriae (secretary) to Valens and proconsul of Asia,
where he was sent to punish those implicated in the conspiracy
of Theodorus, a commission which he executed with such
merciless severity that his name became a byword. The work
itself {Breviarium rerum gestarum populi Romani) is divided
into two parts one geographical, the other historical. The
chief authorities used are Livy,, iEutropius and Florus. It is
extremely meagre, but the fact that the last part is based on the
writer's personal recollections makes it of some value for the
history of the 4th century.
Editions by W. Forster (Vienna, 1873) and C. Wagener (Prague,
1886) ; see also R. Jacobi, De Festi breviarii fontibus (Bonn, 1874),
and H. Peter, Die geschichtliche Lilt, iiber die romische Kaiserzeit, ii.
p. 133 (1897), where the epitomes of Festus, Aurelius Victor and
Eutropius are compared.
FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS, Roman grammarian, probably
flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He made an epitome of the
celebrated work De verborum significalu, a valuable treatise
alphabetically arranged, written by M. Verrius Flaccus, a
freedman and celebrated grammarian who flourished in the
reign of Augustus. Festus gives the etymology as well as the
meaning of every word; and his work throws considerable light
on the language, mythology and antiquities of ancient Rome.
He made a few alterations, and inserted some critical remarks
of his own. He also omitted such ancient Latin words as had
long been obsolete; these he discussed in a separate work now lost,
entitled Priscorum verborum cum exemplis. Of Flaccus's work
only a few fragments remain, and of Festus's epitome only one
original copy is in existence. This MS., the Codex Festi Farne-
sianus at Naples, only contains the second half of the work
(M-V) and that not in a perfect condition. It has been published
in facsimile by Thewrewk de Ponor (1890). At the close of
the 8th century Paulus Diaconus abridged the abridgment.
From his work and the solitary copy of the original attempts
have been made with the aid of conjecture to reconstruct the
treatise of Festus.
Of the early editions the best are those of J. Scaliger (1565) and
Fulvius Ursinus (1581); in modern times, those of C. O. Muller
(1839, reprinted 1880) and de Ponor (1889); see J. E. Sandys,
History of Classical Scholarship, vol. i. (1906).
FETIS, FRANQOIS JOSEPH (1784-1871), Belgian composer
and writer on music, was born at Mons in Belgium on the 25th
of March 1784, and was trained as a musician by his father, who
followed the same calling. His talent for composition manifested
FETISHISM
295
itself at the age of seven, and at nine years old he was an organist
at Sainte-Waudru. In 1800 he went to Paris and completed his
studies at the conservatoire under such masters as Boieldieu,
Rey and Pradher. In 1806 he undertook the revision of the
Roman liturgical chants in the hope of discovering and estab-
lishing their original form. In this year he married the grand-
daughter of the Chevalier de Keralio, and also began his
Biographic universelle des musiciens, the most important of his
works, which did not appear until 1834. In 1821 he was
appointed professor at the conservatoire. In 1827 he founded
the Revue musicale, the first serious paper in France devoted
exclusively to musical matters. Fetis remained in the French
capital till in 1833, at the request of Leopold I., he became
director of the conservatoire of Brussels and the king's chapel-
master. He also was the founder, and, till his death, the con-
ductor of the celebrated concerts attached to the conservatoire
of Brussels, and he inaugurated a free series of lectures on
musical history and philosophy. He produced a large quantity
of original compositions, from the opera and the oratorio down
to the simple chanson. But all these are doomed to oblivion.
Although not without traces of scholarship and technical ability,
they show total absence of genius. More important are his
writings on music. They are partly historical, such as the
Curiosites historiques dela musique (Paris, 1850), and the Histoire
universelle de musique (Paris, 1869-1876); partly theoretical,
such as the Methode des melhodes de piano (Paris, 1837), written
in conjunction with Moscheles. Fetis died at Brussels on the
26th of March 1871. His valuable library was purchased by
the Belgian government and presented to the Brussels con-
servatoire. His work as a musical historian was prodigious
in quantity, and, in spite of many inaccuracies and some pre-
judice revealed in it, there can be no question as to its value for
the student.
FETISHISM, an ill-defined term, used in many different
senses: (a) the worship of inanimate objects, often regarded
as peculiarly African; (b) negro religion in general; (c) the
worship of inanimate objects conceived as the residence of spirits
not inseparably bound up with, nor originally connected with,
such objects; (d) the doctrine of spirits embodied in, or attached
to, or conveying influence through, certain material objects
(Tylor); (e) the use of charms, which are not worshipped, but
derive their magical power from a god or spirit; (/) the use as
charms of objects regarded as magically potent in themselves.
A further extension is given by some writers, who use the term
as synonymous with the religions of primitive peoples, including
under it not only the worship of inanimate objects, such as the
sun, moon or stars, but even such phases of primitive philosophy
as totemism. Comte applied the term to denominate the view
of nature more commonly termed animism.
Derivation. The word fetish (or fetich) was first used in
connexion with Africa by the Portuguese discoverers of the last
half of the isth century; relics of saints, rosaries and images
were then abundant all over Europe and were regarded as
possessing magical virtue; they were termed by the Portuguese
feiticos (i.e. charms). Early voyagers to West Africa applied
this term to the wooden figures, stones, &c., regarded as the
temporary residence of gods or spirits, and to charms. There
is no reason to suppose that the v/ordfeitico was applied either to
an animal or to the local spirit of a river, hill or forest. Feitico
is sometimes interpreted to mean artificial, made by man, but
the original sense is more probably " magically active or artful."
The word was probably brought into general use by C. de Brosses,
author of Du culte des dieux fetiches (1760), but it is frequently
used by W. Bosnian in his Description of Guinea (1705), in the
sense of " the false god, Bossum" or " Bohsum," properly a
tutelary deity of an individual.
Definition. The term fetish is commonly understood to mean
the worship of or respect for material, inanimate objects, con-
ceived as magically active from a virtue inherent in them,
temporarily or permanently, which does not arise from the fact
that a god or spirit is believed to reside in them or communicate
virtue to them. Taken in this sense fetishism is probably a
mark of decadence. There is no evidence of any such belief in
Africa or elsewhere among primitive peoples. It is only after
a certain grade of culture has been attained that the belief in
luck appears; the fetish is essentially a mascot or object carried
for luck.
Ordinary Usage. In the sense in which Dr Tylor uses the
term the fetish is (i) a " god-house " or (2) a charm derived from
a tutelary deity or spirit, and magically active in virtue of its
association with such deity or spirit. In the first of these senses
the word is applied to objects ranging from the unworked stone
to the pot or the wooden figure, and is thus hardly distinguishable
from idolatry, (a) The bohsum or tutelary deity of a particular
section of the community is derived from the local gods through
the priests by the performance of a certain series of rites. The
priest indicates into what object the bohsum will enter and
proceeds to the abode of the local god to procure the object in
question. After making an offering the object is carried to an
appropriate spot and a " fetish " tree set up as a shade for it,
which is sacred so long as the bohsum remains beneath it. The
fall of the tree is believed to mark the departure of the spirit.
A bohsum may also be procured through a dream ; but in this
case, too, it is necessary to apply to the priest to decide whether
the dream was veridical, (b) The suhman or tutelary deity of
an individual is not an object selected at random to be the
residence of the spirit. It is only procurable at the residence
of a Sasabonsum, a malicious non-human being. Various
ceremonies are performed, and a spirit connected with the
Sasabonsum is finally asked to enter an object. This is then
kept for three days; if no good fortune results it is concluded
either that the spirit did not enter the object selected, or that
it is disinclined to extend its protection. In either case the
ceremonies must be commenced afresh. Otherwise offerings and
even human sacrifices in exceptional cases are made to the suhman.
It is commonly believed that the negro claims the power of
coercing his tutelary deity. This is denied by Colonel Ellis.
It is certain that coercion of deities is not unknown, but further
evidence is required that the negro uses it when his deity is
refractory.
The suhman can, it is believed, communicate a part of his
powers to various objects in which he does not dwell; these are
also termed suhman by the natives and may have given rise to
the belief that the practices commonly termed fetishism are not
animistic. These charms are many in number; offerings of
food and drink are made, i.e. to the portion of the power of the
suhman which resides in them. These charms can only be made
by the possessor of the suhman.
On the Guinea Coast the spirit implanted in the object is
usually, if not invariably, non-human. Farther south on the
Congo the " fetish " is inhabited by human souls also. The
priest goes into the forest and cuts an image; when a party
enters a wood for this purpose they may not mention the namt
of any living being unless they wish him to die and his soul to
enter the fetish. The right person having been selected, his name
is mentioned; and he is believed to die within ten days, his
soul passing into the nkissi. It is into these figures that the nails
are driven, in order to procure the vengeance of the indwelling
spirit on some enemy.
In many cases the fetish spirit is believed to leave the " god-
house " and pass for the time being into the body of the priest,
who manifests the phenomena of possession (q.v.). It is a
common error to suppose that the whole of African religion is
embraced in the practices connected with these tutelary deities;
so far from this being the case, belief in higher gods, not neces-
sarily accompanied with worship or propitiation, is common
in many parts of Africa, and there is no reason to suppose that
it had been derived in every case, perhaps not in any case, from
Christian or Mahommedan missionaries.
See A. B. Ellis, Tshi-speaking Peoples, chs. vii., viii. and xii.;
Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvolker, ii. 174; R. E. Dennett in
Folklore, vol. xyi. ; R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa (1904);
also Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii. 143, and M. H. Kingsley, Wat
African Studies (and ed., 1901), where the term is used in a more
extended sense. (N. W. T.)
296
FETTERCAIRN FEUCHTERSLEBEN
FETTERCAIRN, a burgh of barony of Kincardineshire,
Scotland, 4! m. N.W. of Laurencekirk. Pop. of parish (1901)
1390. The chief structures include a public hall, library and
reading-room, and the arch built to commemorate the visit
of Queen Victoria in 1861. The most interesting relic, however,
is the market cross, which originally belonged to the extinct
town of Kincardine. To the S.W. is Balbegno Castle, dating
from 1509, and planned on a scale that threatened to ruin its
projector. It contains a lofty hall of fine proportions. Two
miles N. is Fasque, the estate of the Gladstones, which was
acquired in 1831 by Sir John Gladstone (1764-1851), the father
of W. E. Gladstone. The castle, which stands in beautiful
grounds, was built in 1809. Sir John Gladstone's tomb is in the
Episcopal church of St Andrew, which he erected and endowed.
In the immediate vicinity are the ruins of the royal castle of
Kincardine, where, according to tradition, Kenneth III. was
assassinated in 1005, although he is more generally said to have
been slain in battle at Monzievaird, near Crieff in Perthshire.
FETTERS AND HANDCUFFS, instruments for securing the
feet and hands of prisoners under arrest, or as a means of punish-
ment. The old names were manacles, shackbolts or shackles,
gyves and swivels. Until within recent times handcuffs were of
two kinds, the figure-8 ones which confined the hands close
together either in front or behind the prisoner, or the rings from
the wrists were connected by a short chain much on the model
of the handcuffs in use by the police forces of to-day. Much
improvement has been made in handcuffs of late. They are much
lighter and they are adjustable, fitting any wrist, and thus the
one pair will serve a police officer for any prisoner. For the
removal of gangs of convicts an arrangement of handcuffs con-
nected by a light chain is used, the chain running through a ring
on each fetter and made fast at both ends by what are known
as end-locks. Several recently invented appliances are used as
handcuffs, e.g. snaps, nippers, twisters. They differ from
handcuffs in being intended for one wrist only, the other portion
being held by the captor. In the snap the smaller circlet is
snapped to on the prisoner's wrist. The nippers can be instantly
fastened on the wrist. The twister, not now used in England as
being liable to injure prisoners seriously, is a chain attached to
two handles; the chain is put round the wrist and the two
handles twisted till the chain is tight enough.
Leg-irons are anklets of steel connected by light chains long
enough to permit of the wearer walking with short steps. An
obsolete form was an anklet and chain to the end of which was
attached a heavy weight, usually a round shot. The Spanish
' used to secure prisoners in bilboes, shackles round the ankles
secured by a long bar of iron. This form of leg-iron was adopted
in England, and was much employed in the services during the
1 7th and i8th centuries. An ancient example is preserved in
the Tower of London. The French marine still use a kind of
leg-iron of the bilbo type.
FEU, in Scotland, the commonest mode of land tenure. The
word is the Scots variant of " fee " (q.v.). The relics of the
feudal system still dominate Scots conveyancing. That system
has recognized as many as seven forms of tenure ward, socage,
mortification, feu, blench, burgage, booking. Ward, the original
military holding, was abolished in 1747 (20 G. II. c. 20), as an
effect of the rising of 1745. Socage and mortification have long
since disappeared. Booking is a conveyance peculiar to the
borough of Paisley, but does not differ essentially from feu.
Burgage is the system by which land is held in royal boroughs.
Blench holding is by a nominal payment, as of a penny Scots, or
a red rose, often only to be rendered upon demand. In feu
holding there is a substantial annual payment in money or in
kind in return for the enjoyment of the land. The crown is the
first overlord or superior, and land is held of it by crown vassals,
but they in their turn may " feu " their land, as it is called, to
others who become their vassals, whilst they themselves are
mediate overlords or superiors; and this process of sub-infeuda-
tion may be repeated to an indefinite extent. The Conveyancing
Act of 1874 renders any clause in a disposition against sub-
infeudation null and void. In England on the other hand, since
1290, when the statute Quid Emptores was passed, sub-infeuda-
tion is impossible, as the new holder simply effaces the grantor,
holding by the same title as the grantor himself. Casualties,
which are a feature of land held in feu, are certain payments
made to the superior, contingent on the happening of certain
events. The most important was the payment of an amount
equal to one year's feu-duty by a new holder, whether heir or
purchaser of the feu. The Conveyancing Act of 1874 abolished
casualties in all feus after that date, and power was given to
redeem this burden on feus already existing. If the vassal does
not pay the feu-duty for two years, the superior, among other
remedies, may obtain by legal process a decree of irritancy,
whereupon tinsel or forfeiture of the feu follows. Previously to
1832 only the vassals of the crown had votes in parliamentary
elections for the Scots counties, and this made in favour of sub-
infeudation as against sale outright. In Orkney and Shetland
land is still largely possessed as udal property, a holding derived
or handed down from the time when these islands belonged
to Norway. Such lands may be converted into feus at the will
of the proprietor and held from the crown or Lord Dundas. At
one time the system of conveyancing by which the transfer
of feus was effected was curious and complicated, requiring the
presence of parties on the land itself and the symbolical handing
over of the property, together with the registration of various
documents. But legislation since the middle of the igth century
has changed all that. The system of feuing in Scotland, as
contrasted with that of long leaseholds in England, has tended
to secure greater solidity and firmness in the average buildings
of the northern country.
See Erskine's Principles; Bell's Principles; Rankine, Law of
Landowner ship in Scotland.
FEUCHERES, SOPHIE, BARONNE DE (1795-1840), Anglo-
French adventuress, was born at St Helens, Isle of Wight, in
1795, the daughter of a drunken fisherman named Dawes.
She grew up in the workhouse, went up to London as a servant,
and became the mistress of the due de Bourbon, afterwards
prince de Conde. She was ambitious, and he had her well
educated not only in modern languages but, as her exercise
books still extant show, in Greek and Latin. He took her
to Paris and, to prevent scandal and to qualify her to be received
at court, had her married in 1818 to Adrien Victor de Feucheres,
a major in the Royal Guards. The prince provided her dowry,
made her husband his aide-de-camp and a baron. The baroness,
pretty and clever, became a person of consequence at the court
of Louis XVIII. De Feucheres, however, finally discovered
the relations between his wife and Conde, whom he had been
assured was her father, left her he obtained a legal separation
in 1827 and told the king, who thereupon forbade her appear-
ance at court. Thanks to her influence, however, Conde was
induced in 1829 to sign a will bequeathing about ten million
francs to her, and the rest of his estate more than sixty-six
millions to the due d'Aumale, fourth son of Louis Philippe.
Again she was in high favour. Charles X. received her at court,
Talleyrand visited her, her niece married a marquis and her
nephew was made a baron. Conde, wearied by his mistress's
importunities, and but half pleased by the advances made him
by the government of July, had made up his mind to leave
France secretly. When on the 27th of August 1830 he was
found hanging dead from his window, the baroness was suspected
and an inquiry was held, but the evidence of death being the
result of any crime appearing insufficient, she was not prosecuted.
Hated as she was alike by legitimatists and republicans, life
in Paris was no longer agreeable for her, and she returned to
London, where she died in December 1840.
FEUCHTERSLEBEN, ERNST, FREIHERR VON (1806-1849),
Austrian physician, poet and philosopher, was born in Vienna
on the 2gth of April 1806; of an old Saxon noble family. He
attended the " Theresian Academy " in his native city, and in
1825 entered its university as a student of medicine. In 1833
he obtained the degree of doctor of medicine, settled in Vienna as
a practising surgeon, and in 1834 married. The young doctor
kept up his connexion with the university, where he lectured, and
FEUD FEUDALISM
297
in 1844 was appointed dean of the faculty of medicine. He
cultivated the acquaintance of Franz Grillparzer, Heinrich
Laube, and other intellectual lights of the Viennese world,
interested himself greatly in educational matters, and in 1848,
while refusing the presidency of the ministry of education,
accepted the appointment of under secretary of state in that
department. His health, however, gave way, and he died at
Vienna on the 3rd of September 1849. He was not only a
clever physician, but a poet of fine aesthetical taste and a
philosopher. Among his medical works may be mentioned: Uber
das Hippokratische erste Buck von der Dial (Vienna, 1835),
Arzte und Publicum (Vienna, 1848) and Lehrbuch der drztlichen
Seelenkunde (1845). His poetical works include Gedichte (Stutt.
1836), among which is the well-known beautiful hymn, which
Mendelssohn set to music. " Es ist bestimmt in Gottes Rat."
As a philosopher he is best known by his Zur Diiitetik der Seelc
[Dietetics of the soul] (Vienna, 1838), which attained great
popularity, and the tendency of which, in contrast to Hufeland's
Makrobiotik (On the Art of Prolonging Life), is to show the true
way of rendering life harmonious and lovely. This work had
by 1906 gone into fifty editions. Noteworthy also is his Beitrage
zur Litteratur-, Kunst- und Lebenstheorie (Vienna, 1837-1841), and
an anthology, Geist der deutschen Klassiker (Vienna, 1851;
3rd ed. 1865-1866).
His collected works (wkh the exception of the purely medical ones)
were published in 7 vols. by Fr. Hebbel (Vienna, 1851-1853). See
M. Necker, " Ernst von Feuchtersleben, der Freund Grillparzers, "
in the Jahrbuch der Grillparzer Gesellschaft, vol. iii. (Vienna, 1893).
FEUD, animosity, hatred, especially a permanent condition of
hostilities between persons, and hence applied to a state of private
warfare between tribes, clans or families, a " vendetta." The word
appears in Mid. Eng. as fede, which came through the O. Fr.
from the O. High Ger. fehida, modern Fehde. The O. Teutonic
faiho, an adjective, the source of fehida, gives the 0. Eng. fah,
foe. " Fiend," originally an enemy (cf. Ger. Feind), hence the
enemy of mankind, the devil, and so any evil spirit, is probably
connected with the same source. The word fede was of Scottish
usage, but in the i6th century took the formfoode,fewd in English.
The New English Dictionary points out that " feud, fee (Lat.
feudum) could not have influenced the change, for it appears
fifty years later than the first instances of foode, &c., and was
only used by writers on feudalism." For the etymology of
" feud " (feudum) see FEE, and for its history see FEUDALISM.
FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. feodum or feudum, a fee or
fiel; see FEE). In every case of institutional growth in history
two things are to be clearly distinguished from the beginning
for a correct understanding of the process and its results. One
of these is the change of conditions in the political or social
environment which made growth necessary. The other is the
already existing institutions which began to be transformed to
meet the new needs. In studying the origin and growth of
political feudalism, the distinction is easy to make. The all-
prevailing need of the later Roman and early medieval society
was protection protection against the sudden attacks of
invading tribes or revolted peasants, against oppressive neigh-
bours, against the unwarranted demands of government officers,
or even against the legal but too heavy exactions of the govern-
ment itself. In the days of the decaying empire and of the
chaotic German settlement, the weak freeman, the small land-
owner, was exposed to attack in almost every relation of life
and on every side. The protection which normally it is the
business of government to furnish he could no longer obtain.
He must seek protection elsewhere wherever he could get it,
and pay the price demanded for it. This is the great social fact
the failure of government to perform one of its most primary
duties, the necessity of finding some substitute in private life
extending in greater or less degree through the whole formative
period of feudalism, which explains the transformation of
institutions that brought it into existence. Similar conditions
have produced an organization which may be called feudal, in
various countries, and in widely separated periods of history.
While these different feudal systems have shown a general
similarity of organization, there has been also great variation
in their details, because they have started from different institu-
tions and developed in different ways. The feudal system
with which history most concerns itself is that of medieval
western Europe, and it is that which will be here described.
The institutions which the need of protection seized upon
when it first began to turn away from the state were twofold.
They had both long existed in the private, not public,
relations of the Romans, and they had up to this time ori"las
shown no tendency to grow. One of them related to
the person, to the man himself, without reference to property,
the other related to land. There are thus distinguished at the
beginning those two great sides of feudalism which remained to
the end of its history more or less distinct, the personal relation
and the land relation. The personal institution needs little
description. It was the Roman patron and client relationship
which had remained in existence into the days of the empire,
in later times less important perhaps legally than socially, and
which had been reinforced in Gaul by very similar practices in
use among the Celts before their conquest. The description of
this institution which has come down to us from Roman sources
of the days when feudalism was beginning is not so detailed
as we could wish, but we can see plainly enough that it met a
frequent need, that it was called by a new name, the patrocinium,
and that it was firmly enough entrenched in usage to survive
the German conquest, and to be taken up and continued by
the conquerors. In its new use, alike in the later Roman and the
early German state, the landless freeman who could not support
himself went to some powerful man, stated his need, and offered
his services, those proper to a freeman, in return for shelter and
support . This transaction , which was called commendation , gave
rise in the German state to a written contract which related the
facts and provided a penalty for its violation. It created a
relationship of protection and support on one side, and of free
service on the other.
The other institution, relating to land, was that known to the
Roman law as the precarium, a name derived from one of its
essential features through all its history, the prayer of the
suppliant by which the relationship was begun. The precarium
was a form of renting land not intended primarily for income,
but for use when the lease was made from friendship for example,
or as a reward, or to secure a debt. Legally its characteristic
feature was that the lessee had no right of any kind against
the grantor. The owner could call in his land and terminate
the relation at any time, for any reason, or for none at all.
Even a definite understanding at the outset that the lease might
be enjoyed to a specified date was no protection. 1 It followed
of course that the heir had no right in the land which his father
held in this way, nor was the heir of the donor bound by his father's
act. The legal character of this transaction is summed up in a
well-known passage in the Digest : Interdictum de precariis
merilo introductum est, quia nulla eo nomine juris civilis actio
esset, magis enim ad donationes et beneficii causam, quam ad
negotii contracti special precarii conditio? This may be para-
phrased as follows: The precarium tenant may employ the
interdict against a third party, because he cannot use the
ordinary civil action, his holding being not a matter of business
but rather of favour and kindness. It should be noted that from
its very beginning the land relationship of feudalism was not
created primarily for the grantor's income, but that it emphasized
in the most striking way his continued ownership.
As used for protection in later Roman days the precarium
gave rise to what was called the commendation of lands, patro-
cinium fundorum. The poor landowner, likely to lose all that
he had from one kind of oppression or another, went to the great
landowner, his neighbour, whose position gave him immunity
from attack or the power to prevent official abuses, and begged
to be protected. The rich man answered, I can only protect my
own. Of necessity the poor man must surrender to his powerful
neighbour the ownership of his lands, which he then received
back as a precarium gaining protection during his lifetime
1 Digest, xliii. 26. 12. * Ibid, xliii. 26. 14, and cf. 17.
298
FEUDALISM
at the cost of his children, who were left without legal claim and
compelled to make the best terms they could. 1 Applied to this
use the precarium found extensive employment in the last age
of the empire. The government looked on the practice with
great disfavour, because it transferred large areas from the easy
access of the state to an ownership beyond its reach. The laws
repeatedly forbade it under increasing penalties, but clearly
it could not be stopped. The motive was too strong on both
sides the need of protection on one side, the natural desire to
increase large possessions and means of self-defence on the other.
These practices the Prankish conquerors of Gaul found in
full possession of society when they entered into that province.
They seem to have understood them at once, and, like
much else Roman, to have made them their own with-
mea out material change. The patrocinium they were made
ready to understand by the existence of a somewhat
similar institution among themselves, the comitatus, described
by Tacitus. In this institution the chief of the tribe, or of some
plainly marked division of the tribe, gathered about himself a
band of chosen warriors, who formed a kind of private military
force and body-guard. The special features of the institution
were the strong tie of faith and service which bound the man,
the support and rewards given by the lord, and the pride of
both in the relationship. The patrocinium might well seem to
the German only a form of the comitalus, but it was a form which
presented certain advantages in his actual situation. The chief
of these was perhaps the fact that it was not confined to king or
tribal chief, but that every noble was able in the Roman practice
to surround himself with his organized private army. Probably
this fact, together with the more general fact of the absorption
in most things of the German in the Roman, accounts for the
substitution of the patrocinium for the comitatus which took
place under the Merovingians.
This change did not occur, however, without some modification
of the Roman customs. The comitatus made contributions of
its own to future feudalism, to some extent to its institutional
side, largely to the ideas and spirit which ruled in it. Probably
the ceremony which grew into feudal homage, and the oath of
fealty, certainly the honourable position of the vassal and his
pride in the relationship, the strong tie which bound lord and
man together, and the idea that faith and service were due on
both sides in equal measure, we may trace to German sources.
But we must not forget that the origin of the vassal relationship,
as an institution, is to be found on Roman and not on German
soil. The comitatus developed and modified, it did not originate.
Nor was the feudal system established in any sense by the settle-
ment of the comitatus group on the conquered land. The uniting
of the personal and the land sides of feudalism came long after
the conquest, and in a different way.
To the precarium German institutions offered no close parallel.
The advantages, however, which it afforded were obvious, and
this side of feudalism developed as rapidly after the conquest
as the personal. The new German noble was as eager to extend
the size of his lands and to increase the numbers of his dependants
as the Roman had been. The new German government furnished
no better protection from local violence, nor was it able any more
effectively to check the practices which were creating feudalism;
indeed for a long time it made no attempt to do so. Precarium
and patrocinium easily passed from the Roman empire to the
Prankish kingdom, and became as firmly rooted in the new
society as they had ever been in the old. Up to this point we
have seen only the small landowner and the landless man enter-
ing into these relations. Feudalism could not be established,
however, until the great of the land had adopted them for
themselves, and had begun to enter the clientage of others and
to hold lands by the precarium tenure. The first step towards
this result was easily and quickly taken. The same class con-
tinued to furnish the king's men, and to form his household and
body-guard whether the relation was that of the patrocinium or
the comitatus, and to be made noble by entering into it. It was
later that they became clients of one another, and in part at
1 Salvian, De gub. Dei, v. 8, ed. Halm, p. 62.
least as a result of their adoption of the precarium tenure. In
this latter step the influence of the Church rather than of the king
seems to have been effective. The large estates which pious
intentions had bestowed on the Church it was not allowed to
alienate. It could most easily make them useful to gain the
influence and support which it needed, and to provide for the
public functions which fell to its share, by employing the pre-
carium tenure. On the other side, the great men coveted the
wide estates of bishop and abbot, and were ready without
persuasion to annex portions of them to their own on the easy
terms of this tenure, not always indeed observed by the holder,
or able to be enforced by the Church. The employment of the
precarium by the Church seems to have been one of the surest
means by which this form of landholding was carried over
from the Romans to the Prankish period and developed into
new forms. It came to be made by degrees the subject of
written contract, by which the rights of the holder were more
definitely defined and protected than had been the case in
Roman law. The length of time for which the holding should
last came to be specified, at first for a term of years and then for
life, and some payment to the grantor was provided for, not
pretending to represent the economic value of the land, but only
to serve as a mark of his continued ownership.
These changes characterize the Merovingian age of Prankish
history. That period had practically ended, however, before
these two institutions showed any tendency to join together
as they were joined in later feudalism. Nor had the king up
to that time exerted any apparent influence on the processes
that were going forward. Grants of land of the Merovingian
kings had carried with them ownership and not a limited right,
and the king's patrocinium had not widened in extent in the
direction of the later vassal relation. It was the advent of the
Carolingian princes and the difficulties which they had to over-
come that carried these institutions a stage further forward.
Making their way up from a position among the nobility to
be the rulers of the land, and finally to supplant the kings, the
Carolingians had especial need of resources from which to
purchase and reward faithful support. This need was greatly in-
creased when the Arab attack on southern Gaul forced them to
transform a large part of the old Prankish foot army into cavalry. 2
The fundamental principle of the Prankish military system, that
the man served at his own expense, was still unchanged. It
had indeed begun to break down under the strain of frequent
and distant campaigns, but it was long before it was changed as
the recognized rule of medieval service. If now, in addition
to his own expenses, the soldier must provide a horse and its
keeping, the system was likely to break down altogether. It
was this problem which led to the next step. To solve it the
early Carolingian princes, especially Charles Martel, who found
the royal domains exhausted and their own inadequate, grasped
at the land of the Church. Here was enough to endow an army,
if some means could be devised to permit its use. This means
was found in the precarium tenure. Keeping alive, as it did, the
fact of the grantor's ownership, it did not in form deprive the
Church of the land. Recognizing that ownership by a small
payment only, not corresponding to the value of the land, it
left the larger part of the income to meet the need which had
arisen. At the same time undoubtedly the new holder of the
land, if not already the vassal of the prince, was obliged to
become so and to assume an obligation of service with a mounted
force when called upon. 3 This expedient seems to have solved
'the problem. It gave rise to the numerous precariae verbo regis,
of the Church records, and to the condemnation of Charles
Martel in the visions of the clergy to worse difficulties in the
future life than he had overcome in this. The most important
consequences of the expedient, however, were not intended or
perceived at the time. It brought together the two sides of
feudalism, vassalage and benefice, as they were now commonly
called, and from this age their union into what is really a single
1 H. Brunner, Zeitschr. der sav. Stiff, fur Rechtsgeschichte, Germ
Abth. viii. 1-38 (1887). Also in his Forschungen, 39-74 (1894).
1 See P. Dahn, Konige der Germanen, viii. 2, 90 ff.
FEUDALISM
299
institution was rapid; 1 it emphasized military service as an
essential obligation of the vassal; and it spread the vassal
relation between individual proprietors and the sovereign widely
over the state.
In the period that followed, the reign of Charlemagne and the
later Carolingian age, continued necessities, military and civil,
forced the kings to recognize these new institutions more fully,
even when standing in a position between the government
and the subject, intercepting the public duties of the latter.
The incipient feudal baron had not been slow to take advantage
of the break-down of the old German military system. As in
the last days of the Roman empire the poor landowner had found
his only refuge from the exactions of the government in the
protection of the senator, who could in some way obtain exemp-
tions, so the poor Frank could escape the ruinous demands of
military service only by submitting himself and his lands to the
count, who did not hesitate on his side to force such submission.
Charlemagne legislated with vigour against this tendency, trying
to make it easier for the poor freeman to fulfil his military duties
directly to the state, and to forbid the misuse of power by the
rich, but he was not more successful than the Roman government
had been in a like attempt. Finally the king found himself
compelled to recognize existing facts, to lay upon the lord the
duty of producing his men in the field and to allow him to
appear as their commander. This solved the difficulty of military
service apparently, but with decisive consequences. Itcompleted
the transformation of the army into a vassal army; it com-
pleted the recognition of feudalism by the state, as a legitimate
relation between different ranks of the people; and it recognized
the transformation in a great number of cases of a public duty
into a private obligation.
In the meantime another institution had grown up in this
Franco-Roman society, which probably began and certainly
assisted in another transformation of the same kind. This
is the immunity. Suggested probably by Roman practices,
possibly developed directly from them, it received a great
extension in the Merovingian period, at first and especially in
the interest of the Church, but soon of lay land-holders. By the
grant of an immunity to a proprietor the royal officers, the count
and his representatives, were forbidden to enter his lands to
exercise any public function there. The duties which the count
should perform passed to the proprietor, who now represented
the government for all his tenants free and unfree. Apparently
no modification of the royal rights was intended by this
arrangement, but the beginning of a great change had really
been made. The king might still receive the same revenues
and the same services from the district held by the lord as
formerly, but for their payment a private person in his capacity
as overlord was now responsible. In the course of a long
period characterized by a weak central government, it was
not difficult to enlarge the rights which the lord thus
obtained, to exclude even the king's personal authority from the
immunity, and to translate the duties and payments which the
tenant had once owed to the state into obligations which he
owed to his lord, even finally into incidents of his tenure. The
most important public function whose transformation into a
private possession was assisted by the growth of the immunity
was the judicial. This process had probably already begun in a
small way in the growth of institutions which belong to the
economic side of feudalism, the organization of agriculture
on the great estates. Even in Roman days the proprietor had
exercised a jurisdiction over the disputes of his unfree tenants.
Whether this could by its own growth have been extended over
his free tenants and carried so far as to absorb a local court,
like that of the hundred, into private possession, is not certain.
It seems probable that it could. But in any case, the immunity
easily carried the development of private jurisdiction through
these stages. The lord's court took the place of the public
court in civil, and even by degrees in criminal cases. The
plaintiff, even if he were under another lord, was obliged to sue
in the court of the defendant's lord, and the portion of the fine
1 F. Dahn, Konige der Germanen, viii. 2, 197.
for a breach of the peace which should have gone to the state
went in the end to the lord.
The transfer of the judicial process, and of the financial and
administrative sides of the government as well, into private
possession, was not, however, accomplished entirely by the road
of the immunity. As government weakened after the strong
days of Charlemagne, and disorder, invasion, and the difficulty
of intercommunication tended to throw the locality more and
more upon its own resources, the officer who had once been the
means of centralization, the count, found success in the effort
for independence which even Charlemagne had scarcely overcome.
He was able to throw off responsibility to any central authority,
and to exercise the powers which had been committed to him as
an agent of the king, as if they were his own private possession.
Nor was the king's aid lacking to this method of dividing up the
royal authority, any more than to the immunity, for it became
a frequent practice to make the administrative office into a
fief, and to grant it to be held in that form of property by the
count. In this way the feudal county, or duchy, formed itself,
corresponding in most cases only roughly to the old administra-
tive divisions of the state, for within the bounds of the county
there had often formed private feudal possessions too powerful
to be forced into dependence upon the count, sometimes the
vice-comes had followed the count's example, and often, on the
other hand, the count had attached to his county like private
possessions of his own lying outside its boundaries. In time
the private lord, who had never been an officer of the state,
assumed the old administrative titles and called himself count
or viscount, and perhaps with some sort of right, for his position
in his territories, through the development of the immunity,
did not differ from that now held by the man who had been
originally a count.
In these two ways then the feudal system was formed, and
took possession of the state territorially, and of its functions in
government. Its earliest stage of growth was that of the private
possession only. Under a government too weak to preserve
order, the great landowner formed his estate into a little territory
which could defend itself. His smaller neighbours who needed
protection came to him for it. He forced them to become his
dependants in return under a great variety of forms, but especially
developing thereby the precarium land tenure and the patrocinium
personal service, and organizing a private jurisdiction over his
tenants, and a private army for defence. Finally he secured
from the king an immunity which excluded the royal officers
from his lands and made him a quasi-representative of the state.
In the meantime his neighbour the count had been following
a similar process, and in addition he had enjoyed considerable
advantages of his own. His right to exact military, financial
and judicial duties for the state he had used to force men to
become his dependants, and then he had stood between them
and the state, freeing them from burdens which he threw with
increased weight upon those who still stood outside his personal
protection. In ignorance of their danger, and later in despair
of getting public services adequately performed in any other
way, the kings first adopted for themselves some of the forms
and practices which had thus grown up, and by degrees recog-
nized them as legally proper for all classes. It proved to be
easier to hold the lord responsible for the public duties of all
his dependants because he was the king's vassal and by attaching
them as conditions to the benefices which he held, than to
enforce them directly upon every subject.
When this stage was reached the formative age of feudalism
may be considered at an end. When the government of the
state had entered into feudalism, and the king was as much
senior as king; when the vassal relationship was recognized
as a proper and legal foundation of public duties; when the two
separate sides of early feudalism were united as the almost
universal rule, so that a man received a fief because he owed a
vassal's duties, or looked at in the other and finally prevailing
way, that he owed a vassal's duties because he had received a
fief; and finally, when the old idea of the temporary character
of the precarium tenure was lost sight of, and the right of the
300
vassal's heir to receive his father's holding was recognized as the
general rule then the feudal system may be called full grown.
Not that the age of growth was really over. Feudal history
was always a becoming, always a gradual passing from one stage
to another, so long as feudalism continued to form the main
organization of society. But we may say that the formative
age was over when these features of the system had combined
to be its characteristic marks. What follows is rather a perfection
of details in the direction of logical completeness. To assign
any specific date to the end of this formative age is of course
impossible, but meaning by the end what has just been stated,
we shall not be far wrong if we place it somewhere near the
beginning of the roth century.
Before we leave the history of feudal origins another word is
necessary. We have traced a definite line of descent for feudal
institutions from Roman days through the Merovingian and
Carolingian ages to the loth century. That line of descent can
be made out with convincing clearness and with no particular
difficulty from epoch to epoch, from the precarium and the
patrocinium, through the benefice and commendation, to the
fief and vassalage. But the definiteness of this line should not
cause us to overlook the fact that there was during these centuries
much confusion of custom and practice. All round and about
this line of descent there was a crowd of varying forms branching
off more or less widely from the main stem, different kinds of
commendation, different forms of precarium, some of which
varied greatly from that through which the fief descends, and
some of which survived in much the old character and under the
old name for a long time after later feudalism was definitely
established. 1 The variety and seeming confusion which reign
in feudal society, under uniform controlling principles, rule also
in the ages of beginning. It is easy to lose one's bearings by
over-emphasizing the importance of variation and exception.
It is indeed true that what was the exception, the temporary
offshoot, might have become the main line. It would then have
produced a system which would have been feudal, in the wide
sense of the term, but it would have been marked by different
characteristics, it would have operated in a somewhat different
way. The crowd of varying forms should not prevent us from
seeing that we can trace through their confusion the line along
which the characteristic traits and institutions of European
feudalism, as it actually was, were growing constantly more
distinct. 2 That is the line of the origin of the feudal system.
(See also FRANCE: Law and Institutions.)
The growth which we have traced took place within the
Frantish empire. When we turn to Anglo-Saxon England we
find a different situation and a different result. There
England" precarium and patrocinium were lacking. Certain
forms of personal commendation did develop, certain
forms of dependent land tenure came into use. These do not
show, however, the characteristic marks of the actual line of
feudal descent. They belong rather in the varying forms around
that line. Scholars are not yet agreed as to what would have
been their result if their natural development had not been cut
off by the violent introduction of Frankish feudalism with the
Norman conquest, whether the historical feudal system, or a
feudal system in the general sense. To the writer it seems clear
that the latter is the most that can be asserted. They were forms
which may rightly be called feudal, but only in the wider meaning
in which we speak of the feudalism of Japan, or of Central Africa,
not in the sense of 12th-century European feudalism; Saxon
commendation may rightly be called vassalage, but only as
looking back to the early Frankish use of the term for many
varying forms of practice, not as looking forward to the later
and more definite usage of completed feudalism; and such use
of the terms feudal and vassalage is sure to be misleading. It
is better to say that European feudalism is not to be found in
England before the Conquest, not even in its beginnings. If
1 G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, vi. 112 ff. (1896).
Most fully described in G. Seeliger, Die soziale u. politische Bedeutung
d. Grundherrschaft im fruheren Mittelalter (1903).
* F. Dahn, Konige, viii. 2, 89-90; 95.
FEUDALISM
these had really been in existence it would require no argument
to show the fact. There is no trace of the distinctive marks of
Frankish feudalism in Saxon England, not where military
service may be thought to rest upon the land, nor even in the
rare cases where the tenant seems to some to be made responsible
for it; for between these cases as they are described in the original
accounts, legally interpreted, and the feudal conception of the
vassal's military service, there is a great gulf.
In turning from the origin of feudalism to a description of the
completed system one is inevitably reminded of the words with
which de Quincey opens the second part of his essay
on style. He says: " It is a natural resource that The
whatsoever we find it difficult to investigate as a
result, we endeavour to follow as a growth. Failing
analytically to probe its nature, historically we seek relief to our
perplexities by tracing its origin. . . . Thus for instance when
any feudal institution (be it Gothic, Norman, or Anglo-Saxon)
eludes our deciphering faculty from the imperfect records of its
use and operation, then we endeavour conjecturally to amend
our knowledge by watching the circumstances in which that
institution arose." The temptation to use the larger part of any
space allotted to the history of feudalism for a discussion of
origins does not arise alone from greater interest in that phase of
the subject. It is almost impossible even with the most dis-
criminating care to give a brief account of completed feudalism
and convey no wrong impression. We use the term " feudal
system " for convenience sake, but with a degree of impropriety
if it conveys the meaning " systematic." Feudalism in its most
flourishing age was anything but systematic. It was confusion
roughly organized. Great diversity prevailed everywhere,
and we should not be surprised to find some different fact or
custom in every lordship. Anglo-Norman feudalism attained a
logical completeness and a uniformity of practice which, in the
feudal age proper, can hardly be found elsewhere through so
large a territory; but in Anglo-Norman feudalism the exception
holds perhaps as large a place as the regular, and the uniformity
itself was due to the most serious of exceptions from the feudal
point of view centralization under a powerful monarchy.
But too great emphasis upon variation conveys also a wrong
impression. Underlying all the apparent confusion of fact and
practice were certain fundamental principles and relationships,
which were alike everywhere, and which really gave shape to
everything that was feudal, no matter what its form might be.
The chief of these are the following: the relation of vassal and
lord; the principle that every holder of land is a tenant and not
an owner, until the highest rank is reached, sometimes even the
conception rules in that rank; that the tenure by which a thing
of value is held is one of honourable service, not intended to be
economic, but moral and political in character; the principle
of mutual obligations of loyalty, protection and service binding
together all the ranks of this society from the highest to the
lowest; and the principle of contract between lord and tenant,
as determining all rights, controlling their modification, and
forming the foundation of all law. There was actually in fact
and practice a larger uniformity than this short list implies,
because these principles tended to express themselves in similar
forms, and because historical derivation from a common source
in Frankish feudalism tended to preserve some degree of uni-
formity in the more important usages.
The foundation of the feudal relationship proper was the fief,
which was usually land, but might be any desirable thing, as an
office, a levenue in money or kind, the right to collect a toll,
or operate a mill. In return for the fief, the man became the
vassal of his lord; he knelt before him, and, with his hands
between his lord's hands, promised him fealty and service; he
rose to his feet and took the oath of fealty which bound him to
the obligations he had assumed in homage; he received from
his lord ceremonial investiture with the fief. The faithful
performance of all the duties he had assumed in homage con-
stituted the vassal's right and title to his fief. So long as they
were fulfilled, he, and his heir after him, held the fief as his
property, practically and in relation to all under tenants as if
FEUDALISM
301
he were the owner. In the ceremony of homage and investiture,
which is the creative contract of feudalism, the obligations
assumed by the two parties were, as a rule, not specified in
exact terms. They were determined by local custom. What
they were, however, was as well known, as capable of proof,
and as adequate a check on innovation by either party, as if
Committed to writing. In many points of detail the vassal's
services differed widely in different parts of the feudal world.
We may say, however, that they fall into two classes, general
and specific. The general included all that might come under
the idea of loyalty, seeking the lord's interests, keeping his
secrets, betraying the plans of his enemies, protecting his family,
&c. The specific services are capable of more definite statement,
and they usually received exact definition in custom and some-
times in written documents. The most characteristic of these
was the military service, which included appearance in the
field on summons with a certain force, often armed in a specified
way, and remaining a specified length of time. It often included
also the duty of guarding the lord's castle, and of holding one's
own castle subject to the plans of the lord for the defence of his
fief. Hardly less characteristic was court service, which included
the duty of helping to form the court on summons, of taking
one's own cases to that court instead of to some other, and of
submitting to its judgments. The duty of giving the lord advice
was often demanded and fulfilled in sessions of the court, and
in these feudal courts the obligations of lord and vassal were
enforced, with an ultimate appeal to war. Under this head
may be enumerated also the financial duties of the vassal,
though these were not regarded by the feudal law as of the nature
of the tenure, i.e. failure to pay them did not lead to confiscation,
but they were collected by suit and distraint like any debt.
They did not have their origin in economic considerations, but
were either intended to mark the vassal's tenant relation, like
the relief, or to be a part of his service, like the aid, that is, he
was held to come to the aid of his lord in a case of financial as
of military necessity. The relief was a sum paid by the heir
for the lord's recognition of his succession. The aids were paid
on a few occasions, determined by custom, where the lord was
put to unusual expense, as for his ransom when captured by the
enemy, or for the knighting of his eldest son. There was great
variety regarding the occasion and amount of these payments,
and in some parts of the feudal world they did not exist at all.
The most lucrative of the lord's rights were wardship and
marriage, but the feudal theory of these also was non-economic.
The fief fell into the hands of the lord, and he enjoyed its revenues
during the minority of the heir, because the minor could not
perform the duties by which it was held. The heiress must
marry as the lord wished, because he had a right to know that
the holder of the fief could meet the obligations resting upon
it. Both wardship and marriage were, however, valuable rights
which the lord could exercise himself or sell to others. These
were by no means the only rights and duties which could be
described as existing in feudalism, but they are the most char-
acteristic, and on them, or some of them, as a foundation, the
whole structure of feudal obligation was built, however detailed.
Ideally regarded, feudalism covered Europe with a network
of these fiefs, rising in graded ranks one above the other from
the smallest, the knight's fee, at the bottom, to the king at the
top, who was the supreme landowner, or who held the kingdom
from God. Actually not even in the most regular of feudal
countries, like England or Germany, was there any fixed grada-
tion of rank, titles or size. A knight might hold directly of the
king, a count of a viscount, a bishop of an abbot, or the king
himself of one of his own vassals, or even of a vassal's vassal,
and in return his vassal's vassal might hold another fief directly
of him. The case of the count of Champagne, one of the peers
of France, is a famous example. His great territory was held
only in small part of the king of France. He held a portion of
a foreign sovereign, the emperor, and other portions of the duke
of Burgundy, of two archbishops, of four bishops, and of the abbot
of St Denis. Frequently did great lay lords, as in this case,
hold lands by feudal tenure of ecclesiastics.
It is now possible perhaps to get some idea of the way in which
the government of a feudal country was operated. The early
German governments whose chief functions, military, judicial,
financial, legislative, were carried on by the freemen of the nation
because they were members of the body politic, and were per-
formed as duties owed to the community for its defence and
sustenance, no longer existed. New forms of organization had
arisen in which indeed these conceptions had not entirely
disappeared, but in which the vast majority of cases a wholly
different idea of the ground of service and obligation prevailed.
Superficially, for example, the feudal court differed but little
from its Teutonic predecessor. It was still an assembly court.
Its procedure was almost the same as the earlier. It often
included the same classes of men. Saxon Witenagemot and
Norman Curia regis seem very much alike. But the members
of the feudal court met, not to fulfil a duty owed to the com-
munity, but a private obligation which they had assumed in
return for the fiefs they held, and in the history of institutions
it is differences of this sort which are the determining principles.
The feudal state was one in which, as it has been said, private
law had usflrped the place of public law. Public duty had become
private obligation. To understand the feudal state it is essential
to make clear to one's mind that all sorts of services, which men
ordinarily owe to the public or to one another, were translated
into a form of rent paid for the use of land, and defined and
enforced by a private contract. In every feudal country, however,
something of the earlier conception survived. A general military
levy was occasionally made. Something like taxation occasionally
occurred, though the government was usually sustained by the
scanty feudal payments, by the proceeds of justice and by the
income of domain manors. About the office of king more of
this earlier conception gathered than elsewhere in the state,
and gradually grew, aided not merely by traditional ideas, but
by the active influence of the Bible, and soon of the Roman law.
The kingship formed the nucleus of new governments as the
feudal system passed away.
Actual government in the feudal age was primitive and un-
differentiated. Its chief and almost only organ, for kingdom
and barony alike, was the curia a court formed of the vassals.
This acted at once and without any consciousness of difference
of function, as judiciary, as legislature, in so far as there was
any in the feudal period, and as council, and it exercised final
supervision and control over revenue and administration.
Almost all the institutions of modern states go back to the
curia regis, branching off from it at different dates as the growing
complexity of business forced differentiation of function and
personnel. In action it was an assembly court, deciding all
questions by discussion and the weight of opinion, though its
decisions obtained their legal validity by the formal pronuncia-
tion of the presiding member, i.e. of the lord whose court it was.
It can readily be seen that in a government of this kind the
essential operative element was the baron. So long as the
government remained dependent on the baron, it remained
feudal in its character. When conditions so changed that govern-
ment could free itself from its dependence on the baron, feudalism
disappeared as the organization of society; when a professional
class arose to form the judiciary, when the increased circulation
of money made regular taxation possible and enabled the govern-
ment to buy military and other services, and when better means
of intercommunication and the growth of common ideas made
a wide centralization possible and likely to be permanent.
Feudalism had performed a great service, during an age of
disintegration, by maintaining a general framework of govern-
ment, while allowing the locality to protect and care for itself.
When the function of protection and local supervision could be
resumed by the general government the feudal age ended. In
nearly all the states of Europe this end was reached during, or
by the close of, the i3th century.
At the moment, however, when feudalism was disappearing
as the organization of society, it gave rise to results which in a
sense continued it into after ages and even to our own day.
One of these results was the system of law which it created.
302
FEUERBACH, A. FEUERBACH, L. A.
As feudalism passed from its age of supremacy into its age
of decline, its customs tended to crystallize into fixed forms.
At the same time a class of men arose interested in
Decline these forms for their own sake, professional lawyers
Murv/vais. or Judges, who wrote down for their own and others'
use the feudal usages with which they were familiar.
The great age of these codes was the i3th century, and especially
the second half of it. The codes in their turn tended still further
to harden these usages into fixed forms, and we may date from
the end of the i3th century an age of feudal law regulating
especially the holding and transfer of land, and much more
uniform in character than the law of the feudal age proper.
This was particularly the case in parts of France and Germany
where feudalism continued to regulate the property relations
of lords and vassals longer than elsewhere, and where the under-
lying economic feudalism remained in large part unchanged.
In this later pseudo-feudalism, however, the political had given
way to the economic, and customs which had once had no
economic significance came to have that only.
Feudalism formed the starting-point also of the later social
nobilities of Europe. They drew from it their titles" and ranks
and many of their regulative ideas, though these were formed
into more definite and regular systems than ever existed in
feudalism proper. It was often the policy of kings to increase
the social privileges and legal exemptions of the nobility while
taking away all political power, so that it is necessary in the
history of institutions to distinguish sharply between these
nobilities and the feudal baronage proper. It is only in certain
backward parts of Europe that the terms feudal and baronage
in any technical sense can be used of the nobility of the isth
century. (G. B. A.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For more detailed information the reader is
referred to the articles ENGLISH LAW; FRANCE: French Law
and Institutions, VILLENAGE; MANOR; SCUTAGE; KNIGHT
SERVICE ; HIDE. For a general sketch of Feudalism the chapters in
tome ii. of the Histoire generate of Lavisse and Rambaud should be
consulted. Other general works are J. T. Abdy, Feudalism (1890) ;
Paul Roth, Feudalitdt und Unterthanverband (Weimar, 1863) ; and
Geschichte des Beneficialwesens (1850) ; M. M. Kovalevsky, Okono-
mische Entwickelung Europas (1002); E. de Laveleye, De la pro-
priete et de ses formes primitives (1891); and The Origin of Property
in Land, a translation by M. Ashley from the works of N. D. Fustel de
Coulanges, with an introductory chapter by Professor W. J. Ashley.
Two other works of value are Sir H. S. Maine, Village Communities in
the East and West (1876) ; and Leon Gautier, La Chevalerie (Paris,
1884; Eng. trans, by Henry Frith, Chivalry, London, 1891). .
For feudalism in England see the various constitutional histories,
especially W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, vol. i. (ed.
1897). Very valuable also are the writings of Mr J. H. Round, of
Professor F. W. Maitland and of Professor P. Vinogradoff. Among
Round's works may be mentioned Feudal England (1895); Geoffrey
de Mandeville (1892) ; and Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer
(1898). Maitland's Domesday Book and Beyond (Cambridge, 1897)
is indispensahle; and the same remark applies to his History of
i illumin-
_ ,--_. his English
Society in the nth century (1908). See also J. F. Baldwin, The
Scutage and Knight Service in England (Chicago, 1897); Rudolf
Gneist, Adel und Rittersckaft in England (1853) ; and F. Seebohm,
The English Village Community (1883).
For feudalism in France see N. D. Fustel de Coulanges, Histoire des
institutions politiques de I'ancienne France (Les Origines du systeme
feodal, 1890; Les Transformations de la royaute pendant Vepoque
carolingienne, 1892); A. Luchaire, Histoire des institutions monar-
chiques de la France sous les premiers Capetiens, 987-1180 (2nd ed.,
1890); and Manuel des institutions franfaises: periode des Capetiens
directs (1892); J. Flach, Les Origines de I'ancienne France (1886-
1893) ; Paul Viollet, Droit public: Histoires des institutions politiques
et administrates de la France (1890-1898); and Henri See, Les
classes rurales et le regime domanial (1901).
For Germany see G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte (Kiel
and Berlin, 1844 foil.); H. Brunner, Grundzuge der deutschen
Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1901); V. Menzel, Die Entstehung des
Lebenswesens (Berlin, 1890); and G. L. von Maurer's works on the
early institutions of the Germans.
FEUERBACH, ANSELM (1829-1880), German painter, born
at Spires, the son of a well-known archaeologist, was the leading
classicist painter of the German 19th-century school. He was
the first to realize the danger arising from contempt of technique,
that mastery of craftsmanship was needed to express even the
loftiest ideas, and that an ill-drawn coloured cartoon can never
be the supreme achievement in art. After having passed through
the art schools of Diisseldorf and Munich, he went to Antwerp-
and subsequently to Paris, where he benefited by the teaching
of Couture, and produced his first masterpiece, " Hafiz at the
Fountain " in 1852. He subsequently worked at Karlsruhe,
Venice (where he fell under the spell of the greatest school of
colourists), Rome and Vienna. He was steeped in classic
knowledge, and his figure compositions have the statuesque
dignity and simplicity of Greek art. Disappointed with the
reception given in Vienna to his design of " The Fall of the
Titans " for the ceiling of the Museum of Modelling, he went to
live in Venice, where he died in 1880. His works are to be found
at the leading public galleries of Germany; Stuttgart has his.
"Iphigenia"; Karlsruhe, the "Dante at Ravenna"; Munich,
the " Medea "; and Berlin, " The Concert," his last important
picture. Among his chief works are also " The Battle of the
Amazons," " Pieta," " The Symposium of Plato," " Orpheus
and Eurydice " and " Ariosto in the Park of Ferrara."
FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS (1804-1872), German
philosopher, fourth son of the eminent jurist (see below), was born
at Landshut in Bavaria on the 28th of July 1804. He matricu-
lated at Heidelberg with the intention of pursuing an ecclesiastical
career. Through the influence of Prof. Daub he was led lo-
an interest in the then predominant philosophy of Hegel and,
in spite of his father's opposition, went to Berlin to study under
the master himself. After two years' discipleship the Hegelian
influence began to slacken. " Theology," he wrote to a friend,
" I can bring myself to study no more. I long to take nature
to my heart, that nature before whose depth the faint-hearted
theologian shrinks back; and with nature man, man in his
entire quality." These words are a key to Feuerbach's develop-
ment. He completed his education at Erlangen with the study
of natural science. His first book, published anonymously,
Gedanken iiber Tod und Unsterblithkeit (1830, 3rd ed. 1876),
contains an attack upon personal immortality and an advocacy
of the Spinozistic immortality of reabsorption in nature. These
principles, combined with his embarrassed manner of public
speaking, debarred him from academic advancement. After
some years of struggling, during which he published his Geschichte
der neueren Philosophic (2 vols., 1833-1837, 2nd ed. 1844), and
Abalard und Heloise (1834, 3rd ed. 1877), he married in 1837
and lived a rural existence at Bruckberg near Nuremberg,
supported by his wife's share in a small porcelain factory. In
two works of this period, Pierre Bayle (1838) and Philosophic
und Christentum (1839), which deal largely with theology, he
held that he had proved " that Christianity has in fact long
vanished not only from the reason but from the life of mankind,
that it is nothing more than a fixed idea " in flagrant contra-
diction to the distinctive features of contemporary civilization.
This attack is followed up in his most important work, Das
Wesen des Christentums (1841), which was translated into
English (The Essence of Religion, by George Eliot, 1853, 2nd ed.
1881), French and Russian. Its aim may be described shortly
as an effort to humanize theology. He lays it down that man,
so far as he is rational, is to himself his own object of thought.
Religion is consciousness of the infinite. Religion therefore
is " nothing else than the consciousness of the infinity of the
consciousness; or, in the consciousness of the infinite, the
conscious subject has for his object the infinity of his own
nature." Thus God is nothing else than man: he is, so to speak,
the outward projection of man's inward nature. In part i of
his book he develops what he calls the " true or anthropological
essence of religion." Treating of God in his various aspects
" as a being of the understanding," " as a moral being or law,"
" as love " and so on, Feuerbach shows that in every aspect God
corresponds to some feature or need of human nature. " If
man is to find contentment in God, he must find himself in God."
In part 2 he discusses the " false or theological essence of religion,"
i.e. the view which regards God as having a separate existence
over against man. Hence arise various mistaken beliefs, such
as the belief in revelation which not only injures the moral
FEUERBACH, P. J. A.
303
sence, but also " poisons, nay destroys, the divinest feeling in
man, the sense of truth," and the belief -in sacraments such as
the Lord's Supper, a piece of religious materialism of which " the
necessary consequences are superstition and immorality."
In spite of many admirable qualities both- of style and matter
the Essence of Christianity has never made much impression
upon British thought. To treat the actual forms of religion
as expressions of our various human needs is a fruitful idea
which deserves fuller development than it has yet received;
but Feuerbach's treatment of it is fatally vitiated by his sub-
jectivism. Feuerbach denied that he was rightly called an
atheist, but the denial is merely verbal: what he calls " theism "
is atheism in the ordinary sense. Feuerbach labours under the
same difficulty as Fichte; both thinkers strive in vain to re-
concile the religious consciousness with subjectivism.
During the troubles of 1848-1849 Feuerbach's attack upon
orthodoxy made him something of a hero with the revolutionary
party; but he never threw himself into the political movement,
and indeed had not the qualities of a popular leader. During the
period of the diet of Frankfort he had given public lectures on
religion at Heidelberg. When the diet closed he withdrew to
Bruckberg and occupied himself partly with scientific study,
partly with the composition of his Theogonie (1857). In 1860 he
was compelled by the failure of the porcelain factory to leave
Bruckberg, and he would have suffered the extremity of want
but for the assistance of friends supplemented by a public
subscription. His last book, Goltheit, Freiheit und Unsterblichkeit,
appeared in 1866 (2nd ed., 1890). After a long period of decay he
died on the I3th of September 1872.
Feuerbach's influence has been greatest upon the anti-
Christian theologians such as D. F. Strauss, the author of the
Leben Jesu, and Bruno Bauer, who like Feuerbach himself had
passed over from Hegelianism to a form of naturalism. But
many of his ideas were taken up by those who, like Arnold Ruge,
had entered into the struggle between church and state in
Germany, and those who, like F. Engels and Karl Marx, were
leaders in the revolt of labour against the power of capital. His
work was too deliberately unsystematic ("keine Philosophic ist
meine Philosophic ") ever to make him a power in philosophy.
He expressed in an eager, disjointed, but condensed and laboured
fashion, certain deep-lying convictions that philosophy must
come back from unsubstantial metaphysics to the solid facts of
human nature and natural science, that the human body was no
less important than the human spirit (" Der Mensch ist was er
isst ") and that Christianity was utterly out of harmony with the
age. His convictions gained weight from the simplicity, upright-
ness and diligence of his character; but they need a more
effective justification than he was able to give them.
His works appeared in 10 yols. (Leipzig, 1846-1866) ; his corre-
spondence has been edited with an indifferent biography by Karl
Grun (1874). See A. Levy, La Philosophic de Feuerbach (1904);
M. Meyer, L. Feuerbach's Moralphilosophie (Berlin, 1899); E. v.
Hartmann, Ceschichte d. Metaphysik (Leipzig, 1899-1900), ii. 437-
444; F'. Engels, L. Feuerbach und d. Ausgangd. class, deutsch. Philos.
(2nd ed., 1895). (H. ST.)
FEUERBACH, PAUL JOB ANN ANSELM, RITTER VON (1775-
!833), German jurist and writer on criminal law, was born at
Hainichen near Jena on the i4thof November 1775. He received
his early education at Frankfort on Main, whither his family had
removed soon after his birth. At the age of sixteen, however,
he ran away from home, and, going to Jena, was helped by
relations there to study at the university. In spite of poor health
and the most desperate poverty, he made rapid progress. He
attended the lectures of Karl Leonhard Reinhold and Gottlieb
Hufeland, and soon published some literary essays of more than
ordinary merit. In 1795 he took the degree of doctor in philo-
sophy, and in the same year, though he only possessed 150
thalers (22 : ios.), he married. It was this step which led him
to success and fame, by forcing him to turn from his favourite
studies of philosophy and history to that of law, which was
repugnant to him, but which offered a prospect of more rapid
advancement. His success in this new and uncongenial sphere
was soon assured. In 1796 he published Kritik des natiirlichen
Rechts ah Propadeutik zu einer Wissenschaft der natiirlichen
Reekie, which was followed, in 1798, by Anti-Hobbes, oder iiber die
Grenzen der biirgerlichen Gewa.lt, a dissertation on the limits of the
civil power and the right of resistance on the part of subjects
against their rulers, and by Philosophische, juristische Unter-
suchungen iiber das Verbrechen des Hochverralhs. In 1799 he
obtained the degree of doctor of laws. Feuerbach, as the founder
of a new theory of penal law, the so-called " psychological-
coercive or intimidation theory," occupied a prominent place in
the history of criminal science. His views, which he first made
known in his Revision der Grundsdtze und Grundbegriffe des
positiven peinlichen Rechts (1799), were further elucidated and
expounded in the Bibliothek fur die peinliche Rechlswissenschaft
(1800-1801), an encyclopaedic work produced in conjunction with
Karl L. W. G. Grolmann and Ludwig Harscher von Almendingen,
and in his famous Lehrbuch des gemeinen in Deutschland geltenden
peinlichen Rechts (1801). These works were a powerful protest
against vindictive punishment, and did much towards the
reformation of the German criminal law. The Carolina (the
penal code of the emperor Charles V.) had long since ceased to be
respected. What in 1 532 was an inestimable blessing, as a check
upon the arbitrariness and violence of the effete German pro-
cedure, had in the course of time outlived its usefulness and
become a source of evils similar to these it was enacted to
combat. It availed nothing that, at the commencement of the
1 8th century, a freer and more scientific spirit had been breathed
into Roman law; it failed to reach the criminal law. The
administration of justice was, before Feuerbach's time, especi-
ally distinguished by two characteristics: the superiority of the
judge to all law, and the blending of the judicial and executive
offices, with the result that the individual was practically at the
mercy of his prosecutors. This state of things Feuerbach set
himself to reform, and using as his chief weapon the Revision der
Grundbegriffe above referred to, was successful in his task. His
achievement in the struggle may be summed up as: nullum
crimen, nulla poena sine lege (no wrong and no punishment
without a remedy). In 1801 Feuerbach was appointed extra-
ordinary professor of law without salary, at the university of
Jena, and in the following year accepted a chair at Kiel, where he
remained two years. In 1804 he removed to the university of
Landshut; but on being commanded by King Maximilian
Joseph to draft a penal code for Bavaria (Strafgesetzbuch fur
das Konigreich Bayern), he removed in 1805 to Munich, where he
was given a high appointment in the ministry of justice and was
ennobled in 1808. Meanwhile the practical reform of penal
legislation in Bavaria was begun under his influence in 1806 by
the abolition of torture. In 1808 appeared the first volume of his
Merkwiirdige Criminalfalle, completed in 1811 a work of deep
interest for its application of psychological considerations to cases
of crime, and intended to illustrate the inevitable imperfection of
human laws in their application to individuals. In his Belrach-
iungen iiber das Geschworenengericht (1811) Feuerbach declared
against trial by jury, maintaining that the verdict of a jury was
not adequate legal proof of a crime. Much controversy was
aroused on the subject, and the author's view was subsequently
to some extent modified. The result of his labours was promul-
gated in 1813 as the Bavarian penal code. The influence of this
code, the embodiment of Feuerbach's enlightened views, was
immense.- It was at once made the basis for new codes in
Wiirttemberg and Saxe- Weimar; it was adopted in its entirety
in the grand-duchy of Oldenburg; and it was translated into
Swedish by order of the king. Several of the Swiss cantons
reformed their codes in conformity with it. Feuerbach had also
undertaken to prepare a civil code for Bavaria, to be founded on
the Code Napoleon. This was afterwards set aside, and the
Codex Maximilianus adopted as a basis. But the project did not
become law. During the war of liberation (1813-1814) Feuerbach
showed himself an ardent patriot, and published several political
brochures which, from tne writer's position, had almost the
weight of state manifestoes. One of these is entitled Uber
deutsche Freiheit und Vertrelung deutsche Volker durch Land-
stdnde (1814). In 1814 Feuerbach was appointed second presi-
304
FEUILLANTS FEUILLET, OCTAVE
dent of the court of appeal at Bamberg, and three years later he
became first president of the court of appeal at Anspach. In
1821 he was deputed by the government to visit France,
Belgium, and the Rhine provinces for the purpose of investigat-
ing their juridical institutions. As the fruit of this visit, he
published his treatises Betrachtungen iiber Offentlichkeit und
Mttndigkeit der Gerechtigkeitspflege (1821) and Uber die Gerichts-
verfassung und das gerichtliche Verfahren Frankreichs (1825). In
these he pleaded unconditionally for publicity in all legal pro-
ceedings. In his later years he took a deep interest in the fate of
the strange foundling Kaspar Hauser ($..), which had excited so
much attention in Europe; and he was the first to publish a
critical summary of the ascertained facts, under the title of
Kaspar Hauser, ein Beispiel eines Verbrechens am Seelenleben
(1832). Shortly before his death appeared a collection of his
Kleine Schriften (1833). Feuerbach, still in the full enjoyment of
his intellectual powers, died suddenly at Frankfort, while on his
way to the baths of Schwalbach, on the 29th of May 1833. In
1853 was published the Leben und Wirken Ans. wn Feuerbachs,
2 vols., consisting of a selection of his letters and journals, with
occasional notes by his fourth son Ludwig, the distinguished
philosopher.
See also, for an estimate of Feuerbach's life and work, Mar-
quardtsen, in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, vol. vi. ; and an " in
memoriam " notice in Die allgemeine Zeitung (Augsburg), I5th Nov.
1875, by Professor Dr Karl Binding of Leipzig University.
FEUILLANTS, CLUB OF THE, a political association which
played a prominent part during the French Revolution. It
was founded on the i6th of July 1791 by several members of
the Jacobin Club, who refused to sign a petition presented by
this body, demanding the deposition of Louis XVI. Among the
dissident members were B. Barere and E. J. Sieyes, who were
later joined by other politicians, among them being Dupont de
Nemours. The name of Feuillants was popularly given to this
group of men, because they met in the fine buildings which had
been occupied by the religious order bearing this name, in the rue
Saint-Honore, near the Place Vend&me, in Paris. The members
of the club preserved the title of Amis de la Constitution, as being a
sufficient indication of the line they intended to pursue. This con-
sisted in opposing everything not contained in the Constitution;
in their opinion, the latter was in need of no modification, and
they hated alike all those who were opposed to it, whether emigres
or Jacobins; they affected to avoid all political discussion, and
called themselves merely a " conservative assembly."
This attitude they maintained after the Constituent Assembly
had been succeeded by the Legislative, but not many of the new
deputies became members of the dub. With the rapid growth of
extreme democratic ideas the Feuillants soon began to be looked
upon as reactionaries, and to be classed with " aristocrats."
They did, indeed, represent the aristocracy of wealth, for they
had to pay a subscription of four louis, a large sum at that time,
besides six livres for attendance. Moreover, the luxury with
which they surrounded themselves, and the restaurant which
they had annexed to their club, seemed to mock the misery of the
half-starved proletariat, and added to the suspicion with which
they were viewed, especially after the popular triumphs of the
2oth of June and the loth of August 1792 (see FRENCH
REVOLUTION). A few days after the insurrection of the loth of
August, the papers of the Feuillants were seized, and a list was
published containing the names of 841 members proclaimed as
suspects. This was the death-blow of the club. It had made an
attempt, though a weak one, to oppose the forward march of the
Revolution, but, unlike the Jacobins, had never sent out branches
into the provinces. The name of Feuillants, as a party designa-
tion, survived the club. It was applied to those wl 3 advocated
a policy of " cowardly moderation," and feuillantisme was
associated with aristocratie in the mouths of the sansculottes.
The act of separation of the Feuillants from the Jacobins was
published in a pamphlet dated the i6th of July 1791, beginning with
the words, Les Membres de I'assemblee national* . . . (Peris, 1791).
The statutes of the club were also published in Paris. See also
A. Aulard, Histoire politique de la Revolution franfaise (Paris,
1903), 2nd ed., p. 153.
FEUILLET, OCTAVE (1821-1890), French novelist and
dramatist, was born at- Saint- L6, Manche, on the nth of August
1821. He was the son of a Norman gentleman of learning and
distinction, who would have played a great part in politics " sans
ses diables de nerfs," as Guizot said. This nervous excitability
was inherited, though not to the same excess, by Octave, whose
mother died in his infancy and left him to the care of the hyper-
sensitive invalid. The boy was sent to the lycee Louis-le Grand,
in Paris, where he achieved high distinction, and was destined for
the diplomatic service. In 1840 he appeared before his father
at Saint-L6, and announced that he had determined to adopt
the profession of literature. There was a stormy scene, and the
elder Feuillet cut off his son, who returned to Paris and lived as
best he could by a scanty journalism. In company with Paul
Bocage he began to write for the stage, and not without success;
at all events, he continued to exist until, three years after the
quarrel, his father consented to forgive him. Enjoying a liberal
allowance, he now lived in Paris in comfort and independence,
and he published his early novels, none of which is quite of
sufficient value to retain the modern reader. The health and
spirits of the elder M. Feuillet, however, having still further
declined, he summoned his son to leave Paris and bury himself
as his constant attendant in the melancholy chateau at Saint-L6.
This was to demand a great sacrifice, but Octave Feuillet cheer-
fully obeyed the summons. In 1851 he married his cousin,
Mile Valerie Feuillet, who helped him to endure the mournful
captivity to which his filial duty bound him. Strangely enough,
in this exile rendered still more irksome by his father's mania
for solitude and by his tyrannical temper the genius of Octave
Feuillet developed. His first definite success was gained in the
year 1852, when he published the novel Bellah and produced the
comedy La Crise. Both were reprinted from the Revue des deux
mondes, where many of his later novels also appeared. He
wrote books which have long held their place, La Petite Comtesse
(1857), Dalila (1857), and in particular that universal favourite,
Le Roman d'un jeune homme pauvre (1858). He himself fell
into a nervous state in his " prison," but he was sustained by
the devotion and intelligence of his wife and her mother. In
1857, having been persuaded to make a play of the novel of
Dalila, he brought out this piece at the Vaudeville, and enjoyed
a brilliant success; on this occasion he positively broke through
the consigne and went up to Paris to see his play rehearsed.
His father bore the shock of his temporary absence, and the
following year Octave ventured to make the same experiment
on occasion of the performance of Un Jeune Homme pauvre.
To his infinite chagrin, during this brief absence his father died.
Octave was now, however, free, and the family immediately
moved to Paris, where they took part in the splendid social
existence of the Second Empire. The elegant and distinguished
young novelist became a favourite at court; his pieces were
performed at Compiegne before they were given to the public,
and on one occasion the empress Eug6nie deigned to play the
part of Mme de Pons in Les Portraits de la Marquise. Feuillet
did not abandon the novel, and in 1862 he achieved a great
success with Sibylle. His health, however, had by this time
begun to decline, affected by the sad death of his eldest son.
He determined to quit Paris, where the life was far too exciting
for his nerves, and to regain the quietude of Normandy. The
old chateau of the family had been sold, but he bought a house
called " Les Paillers " in the suburbs of Saint-L6, and there he
lived, buried in his roses, for fifteen years. He was elected to
the French Academy in 1862, and in 1868 he was made librarian
of Fontainebleau palace, where he had to reside for a month
or two in each year. In 1867 he produced his masterpiece of
Monsieur de Camors, and in 1872 he wrote Julia de Trecaur,
which is hardly less admirable. His last years, after the sale
of " Les Paillers," were passed in a ceaseless wandering, the
result of the agitation of his nerves. He was broken by sorrow
and by ill-health, and when he passed away in Paris on the 29th
of December 1890, his death was a release. His last book was
Honneur d'arliste (1890). Among the too-numerous writings
of Feuillet, the novels have lasted longer than the dramas;
FEUILLETON FEVER
305
of the former three or four seem destined to retain their charm
as classics. He holds a place midway between the romanticists
and the realists, with a distinguished and lucid portraiture of
life which is entirely his own. He drew the women of the world
whom he saw around him with dignity, with indulgence, with
extraordinary penetration and clairvoyance. There is little
description in his novels, which sometimes seem to move on an
almost bare and colourless stage, but, on the other hand, the
analysis of motives, of emotions, and of " the fine shades " has
rarely been carried further. Few have written French with
greater purity than Feuillet, and his style, reserved in form and
never excessive in ornament, but full of wit and delicate anima-
tion, is in admirable uniformity with his subjects and his treat-
ment. It is probably in Sibylle and in Julia de Trecozur that he
can now be studied to most advantage, though Monsieur de
Cantors gives a greater sense of power, and though Le Roman
d'un jeune homme pauvre still preserves its popularity.
See also Sainte-Beuve, Nouveaux Lundis, vol. v. ; F. Brunetiere,
Nouveaux Essais sur la litterature contemporaine (1895). (E. G.)
FEUILLETON (a diminutive of the Fr. feuillet, the leaf of a
book), originally a kind of supplement attached to the political
portion of French newspapers. Its inventor was Berlin the
elder, editor of the Debuts. It was not usually printed on a
separate sheet, but merely separated from the political part of the
newspaper by a line, and printed in smaller type. In French
newspapers it consists chiefly of non-political news and gossip,
literature and art criticism, a chronicle of the fashions, and
epigrams, charades and other literary trifles; and its general
characteristics are lightness, grace and sparkle. The feuilleton in
its French sense has never been adopted by English newspapers,
though in various modern journals (in the United States especi-
ally) the sort of matter represented by it is now included. But
the term itself has come into English use to indicate the instal-
ment of a serial story printed in one part of a newspaper.
FEUQUIERES, ISAAC MANASSES DE PAS, MARQUIS DE
(1590-1640), French soldier, came of a distinguished family of
which many members held high command in the civil wars of
the 1 6th century. He entered the Royal army at the age of
thirty, and soon achieved distinction. In 1626 he served in the
Valtelline, and in 1628-1629 at the celebrated siege of La Rochelle,
where he was taken prisoner. In 1629 he was made Marechal
de Camp, and served in the fighting on the southern frontiers
of France. After occupying various military positions in
Lorraine, he was sent as an ambassador into Germany, where
he rendered important services in negotiations with Wallenstein.
In 1636 he commanded the French corps operating with the
duke of Weimar's forces (afterwards Turenne's " Army of
Weimar "). With these troops he served in the campaigns of
1637 (in which he became lieutenant-general), 1638 and 1639.
At the siege of Thionville (Diedenhofen) he received a mortal
wound. His lettres inedites appeared (ed. Gallois) in Paris in
1845.
His son ANTOINE MANASSES DE PAS, Marquis de Feuquieres
(1648-1711), was born at Paris in 1648, and entered the army
at the age of eighteen. His conduct at the siege of Lille in 1667,
where he was wounded, won him promotion to the rank of
captain. In the campaigns of 1672 and 1673 he served on the
staff of Marshal Luxemburg, and at the siege of Oudenarde
in the following year the king gave him command of the Royal
Marine regiment, which he held until he obtained a regiment
of his own in 1676. In 1688 he served as a brigadier at the siege
of Philipsburg, and afterwards led a ravaging expedition into
south Germany, where he acquired much booty. Promoted
Marechal de Camp, he served under Catinat against the
Waldenses, and in the course of the war won the nickname of
the " Wizard." In 1692 he made a brilliant defence of Speierbach
against greatly superior forces, and was rewarded with the rank
of lieutenant-general. He .bore a distinguished part in Luxem-
burg's great victory of Neerwinden or Landen in 1693. Marshal
Villeroi impressed him less favourably than his old commander
Luxemburg, and the resumption of war in 1701 found him in
disfavour in consequence. The rest of his life, embittered by
the refusal of the marshal's baton, he spent in compiling his
celebrated memoirs, which, coloured as they were by the personal
animosities of the writer, were yet considered by Frederick the
Great and the soldiers of the i8th century as the standard work
on the art of war as a whole. He died in 1711. The Memoires
sur la guerre appeared in the same year and new editions were
frequently published (Paris 1711, 1725, 1735, &c., London 1736,
Amsterdam subsequently) . An English version appeared in
London 1737, under the title Memoirs of the Marquis de Feu-
quieres, and a German translation (Feuquieres geheime Nach-
richten) at Leipzig 1732, 1738, and Berlin 1786. They deal in
detail with every branch of the art of war and of military service.
FEVAL, PAUL HENRI CORENTIN (1817-1887), French
novelist and dramatist, was born on the 27th of September 1817,
at Rennes in Brittany, and much of his best work deals with the
history of his native province. He was educated for the bar,
but after his first brief he went to Paris, where he gained a footing
by the publication of his " CluD des phoques " (1841) in the
Revue de Paris. The Mysteres de Londres (1844), in which an
Irishman tries to avenge the wrongs of his countrymen by
seeking the annihilation of England, was published under the
ingenious pseudonym " Sir Francis Trolopp." Others of his
novels are: Le Fils du diable (1846) ; Les Compagnons du silence
(1857); Le Bossu (1858); Le Poisson d'or (1863); Les Habits
noirs (1863); Jean le diable (1868), and Les Compagnons du
tresor (1872). Some of his novels were dramatized, Le Bossu
(1863), in which he had M. Victorien Sardou for a collaborator,
being especially successful in dramatic form. His chronicles
of crime exercised an evil influence, eventually recognized by
the author himself. In his later years he became an ardent
Catholic, and occupied himself in revising his earlier works from
his new standpoint and in writing religious pamphlets. Reverses
of fortune and consequent overwork undermined his mental
and bodily health, and he died of paralysis in the monastery of
the Brothers of Saint John in Paris on the 8th of March 1887.
His son, PAUL FEVAL (1860- ), became well known as a
novelist and dramatist. Among his works are Nouvelles (1890),
Maria Laura (1891), and Chantepie (1896).
'FEVER (Lat. febris, connected with fervere, to burn), a term
generally used to include all conditions in which the normal
temperature of the animal body is markedly exceeded for any
length of time. When the temperature reaches as high a point
as 106 F. the term hyperpyrexia (excessive fever) is applied,
and is regarded as indicating a condition of danger; while, if
it exceeds 107 or 108 for any length of time, death almost
always results. The diseases which are called specific fevers,
because of its being a predominant factor in them, are discussed
separately under their ordinary names. Occasionally in certain
specific fevers and febrile diseases the temperature may attain
the elevation of iio-ii2 prior to the fatal issue. For the
treatment of fever in general, see THERAPEUTICS.
Pathology. Every rise of temperature is due to a disturbance
in the heat-regulating mechanism, the chief variable in which
is the action of the skin in eliminating heat. (see ANIMAL HEAT).
Although for all practical purposes this mechanism works satis-
factorily, it is not by any means perfect, and many physiological
conditions cause a transient rise of temperature; e.g. severe
muscular exercise, in which the cutaneous eliminating mechanism
is unable at once to dispose of the increased amount of heat
produced in the muscles. Pathologically, the heat-regulating
mechanism may be disturbed in three different ways: ist, by
mechanical interference with the nervous system; 2nd, by
interference with heat elimination; 3rd, by the action of various
poisons.
i. In the human subject, fever the result of mechanical inter-
ference with the nervous system rarely occurs, but it can readily
be produced in the lower animals by stimulating certain parts of
the great brain, e.g. the anterior portion of the corpus striatum.
This leads to a rise of temperature with increased heat production.
The high temperature seems to cause distintegration of cell
protoplasm and increased excretion of nitrogen and of carbonic
acid. Possibly some of the cases of high temperature recorded
306
FEYDEAU FEZ
after injuries to the nervous system may be caused in this way;
but some may also be due to stimulation of vaso-constrictor
fibres to the cutaneous vessels diminishing heat elimination.
So far the pathology of this condition has not been studied with
the same care that has been devoted to the investigation of the
third type of fever.
2. Fever may readily be produced by interference with heat
elimination. This has been done by submitting dogs to a
temperature slightly below that of the rectum, and it is seen in
man in Sunstroke. The typical nervous symptoms of fever
are thus produced, and the rate of chemical change in the tissues
is accelerated, as is shown by the increased excretion of carbonic
acid. The protoplasm is also injured and the proteids are broken
down, and thus an increased excretion of nitrogen is produced (
and the cells undergo degenerative changes.
3. The products of various micro-organisms have a toxic
action on the protoplasm of a large number of animals, and
among the symptoms of this toxic action one of the most frequent
is a rise in temperature. While this is by no means a necessary
accompaniment, its occurrence is so general that the term Fever
has been applied to the general reaction of the organism to the
microbial poison. Toxins which cause a marked rise of tempera-
ture in men may cause a fall in other animals. It is not the
alteration of temperature which is the great index of the severity
of the struggle between the host and the parasite, but the death
and removal to a greater or lesser extent of the protoplasm of
the host. In this respect fever resembles poisoning with phos-
phorus and arsenic and other similar substances. The true
measure of the intensity of a fever is the extent of disintegration
of protoplasm, and this may be estimated by the amount of
nitrogen excreted in the urine. The increased disintegration
of protoplasm is also indicated by the rise in the excretion of
sulphur and phosphorus and by the appearance in the urine of
acetone, aceto-acetic and (3-oxybutyric acids (see NUTRITION).
Since the temperature is generally proportionate to the intensity
of the toxic action, its height is usually proportionate to the
excretion of nitrogen. But sometimes the rise of temperature
is not marked, while the excretion of nitrogen is very decidedly
increased. When the temperature is sufficiently elevated, the
heat has of itself an injurious action on the protoplasm, and
tends to increase disintegration just as when heat elimination
is experimentally retarded. But the increase due to rise of
temperature is small compared to that produced by the de-
structive action of the microbial products. In the beginning
of a fever the activity of the metabolism is not increased to any
marked extent, and any increase is necessarily largely due to
the greater activity of the muscles of the heart and respiratory
mechanism, and to the muscular contractions which produce
the initial rigors. Thus the excretion of carbon dioxide the
great measure of the activity of metabolism is not usually
increased, and there is no evidence of an increased combustion.
In the later stages the increased temperature may bring about
an acceleration in the rate of chemical change; but this is
comparatively slight, less in fact than the increase observed on
taking muscular exercise after rest. The rise of temperature
is primarily due to diminished heat elimination. This
diminished giving off of heat was demonstrated by means of
the calorimeter by I. Rosenthal, while E. Maragliano showed
that the cutaneous vessels are contracted. Even in the later
stages, until defervescence occurs, heat elimination is inadequate
to get rid of the heat produced.
The toxic action is manifested not only by the increased
disintegration of protoplasm, but also by disturbances in the
functions of the various organs. The activity of the digestive
glands is diminished and appetite is lost. Food is therefore not
taken, although when taken it appears to be absorbed in un-
diminished quantities. As a result of this the patient suffers
from inanition, and lives largely on his own fats and proteids,
and for this reason rapidly emaciates. The functions of the
liver are also diminished in activity. Glycogen is not stored
in the cells, and the bile secretion is modified, the essential
constituents disappearing almost entirely in some cases. The
production of urea is also interfered with, and the proportion
of nitrogen in the urine not in the urea increases. This is in part
due to the increased disintegration of proteids setting free
sulphur and phosphorus, which, oxidized into sulphuric and
phosphoric acids, combine with the ammonia which would other-
wise have been changed to urea. Thus the proportion of ammonia
in the urine is increased. Concurrently with these alterations
in the functions of the liver-cells, a condition of granular degenera-
tion and probably a state of fatty degeneration makes its ap-
pearance. That the functional activity of the kidneys is modified,
is shown by the frequent appearance of proteoses or of albumen
and globulin in the urine. Frequently the toxin acts very
markedly on the protoplasm of the kidney epithelium, and
causes a shedding of the cells and sometimes inflammatory
reaction. The muscles are weakened, but so far no satisfactory
study has been made of the influence of microbial poisons on
muscular contraction. A granular and fatty degeneration super-
venes, and the fibres waste. The nervous structures, especially
the nerve-cells, are acted upon, and not only is their functional
activity modified, but they also undergo structural changes of a
chromatoly tic nature. The blood shows two important changes
first, a fall in the alkalinity due to the products of disintegration
of protoplasm; and, secondly, an increase in the number of
leucocytes, and chiefly in the polymorpho-nuclear variety. This
is best marked in pneumonia, where the normal number is often
increased twofold and sometimes more than tenfold, while it is
altogether absent in enteric fever.
An interesting general modification in the metabolism is the
enormous fall in the excretion of chlorine, a fall far in excess
of what could be accounted for by inanition, and out of all
proportion to the fall in the sodium and potassium with which
the chlorine is usually combined in the urine. The fevered
animal in fact stores chlorine in its tissues, though in what
manner and for what reason is not at present known.
AUTHORITIES. Von Noorden, Lehrbuch der Pathologic des Stoff-
wechsels (Berlin, 1893); Metabolism and Practical Medicine, vol. u.,
article " Fever" by F. Kraus (1907); Dr A. Rabe, Die modernen
Fiebertheorien (Berlin, 1894); Dr G. B. Ughetti, Das Fieber, trans,
by Dr R. Teuscher (jena, 1895); Dr M. Loyit, " Die Lehre von
Fieber," Vorlesungen tiber allgemeine Pathologic, erstes Heft (Jena,
1897); Louis Gumon, " De la fievre," in Bouchard's Traite de
pathologic generate, t. iii. and partie (Paris, 1899); Sir J. B. Sander-
son, " The Doctrine of Fever, in Allbutt's System of Medicine, vol. i.
p. 139 (London, 1896). (D. N. P.)
FEYDEAU, ERNEST-AIM^ (1821-1873), French author, was
born in Paris, on the i6th of March 1821. He began his literary
career in 1844, by the publication of a volume of poetry, Les
Nationales. Either the partial failure of this literary effort, or
his marriage soon afterwards to a daughter of the economist
Blanqui, caused him to devote himself to finance and to
archaeology. He gained a great success with his novel Fanny
(1858), a success due chiefly to the cleverness with which it
depicted and excused the corrupt manners of a certain portion
of French society. This was followed in rapid succession by a
series of fictions, similar in character, but wanting the attraction
of novelty; none of them enjoyed the same vogue as Fanny.
Besides his novels Feydeau wrote several plays, and he is also
the author of Histoire generale des usages funebres et des sepultures
des peuples anciens (3 vols., 1857-1861); Le Secret du bonheur
(sketches of Algerian life) (2 vols., 1864); and L'Allemagne en
1871 (1872), a clever caricature of German life and manners. He
died in Paris on the 27th of October 1873.
See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. xiv., and Barbey
d'Aurevilly, Les CEuvres et les hommes au XIX' siecle.
FEZ (Fas), the chief city of Morocco, into which empire it
was incorporated in 1548. It lies in 34 6' 3* N., 4 38' 15* W.,
about 230 m. N.E. of Marrakesh, 100 m. E. from the Atlantic
and 85 m. S. of the Mediterranean. It is beautifully situated
in a deep valley on the Wad Fas, an affluent of the Wad Sebu,
which divides the town into two parts the ancient town, Fas
el Bali, on the right bank, and the new, Fas el Jadid, on the left.
Like many other Oriental cities, Fez from a distance appears
a very attractive place. It stretches out between low hills,
crowned by the ruins of ancient fortresses, and though there
FEZZAN
307
is nothing imposing, there is something particularly impressive
in the sight of that white-roofed conglomeration of habitations,
broken only by occasional mosque towers or, on the outskirts,
by luxuriant foliage. Except on the south side the city is sur-
rounded by hills, interspersed with groves of orange, pomegranate
and other fruit trees, and large olive gardens.
From its peculiar situation Fez has a drainage superior to that
of most Moorish towns. When the town becomes very dirty, the
water is allowed to run down the streets by opening lids for the
purpose in the conduits and closing the ordinary exits, so that
it overflows and cleanses the pavements. The Fasis as a rule
prefer to drink the muddy river water rather than that of the
pure springs which abound in certain quarters of the town. But
the assertion that the supply and drainage system are one is a
libel, since the drainage system lies below the level of the fresh
river water, and was organized by a French renegade, under
Mohammed XVI., about the close of the i8th century. The
general dampness of the town renders it unhealthy, however,
as the pallid faces of the inhabitants betoken, but this is con-
sidered a mark of distinction and is jealously guarded.
Most of the streets are exceedingly narrow, and as the houses
are high and built in many cases over the thoroughfares these
are often very dark and gloomy, though, since wooden beams,
rough stones and mortar are used in building, there is less of
that ruined, half-decayed appearance so common in other
Moorish towns where mud concrete is the material employed.
As a commercial town Fez is a great depot for the trade of
Barbary and wares brought from the east and south by caravans.
The manufactures still carried on are those of yellow slippers
of the famous Morocco leather, fine white woollen and silk haiks,
of which it is justly proud, women's embroidered sashes, various
coarse woollen cloths and blankets, cotton and silk handkerchiefs,
silk cords and braids, swords and guns, saddlery, brass trays,
Moorish musical instruments, rude painted pottery and coloured
tiles. Until recent times the city had a monopoly of the manu-
facture of Fez caps, for it was supposed that the dye which
imparts the dull crimson hue of these caps could not be procured
elsewhere; they are now, however, made both in France and
Turkey. The dye is obtained from the juice of a berry which
grows in large quantities near the town, and is also used in the
dyeing of leather. Some gold ornaments are made, the gold
being brought from the interior by caravans which trade regularly
with Timbuktu.
As in other capitals each trade has a district or street devoted
chiefly to its activities. Old Fez is the business portion of the
town, new Fez being occupied principally by government
quarters and the Jews' mellah. The tradesman usually sits
cross-legged in a corner of his shop with his goods so arranged
that he can reach most of them without moving.
In the early days of Mahommedan rule in Morocco, Fez was
the seat of learning and the empire's pride. Its schools of
religion, philosophy and astronomy enjoyed a great reputation
in Africa and also in southern Europe, and were even attended
by Christians. On the expulsion of the Moors from Spain,
refugees of all kinds flocked to Fez, and brought with them
some knowledge of arts, sciences and manufactures, and thither
flocked students to make use of its extensive libraries. But
its glories were brief, and though still " the university town "
of Morocco, it retains but a shadow of its greatness. Its library,
estimated by Gerhard Rohlfs in 1861 to contain 5000 volumes,
is open on Fridays, and any Moor of known respectability may
borrow volumes on getting an order and signing a receipt for
them. There are about 1 500 students who read at the Karucein.
They pay no rents, but buy the keys of the rooms from the
last occupants, selling them again on leaving.
The Karueein is celebrated as the largest mosque in Africa,
but it is by no means the most magnificent. On account of
the vast area covered, the roof, supported by three hundred
and sixty-six pillars of stone, appears very low. The side chapel
for services for the dead contains twenty-four pillars. All
these columns support horse-shoe arches, on which the roof
is built, long vistas of arches being seen from each of the eighteen
doors of the mosque. The large lamp is stated to weigh 1763 ft>
and to have 509 lights, but it is very seldom lit. The total
number of lights in the Karueein is given as seventeen
hundred, and they are said to require 35 cwt. of oil for one
filling. The mosque of Mulai Idris, built by the founder of Fez
about the year 810, is considered so sacred that the streets
which approach its entrance are forbidden to Jews, Christians
or four-footed beasts. The sanctity of the shrine in particular
is esteemed very great, and this accounts for the crowds which
daily flock to it. The Tumiat door leading to it was once very
fine, but is now much faded. Opposite to it is a refuge for friend-
less sharifas the female descendants of Mahomet built by
Mohammed XVII.
It is believed that the foundation stone of Fez was laid in
808 by Idris II. Since then its history has been chequered,
as it was successfully besieged no fewer than eight times in the
first five hundred years of its existence, yet only once knew
foreign masters, when in 1554 the Turks took possession of it
without a siege and held it for a short time. Fez became the
chief residence of the Filali dynasty, who obtained possession
of the town in 1649 (see further MOROCCO: History).
The population has been very varyingly estimated; probably
the inhabitants number under one hundred thousand, even when
the court is in residence.
See H. Gaillard, Une Ville de I' Islam. Fes (Paris, 1905) ; C. Rene-
Leclerc, " Le commerce et 1'industrie a Fez " in Renseignements col.
comite afrique frangaise (1905).
FEZZAN (the ancient Phazania, or country of the Gara-
mantes), a region of the Sahara, forming a " kaimakamlik "
of the Ottoman vilayet of Tripoli (q.v.). Its frontiers, ill-defined,
run from Bonjem, within 50 m. of the Mediterranean on the
north, south-westward to the Akakus range of hills, which
separates Fezzan from Ghat, thence eastward for over 400 m.>
and then turn north and west to Bonjem again, embracing an
area of about 156,000 sq. m.
Physical Features. The general form of the country is
determined by the ranges of hills, including the Jebel-es-Suda
(highest peak about 4000 ft.), the Haruj-el-Aswad and the
Haruj-el-Abiad, which between 14 and 19 E. and 27 and 29 N.
form the northern edge of a broad desert plateau, and shut off
the northern region draining to the Mediterranean from the
depressions in which lie the oases of Fezzan proper in the south.
The central depression of Hofra (" ditch "), as it is called, lies
in about 26 N. It does not form a continuous fertile tract,
but consists of a monotonous sandy expanse somewhat more
thickly studded with oases than the surrounding wastes. The
Hofra at its lowest part is not more than 600 ft. above the sea-
level, and in this hollow is situated the capital Murzuk. It has
a general east to west direction. North-west of the Hofra is
a long narrow valley, the Wadi-el-Gharbi, which trends north-
east and is the most fertile district of Fezzan. It contains several
perennial springs and lake-like basins. One of these basins, the
saline Bahr-el-Dud (" Sea of Worms "), has an extent of 600
sq. m., and is in places 26 ft. deep. Southwards the Hofra rises
to a height of 2000 ft., and in this direction lies the oasis of
Gatron, followed by Tejerri on the verge of the desert, which
marks the southern limit of the date and the northern of the dum
palm. Beyond Tejerri the Saharan plateau rises continuously
to the Tibesti highlands. (See further TRIPOLI.)
Climate. The average temperature of Murzuk was found
by Rohlfs to be 70 F. Frost is not uncommon in the winter
months. The climate is a very regular one, and is in general
healthy, the dryness of the air in summer making the heat more
bearable than on the sea coast. An almost perpetual blue
sky overhangs the desert, and the people of Fezzan are so
unaccustomed to and so ill-prepared for wet weather that,
as in Tuat and Tidikelt, they pray to be spared from rain.
Water is found almost everywhere at small depths.
Flora and Fauna. The date-palm is the characteristic tree
of Fezzan, and constitutes the chief wealth of the land. Many
different kinds of date-palms are found in the oases: in that
of Murzuk alone more than 30 varieties are counted, the most
3 o8
FEZZAN
esteemea being named the Tillis, Tuati and Auregh. In all
Fezzan the date is the staple food, not only for men, but for
camels, horses and dogs. Even the stones of the fruit are
softened and given to the cattle. The huts of the poorer classes
are entirely made of date-palm leaves, and the more substantial
habitations consist chiefly of the same material. The produce
of the tree is small, 100 full-grown trees yielding only about
40 cwt. of dates. Besides the date there are numerous olive,
fig and almond trees. Various grains are cultivated. Wheat
and barley are sown in winter, and in spring, summer and autumn
several kinds of durra, especially ksob and gafoli. Cotton
flourishes, is perennial for six or seven years, and gives large pods
of moderate length of staple.
There are no large carnivora in Fezzan. In the uninhabited
oases gazelles and antelopes are occasionally found. The most
important animal is the camel, of which there are two varieties,
the Tebu or Sudan camel and the Arabian, differing very much
in size, form and capabilities. Horses and cattle are not
numerous. Among birds are ostriches, falcons, vultures,
swallows and ravens; in summer wild pigeons and ducks are
numerous, but in winter they seek a warmer climate. There are
no remarkable insects or snakes. A species of Artemia or brine
shrimp, about a quarter of an inch in length, of a colour
resembling the bright hue of the gold fish, is fished for with
cotton nets in the " Sea of Worms," and mixed with dates and
kneaded into a paste, which has the taste and smell of salt
herring, is considered a luxury by the people of Fezzan.
Inhabitants. The total population is estimated at between
50,000 and 80,000. The inhabitants are a mixed people, derived
from the surrounding Teda and Bornu on the south, Tuareg of
the plateaus on the west, Berbers and Arabs from the north.
The primitive inhabitants, called by their Arab conquerors
Berauna, are believed to have been of Negro origin. They no
longer persist as a distinct people. In colour the present
inhabitants vary from black to white, but the prevailing hue of
skin is a Malay-like yellow, the features and woolly hair being
Negro. The chief languages are the Kanuri or Bornu language
and Arabic. Many understand Targish, the Teda and the Hausa
tongues. If among such a mixed people there can be said to be
any national language, it is that of Bornu, which is most widely
understood and spoken. The people of Sokna, north of the Jebel-
es-Suda, have a peculiar Berber dialect which Rohlfs found to
be very closely allied to that of Ghadames. The men wear a haik
or barakan like those of Tripoli, and a fez; short hose, and a
large loose shirt called mansaria, with red or yellow slippers,
complete their toilet. Yet one often sees the large blue or white
lobe of Bornu, and the litham or shawl-muffler of the Tuareg,
wound round the mouth to keep out the blown sand of the
desert. The women, who so long as they are young have very
plump forms, and who are generally small, are more simply
dressed, as a rule, in the barakan, wound round their bodies;
they seldom wear shoes, but generally have sandals made of
palm leaf. Like the Arab women they load arms and legs with
heavy metal rings, which are of silver among the more wealthy.
The hair, thickly greased with butter, soon catching the dust
which forms a crust over it, is done up in numberless little plaits
round the head, in the same fashion as in Bornu and the Hausa
countries. Children run about naked until they attain the age
of puberty, which comes very early, for mothers of ten or twelve
years of age are not uncommon. The Fezzani are of a gay
disposition, much given to music and dancing.
Towns and Trade. Murzuk, the present capital, which is
in telegraphic communication with the town. of Tripoli, lies in
the western corner of the Hofra depression, in 25 55' N. and 14
10' E. It was founded about 1310, about which time the kasbah
or citadel was built. The Turks repaired it, as well as the town-
wall, which has, however, again fallen into a ruinous condition.
Murzuk, which had in 1906 some 3000 inhabitants, is cut in two
by a wide street, the dendal. The citadel and most of the houses
are built of salt-saturated dried mud. Sokna, about midway
between Tripoli and Murzuk, situated on a great gravel plain
north of the Suda range, has a population of about 2500.
Garama (Jerma-el-Kedima), the capital under the Garamantes
and the Romans, was in the Wadi-el-Gharbi. It was a flourishing
town at the time of the Arab conquest but is now deserted.
Among the ryins is a well-preserved stone monument marking
the southern limit of the Roman dominions in this part of Africa.
The modern Jerma is a small place a little north of the site of
Garama. Zuila, the capital under the Arabs, lies in a depression
called the Sherguia east of Murzuk on the most direct caravan
route to Barca and Egypt. Of Traghen, the capital under the
Nesur dynasty, which was on the same caravan route and
between Zuila and Murzuk, little besides the ruined kasbah
remains.
Placed roughly midway between the countries of the central
Sudan and Tripoli, Fezzan serves as a depot for caravans crossing
the Sahara; its commerce is unimportant. Its most important
export is that of dates. Slave dealing, formerly the most lucrative
occupation of the people, is moribund owing to the stoppage of
slave raiding by the European governments in their Sudan
territories.
History. The country formed part of the territory of the
Garamantes, described by Herodotus as a very powerful people.
Attempts have been made to identify the Garamantes with the
Berauna of the Arabs of the 7th century, and to the period of
the Garamantes Duveyrier assigns the remains of remarkable
hydraulic works, and certain tombs and rock sculptures
indications, it is held, of a Negro civilization of ancient date
which existed in the northern Sahara. The Garamantes, whether
of Libyan or Negro origin, had certainly a considerable degree
of civilization when in the year 19 B.C. they were conquered by
the proconsul L. Cornelius Balbus Minor and their country added
to the Roman empire. By the Romans it was called Phazania,
whence the present name Fezzan. After the Vandal invasion
Phazania appears to have regained independence and to have
been ruled by a Berauna dynasty. At this time the people were
Christians, but in 666 the Arabs conquered the country and all
traces of Christianity seem speedily to have disappeared. Subject
at first to the caliphs, an independent Arab dynasty, that of the
Beni Khattab, obtained power early in the loth century. In
the i3th century the country came under the rule of the king of
Kanem (Bornu), but soon afterwards the Nesur, said to have
been a native or Berauna dynasty, were in power. More probably
the Nesur were hereditary governors originally appointed by
the rulers of Kanem. In the I4th century the Nesur were
conquered and dethroned by an Arab tribe, that of Khorman,
who reduced the people of Fezzan to a state of slavery, a position
from which they were rescued about the middle of the i6th
century by a sherif of Morocco, Montasir-b.-Mahommed, who
founded the dynasty of Beni Mahommed. This dynasty, which
came into frequent conflict with the Turks, who had about the
same time that Montasir secured Fezzan established themselves
in Tripoli, gradually extended its borders as far as Sokna in the
north. It was the Beni Mahommed who chose Murzuk as their
capital. They became intermittently tributary to the pasha
of Tripoli, but within Fezzan the power of the sultans was
absolute. They maintained a bodyguard of mamelukes, mostly
Europeans Greeks, Genoese, or their immediate descendants.
The annual tribute was paid to the pasha either in money or
in gold, senna or slaves. The last of the Beni Mahommed sultans
was killed in the vicinity of Traghen in 1811 by El-Mukkeni,
one of the lieutenants of Yusef Pasha, the last sovereign but one
of the independent Karamanli dynasty of Tripoli. El-Mukkeni
now made himself sultan of Fezzan, and became notorious by
his slaving expeditions into the central Sudan, in which he
advanced as far as Bagirmi. In 1831, Abd-el-Jelil, a chief of the
Walid-Sliman Arabs, usurped the sovereign authority. After a
troublous reign of ten years he was slain in battle by a Turkish
force under Bakir Bey, and Fezzan was added to the Turkish
empire. Towards the end of the igth century the Turks, alarmed
at the increase of French influence in the neighbouring countries,
reinforced their garrison in Fezzan. The kaimakamlik is said
to yield an annual revenue of 6000 only to the Tripolitan
treasury.
FIACRE, SAINT FIBRES
309
AUTHORITIES. The most notable of the European travellers who
have visited Fezzan, and to whose works reference should be made
for more detailed information regarding it, are, taking them in the
order of date, as follows: F. Hornemann, 1798; G. F. Lyon, 1819;
D. Denham, H. Clapperton and W. Oudney, 1822; J. Richardson,
1845; H. Earth, 1850-1855; E. Vogel, 1854; H. Duveyrier, 1859-
1861; M. von Beurmann, 1862; G. Rohlfs, 1865; p. Nachtigal,
1869; P. L. Monteil, 1892; H. Vischer, 1906. Nachtigal's Sahara
und Sudan, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879), gathers up much of the information
in earlier works, and a list of the Beni Mahommed sovereigns is
giveikin A. M. H. J. Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire, vol. i. (Leiden, 1888),
p. 471. Miss Tinne (q.v.), who travelled with Nachtigal as far as
Murzuk, was shortly afterwards murdered at the Sharaba wells
on the road to Ghat.
FIACRE, SAINT (Celt. Fiachra) , a.n anchorite of the 7th century,
of noble Irish descent. We have no information concerning his
life in his native country. His Acta, which have scarcely any
historical value, relate that he left Ireland, and came to France
with his companions. He approached St Faro, the bishop of
Meaux, to whom he made known his desire to live a life of
solitude in the forest. St Faro assigned him a spot called
Prodilus (Brodolium), the modern Breuil, in the province of Brie.
There St Fiacre built a monastery in honour of the Holy Virgin,
and to it added a small house for guests, to which he himself
withdrew. Here he received St Chillen (? Killian), who was
returning from a pilgrimage to Rome, and here he remained until
his death, having acquired a great reputation for miracles.
His remains rested for a long time in the place which he had
sanctified. In 1568, at the time of the religious troubles, they
were transferred to the cathedral of Meaux, where his shrine
may still be seen in the sacristy. Various relics of St Fiacre were
given to princes and great personages. His festival is celebrated
on the 3oth of August. He is the patron of Brie, and gardeners
invoke him as their protector. French hackney-coaches received
the name of fiacre from the Hotel St Fiacre, in the rue St Martin,
Paris, where one Sauvage, who was the first to provide cabs for
hire, kept his vehicles.
See Acta Sanctorum, August! vi. 598-620; J. O'Hanlon, Lives of
the Irish Saints, viii. 421-447 (Dublin, 1875-1904); J. C. O'Meagher,
" Saint Fiacre de la Brie," in Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,
3rd series, ii. 173-176. (H. DE.)
FIARS PRICES, in the law of Scotland, the average prices of
each of the different sorts of grain grown in each county, as
fixed annually by the sheriff, usually after the verdict of a jury;
they serve as a rule for ascertaining the value of the grain due to
feudal superiors, to the clergy or to lay proprietors of teinds, to
landlords as a part or the whole of their rents and in all cases
where the price of grain has not been fixed by the parties. It is
not known when or how the practice of " striking the fiars," as it
is called, originated. It probably was first used to determine the
value of the grain rents and duties payable to the crown. In
confirmation of this view it seems that at first the duty of the
sheriffs was merely to make a return to the court of exchequer of
the prices of grain within their counties, the court itself striking
the fiars; and from an old case it appears that the fiars were
struck above the true prices, being regarded rather as punish-
ments to force the king's tenants to pay their rents than as the
proper equivalent of the grain they had to pay. Co-existent,
however, with these fiars, which were termed sheriffs' fiars, there
was at an early period another class called commissaries' fiars, by
which the values of teinds were regulated. They have been
traced back to the Reformation, and were under the management
of the commissary or consistorial courts, which then took the
place of the bishops and their officials. They have now been long
out of use, but they were perhaps of greater antiquity than the
sheriffs' fiars, and the model upon which these were instituted.
In 1723 the court of session passed an Act of Sederunt for the
purpose of regulating the procedure in fiars courts. Down to
that date the practice of striking the fiars was by no means
universal over Scotland; and even in those counties into which
it had been introduced, there was, as the preamble of the act puts
it, " a general complaint that the said fiars are struck and given
out by the sheriffs without due care and inquiry into the current
and just prices." The act in consequence provided that all
sheriffs should summon annually, between the 4th and the aoth
of February, a competent number of persons, living in the shire, of
experience in the prices of grain within its bounds, and that from
these they should choose a jury of fifteen, of whom at least eight
were to be heritors; that witnesses and other evidence as to the
price of grain grown in the county, especially since the ist of
November preceding until the day of inquiry, were to be brought
before the jury, who might also proceed on " their own proper
knowledge "; that the verdict was to be returned and the
sentence of the sheriff pronounced by the ist of March; and
further, where custom or expediency recommended it, the sheriff
was empowered to fix fiars of different values according to the
different qualities of the grain. It cannot be said that this act
has remedied all the evils of which it complained. The propriety
of some of its provisions has been questioned, and the competency
of the court to pass it has been doubted, even by the court itself.
Its authority has been entirely disregarded in one county
Haddingtonshire where the fiars are struck by the sheriff alone,
without a jury; and when this practice was called in question the
court declined to interfere, observing that the fiars were better
struck in Haddingtonshire than anywhere else. The other
sheriffs have in the main followed the act, but with much variety
of detail, and in many instances on principles the least calculated
to reach the true average prices. Thus in some counties the
averages are taken on the number of transactions, without regard
to the quantities sold. In one case, in 1838, the evidence was so
carelessly collected that the second or inferior barley fiars were
2s. 4d. higher than the first. Formerly the price was struck by
the boll, commonly the Linlithgowshire boll; now the imperial
quarter is always used.
The origin of the plural word fiars (feors, feers, fiers) is uncertain.
Jamieson, in his Dictionary, says that it comes from the Icelandic
fe, wealth; Paterson derives it from an old French word feur, an
average; others connect it with the Latin forum (i.e. market).
The New English Dictionary accepts the two latter connexions. On
the general subject of fiars prices see Paterson's Historical Account
of the Fiars in Scotland (Edin., 1852); Connell, On Tithes; Hunter's
Landlord and Tenant.
FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra,
apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to
split), the general term for certain structural components of
animal and vegetable tissue utilized in manufactures, and in
respect of such uses, divided for the sake of classification into
textile, paper-making, brush and miscellaneous fibres.
I. Textile Fibres are mostly products of the organic world,
elaborated in their elongated form to subserve protective functions
in animal life (as wool and epidermal hairs, &c.) or as structural
components of vegetable tissues (flax, hemp and wood cells).
It may be noted that the inorganic world provides an exception to
this general statement in the fibrous mineral asbestos (q.v.),
which is spun or twisted into coarse textiles. Other silicates are
also transformed by artificial processes into fibrous forms, such
as " glass," which is fused and drawn or spun to a continuous
fibre, and various " slags " which, in the fused state, are trans-
formed into " slag wool." Lastly, we note that a number of
metals are drawn down to the finest dimensions, in continuous
lengths, and these are woven into cloth or gauze, such metallic
cloths finding valuable applications in the arts. Certain metals
in the form of fine wire are woven into textile fabrics used as
dress materials. Such exceptional applications are of insignifi-
cant importance, and will not be further considered in this article.
The common characteristics of the various forms of matter
comprised in the widely diversified groups of textile fibres are
those of the colloids. Colloidal matter is intrinsically devoid of
structure, and in the mass may be regarded as homogeneous;
whereas crystalline matter in its proximate forms assumes
definite and specific shapes which express a complex of internal
stresses. The properties of matter which condition its adaptation
to structural functions, first as a constituent of a living individual,
and afterwards as a textile fibre, are homogeneous continuity of
substance, with a high degree of interior cohesion, and associated
with an irreducible minimum of elasticity or extensibility. The
colloids show an infinite diversity of variations in these essential
properties: certain of them, and notably cellulose (q.v.), maintain
310
FIBRES
these characteristics throughout a cycle of transformations
such as permit of their being brought into a soluble plastic form,
in which condition they may be drawn into filaments in con-
tinuous length. The artificial silks or lustra-celluloses are
produced in this way, and have already taken an established
position as staple textiles. For a more detailed account of these
products see CELLULOSE.
The animal fibres are composed of nitrogenous colloids of
which the typical representatives are the albumens, fibrines and
gelatines. They are of highly complex constitution and their
characteristics have only been generally investigated. The
vegetable fibre substances are celluloses and derivatives of
celluloses, also typically colloidal bodies. The broad distinction
between the two groups is chiefly evident in their relationship to
alkalis. The former group are attacked, resolved and finally
dissolved, under conditions of action by no means severe. The
celluloses, on the other hand, and therefore the vegetable fibres,
are extraordinarily resistant to the action of alkalis.
The animal fibres are relatively few in number but of great
industrial importance. They occur as detached units and are of
varying dimensions; sheep's wool having lengths up to 36 in.,
the fleeces being shorn for textile uses at lengths of 2 to 16 in.;
horse hair is used in lengths of 4 to 24 in., whereas the silks
may be considered as being produced in continuous length,
" reeled silks " having lengths measured in hundreds of yards,
but " spun silks " are composed of silk fibres purposely broken
up into short lengths.
The vegetable fibres are extremely numerous and of very
diversified characteristics. They are individualized units only in
the case of seed hairs, of which cotton is by far the most important ;
with this exception they are elaborated as more or less complex
aggregates. The bast tissues of dicotyledonous annuals furnish
such staple materials as flax, hemp, rhea or ramie and jute. The
bast occurs in a peripheral zone, external to the wood and
beneath the cortex, and is mechanically separated from the stem,
usually after steeping, followed by drying.
The commercial forms of these fibres are elongated filaments
composed of the elementary bast cells (ultimate fibres) aggregated
into bundles. The number of these as any part of the filament
may vary from 3 to 20 (see figs.). In the processes of refinement
preparatory to the spinning (hackling, scutching) and in the
spinning process itself, the fibre-bundles are more or less sub-
divided, and the divisibility of the bundles is an element in the
textile value of the raw material. But the value of the material
is rather determined by the length of the ultimate fibres (for,
although not the spinning unit, the tensile strength of the yarn is
ultimately limited by the cohesion of these fibres), qualified by
the important factor of uniformity.
Thus, the ultimate fibre of flax has a length of 25 to 35 mm. ; jute,
on the other hand, 2 to 3 mm.; and this disparity is an essential
condition of the difference of values of these fibres. Rhea or
ramie, to cite another typical instance, has an ultimate fibre of
extraordinary length, but of equally conspicuous variability,
viz. from 50 to 200 mm. The variability is a serious impediment
in the preparation of the material for spinning, and this defect,
together with low drawing or spinning quality, limits the applica-
tions of this fibre to the lower counts or grades of yarn.
The monocotyledons yield still more complex fibre aggregates,
which are the fibro-vascular bundles of leaves and stems. These
complex structures as a class do not yield to the mechanical
treatment by which the bast fibres are subdivided, nor is there
any true spinning quality such as is conditioned by bringing the
ultimate fibres into play under the drawing process, which
immediately precedes the twisting into yarn. Such materials are
therefore only used for the coarsest textiles, such as string or
rope. An exception to be noted in passing is to be found in the
pine apple (Ananassa Saliva) the fibres of which are worked into
yarns and cloth of the finest quality. The more important fibres
of this class are manila, sisal, phormium. A heterogeneous mass
of still more complex fibre aggregates, in many cases the entire
stem (cereal straws, esparto), in addition to being used in plaited
form, e.g. in hats, chairs, mats, constitute the staple raw material
for paper manufacturers, requiring a severe chemical treatment
for the separation of the ultimate fibres.
In this class we must include the woods which furnish wood
pulps of various classes and grades. Chemical processes of two-
types, (a) acid and (b) alkaline, are also employed in resolving
the wood, and the resolution not only effects a complete isolation
of the wood cells, but, by attacking the hydrolysable constituents
of the wood substance (lignocellulose) , the cells are obtained
in the form of cellulose. These cellulose pulps are known in
commerce as " sulphite pulps " and " soda pulps " respectively.
In addition to these raw materials or " half stuffs " the paper-
maker employs the rejecta of the vegetable and textile industries,
scutching, spinning and cloth wastes of all kinds, which are
treated by chemical (boiling) and mechanical means (beating)
to separate the ultimate fibres and reduce them to the suitable
dimensions (0-5-2-0 mm.). These papermaking fibres have alsa
to be reckoned with as textile raw materials, in view of a new
and growing industry in " pulp yarns " (Papiersto/garn), a
coarse textile obtained by treating paper as delivered in narrow
strips from the paper machine; the strips are reeled, dried to-
retain 30-40% moisture, and in this condition subjected to the
twisting operation, which confers the cylindrical form and adds
considerably to the strength of the fibrous strip. The following
are the essential characteristics of the economically important
fibres.
Animal. A. Silk, (a) The true silks are produced by the
Bombyx Mori, the worm feeding on the leaves of the mulberry.
The fibre is extruded as a viscous liquid from the glands of the
worm, and solidifies to a cylindrical thread. The cohesion of
these threads in pairs gives to raw silk the form of a dual cylinder
(Plate I. fig. 2). For textile purposes the thread is reeled from
the cocoon, and several units, five and upwards, are brought
together and suitably twisted, (b) The " Wild " silks are pro-
duced by a large variety of insects, of which the most important
are the various species of Antherea, which yield the Tussore
silks. These silks differ in form and composition from the true
silks. While they consist of a " dual " thread, each unit of
these is complex, being made up of a number of fibrillae. This
unit thread is quadrangular in section, and of larger diameter
than the true silk, the mean breadth being 0-052 mm., as com-
pared with 0-018, the mean diameter of the true silks. The
variations in structure as well as in dimensions are, however,
very considerable.
B. Epidermal hairs. Of these (a) wool, the epidermal
protective covering of sheep, is the most important. The
varying species of the animal produce wools of characteristic
qualities, varying considerably in fineness, in length of staple, in
composition and in spinning quality. Hence the classing of
the fleeces or raw wool followed by the elaborate processes
of selection, i.e. " sorting " and preparation, which precede the
actual spinning or twisting of the yarn. These consist in entirely
freeing the fibres and sorting them mechanically (combing, &c.) r
thereafter forming them into continuous lengths of parallelized
units. This is followed by the spinning process which consists
in a simultaneous drawing and twisting, and a continuous produc-
tion of the yarn with the structural characteristics of worsted
yarns. The shorter staple from 5 to 25% of average fleeces
is prepared by the " carding " process for the spinning opera-
tion, in which drawing and twisting are simultaneous, the
length spun being then wound up, and the process being conse-
quently intermittent. This section of the industry is known
as " woollen spinning " in contrast to the former or " worsted
spinning."
(b) An important group of raw material closely allied to the
wools are the epidermal hairs of the Angora goat (mohair),
the llama, alpaca. Owing to their form and the nature of the
substance of which they are composed, they possess more
lustre than the wools. They present structural differences
from sheep wools which influence the processes by which they
are prepared or spun, and the character of the yarns; but the
differences are only of subordinate moment.
(c) Various animal hairs, such as those of the cow, camel
FIBRES
PLATE I.
FIG. i. RAW SILK. Bombyx mori. Filament of have,
viewed in length, x no.
FIG. 2. RAW SILK. Bombyx mori. Single fibres in transverse
section showing each fibre or " bave " as dual cylinder, x 235.
FIG. 3. ARTIFICIAL "SILK." Lustra-cellulose viscose process,
single fibres in transverse section, x 235. Normal type
polygon of 5 sides with concave sides due to contact of the
component units of textile filament.
FIG. 4. WOOL FIBRES. Australian merino viewed in length,
< 235. Surface imbrications the structural cause of true
felting properties.
FIG. 5. FLAX STEM. Linum usitatissimum, tranverse section
of stem, x 235, showing the bast fibres occupying the central
zone between wood and exterior cortex.
FIG. 6. RAMIE. Section of bast region, X 235 Showing bast
fibres bundles but only slightly occurring as individuals and as
coherent.
PLATE II.
FIBRES
FIG. 7. JUTE. Bast bundles. Section of bast region, x 235,
showing agglomerated bundles of bast fibre, each bundle re-
presenting a spinning unit or filament.
FIG. 8. MAIZE STEM. Zea mais. Fibro-vascular bundle in
section, x no, typical of monocotyledonous structure.
Ramie. jute
FIG. 9 COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate fibres in
the length, X no. Portions selected to show typical structural
characteristics.
Jute. Flax.
FIG. io. COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate fibres
transverse section, x l io. Note similarity of ramie to cotton
and jute to flax. Jute "fibre," a filament formed of compact
agglomerate of ultimate fibres, contrasts with flax, in which
ultimate fibres only slightly adherent hence its divisibility and
"drawing" quality under hackling and spinning treatments.
FIG II. ESPARTO. Cellulose. Ultimate fibres of paper making
pulp. Typical fusiform bast fibres, with scattered serrated cells
of cortex and hairs, x 65.
FIG. 12. SECTION OF HAND-MADE PAPER, x up. Ultimate
component fibres disposed in every plane. Proportion lying at
right angles and showing therefore normal transverse section.
FIBRES
and rabbit, are also employed; the latter is largely worked
into the class of fabrics known as felts. In these the hairs are
compacted together by taking advantage of the peculiarity of
structure which causes the imbrications of the surface.
(d) Horse hair is employed in its natural form as an individual
filament or monofil. 1
Vegetable Fibres. The subjoined scheme of classification sets
out the morphological structural characteristics of the vegetable
fibres:
Produced from
Dicotyledons. Monocotyledons.
A. Seed hairs. D. Fibro-vascular bundles.
B. Bast fibres. E. Entire leaves and stems.
C. Bast aggregates.
In the list of the more important fibrous raw materials subjoined,
the capital letter immediately following the name refers the
individual to its position in this classification. In reference to
the important question of chemical composition and the actual
nature of the fibre substance, it may be premised that the
vegetable fibres are composed of cellulose, an important repre-
sentative of the group of carbohydrates, of which the cotton
fibre substance is the chemical prototype, mixed and combined
with various derivatives belonging to the subgroups, (a)
Carbohydrates. (b) Unsaturated compounds of benzenoid and
furfuroid constitutions, (c) " Fat and wax " derivatives, i.e.
groups belonging to the fatty series, and of higher molecular
dimensions of such compound celluloses the following are the
prototypes:
(a) Cellulose combined and mixed with " pectic " bodies
(i.e. pecto-celluloses), flax, rhea.
(b) Cellulose combined with unsaturated groups or ligno-
celluloses, jute and the woods.
(c) Cellulose combined and mixed with higher fatty acids,
alcohols, ethers, cuto-celluloses, protective epidermal
covering of leaves.
The letters a, b, c in the table below and following the capitals,
which have reference to the structural basis of classification,
indicate the main characteristics of the fibre substances. (See
also CELLULOSE.)
Miscellaneous. Various species of the family Palmaceae
yield fibrous products of value, of which mention must be made
of the following. Raffia, epidermal strips of the leaves of
Raphia ruffia (Madagascar), R. taedigera (Japan), largely em-
ployed as binder twine in horticulture, replacing the " bast "
(linden) formerly employed. Coir, the fibrous envelope of the
fruit of the Cocos nucifera, extensively used for matting and
other coarse textiles. Carludovica palmata (Central America)
yields the raw material for Panama hats, the Corypha australis
(Australia) yields a similar product. The leaves of the date
palm, Phoenix dactylifera, are employed locally in making baskets
and mats, and the fibro- vascular bundles are isolated for working
up into coarse twine and rope; similarly, the leaves of the
Elaeis guineensis, the fruit of which yields the " palm oil " of
commerce, yield a fibre which finds employment locally (Africa)
for special purposes. Chamaerops humilis, the dwarf palm,
yields the well-known " Crin d'Afrique." Locally (Algiers)
it is twisted into ropes, but its more general use, in Europe,
is in upholstery as a stuffing material. The cereal straws are
used in the form of plait in the making of hats and mats. Esparto
grass is also used in the making of coarse mats.
The processes by which the fibres are transformed into textile
fabrics are in the main determined by their structural features.
The following are the distinctive types of treatment.
A. The fibre is in virtually continuous lengths. The textile
yarn is produced by assembling together the unit threads, which
are wound together aud suitably twisted (silk; artificial silk).
B. The fibres in the form of units of variable short dimensions
are treated by more or less elaborate processes of scutching,
hackling, combing, with the aim of producing a. mass of free
parallelized units of uniform dimensions; these are then laid
together and drawn into continuous bands of sliver and roving,
which are finally drawn and twisted into yarns. In this group
are comprised the larger number of textile products, such as
Botanical Identity.
Genus and Order.
Country of Origin.
Dimensions of Ultimate.
Textile Uses.
Cotton, A.a .
Gossypium
Tropical and subtropical
12-40 mm. 0-019-0-025.
Universal. Also as a raw material
Malvaceae
countries
Av. 28 mm.
in chemical industries, notably
explosives, celluloid.
Flax, B.a . . .
Linum
Temperate (and subtropical)
6-60 mm. 0-011-0-025.
General. Special effects in lustre
Linaceae
countries, chiefly European
Av. 28 mm.
damasks. In India and America
plants grown for seed (linseed).
Hemp, B.a .
Cannabis
Temperate countries, chiefly
5-55 mm. 0-016-0-050.
Coarser textiles, sail-cloth, rope and
Cannabineae
Europe
Av. 22. mm. Av. 0-022
twine.
Ramie, B.a .
Boehmeria
Tropical countries (some
60-200 mm. 0-03-0-08.
Coarse textiles. Cost of preparation
Jute, B.6 . . .
Urticaceae
Corchorus
temperate)
Tropical countries, chiefly
Av. 120 mm. Av. 0-050
1-5-5 mm. 0-020-0-025.
for fine textiles prohibitive.
Coarse textiles, chiefly " Hessians "
Tiliaceae
India
Av. 2-5 mm. Av. 0-022
and sacking. ' ' Line ' ' spun yarns
used in cretonne and furniture
textiles.
B.6 . . .
Crotalaria
India
4-0-12-0. 0-025-0-050.
Twine and rope. Coarse textiles.
Leguminosae
Av. 7-5. Av. 0-022
Hibiscus, B.6
Hibiscus
Tropical, chiefly India
2-6 mm. 0-014-0-033.
Coarse textiles. H. Elams has been
Av. 4 mm. Av. 0-021
extensively used in making mats.
Sida, B.6 . . .
Sida
Tropical and subtropical
I -5-4 mm. 0-013-0-02.
Coarse textiles. Appears capable of
Malvaceae
Av. 2 mm. Av. 0-015
substituting jute.
Lime or Linden,
Tilia
European countries, chiefly
1-5 mm. 0-014-0-020.
Matting and binder twine.
C.6
Tiliaceae
Russia
Av. 2 mm. Av. 0-016
Mulberry, C .
Broussonetia
Far East
5-31 mm. 0-02-0-04.
Paper and paper cloths.
Moraceae
Av. 15 mm. Av. 0-03
Monocotyledons-
Manila, D .
Musa
Tropical countries, chiefly
3-12 mm. 0-016-0-032.
Twine and ropes. Produces papers
M usaceae
Philippine Islands
Av. 6 mm. Av. 0-024
of special quality.
Sisal, D . .
Agave
Tropical countries, chiefly
i -5-4 mm. 0-020-0-032.
Twine and ropes.
Amaryllideae
Central America
Av. 2-5. Av. 0-024
Yucca
do.
0-5-6 mm. 0-01-0-02.
do.
Liliaceae
Sansevieria
East Indies, Ceylon, ' East
1-5-6 mm. 0-015-0-026.
do.
Liliaceae
Africa
Av. 3 mm. Av. 0-020
Phormium, D .
Phormium tenax
New Zealand
5-0-15 mm. 0-010-0-020.
Twine and ropes. Distinguished by
Liliaceae
Av. 9 mm. Av. 0-016
high yield of fibre from green leaf.
Pine-apple, D .
Ananassa
Tropical East and West
3-0-9-0 mm. 0-004-0-008.
Textiles of remarkable fineness.
Bromeliaceae
Indies
Av. 5. Av. 0-006
Exceptional fineness of ultimate
fibre.
1 See also ALPACA, FELT, MOHAIR, SHODDY and WOOL.
312
FIBRES
cotton, wool, flax and jute, and it also includes at the other
extreme the production of coarse textiles, such as twine and rope.
C. The fibres of still shorter dimensions are treated in various
ways for the production of a fabric in continuous length.
The distinction of type of manufacturing processes in which
the relatively short fibres are utilized, either as disintegrated
units or comminuted long fibres, follows the lines of division
into long and short fibres; the long fibres are worked into yarns
by various processes, whereas the shorter fibres are agglomerated
by both dry and wet processes to felted tissues or felts. It is
obvious, however, that these distinctions do not constitute rigid
dividing lines. Thus the principles involved in felting are also
applied in the manipulation of long fibre fabrics. For instance,
woollen goods are closed or shrunk by milling, the web being
subjected to a beating or hammering treatment in an apparatus
known as " the Stocks," or is continuously run through squeezing
rollers, in weak alkaline liquids. Flax goods are " closed " by
the process of beetling, a long-continued process of hammering,
under which the ultimate fibres are more or less subdivided, and
at the same time welded or incorporated together. As already
indicated, paper, which is a web composed of units of short
dimensions produced by deposition from suspension in water
and agglomerated by the interlacing of the component fibres in
all planes within the mass, is a species of textile. Further,
whereas the silks are mostly worked up in the extreme lengths
of the cocoon, there are various systems of spinning silk wastes
of variable short lengths, which are similar to those required for
spinning the fibres which occur naturally in the shorter lengths.
The fibres thus enumerated as commercially and industrially
important have established themselves as the result of a struggle
for survival, and each embodies typical features of ultility. There
are innumerable vegetable fibres, many of which are utilized in
the locality or region of their production, but are not available
for the highly specialized applications of modern competitive
industry to qualify for which a very complex range of require-
ments has to be met. These include primarily the factors of
production and transport summed up in cost of production,
together with the question of regularity of supply; structural
characteristics, form and dimensions, including uniformity of
ultimate unit and adaptability to standard methods of preparing
and spinning, together with tenacity and elasticity, lustre.
Lastly, composition, which determines the degree of resistance to
chemical disintegrating influences as well as subsidiary questions
of colour and relationship to colouring matters. The quest for
new fibres, as well as modified methods of production of those
already known, require critical investigation from the point of
view of established practice. The present perspective outline
of the group will be found to contain the elements of a grammar
of the subject. But those who wish to pursue the matter will
require to amplify this outlined picture by a study of the special
treatises which deal with general principles, as well as the separate
articles on the various fibres.
Analysis and Identification. For the analysis of textile fabrics
and the identification of component fibre, a special treatise must
be consulted. The following general facts are to be noted as of
importance.
All animal fibres are effectively dissolved by 10% solution
of caustic potash or soda. The fabric or material is boiled in
this solution for 10 minutes and exhaustively washed. Any
residue will be vegetable or cellulose fibre. It must not be for-
gotten that the chemical properties of the fibre substances are
modified more or less by association in combination with colour-
ing matters and mordants. These may, in many cases, be
removed by treatments which do not seriously modify the fibre
substances.
Wool is distinguished from silk by its relative resistance to the
action of sulphuric acid. The cold concentrated acid rapidly
dissolves silk as well as the vegetable fibres. The attack on wool
is slow, and the epidermal scales of wool make their appearance.
The true silks are distinguished from the wild silks by the action
of concentrated hydrochloric acid in the cold, which reagent
dissolves the former, but has only a slight effect on Tussore
silk. After preliminary resolution by these group reagents,
the fabric is subjected to microscopical analysis for the final
identification of its component fibres (see H. Schlichter, Journal
Soc. Chem. Ind., 1890, p. 241).
A scheme for the commercial analysis or assay of vegetable
fibres, originally proposed by the author, 1 and now generally
adopted, includes the following operations:
1. Determination of moisture.
2. Determination of ash left after complete ignition.
3. Hydrolysis:
(a) loss of weight after boiling the raw fibre with a I %
caustic soda solution for five minutes;
(b) loss after boiling for one hour.
4. Determination of cellulose: the white residue after
(a) boiling for five minutes with i % caustic soda,
(b) exposure to chlorine gas for one hour,
(c) boiling with basic sodium sulphite solution.
5. Mercerizing: the loss of weight after digestion with a
20 % solution of sodium hydrate for one hour in the cold.
6. Nitration: the weight of the product obtained after
digestion with a mixture of equal volumes of sulphuric
and nitric acids for one hour in the cold.
7. Acid purification: treatment of the raw fibre with 20%
acetic acid for one minute, the product being washed
with water and alcohol, and then dried.
8. Determination of the total carbon by combustion.
II. Papermaking. The papermaking industry (see PAPER)
employs as raw materials a large proportion of the vegetable
fibre products already enumerated, and, for the reasons incident-
ally mentioned, they may be, and are, employed in a large variety
of forms: in fact any fibrous material containing over 30%
" cellulose " and yielding ultimate fibres of a length exceeding
i mm. can be used in this industry. Most important staples are
cotton and flax; these are known to the paper-maker as " rag "
fibres, rags, i.e. cuttings of textile fabrics, new and old, being
their main source of supply. These are used for writing and
drawing papers. In the class of " printings " two of the most
important staples are wood pulp, prepared by chemical treatment
from both pine and foliage woods, and in England esparto cellur
lose, the cellulose obtained from esparto grass by alkali treat-
ment; the cereal straws are also used and are resolved into
cellulose by alkaline boiling followed by bleaching. In the class
of " wrappings " and miscellaneous papers a large number of
other materials find use, such as various residues of manufactur-
ing and preparing processes, scutching wastes, ends of rovings
and yarns, flax, hemp and manila rope waste, adansonia bast,
and jute wastes, raw (cuttings) and manufactured (bagging).
Other materials have been experimentally tried, and would no
doubt come into use on their papermaking merits, but as a matter
of fact the actually suitable raw materials are comprised in the
list above enumerated, and are limited in number, through the
influence of a number of factors of value or utility.
III. Brush Fibres, &<:. In addition to the textile industries
there are manufactures which utilize fibres of both animal and
vegetable character. The most important of these is brush-
making. The familiar brushes of everyday use are extremely
diversified in form and texture. The supplies of animal fibres
are mainly drawn from the badger, hog, bear, sable, squirrel and
horse. These fibres and bristles cover a large range of effects.
Brushes required for cleansing purposes are composed of fibres
of a more or less hard and resilient character, such as horse hairs,
and other tail hairs and bristles. For painting work brushes
of soft quality are employed, graduating for fine work into the
extreme softness of the " camel hair " pencil. Of vegetable
fibres the following are used in this industry. The Caryota urens
furnishes the Kittul fibre, obtained from the base of the leaf
stalks. Piassava is obtained from the Attaleafunifera,also from
the Leopoldina piassaba (Brazil). Palmyra fibre is obtained
from the Borassus flabellifer. These are all members of the
natural order of the Palmaceae. Mexican fibre, or Istle, is
obtained from the agave. The fibre known as Whisk, largely
1 Col. Ind. Exhibition, 1886, Miscellaneous Reports.
FIBRIN FICHTE, J. G.
used for dusting brushes, is obtained from various species
of the Gramineae; the " Mexican Whisk " from Epicampeas
macroura; and " Italian Whisk " from Andropogon. The coir
fibre mentioned above in connexion with coarse textiles is also
extensively used in brush-making. Aloe and Agave fibres in their
.softer forms are also used for plasterers's brushes. Many of the
whitewashes and cleansing solutions used in house decoration
are alkaline in character, and for such uses advantage is taken
of the specially resistant character of the cellulose group of
materials.
Stuffing and Upholstery. Another important use for fibrous
materials is for filling or stuffing in connexion with the seats and
cushions in upholstery. In the large range of effects required,
a corresponding number and variety of products find employ-
ment. One of the most important is the floss or seed-hair of the
Eriodendron anfractuosum, known as Kapok, the use of which
in Europe was created by the Dutch merchants who drew their
supplies from Java. The fibre is soft, silky and elastic, and
maintains its elasticity in use. Many fibres when used in the
mass show, on the other hand, a tendency to become matted
and compressed in use, and to restore them to their original
state the fibre requires to be removed and subjected to a teasing
or carding process. This defect limits the use of other " flosses "
or seed hairs in competition with Kapok. Horse hair is exten-
sively used in this industry, as are also wool flocks and other
short animal hairs and wastes.
Hats and Matting. For these manufactures a large range
of the fibrous products above described are employed, chiefly
in their natural or raw state.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The list of works appended comprises only a
small fraction of the standard literature of the subject, but they are
sufficiently representative to enable the specialist, by referring to
them, to cover the subject-matter. F. H. Bowman, The Structure
of the Wood Fibre (1885), The Structure of Cotton Fibre (1882) ; Cross,
Bevan and King, Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances (London,
1887); C. F. Cross, Report on Miscellaneous. Fibres, Colonial Indian
Exhibition, 1886 (London, 1887) ; Cross and Bevan, Cellulose,
Researches on Cellulose, i. and ii. (London, 1895-1905) ; C. R. Dodge,
A Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fibre Plants of the World (Report
No. 9, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1897); yon Hohmel,
Die Mikroskopie der technisch verwendeten Faserstoffe (Leipzig, 1905);
1. J. Hummel, The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics (London, 1885) ; J. M.
Matthews, The Textile Fibres, their Physical, Microscopical and
Chemical Properties (New York, 1904) ; H. Miiller, Die Pflanzenfaser
(Braunschweig, 1877) ; H. Schlichter, " The Examination of Textile
Fibres and Fabrics" (Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1890, 241) ; M. Vetillart,
Etudes sur les fibres vegetales textiles (Paris, 1876); Sir T. H.
Wardle, Silk and Wild Silks, original memoirs in connexion with
Col. Ind. Ex., 1886, Jubilee Ex. Manchester, 1887; Sir G. Watt,
Dictionary of Economic Products of India (London, 1891); Wiesner,
Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreichs (Leipzig, 1873); O. N. Witt, Che-
mische Technologie der Gespinnstfasern (Braunschweig, 1888); Kew
Bulletin ; The Journal of the Imperial Institute ; The Journal of the
Society of Arts; W. I. Hannam, The Textile Fibres of Commerce
(London, 1902); J. Jackson, Commercial Botany; J. Zipser, Die
Textilen Rohmaterialien (Wien, 1895); F. Zetzsche, Die wichtigsten
Faserstoffe der europdischen Industrie (Leipzig, 1895). (C. F. C.)
FIBRIN, or FIBRINE, a protein formed by the action of the
so-called fibrin-ferment on fibrinogen, a constituent of the blood-
plasma of all vertebrates. This change takes place when blood
leaves the arteries, and the fibrin thus formed occasions the
clotting which ensues (see BLOOD). To obtain pure coagulated
fibrin it is best to heat blood-plasma (preferably that of the horse)
to 56 C. The usual method of beating a blood-clot with twigs
and removing the filamentous fibrin which attaches itself to
them yields a very impure product containing haemoglobin and
much globulin; moreover, it is very difficult to purify. Fibrin
is a very voluminous, tough, strongly elastic, jelly-like substance;
when denaturalized by heat, alcohol or salts, it behaves as any
other coagulated albumin.
FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN (originally HARTMANN)
VON (1797-1879), German philosopher, son of J. G. Fichte,
was born at Jena on the i8th of July 1797. Having held educa-
tional posts at Saarbriicken and Diisseldorf, in 1836 he became
extraordinary professor of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1840 full
professor. In 1842 he received a call to Tubingen, retired in
1867, and died at Stuttgart on the 8th of August 1879. The
most important of his comprehensive writings are: System der
Ethik (1850-1853), Anthropologie (1856, 3rd ed. 1876), Psychologic
(1864-1873), Die theistische Weltansicht (1873). In 1837 he had
founded the Zeitschrift fur Philosophic as an organ of his views,
more especially on the subject of the philosophy of religion,
where he was in alliance with C. H. Weisse; but, whereas Weisse
thought that the Hegelian structure was sound in the main, and
that its imperfections might be mended, Fichte held it to be
incurably defective, and spoke of it as a " masterpiece of
erroneous consistency or consistent error." Fichte's general
views on philosophy seem to have changed considerably as he
advanced in years, and his influence has been impaired by certain
inconsistencies and an appearance of eclecticism, which is
strengthened by his predominantly historical treatment of
problems, his desire to include divergent systems within his own,
and his conciliatory tone. His philosophy is an attempt to
reconcile monism (Hegel) and individualism (Herbart) by means
of theism (Leibnitz). He attacks Hegelianism for its pantheism,
its lowering of human personality, and imperfect recognition of
the demands of the moral consciousness. God, he says, is to be
regarded not as an absolute but as an Infinite Person, whose
nature it is that he should realize himself in finite persons.
These persons are objects of God's love, and he arranges the
world for their good. The direct connecting link between God
and man is the " genius," a higher spiritual individuality existing
in man by the side of his lower, earthly individuality. Fichte,
in short, advocates an ethical theism, and his arguments might
easily be turned to account by the apologist of Christianity. In
his conception of finite personality he recurs to something like
the monadism of Leibnitz. His insistence on moral experience
is connected with his insistence on personality. One of the tests
by which Fichte discriminates the value of previous systems is
the adequateness with which they interpret moral experience.
The same reason that made him depreciate Hegel made him
praise Krause (panentheism) and SchJeiermacher, and speak
respectfully of English philosophy. It is characteristic of Fichte's
almost excessive receptiveness that in his latest published work,
Der neuere Spiritualismus (1878), he supports his position by
arguments of a somewhat occult or theosophical cast, not unlike
those adopted by F. W. H. Myers. He also edited the complete
works and literary correspondence of his father, including his
life.
See R. Eucken, " Zur Erinnerung I. H. F.," in Zeitschrift fur
Philosophic, ex. (1897); C. C. Scherer, Die Gptteslehre von I. H. F.
(1902) ; article by Karl Hartmann in Allegemeine deulsche Biographic
xlviii. (1904^). Some of his works were translated by J. D. Morell
under the title of Contributions to Mental Philosophy (1860).
FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1762-1814), German philo-
sopher, was born at Rammenau in Upper Lusatia on the igth
of May 1762. His father, a ribbon-weaver, was a descendant of
a Swedish soldier who (in the service of Gustavus Adolphus)
was left wounded at Rammenau and settled there. The family
was distinguished for piety, uprightness, and solidity of character.
With these qualities Fichte himself combined a certain im-
petuosity and impatience probably derived from his mother,
a woman of a somewhat querulous and jealous disposition.
At a very early age the boy showed remarkable mental vigour
and moral independence. A fortunate accident which brought
him under the notice of. a neighbouring nobleman, Freiherr von
Miltitz, was the means of procuring him a more excellent educa-
tion than his father's circumstances would have allowed. He
was placed under the care of Pastor Krebel at Niederau. After
a short stay at Meissen he was entered at the celebrated
school at Pforta, near Naumburg. In 1780 he entered the
university of Jena as a student of theology. He supported
himself mainly by private teaching, and during the years 1784-
1 787 acted as tutor in various families of Saxony. In 1 787, after
an unsuccessful application to the consistory for pecuniary assist-
ance, he seems to have been driven to miscellaneous literary work.
A tutorship at Zurich was, however, obtained in the spring of
1788, and Fichte spent in Switzerland two of the happiest
years of his life. He made several valuable acquaintances,
FICHTE, J. G.
among others Lavater and his brother-in-law Hartmann Rahn,
to whose daughter, Johanna Maria, he became engaged.
Settling at Leipzig, still without any fixed means of livelihood,
he was again reduced to literary drudgery. In the midst of
this work occurred the most important event of his life, his
introduction to the philosophy of Kant. At Schulpforta he had
read with delight Lessing's Anti-Goeze, and during his Jena days
had studied the relation between philosophy and religion. The
outcome of his speculations, Aphorismen uber Religion und
Deismus (unpublished, date 1790; Werke, i. 1-8), was a species
of Spinozistic determinism, regarded, however, as lying alto-
gether outside the boundary of religion. It is remarkable that
even for a time fatalism should have been predominant in his
reasoning, for in character he was opposed to such a view, and,
as he has said, " according to the man, so is the system of
philosophy he adopts."
Fichte's Letters of this period attest the influence exercised
on him by the study of Kant. It effected a revolution in his
mode of thinking; so completely did the Kantian doctrine of
the inherent moral worth of man harmonize with his own
character, that his life becomes one effort to perfect a true
philosophy, and to make its principles practical maxims. At
first he seems to have thought that the best method for accom-
plishing his object would be to expound Kantianism in a popular,
intelligible form. He rightly felt that the reception of Kant's
doctrines was impeded by their phraseology. An abridgment
of the Krilik der Urtheilskrajt was begun, but was left unfinished.
Fichte's circumstances had not improved. It had been
arranged that he should return to Zurich and be married to
Johanna Rahn, but the plan was overthrown by a commercial
disaster which affected the fortunes of the Rahn family. Fichte
accepted a post as private tutor in Warsaw, and proceeded on
foot to that town. The situation proved unsuitable; the lady,
as Kuno Fischer says, " required greater submission and better
French " than Fichte could yield, and after a fortnight's stay
Fichte set out for Konigsberg to see Kant. His first interview
was disappointing; the coldness and formality of the aged
philosopher checked the enthusiasm of the young disciple,
though it did not diminish his reverence. He resolved to bring
himself before Kant's notice by submitting to him a work in which
the principles of the Kantian philosophy should be applied.
Such was the origin of the work, written in four weeks, the
Versuch einer Kritik oiler O/enbarung (Essay towards a Critique
of all Revelation). The problem which Fichte dealt with in
this essay was one not yet handled by Kant himself, the relations
of which to the critical philosophy furnished matter for surmise.
Indirectly, indeed, Kant had indicated a very definite opinion
on theology: from the Critique of Pure Reason it was clear that
for him speculative theology must be purely negative, while the
Critique of Practical Reason as clearly indicated the view that
the moral law is the absolute content or substance of any religion.
A critical investigation of the conditions under which religious
belief was possible was still wanting. Fichte sent his essay to
Kant, who approved it highly, extended to the author a warm
reception, and exerted his influence to procure a publisher.
After some delay, consequent on the scruples of the theological
censor of Halle, who did not like to see miracles rejected, the
book appeared (Easter, 1792). By an oversight Fichte's name
did not appear on the title-page, nor was the preface given, in
which the author spoke of himself as a beginner in philosophy.
Outsiders, not unnaturally, ascribed the work to Kant. The
Allgemeine Liter atur-Zeitung went so far as to say that no one
who had read a line of Kant's writings could fail to recognize
the eminent author of this new work. Kant himself corrected
the mistake, at the same time highly commending the work.
Fichte's reputation was thus secured at a stroke.
The Critique of Revelation marks the culminating point of
Fichte's Kantian period. The exposition of the conditions under
which revealed religion is possible turns upon the absolute
requirements of the moral law in human nature. Religion itself
is the belief in this moral law as divine, and such belief is a
practical postulate, necessary in order to add force to the law.
It follows that no revealed religion, so far as matter or substance
is concerned, can contain anything beyond this law; nor can
any fact in the world of experience be recognized by us as super-
natural. The supernatural element in religion can only be the
divine character of the moral law. Now, the revelation of this
divine character of morality is possible only to a being in whom
the lower impulses have been, or are, successful in overcoming
reverence for the law. In such a case it is conceivable that a
revelation might be given in order to add strength to the moral
law. Religion ultimately then rests upon the practical reason,
and expresses some demand or want of the pure ego. In this
conclusion we can trace the prominence assigned by Fichte to
the practical element, and the tendency to make the requirements
of the ego the ground for all judgment on reality. It was not
possible that having reached this point he should not press
forward and leave the Kantian position.
This success was coincident with an improvement in the
fortunes of the Rahn family, and the marriage took place at
Zurich in October 1793. The remainder of the year he spent
at Zurich, slowly perfecting his thoughts on the fundamental
problems left for solution in the Kantian philosophy. During
this period he published anonymously two remarkable political
works, Zuruckforderung der Denkfreiheit von den Fiirsten Europas
and Beitrage zur Berichtigung der Urtheile des Publicums iiber die
franzosische Revolution. Of these the latter is much the more
important. The French Revolution seemed to many earnest
thinkers the one great outcry of modern times for the liberty
of thought and action which is the eternal heritage of every
human being. Unfortunately the political condition of Germany
was unfavourable to the formation of an unbiassed opinion on
the great movement. The principles involved in it were lost
sight of under the mass of spurious maxims on social order
which had slowly grown up and stiffened into system. To
direct attention to the true nature of revolution, to demonstrate
how inextricably the right of liberty is interwoven with the very
existence of man as an intelligent agent, to point out the inherent
progressiveness of state arrangements, and the consequent
necessity of reform or amendment, such are the main objects
of the Beitrage; and although, as is often the case with Fichte,
the arguments are too formal and the distinctions too wire-
drawn, yet the general idea is nobly conceived and carried out.
As in the Critique of Revelation so here the rational nature of
man and the conditions necessary for its manifestation or realiza-
tion become the standard for critical judgment.
Towards the close of 1793 Fichte received an invitation to
succeed K. L. Reinhold as extraordinary professor of philosophy
at Jena. This chair, not in the ordinary faculty, had become,
through Reinhold, the most important in the university, and
great deliberation was exercised in selecting his successor. It
was desired to secure an exponent of Kantianism, and none
seemed so highly qualified as the author of the Critique of Revela-
tion. Fichte, while accepting the call, desired to spend a year
in preparation; but as this was deemed inexpedient he rapidly
drew out for his students an introductory outline of his system,
and began his lectures in May 1 794. His success was instantaneous
and complete. The fame of his predecessor was altogether
eclipsed. Much of this success was due to Fichte's rare power
as a lecturer. In oral exposition the vigour of thought and
moral intensity of the man were most of all apparent, while
his practical earnestness completely captivated his hearers.
He lectured not only to his own class, but on general moral
subjects to all students of the university. These general
addresses, published under the title Beslimmung des Gelekrlen
(Vocation of the Scholar), were on a subject dear to Fichte's
heart, the supreme importance of the highest intellectual culture
and the duties incumbent on those who had received it. Their
tone is stimulating and lofty.
The years spent at Jena were unusually productive; indeed,
the completed Fichtean philosophy is contained in the writings
of this period. A general introduction to the system is given
in the tractate Uber den Begriff der Wissenschaftslehre (On the
Notion of the Theory of Science), 1794, and the theoretical
FICHTE, J. G.
portion is worked out in the Grundlage der gesammten Wissen-
schaftslehre (Foundation of the whole Theory of Science, 1794)
and Grundriss des Eigenthiimlichen d. Wissenschaftslehre (Outline
of what is peculiar in the Theory of Science, 1794). To these
were added in 1797 a First and a Second Introduction to the
Theory of Science, and an Essay towards a new Exposition of the
Theory of Science. The Introductions are masterly expositions.
The practical philosophy was given in the Grundlage des
Naturrechts (1796) and System der Sittenlehre (1798). The last
is probably the most important of all Fichte's works; apart
from it, his theoretical philosophy is unintelligible.
During this period Fichte's academic career had been troubled
by various storms, the last so violent as to put a close to his
professorate at Jena. The first of them, a complaint against the
delivery of his general addresses on Sundays, was easily settled.
The second, arising from Fichte's strong desire to suppress the
Landsmannschaften (students' orders), which were productive
of much harm, was more serious. Some misunderstanding
caused an outburst of ignorant ill-feeling on the part of the
students, who proceeded to such lengths that Fichte was com-
pelled to reside out of Jena. The third storm, however, was
the most violent. In 1798 Fichte, who, with F. I. Niethammer
(1766-1848), had edited the Philosophical Journal since 1795,
received from his friend F. K. Forberg (1770-1848) an essay
on the " Development of the Idea of Religion." With much
of the essay he entirely agreed, but he thought the exposition
in so many ways defective and calculated to create an erroneous
impression, that he prefaced it with a short paper On the Grounds
of our Belief in a Divine Government of the Universe, in which
God is defined as the moral order of the universe, the eternal
law of right which is the foundation of all our being. The cry
of atheism was raised, and the electoral government of Saxony,
followed by all the German states except Prussia, suppressed
the Journal and confiscated the copies found in their universities.
Pressure was put by the German powers on Charles Augustus,
grand-duke of Saxe- Weimar, in whose dominions Jena university
was situated, to reprove and dismiss the offenders. Fichte's
defences (Appellation an das Publicum gegen die Anklage des
Atheismus, and Gerichlliche Verantwortung der Herausgeber der
phil. Zeitschrifl, 1799), though masterly, did not make it easier
for the liberal-minded grand-duke to pass the matter over, and
an unfortunate letter, in which he threatened to resign in case
of reprimand, turned the scale against him. The grand-duke
accepted his threat as a request to resign, passed censure, and
extended to him permission to withdraw from his chair at Jena;
nor would he alter his decision, even though Fichte himself
endeavoured to explain away the unfortunate letter.
Berlin was the only town in Germany open to him. His
residence there from 1799 to 1806 was unbroken save for a
course of lectures during the summer of 1805 at Erlangen, where
he had been named professor. Surrounded by friends, including
Schlegel and Schleiermacher, he continued his literary work,
perfecting the Wissenschaftslehre. The most remarkable of the
works from this period are (i) the Bestimmung des Menschen
(Vocation of Man, 1800), a book which, for beauty of style,
richness of content, and elevation of thought, may be ranked
with the Meditations of Descartes; (2) Der geschlossene Handels-
staat, 1800 (The Exclusive or Isolated Commercial State), a very
remarkable treatise, intensely socialist in tone, and inculcating
organized protection; (3) Sonnenklarer Bericht an das grossere
Publicum iiber die neueste Philosophic, 1801. In 1801 was also
written the Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre, which was not
published till after his death. In 1804 a set of lectures on the
Wissenschaftslehre was given at Berlin, the notes of which were
published in the N achgelassene Werke, vol. ii. In 1804 were
also delivered the noble lectures entitled Grundzuge des gegen-
wartigen Zeitalters (Characteristics of the Present Age, 1804),
containing a most admirable analysis of the Aufklarung, tracing
the position of such a movement of thought in the natural
evolution of the general human consciousness, pointing out
its inherent defects, and indicating as the ultimate, goal of progress
the life of reason in its highest aspect as a belief in the divine
order of the universe. The philosophy of history sketched in
this work has something of value with much that is fantastic.
In 1805 and 1806 appeared the Wesen des Gelehrten (Nature of
the Scholar) and the Anweisung zum seligen Leben oder Religions-
lehre (Way to a Blessed Life), the latter the most important
work of this Berlin period. In it the union between the finite
self-consciousness and the infinite ego or God is handled in an
almost mystical manner. The knowledge and love of God is
the end of life; by this means only can we attain blessedness
(Seligkeit) , for in God alone have we a permanent, enduring object
of desire. The infinite God is the all; the world of independent
objects is the result of reflection or self-consciousness, by which
the infinite unity is broken up. God is thus over and above the
distinction of subject and object; our knowledge is but a reflex
or picture of the infinite essence. Being is not thought.
The diasters of Prussia in 1806 drove Fichte from Berlin.
He retired first to Stargard, then to Konigsberg (where he
lectured for a time), then to Copenhagen, whence he returned
to the capital in August 1807. From this time his published
writings are practical in character; not till after the appearance
of the N achgelassene Werke was it known in what shape his final
speculations had been thrown out. We may here note the order
of these posthumous writings as being of importance for tracing
the development of Fichte's thought. From the year 1806 we
have the remarkable Bericht iiber die Wissenschaftslehre (Werke,
vol. viii.), with its sharp critique of Schelling; from 1810 we
have the Thatsachen des Bewusslseyns, published in 1817, of
which another treatment is given in lectures of 1813 (Nachgel.
Werke, vol. i.). Of the Wissenschaftslehre we have, in 181 2-1813,
four separate treatments contained in the Nachgel. Werke. As
these consist mainly of notes for lectures, couched in uncouth
phraseology, they cannot be held to throw much light on Fichte's
views. Perhaps the most interesting are the lectures of 1812
on Transcendental Logic (Nach. Werke, i. 106-400).
From 181 2 we have notes of two courses on practical philosophy,
Rechtslehre (Nach. Werke, vol. ii.) and Sittenlehre (ib. vol. iii.).
A finished work in the same department is the Staatslehre,
published in 1820. This gives the Fichtean Utopia organized
on principles of pure reason; in too many cases the proposals
are identical with principles of pure despotism.
During these years, however, Fichte was mainly occupied
with public affairs. In 1807 he drew up an elaborate and
minute plan for the proposed new university of Berlin. In
1807-1808 he delivered at Berlin, amidst danger and discourage-
ment, his noble addresses to the German people (Reden an die
deutsche Nation). Even if we think that in these pure reason
is sometimes overshadowed by patriotism, we cannot but recog-
nize the immense practical value of what he recommended as
the only true foundation for national prosperity.
In 1810 he was elected rector of the new university founded
in the previous year. This post he resigned in 1812, mainly on
account of the difficulties he experienced in his endeavour to
reform the student life of the university.
In 1813 began the great effort of Germany for national in-
dependence. Debarred from taking an active part, Fichte
made his contribution by way of lectures. The addresses on
the idea of a true war (Uber den Begriff eines wahrhaften Kriegs,
forming part of the Staatslehre) contain a very subtle contrast
between the positions of France and Germany in the war.
In the autumn of 1813 the hospitals of Berlin were filled with
sick and wounded from the campaign. Among the most devoted
in her exertions was Fichte's wife, who, in January 1814, was
attacked with a virulent hospital fever. On the day after she
was pronounced out of danger Fichte was struck down. He
lingered for some days in an almost unconscious state, and died
on the 27th of January 1814.
The philosophy of Fichte, worked out in a series of writings,
and falling chronologically into two distinct periods, that of Jena
and that of Berlin, seemed in the course of its development to
undergo a change so fundamental that many critics have sharply
separated and opposed to one another an earlier and a later phase.
The ground of the modification, further, has been sought and
apparently found in quite external influences, principally that of
316
FICHTE, J. G.
Schelling's Naturphilosophit, to some extent that of Schleiermacher.
But as a rule most of those who have adopted this view have done
so without the full and patient examination which the matter
demands; they have been misled by the difference in tone and
style between the earlier and later writings, and have concluded that
underlying this was a fundamental difference of philosophic con-
ception. One only, Erdmann, in his Entwicklung d. deut. Spek.
seit Kant, 29, seems to give full references to justify his opinion,
and even he, in his later work, Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos.
(ed. 3), 311, admits that the difference is much less than he had
at the first imagined. He certainly retains his former opinion,
but mainly on the ground, in itself intelligible and legitimate, that, so
far as Fichte's philosophical reputation and influence are concerned,
attention may be limited to the earlier doctrines of the Wissen-
schaftslehre. This may be so, but it can be admitted neither that
Fichte's views underwent radical change, nor that the Wissenschafts-
lehre was ever regarded as in itself complete, nor that Fichte was
unconscious of the apparent difference between his earlier and later
utterances. It is demonstrable by various passages in the works
and letters that he never looked upon the Wissenschaftslehre as con-
ta'ining the whole system; it is clear from the chronology of his
writings that the modifications supposed to be due to other thinkers
were from the first implicit in his theory; and if one fairly traces
the course of thought in the early writings, one can see how he
was inevitably led on to the statement of the later and, at first sight,
divergent views. On only one point, the position assigned in the
Wissenschaftslehre to the absolute ego, is there any obscurity; but
the relative passages are far from decisive, and from the early work,
Neue Darslellung der Wissenchaftslehre, unquestionably to be in-
sluded in the Jena period, one can see that from the outset the
doctrine of the absolute ego was held in a form differing only in
statement from the later theory.
Fichte's system cannot be compressed with intelligibility. We
shall here note only three points: (a) the origin in Kant; (b) the
fundamental principle and method of the Wissenschaftslehre; (c) the
connexion with the later writings. The most important works for
(a) are the " Review of Aenesidemus," and the Second Introduction
to the Wissenschaftslehre; for (6) the great treatises of the Jena
period; for (c) the Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns of 1810.
(a) The Kantian system had for the first time opened up a truly
fruitful line of philosophic speculation, the transcendental con-
sideration of knowledge, or the analysis of the conditions under
which cognition is possible. To Kant the fundamental condition
was given in the synthetical unity of consciousness. The primitive
fact under which might be gathered the special conditions of that
synthesis which we call cognition was this unity. But by Kant
there was no attempt made to show that the said special conditions
were necessary from the very nature of consciousness itself. Their
necessity was discovered and proved in a manner which might be
called empirical. Moreover, while Kant in a quite similar manner
pointed out that intuition had special conditions, space and time,
he did not show any link of connexion between these and the primi-
tive conditions of pure cognition. Closely connected with this
remarkable defect in the Kantian view lying, indeed, at the founda-
tion of it was the doctrine that the matter of cognition is altogether
given, or thrown into the form of cognition from without. So
strongly was this doctrine emphasized by Kant, that he seemed to
refer the matter of knowledge to the action upon us of a non-ego
or Ding-an-sich, absolutely beyond consciousness. While these
hints towards a completely intelligible account of cognition were
given by Kant, they were not reduced to system, and from the way
in which the elements of cognition were related, could not be so
reduced. Only in the sphere of practical reason, where the intelligible
nature prescribed to itself its own laws, was there the possibility of
systematic deduction from a single principle.
The peculiar position in which Kant had left the theory of cog-
nition was assailed from many different sides and by many writers,
specially by Schultze (Aenesidemus) and Maimon. To the criticisms
of the latter, in particular, Fichte owed much, but his own activity
went far beyond what they supplied to him. To complete Kant's
work, to demonstrate that all the necessary conditions of knowledge
can be deduced from a single principle, and consequently to expound
the complete system of reason, that is the business of the Wissen-
schaftslehre. By it the theoretical and practical reason shall be
shown to coincide ; for while .the categories of cognition and the
whole system of pure thought can be expounded from one principle,
the ground of this principle is scientifically, or to cognition, in-
explicable, and is made conceivable only in the practical philosophy.
The ultimate basis for the activity of cognition is given by the will.
Even in the practical sphere, however, Fichte found that the contra-
diction, insoluble to cognition, was not completely suppressed,
and he was thus driven to the higher view, which is explicitly stated
in the later writings though not, it must be confessed, with the
precision and scientific clearness of the Wissenschaftslehre.
(b) What, then, is this single principle, and how does it work
itself out into system? To answer this one must bear in mind
what Fichte intended by designating all philosophy Wissenschafts-
lehre, or theory of science. Philosophy is to him the rethinking of
actuaj cognition, the theory of knowledge, the complete, systematic
exposition of the principles which lie at the basis of all reasoned
cognition. It traces the necessary acts by which the cognitive
consciousness comes to be what it is, both in form and in content.
Not that it is a natural history, or even a phenomenology of con-
sciousness; only in the later writings did Fichte adopt even the
genetic method of exposition ; it is the complete statement of the
pure principles of the understanding in their rational or necessary
order. But if complete, this Wissenschaftslehre must be able to
deduce the whole organism of cognition from certain fundamental
axioms, themselves unproved and incapable of proof; only thus
can we have a system of reason. From these primary axioms the
whole body of necessary thoughts must be developed, and, as
Socrates would say, the argument itself will indicate the path of
the development.
Of such primitive principles, the absolutely necessary conditions
of possible cognition, only three are thinkable one perfectly un-
conditioned both in form and matter; a second, unconditioned in
form but not in matter; a third, unconditioned in matter but not
in form. Of these, evidently the first must be the fundamental ; to
some extent it conditions the other two, though these cannot be
deduced from it or proved by it. The statement of these principles
forms the introduction to Wissenschaftslehre.
The method which Fichte first adopted for stating these axioms
is not calculated to throw full light upon them, and tends to ex-
aggerate the apparent airiness and unsubstantiality of his deduction.
They may be explained thus. The primitive condition of all in-
telligence is that the ego shall posit, affirm or be aware of itself.
The ego is the ego; such is the first pure act of conscious intelligence,
that by which alone consciousness can come to be what it is. It
is what Fichte called a Deed-act (Thathandlung) ; we cannot be
aware of the process, the ego is not until it has affirmed itself,
but we are aware of the result, and can see the necessity of the act
by which it is brought about. The ego then posits itself as real.
What the ego posits is real. But in consciousness there is equally
given a primitive act of op-positing, or contra-positing, formally
distinct from the act of position, but materially determined, in so
far as what is op-posited must be the negative of that which was
posited. The non-ego not, be it noticed, the world as we know
it is op-posed in consciousness to the ego. The ego is not the
non-ego. How this act of op-positing is possible and necessary,
only becomes clear in the practical philosophy, and even there the
inherent difficulty leads to a higher view. But third, we have now
an absolute antithesis to our original thesis. Only the ego is real,
but the non-ego is posited in the ego. The contradiction is solved
in a higher synthesis, which takes up into itself the two opposites.
The ego and non-ego limit one another, or determine one another;
and, as limitation is negation of part of a divisible quantum, in this
third act, the divisible ego is op-posed to a divisible non-ego.
From this point onwards the course proceeds by the method
already made clear. We progress by making explicit the oppositions
contained in the fundamental synthesis, by uniting these opposites,
analysing the new synthesis, and so on, until we reach an ultimate
pair. Now, in the synthesis of the third act two principles may be
distinguished: (i) the non-ego determines the ego; (2) the ego
determines the non-ego. As determined the ego is theoretical, as
determining it is practical; ultimately the opposed principles must
be united by showing how the ego is bothdeterminingand determined.
It is impossible to enter here on the steps by which the theo-
retical ego is shown to develop into the complete system of cognitive
categories, or to trace the deduction of the processes (productive
imagination, intuition, sensation, understanding, judgment, reason)
by which the quite indefinite non-ego comes to assume the appear-
ance of definite objects in the forms of time and space. All this
evolution is the necessary consequence of the determination of
the ego by the non-ego. But it is clear that the non-ego cannot
really determine the ego. There is no reality beyond the ego itself.
The contradiction can only be suppressed if the ego itself opposes
to itself the non-ego, places it as an Anstoss or plane on which its
own activity breaks and from which it is reflected. Now, this op-
positing of the Anstoss is the necessary condition of the practical ego,
of the will. If the ego be a striving power, then of necessity a
limit must be set by which its striving is manifest. But how can
the infinitely active ego posit a limit to its own activity? Here
we come to the crux of Fichte's system, which is only partly cleared
up in the Rechtslehre and Siltenlehre. If the ego be pure activity,
free activity, it can only become aware of itself by positing some
limit. We cannot possibly have any cognition of how such an act
is possible. But as it is a free act, the ego cannot be determined
to it by anything beyond itself ; it cannot be aware of its own free'
dom otherwise than as determined by other free egos. Thus in the
Rechtslehre and Sittenlehre, the multiplicity of egos is deduced, and
with this deduction the first form of the Wissenschaftslehre appeared
to end.
(c) But in fact deeper questions remained. We have spoken of
the ego as becoming aware of its own freedom, and have shown how
the existence of other egos and of a world in which these egos may
act are the necessary conditions of consciousness of freedom. But
all this is the work of the ego. All that has been expounded follows
if the ego comes to consciousness. We have therefore to consider that
the absolute ego, from which spring all the individual egos, is not
subject to these conditions, but freely determines itself to them.
FICHTELGEBIRGE FICINO
How is this absolute ego to be conceived? As early as 1797 Fichte
had begun to see that the ultimate basis of his system was the
absolute ego, in which is no difference of subject and object ; in 1800
the Bestimmung des Menschen defined this absolute ego as the
infinite moral will of the universe, God, in whom are all the in-
dividual egos, from whom they have sprung. It lay in the nature
of the thing that more precise utterances should be given on this
subject, and these we find in the Thatsachen des Bewusslseyns and in
all the later lectures. God in them is the absolute Life, the absolute
One, who becomes conscious of himself by self-diremption into the
individual egos. The individual ego is only possible as opposed to a
non-ego, to a world of the senses; thus God, the infinite will, mani-
fests himself in the individual, and the individual has over against
him the non-ego or thing. " The individuals do not make part of
the being of the one life, but are a pure form of its absolute freedom."
" The individual is not conscious of himself, but the Life is conscious
of itself in individual form and as an individual." In order that
the Life may act, though it is not necessary that it should act, in-
dividualization is necessary. " Thus," says Fichte, " we reach a
final conclusion. Knowledge is not mere knowledge of itself, but
of being, and of the one being that truly is, viz. God. . . .This one
possible object of knowledge is never known in its purity, but ever
broken into the various forms of knowledge which are and can be
shown to be necessary. The demonstration of the necessity of these
forms is philosophy or Wissenschaftslehre " (Thats. des Bewuss.
Werke, ii. 685). This ultimate view is expressed throughout the
lectures (in the Nachgel. Werke) in uncouth and mystical language.
It will escape no one (i) how the idea and method of the Wissen-
schaftslehre prepare the way for the later Hegelian dialectic, and
(2) how completely the whole philosophy of Schopenhauer is con-
tained in the later writings of Fichte. It is not to the credit of
historians that Schopenhauer's debt should have been allowed to
pass with so little notice.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fichte's complete works were published by his
son J. H. Fichte, Sdmmtliche Werke (8 vols., Berlin, 1845-1846),
with Nachgelassene Werke (3 vols., Bonn, 1834-1835); also Leben
und Briefwechsel (2 vols., 1830, ed. 1862). Among translations are
those of William Smith, Popular Writings of Fichte, with Memoir
(2 vols., London, 1848-1849, 4th ed. 1889); A. E. Kroeger, portions
of the Wissenschaftslehre (Science of Knowledge, Philadelphia, 1868;
ed. London, 1889), the Naturrecht (Science of Rights, 1870; ed,
London, 1889); of the Vorlesungen u. d. Bestimmung d. (jelehrten
(The Vocation of the Scholar, by W. Smith, 1847) ; Destination of Man,
by Mrs P. Sinnett; Discours a la nation allemande, French by Leon
Philippe (1895), with preface by F. Pica vet, and a biographical
memoir.
The number of critical works is very large. Besides the histories
of post-Kantian philosophy by Erdmann, Fortlage (whose account
is remarkably good), Michelet, Biedermann and others, see Wm.
Busse, Fichte und seine Beziehung zur Gegenwart des deutschen Volkes
(Halle, 1848-1849); J. H. Lowe, Die Philosophie Fichtes (Stuttgart,
1862); Kuno Fischer, Geschichte d. neueren Philosophie (1869, 1884,
1890) ; Ludwig Noack, Fichte nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirken
(Leipzig, 1862); R. Adamson, Fichte (1881, in Knight's "Philo-
sophical Classics ") ; Oscar Benzow, Zu Fichtes Lekre von Nicht-Ich
(Bern, 1898) ; E. O. Burmann, Die Transcendentalphilosophie
Fichtes und Schellings (Upsala, 1890-1892); M. Carriere, Fichtes
Geistesentwickelung in die Reden iiber d. Bestimmung des Gelehrten
(1894) ; C. C. Everett, Fichte's Science of Knowledge (Chicago, 1884) ;
O. Pfleiderer, /. G. Fichtes Lebensbild eines deutschen Denkers und
Patrioten (Stuttgart, 1877); T. Wotschke, Fichte und Erigena
(1896); W. Kabitz, Studien zur Entwickelungsgeschickte der Fichte-
'schen Wissenschaftslehre aus der Kantischen Fhilosophie (1902) ;
E. Lask, Fichtes Idealismus und die Geschichte (1902) ; X. Leon,
La Philos. de Fichte (1902); M. Wiener, /. G. Fichtes Lehre vom
Wesen und Inhalt der Geschichte (1906).
On Fichte's social philosophy see, e.g., F. Schmidt-Warneck,
Die Sociologie Fichtes (Berlin, 1884); W. Windelband, Fichtes Idee
des deutschen Staates (1890) ; M. Weber, Fichtes Sozialismus und sein
Verhdltnis zur Marx'schen Doctrin (1900); S. H. Gutman, J. G.
Fichtes Sozialpadogogik (1907) ; H. Lindau, Johann G. Fichte und der
neuere Socialismus (1900). (R. AD. ; X.)
FICHTELGEBIRGE, a mountain group of Bavaria, forming
the centre from which various mountain ranges proceed, the
Elstergebirge, linking it to the Erzgebirge, in a N.E., the Franken-
wald in a N.W., and the Bohmerwald in a S.E. direction. The
streams to which it gives rise flow towards the four cardinal
points, e.g. the Eger eastward and the Saale northward, both
to the Elbe; the Weisser Main westward to the Rhine, and the
Naab southward to the Danube. The chief points of the mass
are the Schneeberg and the Ochsenkopf, the former having a
height of 3^48, and the latter of 3356 ft. The whole 'district
is pretty thickly populated, and there is great abundance of
wood, as well as of iron, vitriol, sulphur, copper, lead and many
kinds of marble. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in the
iron mines, at forges and blast furnaces, and in charcoal burning
and the manufacture of blacking from firewood. Although
surrounded by railways and crossed by the lines Nuremberg-
Eger and Regensburg-Oberkotzau, the Fichtelgebirge, owing
principally to its raw climate and bleakness, is not much visited
by strangers, the only important points of interest being Alex-
andersbad (a delightfully situated watering-place) and the
granite labyrinth of Luisenburg.
See A. Schmidt, Fiihrer durch das Fichtelgebirge (1899); Daniel,
Deutschland; and Meyer, Conver -sations-Lexikon (1904).'
FICINO, MARSILIO (1433-1499), Italian philosopher and
writer, was born at Figline, in the upper Arno valley, in the year
1433. His father, a physician of some eminence, settled in
Florence, and attached himself to the person of Cosimo de'
Medici. Here the young Marsilio received his elementary
education in grammar and Latin literature at the high school
or studio pubblico. While still a boy, he showed promise of
rare literary gifts, and distinguished himself by his facility in
the acquisition of knowledge. Not only literature, but the
physical sciences, as then taught, had a charm for him; and he
is said to have made considerable progress in medicine under
the tuition of his father. He was of a tranquil temperament,
sensitive to music and poetry, and debarred by weak health
from joining in the more active pleasures of his fellow-students.
When he had attained the age of eighteen or nineteen years,
Cosimo received him into his household, and determined to make
use of his rare disposition fpr scholarship in the development
of a long-cherished project. During the session of the council
for the union of the Greek and Latin churches at Florence in
1439, Cosimo had made acquaintance with Gemistos Plethon,
the Neo-Platonic sage of Mistra, whose discourses upon Plato
and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated the learned society
of Florence that they named him the second Plato. It had been
the dream of this man's whole life to supersede both forms of
Christianity by a semi-pagan theosophy deduced from the
writings of the later Pythagoreans and Platonists. When,
therefore, he perceived the impression he had made upon the
first citizen of Florence, Gemistos suggested that the capital
of modern culture would be a fit place for the resuscitation of the
once so famous Academy of Athens. Cosimo took this hint.
The second half of the isth century was destined to be the age
of academies in Italy, and the regnant passion for antiquity
satisfied itself with any imitation, however grotesque, of Greek
or Roman institutions. In order to found his new academy
upon a firm basis Cosimo resolved not only to assemble men of
letters for the purpose of Platonic disputation at certain regular
intervals, but also to appoint a hierophant and official expositor
of Platonic doctrine. He hoped by these means to give a certain
stability to his projected institution, and to avoid the super-
ficiality of mere enthusiasm. The plan was good; and with
the rare instinct for character which distinguished him, he
made choice of the right man for his purpose in the young
Marsilio.
Before he had begun to learn Greek, Marsilio entered upon the
task of studying and elucidating Plato. It is known that at
this early period of his life, while he was yet a novice, he wrote
voluminous treatises on the great philosopher, which he after-
wards, however, gave to the flames. In the year 1459 John
Argyropoulos was lecturing on the Greek language and literature
at Florence, and Marsilio became his pupil. He was then about
twenty-three years of age. Seven years later he felt himself a
sufficiently ripe Greek scholar to begin the translation of Plato,
by which his name is famous in the history of scholarship, and
which is still the best translation of that author Italy can boast.
The MSS. on which he worked were supplied by his patron
Cosimo de' Medici and by Amerigo Benci. While the translation
was still in progress Ficino from time to time submitted its
pages to the scholars, Angelo Poliziano, Cristoforo Landino,
Demetrios Chalchondylas and others; and since these men
were all members of the Platonic Academy, there can be no
doubt that the discussions raised upon the text and Latin
version greatly served to promote the purpose of Cosimo's
3 i8
FICINO
foundation. At last the book appeared in 1482, the expenses of
the press being defrayed by the noble Florentine, Filippo Valori.
About the same time Marsilio completed and published his treatise
on the Platonic doctrine of immortality (Theologia Platonica
de immortalilate animae), the work by which his claims to take
rank as a philosopher must be estimated. This was shortly
followed by the translation of Plotinus into Latin, and by a
voluminous commentary, the former finished in 1486, the latter
in 1491, and both published at the cost of Lorenzo de' Medici
just one month after his death. As a supplement to these
labours in the field of Platonic and Alexandrian philosophy,
Marsilio next devoted his energies to the translation of Dionysius
the Areopagite, whose work on the celestial hierarchy, though
recognized as spurious by the Neapolitan humanist, Lorenzo
Valla, had supreme attraction for the mystic and uncritical
intellect of Ficino.
It is not easy to value the services of Marsilio Ficino at their
proper worth. As a philosopher, he can advance no claim to
originality, his laborious treatise on Platonic theology being
little better than a mass of ill-digested erudition. As a scholar,
he failed to recognize the distinctions between different periods
of antiquity and various schools of thought. As an exponent
of Plato he suffered from the fatal error of confounding Plato
with the later Platonists. It is true that in this respect he did
not differ widely from the mass of his contemporaries. Lorenzo
Valla and Angelo Poliziano, almost alone among the scholars of
that age, showed a true critical perception. For the rest, it was
enough that an author should be ancient to secure their admira-
tion. The whole of antiquity seemed precious in the eyes of its
discoverers; and even a thinker so acute as Pico di Mirandola
dreamed of the possibility of extracting the essence of philo-
sophical truth by indiscriminate collation of the most divergent
doctrines. Ficino was, moreover, a firm believer in planetary
influences. He could not separate his philosophical from his
astrological studies, and caught eagerly at any fragment of
antiquity which seemed to support his cherished delusions.
It may here be incidentally mentioned that this superstition
brought him into trouble with the Roman Church. In 1489
he was accused of magic before Pope Innocent VIII., and had to
secure the good offices of Francesco Soderini, Ermolao Barbaro,
and the archbishop Rinaldo Orsini, in order to purge himself of
a most perilous imputation. What Ficino achieved of really solid,
was his translation. The value of that work cannot be denied;
the impulse which it gave to Platonic studies in Italy, and through
them to the formation of the new philosophy in Europe, is
indisputable. Ficino differed from the majority of his contempor-
aries in this that, while he felt the influence of antiquity no less
strongly than they did, he never lost his faith in Christianity,
or contaminated his morals by contact with paganism. For him,
as for Petrarch, St Augustine was the model of a Christian student.
The cardinal point of his doctrine was the identity of religion and
philosophy. He held that philosophy consists in the study of
truth and wisdom, and that God alone is truth and wisdom,
so that philosophy is but religion, and true religion is genuine
philosophy. Religion, indeed, is common to all men, but its
pure form is that revealed through Christ; and the teaching
of Christ is sufficient to a man in all circumstances of life. Yet
it cannot be expected that every man should accept the faith
without reasoning; and here Ficino found a place for Platonism.
He maintained that the Platonic doctrine was providentially
made to harmonize with Christianity, in order that by its means
speculative intellects might be led to Christ. The transition
from this point of view to an almost superstitious adoration
of Plato was natural; and Ficino, we know, joined in the hymns
and celebrations with which the Florentine Academy honoured
their great master on the day of his birth and death. Those
famous festivals in which Lorenzo de' Medici delighted had
indeed a pagan tone appropriate to .the sentiment of the Re-
naissance; nor were all the worshippers of the Athenian sage so
true to Christianity as his devoted student.
Of Ficino's personal life there is but little to be said. In order
that he might have leisure for uninterrupted study, Cosimo de'
Medici gave him a house near S. Maria Nuova in Florence, and
a little farm at Montevecchio, not far from the villa of Careggi.
Ficino, like nearly all the scholars of that age in Italy, delighted
in country Ife. At Montevecchio he lived contentedly among
his books, in the neighbourhood of his two friends, Pico at
Querceto, and Poliziano at Fiesole, cheering his solitude by
playing on the lute, and corresponding with the most illustrious
men of Italy. His letters, extending over the years 1474-1494,
have been published, both separately and in his collected works.
From these it may be gathered that nearly every living scholar
of note was included in the list of his friends, and that the
subjects which interested him were by no means confined to
his Platonic sudies. As instances of his close intimacy with
illustrious Florentine families, it may be mentioned that he
held the young Francesco Guicciardini at the font, and that
he helped to cast the horoscope of the Casa Strozzi in the Via
Tornabuoni.
At the age of forty Ficino took orders, and was honoured
with a canonry of S. Lorenzo. He was henceforth assiduous
in the performance of his duties, preaching in his cure of Novoli,
and also in the cathedral and the church of the Angeli at Florence.
He used to say that no man was better than a good priest, and
none worse than a bad one. His life corresponded in all points
to his principles. It was the life of a sincere Christian and a real
sage, of one who found the best fruits of philosophy in the
practice of the Christian virtues. A more amiable and a more
harmless man never lived; and this was much in that age of
discordant passions and lawless licence. In spite of his weak
health, he was indefatigably industrious. His tastes were of the
simplest; and while scholars like Filelfo were intent on ex-
tracting money from their patrons by flattery and threats, he
remained so poor- that he owed the publication of all his many
works to private munificence. For his old patrons of the house
of Medici Ficino always cherished sentiments of the liveliest
gratitude. Cosimo he called his second father, saying that Ficino
had given him life, but Cosimo new birth, the one h?-d devoted
him to Galen, the other to the divine Plato, the one was physician
of the body, the other of the soul. With Lorenzo he lived on
terms of familiar, affectionate, almost parental intimacy. He had
seen the young prince grow up in the palace of the Via Larga,
and had helped in the development of his rare intellect. In later
years he did not shrink from uttering a word of warning and
advice, when he thought that the master of the Florentine
republic was too much inclined to yield to pleasure. A character-
istic proof of his attachment -to the house of Medici was furnished
by a yearly custom which he practised at his farm at Monte-
vecchio. He used to invite the contadini who had served
Cosimo to a banquet on the day of Saints Cosimo and Damiano
(the patron saints of the Medici), and entertained them with
music and singing. This affection was amply returned. Cosimo
employed almost the last hours of his life in listening to Ficino's
reading of a treatise on the highest good; while Lorenzo, in
a poem on true happiness, described him as the mirror of the
world, the nursling of sacred muses, the harmonizer of wisdom
and beauty in complete accord. Ficino died at Florence in
1499.
Besides the works already noticed, Ficino composed a treatise
on the Christian religion, which was first given to the world in
1476, a translation into Italian of Dante's De monarchia, a life
of Plato, and numerous essays on ethical and semi-philosophical
subjects. Vigour of reasoning and originality of view were not
his characteristics as a writer; nor will the student who has
raked these dust-heaps of miscellaneous learning and old-
fashioned mysticism discover more than a few sentences of
genuine enthusiasm and simple-hearted aspiration to repay his
trouble and reward his patience. Only in familiar letters,
prolegomena, and prefaces do we find the man Ficino, and learn
to know his thoughts and sentiments unclouded by a mist of
citations; these minor compositions have therefore a certain
permanent value, and will continually be studied for the light
they throw upon the learned circle gathered round Lorenzo in
the golden age of humanism.
FICKSBURG FICTIONS
3*9
The student may be referred for further information to the follow-
ing works: Marsilii Ficini opera (Basileae, 1576); Marsilii Ficini
vita, auctore Corsio (ed. Bandini, Pisa, 1771) ; Roscoe's Life of
Lorenzo de' Medici ; Pasquale Villari, La Storia di Girolame Savo-
narola (Firenze, Le Monnier, 1859); Von Reumont, Lorenzo de'
Medici (Leipzig, 1874). U- A. S.)
FICKSBURG, a town of Orange Free State no m. by rail
E. by N. of Bloemfontein. Pop. (1904) 1954, of whom 1021^ were
whites. The town is situated near the north bank of the Caledon
river and is the capital of one of the finest agricultural and stock-
raising regions of the province. It has direct railway communica-
tion with Natal and an extensive trade. In the neighbourhood
are petroleum wells and a diamond mine. In the fossilized ooze
of the Wonderkop, a table mountain of the adjacent Wittebergen,
are quantities of petrified fish.
FICTIONS, or legal fictions, in law, the term used for false
averments, the truth of which is not permitted to be called in
question. English law as well as Roman law abounds in fictions.
Sometimes they are merely the condensed expression of a rule
of law, e.g., the fiction of English law that husband and wife
were one person, and the fiction of Roman law that the wife
was the daughter of the husband. Sometimes they must be
regarded as reasons invented in order to justify a rule of law
according to an implied ethical standard. Of this sort seems to be
the fiction or presumption that every one knows the law, which
reconciles the rule that ignorance is no excuse for crime with
the moral commonplace that it is unfair to punish a man for
violating a law of whose existence he was unaware. Again,
some fictions are deliberate falsehoods, adopted as true for the
purpose of establishing a remedy not otherwise attainable. Of
this sort are the numerous fictions of English law by which the
different courts obtained jurisdiction in private business, removed
inconvenient restrictions in the law relating to land, &c.
What to the scientific jurist is a stumbling-block is to the older
writers on English law a beautiful device for reconciling the strict
letter of the law with common sense and justice. Blackstone,
in noticing the well-known fiction by which the court of king's
bench established its jurisdiction in common pleas (viz. that the
defendant was in custody of the marshal of the court), says,
" These fictions of law, though at first they may startle the
student, he will find upon further consideration to be highly
beneficial and useful; especially as this maxim is ever invariably
observed, that no fiction shall extend to work an injury; its
proper operation being to prevent a mischief or remedy an
inconvenience that might result from the general rule of law.
So true it is that in fictiom juris semper subsistU aequitas."
Austin, on the other hand, while correctly assigning as the
cause of many fictions the desire to combine the necessary
reform with some show of respect for the abrogated law, makes
the following harsh criticism as to others: " Why the plain
meanings which I have now stated should be obscured by the
fictions to which I have just adverted I cannot conjecture.
A wish on the part of the authors of the fictions to render the law
as uncognoscible as may be is probably the cause which Mr
Bentham would assign. I judge not, I confess, so uncharitably
I rather impute such fictions to the sheer imbecility (or, if you
will, to the active and sportive fancies) of their grave and vene
rable authors, than to any deliberate design, good or evil.'
Bentham, of course, saw in fictions the instrument by which
the great object of his abhorrence, judiciary law, was produced
It was the means by which judges usurped the functions o
legislators. " A fiction of law," he says, " may be defined as
a wilful falsehood, having for its object the stealing legislative
powers by and for hands which could not or durst not openly
claim it, and but for the delusion thus produced could no
exercise it." A partnership, he says, was formed between the
kings and the judges against the interests of the people
" Monarchs found force, lawyers fraud; thus was the capita
found " (Historical Preface to the second edition of the Frogmen
on Government) .*
1 In the same essay Bentham notices the comparative rarity o
fictions in Scots law. As to fiction in particular, compared with th
Sir H. Maine (Ancient Law) supplies the historical element
vhich is always lacking in the explanations of Austin and
$entham. Fictions form one of the agencies by which, in pro-
ressive societies, positive law is brought into harmony with
public opinion. The others are equity and statutes. Fictions
n this sense include, not merely the obvious falsities of the
English and Roman systems, but any assumption which conceals
change of law by retaining the old formula after the change has
seen made. . It thus includes both the case law of the English and
he Responsa Prudentum of the Romans. " At a particular stage
jf social progress they are invaluable expedients for overcom-
ng the rigidity of law; and, indeed, without one of them, the
iction of adoption, which permits the family tie to be artificially
reated, it is difficult to understand how society would ever have
scaped from its swaddling clothes, and taken its first steps
owards civilization."
The bolder remedial fictions of English law have been to a
arge extent removed by legislation, and one great obstacle to
any reconstruction of the legal system has thus been partially
emoved. Where the real remedy stood in glaring contrast to
he nominal rule, it has been openly ratified by statute. In
ejectment cases the mysterious sham litigants have disappeared.
The bond of entail can be broken without having recourse to
.he collusive proceedings of fine and recovery. Fictions have
>een almost entirely banished from the procedure of the
courts. The action for damages en account of seduction, which
s still nominally an action by the father for loss of his
daughter's services, is perhaps the only fictitious action now
remaining.
Fictions which appear in the form of principles are not so
easily dealt with by legislation. To expel them formally from
the system would require the re-enactment of vast portions of
aw. A change in legal modes of speech and thought would be
more effective. The legal mind instinctively seizes upon concrete
aids to abstract reasoning. Many hard and revolting fictions
must have begun their career as metaphors. In some cases the
history of the change may still almost be traced. The conception
that a man-of-war is a floating island, or that an ambassador's
house is beyond the territorial limits of the country in which he
resides, was originally a figure of speech designed to set a rule
of law in a striking light. It is then gravely accepted as true
in fact, and other rules of law are deduced from it. Its beginning
is to be compared with such phrases as " an Englishman's house
is his castle," which have had no legal offshoots and still remain
mere figures of speech.
Constitutional law is of course honeycombed with fictions.
Here there is hardly ever anything like direct legislative change,
and yet real change is incessant. The rules defining the sovereign
power and fixing the authority of its various members are in most
points the same as they were at the last revolution, in many
points they have been the same since the beginning of parlia-
mentary government. But they have long ceased to be true in
fact; and it would hardly be too much to say that the entire
series of formal propositions called the constitution is merely a
series of fictions. The legal attributes of the king, and even of
the House of Lords, are fictions. If we could suppose that the
effects of the Reform Acts had been brought about, not by legisla-
tion, but by the decisions of law courts and the practice of House
of Commons committees by such assumptions as that freeholder
includes lease-holder and that ten means twenty we should
have in the legal constitution of the House of Commons the same
kind of fictions that we find in the legal statement cf the attributes
of the crown and the House of Lords. Here, too, fictions have
been largely resorted to for the purpose of supporting particular
work done by it in English law, the use made of it by the Scottish
lawyers is next to nothing. No need have they had of any such
clumsy instrument. They have two others " of their own making,
by which things of the same sort have been done with much less
trouble. Nobile officium gives them the creative power of legislation ;
this and the word desuetude together the anmhilative." And he
notices aptly enough that, while the English lawyers declared that
James II. had abdicated the throne (which everybody knew to be
false), the Scottish lawyers boldly said he had forfeited it.
320
FIDDES FIELD, C. W.
theories, popular or monarchical, and such have flourished
even more vigorously than purely legal fictions.
FIDDES, RICHARD (1671-1725), English divine and historian,
was born at Hunmanby and educated at Oxford. He took
orders, and obtained the living of Halsham in Holderness in
1696. Owing to ill-health he applied for leave to reside at
Wickham, and in 1712 he removed to London on the plea of
poverty, intending to pursue a literary career. In London he
met Swift, who procured him a chaplaincy at Hull. He also
became chaplain to the earl of Oxford. After losing the Hull
chaplaincy through a change of ministry in 1714, he devoted
himself to writing. His best book is a Life of Cardinal Wolsey
(London, 1724), containing documents which are still valuable
for reference; of his other writings the Prefatory Epistle contain-
ing some remarks to be published on Homer's Iliad (London, 1714),
was occasioned by Pope's proposed translation of the Iliad,
and his Theologia speculativa (London, 1718), earned him the
degree of D.D. at Oxford. In his own day he had a considerable
reputation as an author and man of learning.
FIDDLE (O. Eng. fithde, fidel, &c., Fr. viele, viole, violon;
M. H. Ger. videle, mod. Ger. Fiedel), a popular term for the violin,
derived from the names of certain of its ancestors. The word
fiddle antedates the appearance of the violin by several centuries.,
and in England did not always represent an instrument of the same
type. The word has first been traced in 1 205 in Layamon's Brut
(7002), " of harpe, of salteriun, of fithele and of coriun." In
Chaucer's time the fiddle was evidently a well-known instrument :
" For him was lever have at his beddes hed
A twenty bokes, clothed in black or red,
Of Aristotle and his Philosophic,
Than robes riche or fidel or sautrie."
(Prologue, v. 298.)
The origin of the fiddle is of the greatest interest; it will be
found inseparable from that of the violin both as regards the
instruments and the etymology of the words; the remote
common ancestor is the ketharah of the Assyrians, the parent of
the Greek cithara. The Romans are responsible for the word
fiddle, having bestowed upon a kind of cithara probably then
in its first transition the name oifidiculae (more rarely fidicula),
a diminutive form of fides. In Alain de Lille's De planctu
naturae against the word lira stands as equivalent vioel, with
the definition " Lira est quoddam genue citharae vel fitola
alioquin de reot. Hoc instrumentum est multum vulgare."
This is a marginal note in writing of the i3th century. 1
Some of the transitions from fidicula to fiddle are made evident
in the accompanying table:
Latin .
Medieval Latin
French
Provengal ..
Spanish
Old High German
Middle High German
German
Italian
Dutch
Danish
Anglo-Saxon
Old English
fidiculae
vitula, fitola.
viele, vielle, viole.
viula.
viguela, vihuela, vigolo.
fidula.
videle.
fiedel, violine.
viola, violino.
vedel.
fiddel.
fithele.
fithele, fythal, fithel,
fythylle, fidel,
fidylle, (south) vithele.
For the descent of the guitar-fiddle, the first bowed ancestor
of the violin, through many transitions from the cithara, see
CITHARA, GUITAR and GUITAR-FIDDLE.
In the minnesinger and troubadour fiddles, of which evidences
abound during the izth, I3th and i4th centuries, are to be
observed the structural characteristics of the violin and its
ancestors in the course of evolution. The principal of these are
first of all the shallow sound-chest, composed of belly and back,
almost flat, connected by ribs (also present in the cithara),
with incurvations more or less pronounced, an arched bridge,
a finger-board and strings (vary ing in number), vibrated by means
1 See C. E.. H. de Coussemaker, Memoire sur Hucbald (Paris, 1841).
From Julius Ruhlmann's Gcschichlc der
Bogrninslrumente.
Minnesinger Fiddle. Germany,
1 3th Century, from the Manesse
MSS.
of a bow. The central rose sound-holes of stringed instruments
whose strings are plucked by fingers or plectrum have given
place to smaller lateral sound-
holes placed on each side of
the strings. It is in Germany, 1
where contemporary drawings
of fiddles of the I3th and I4th
centuries furnish an authorita-
tive clue, and in France, that
the development may best be
followed. The German minne-
singer fiddle with sloping
shoulders was the prototype of
the viols, whereas the guitar-
fiddle produced the violin
through the intermediary of the
Italian bowed Lyra.
The fiddle of the Carolingian
epoch, such, for instance, as
that mentioned by Otfrid of Weissenburg 2 in his Harmony of the
Gospels (c. 868),
" Sih thar ouch al ruarit
This prgano fuarit
Lira joh fidula," &c.,
was in all probability still an instrument whose strings were
plucked by the fingers, a cithara in transition. (K. S.)
FIDENAE, an ancient town of Latium, situated about 5 m.
N. of Rome on the Via Salaria, which ran between it and the
Tiber. It was for some while the frontier of the Roman territory
and was often in the hands of Veii. It appears to have fallen
under the Roman sway after the capture of this town, and is
spoken of by classical authors as a place almost deserted in their
time. It seems, however, to have had some importance as a post
station. The site of the arx of the ancient town is probably to be
sought on the hill on which lies the Villa Spada, though no traces
of early buildings or defences are to be seen: pre-Roman tombs
are to be found in the cliffs to the north. The later village lay at
the foot of the hill on the eastern edge of the high-road, and
its curia, with a dedicatory inscription to M. Aurelius by the
Senatus Fidenatium, was excavated in 1889. Remains of other
buildings may also be seen.
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 17.
FIDUCIARY (Lat. fiduciarius, one in whom trust, fiducia, is
reposed), of or belonging to a position of trust, especially of one
who stands in a particular relationship of confidence to another.
Such relationships are, in law, those of parent and child, guardian
and ward, trustee and cestui que trust, legal adviser and client,
spiritual adviser, doctor and patient, &c. In many of these the
law has attached special obligations in the case of gifts made to the
" fiduciary," on whom is laid the onus of proving that no " undue
influence " has been exercised. (See CONTRACT; CHILDREN,
LAW RELATING TO; INFANT; TRUST.)
FIEF, a feudal estate in land, land held from a superior (see
FEUDALISM). The word is the French form, which is represented
in Medieval Latin asfeudum orfeodum, and in English as " fee "
or " feu " (see FEE). The A.Fr. feojfer, to invest with a fief or fee,
has given the English law terms" feoffee "and"feoffment"(g..).
FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892), American capitalist,
projector of the first Atlantic cable, was born at Stockbridge,
Massachusetts, on the 3Oth of November 1819. He was a brother
of David Dudley Field. At fifteen he became a clerk in the store
of A. T. Stewart & Co., of New York, and stayed there three
years; then worked for two years with his brother, Matthew
Dickinson Field, in a paper-mill at Lee, Massachusetts; and in
1840 went into the paper business for himself at Westfield,
Massachusetts, but almost immediately became a partner in
E. Root & Co., wholesale paper dealers in New York City, who
failed in the following year. Field soon afterwards formed with a
1 See the Manesse MSS. reproduced in part by F. H. von der
Hagen, Heldenbilder (Leipzig and Berlin, 1855) and Bildersoal.
The fiddles are reproduced in J. Ruhlmann's Geschichte der Bogen-
instrumente (Brunswick, 1882), plates.
2 See Schiller's Thesaurus anttq. Teut. vol. i. p. 379.
FIELD, D. D. FIELD, F.
321
brother-in-law the firm of Cyrus W. Field & Co., and in 1853 had
accumulated $250,000, paid off the debts of the Root company
and retired from active business, leaving his name and $100,000
with the concern. In the same year he travelled with Frederick
E. Church, the artist, through South America. In 1854 he
became interested, through his brother Matthew, a civil engineer,
in the project of Frederick Newton Gisborne (1824-1892) for a
telegraph across Newfoundland; and he was attracted by the
idea of a trans-Atlantic telegraphic cable, as to which he con-
sulted S. F. B. Morse and Matthew F. Maury, head of the National
Observatory at Washington. With Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor
(1806-1882), Marshall Owen Roberts (1814-1880) and Chandler
White, he formed the New York, Newfoundland & London
Telegraph Company, which procured a more favourable charter
than Gisborne's, and had a capital of $1,500,000. Having
secured all the practicable landing rights on the American side
of the ocean, he and John W. Brett, who was now his principal
colleague, approached Sir Charles Bright (q.v.) in London, and in
December 1856 the Atlantic Telegraph Company was organized
by them in Great Britain, a government grant being secured of
14,000 annually for government messages, to be reduced to
10,000 annually when the cable should pay a 6% yearly
dividend; similar grants were made by the United States
government. Unsuccessful attempts to lay the cable were made
in August 1857 and in June 1858, but the complete cable was
laid between the 7th of July and the 5th of August 1858; for a
time messages were transmitted, but in October the cable became
useless, owing to the failure of its electrical insulation. Field,
however, did not abandon the enterprise, and finally in July
1866, after a futile attempt in the previous year, a cable was
laid and brought successfully into use. From the Congress of the
United States he received a gold medal and a vote of thanks, and he
received manyotherhonoursbothathomeandabroad. In 1877 he
bought a controlling interest in the New York Elevated Railroad
Company, controlling the Third and Ninth Avenue lines, of
which he was president in 1877-1880. He worked with Jay
Gould for the completion of the Wabash railway, and at the time of
his greatest stock activity bought The New York Evening Express
and The Mail and combined them as The Mail and Express,
which he controlled for six years. In 1879 Field suffered
financially by Samuel J. Tilden's heavy sales (during Field's
absence in Europe) of " Elevated " stock, which forced the price
down from 200 to 164; but Field lost much more in 'the great
" Manhattan squeeze " of the 24th of June 1887, when Jay
Gould and Russell Sage, who had been supposed to be his
backers in an attempt to bring the Elevated stock to 200,
forsook him, and the price fell from 1565 to 114 in half an hour.
Field died in New York on the I2th of July 1892.
See the biography by his daughter, Isabella (Field) Judson, Cyrus
W. Field, His Life and Work (New York, 1896) ; H. M. Field, History
of the Atlantic Telegraph (New York, 1866); and Charles Bright,
The Story of the Atlantic Cable (New York, 1903).
FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (1805-1894), American lawyer and
law reformer, was born in Haddam, Connecticut, on the i3th
of February 1805. He was the oldest of the four sons of the
Rev. David Dudley Field (1781-1867), a well-known American
clergyman and author. He graduated at Williams College in
1825, and settled in New York City, where he studied law, was
admitted to the bar in 1828, and rapidly won a high position in
his profession. Becoming convinced that the common law in
America, and particularly in New York state, needed radical
changes in respect to the unification and simplification of its
procedure, he visited Europe in 1836 and thoroughly investigated
the courts, procedure and codes of England, France and other
countries, and then applied himself to the task of bringing about
in the United States a codification of the common law procedure.
For more than forty years every moment that he could spare from
his extensive practice was devoted to this end. He entered upon
his great work by a systematic publication of pamphlets and
articles in journals and magazines in behalf of his reform, but
for some years he met with a discouraging lack of interest. He
appeared personally before successive legislative committees, and
X. II
in 1846 published a pamphlet, " The Reorganization of the
Judiciary," which had its influence in persuading the New York
State Constitutional Convention of that year to report in favour of
a codification of the laws. Finally in 1847 he was appointed as the
head of a state commission to revise the practice and procedure.
The first part of the commission's work, consisting of a code of
civil procedure, was reported and enacted in 1848, and by the ist
of January 1850 the complete code of civil and criminal procedure
was completed, and was subsequently enacted by the legislature.
The basis of the new system; which was almost entirely Field's
work, was the abolition of the existing distinction in forms of pro-
cedure between suits in law and equity requiring separate actions,
and their unification and simplification in a single action. Eventu-
ally the civil code with some changes was adopted in twenty-four
states, and the criminal code in eighteen, and the whole formed
a basis of the reform in procedure in England and several of her
colonies. In 1857 Field became chairman of a state commission
for the reduction into a written and systematic code of the
whole body of law of the state, excepting those portions already
reported upon by the Commissioners of Practice and Pleadings.
In this work he personally prepared almost the whole of the
political and civil codes. The codification, which was completed
in February 1865, was adopted only in small part by the state,
but it has served as a model after which most of the law codes of
the United States have been constructed. In 1866 he proposed
to the British National Association for the Promotion of Social
Science a revision and codification of the laws of all nations. For
an international commission of lawyers he prepared Draft Out-
lines of an International Code (1872), the submission of which
resulted in the organization of the international Association for
the Reform and Codification of the Laws of Nations, of which he
became president. In politics Field was originally an anti-slavery
Democrat, and he supported Van Buren in the Free Soil campaign
of 1848. He gave his support to the Republican party in 1856 and
to the Lincoln administration throughout the Civil War. After
1876, however, he returned to the Democratic party, and from
January to March 1877 served out in Congress the unexpired term
of Smith Ely, elected mayor of New York City. During his
brief Congressional career he delivered six speeches, all of which
attracted attention, introduced a bill in regard to the presidential
succession, and appeared before the Electoral Commission in
Tilden's interest. He died in New York City on the i3th of
April 1894.
Part of his numerous pamphlets and addresses were collected in
his Speeches, Arguments and Miscellaneous Papers (3 vols., 1884-
1890). See also the Life of David Dudley Field (New York, 1898),
by Rev. Henry Martyn Field.
FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895), American poet, was born at
St Louis, Missouri, on the 2nd of September 1850. He spent
his boyhood in Vermont and Massachusetts; studied for short
periods at Williams and Knox Colleges and the University of
Missouri, but without taking a degree; and worked as a jour-
nalist on various papers, finally becoming connected with the
Chicago News. A Little Book of Profitable Tales appeared in
Chicago in 1889 and in New York the next year; but Field's
place in later American literature chiefly depends upon his poems
of Christmas-time and childhood (of which " Little Boy Blue "
and " A Dutch Lullaby " are most widely known), because of
their union of obvious sentiment with fluent lyrical form. His
principal collections of poems are: A Little Book of Western
Verse (1889); A Second Book of Verse (1892); With Trumpet
and Drum (1892); and Love Songs of Childhood (1894). Field
died at Chicago on the 4th of November 1895.
His works were collected in ten volumes (1896), at New York.
His prose Love-affairs of a Bibliomaniac (1896) contains a Memoir
by his brother Roswell Martin Field (b. 1851). See also Slason
Thompson, Eugene Field: a study in heredity and contradictions
(2 vols., New York, 1901).
FIELD, FREDERICK (1801-1885), English divine and biblical
scholar, was born in London and educated at Christ's hospital
and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship
in 1824. He took orders in 1828, and began a close study of
patristic theology. Eventually he published an emended and
322
annotated text of Chrysostom's Homiliae in Matthaeum (Cam-
bridge, 1839), and some years later he contributed to Pusey's
Bibliotheca Patrum (Oxford, 1838-1870), a similarly treated text
of Chrysostom's homilies on Paul's epistles. The scholarship
displayed in both of these critical editions is of a very high order.
In 1839 he had accepted the living of Great Saxham, in Suffolk,
and in 1842 he was presented by his college to the rectory of
Reepham in Norfolk. He resigned in 1863, and settled at
Norwich, in order to devote his whole time to study. Twelve
years later he completed the Origenis Hexaplorum quae supersunt
(Oxford, 1867-1875), now well known as Field's Hexapla, a text
reconstructed from the extant fragments of Origen's work of
that name, together with materials drawn from the Syro-hexaplar
version and the Septuagint of Holmes and Parsons (Oxford,
1798-1827). Field was appointed a member of the Old Testa-
ment revision company in 1870.
FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907), American author
and clergyman, brother of Cyrus Field, was born at Stockbridge,
Massachusetts, on the 3rd of April 1822; he graduated at
Williams College in 1838, and was pastor of a Presbyterian
church in St Louis, Missouri, from 1842 to 1847, and of a Con-
gregational church in West Springfield, Massachusetts, from
1850 to 1854. The interval between his two pastorates he spent
in Europe. From 1854 to 1898 he was editor and for many years
he was also sole proprietor of The Evangelist, a New York
periodical devoted to the interests of the Presbyterian church.
He spent the last years of his life in retirement at Stock-
bridge, Mass., where he died on the 26th of January 1907.
He was the author of a series of books of travel, which achieved
unusual popularity. His two volumes descriptive of a trip
round the world in 1875-1876, entitled From the Lakes of Kil-
larney to the Golden Horn (1876) and From Egypt to Japan (1877),
are almost classic in their way, and have passed through more
than twenty editions. Among his other publications are The
Irish Confederates and the Rebellion of 1798 (1850), The
History of the Atlantic Telegraph (1866), Faith or Agnosticism?
the Field-Ingersoll Discussion (1888), Old Spain and New Spain
(1888), and Life of David Dudley Field (1898).
He is not to be confused with another HENRY MARTYN FIELD,
the gynaecologist, who was born in 1837 at Brighton, Mass., and
graduated at Harvard in 1859 and at the College of Physicians
and Surgeons in New York City in 1862; he was professor of
Materia Medica and therapeutics at Dartmouth from 1871 to
1887 and of therapeutics from 1887 to 1893.
FIELD, JOHN (1782-1837), English musical composer and
pianist, was born at Dublin in 1782. He came of a musical
family, his father being a violinist, and his grandfather the
organist in one of the churches of Dublin. From the latter the
boy received his first musical education. When a few years
later the family settled in London, Field became the favourite
pupil of the celebrated Clementi, whom he accompanied to
Paris, and later, in 1 802 , on his great concert tour through France,
Germany and Russia. Under the auspices of his master Field
appeared in public in most of the great European capitals,
especially in St Petersburg, and in that city he remained when
Clementi returned to England. During his stay with the great
pianist Field had to suffer many privations owing to dementi's
all but unexampled parsimony; but when the latter left Russia
his splendid connexion amongst the highest circles of the capital
became Field's inheritance. His marriage with a French lady
of the name of Charpentier was anything but happy, and had
soon to be dissolved. Field made frequent concert tours to the
chief cities of Russia, and in 1820 settled permanently in Moscow.
In 1831 he came to England for a short time, and for the next
four years led a migratory life in France, Germany and Italy,
exciting the admiration of amateurs wherever he appeared in
public. In Naples he fell seriously ill, and lay several months in
the hospital, till a Russian family discovered him and brought
him back to Moscow. There he lingered for several years till
his death on the nth of January 1837. Field's training and the
cast of his genius were not of a kind to enable him to excel in
the larger forms of instrumental music, and his seven concerti
FIELD, H. M. FIELD, S. J.
for the pianoforte are now forgotten. Neither do his quartets
for strings and pianoforte hold their own by the side of those
of the great masters. But his "nocturnes," a form of music
highly developed if not actually created by him, remain all but
unrivalled for their tenderness and dreaminess of conception,
combined with a continuous flow of beautiful melody. They
were indeed Chopin's models. Field's execution on the pianoforte
was nearly allied to the nature of his compositions, beauty and
poetical charm of touch being one of the chief characteristics
of his style. Moscheles, who heard Field in 1831, speaks of his
" enchanting legato, his tenderness and elegance and his beautiful
touch."
FIELD, MARSHALL (1835-1906), American merchant, was
born at Conway, Massachusetts, on the i8th of August 1835.
Reared on a farm, he obtained a common school and academy
education, and at the age of seventeen became a clerk in a dry
goods store at Pittsfield, Mass. In 1856 he removed to Chicago,
where he became a clerk in the large mercantile establishment
of Cooley, Wadsworth & Company. In 1860 the firm was re-
organized as Cooley, Farwell & Company, and he was admitted
to a junior partnership. In 1865, with Potter Palmer (1826-
1902) and Levi Z. Leiter (1834-1904), he organized the firm of
Field, Palmer & Leiter, which subsequently became Field,
Leiter & Company, and in 1881 on the retirement of Leiter
became Marshall Field & Company. Under Field's management
the annual business of the firm increased from $12,000,000 in
1871 to more than $40,000,000 in 1895, when it ranked as one of
the two or three largest mercantile establishments in the world.
He died in New York city on the i6th of January 1906. He had
married, for the second time, in the previous year. Field's
public benefactions were numerous; notable among them being
his gift of land valued at $300,000 and of $100,000 in cash to the
University of Chicago, an endowment fund of $1,000,000 to
support the Field Columbian Museum at Chicago, and a bequest
of $8,000,000 to this museum.
FIELD, NATHAN (1587-1633), English dramatist and actor,
was baptized on the I7th of October 1587. His father, the
rector of Cripplegate, was a Puritan divine, author of a Godly
Exhortation directed against play-acting, and his brother
Theophilus became bishop of Hereford. Nat. Field early
became one of the children of Queen Elizabeth's chapel, and in
that capacity he played leading parts in Ben Jonson's Cynthia's
Revels (in 1600), in the Poetaster (in 1601), and in Epicoene (in
1608), and the title role in Chapman's Bussy d' Ambois (in 1606).
Ben Jonson was his dramatic model, and may have helped his
career. The two plays of which he was author were probably
both written before 1611. They are boisterous, but well-con-
structed comedies of contemporary London life ; the earlier
one, A Woman is a Weathercock (printed 1612), dealing with the
inconstancy of woman, while the second, Amends for Ladies
(printed 1618), was written with the intention, as the title
indicates, of retracting the charge. From Henslowe's papers
it appears that Field collaborated with Robert Daborne and
with Philip Massinger, one letter from all three authors being a
joint appeal for money to free them from prison. In 1614
Field received 10 for playing before the king in Bartholomew
Fair, a play in which Jonson records his reputation as an actor
in the words "which is your Burbadge now?. . . Your best
actor, your Field?" He joined the King's Players some time
before 1619, and his name comes seventeenth on the list prefixed
to the Shakespeare folio of 1623 of the " principal actors in all
these plays." He retired from the stage before 1625, and died
on the zoth of February 1633. Field was part author with
Massinger in the Fatal Dowry (printed 1632), and he prefixed
commendatory verses to Fletcher's Faithful Shepherdess.
His two plays were reprinted in J. P. Collier's Five Old Plays (1833),
in Hazlitt's edition of Dodsley's Old Plays, and in Nero and other
Plays (Mermaid series, 1888), with an introduction by Mr A. W.
Verity.
FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899), American jurist,
was born at Haddam, Connecticut, on the 4th of November
1816. He was the brother of David Dudley Field, Cyrus W.
FIELD, W. V. FIELD
Field and Henry M. Field. At the age of thirteen he accom-
panied his sister Emilia and her husband the Rev. Josiah Brewer
(the parents of the distinguished judge of the Supreme Court,
David J. Brewer) to Smyrna, Turkey, for the purpose of studying
Oriental languages, but after three years he returned to the
United States, and in 1837 graduated at Williams College at the
head of his class. He then studied law in his elder brother's
office, and in 1841 he was admitted to the New York bar. He
was associated in practice there with his brother until 1848,
and early in 1849 removed to California, settling soon afterward
at Marysville, of which place, in 1850, he became the first alcalde
or mayor. In the same year he was chosen a member of the first
state legislature of California, in which he drew up and secured
the enactment of two bodies of law known as the Civil and
Criminal Practices Acts, based on the similar codes prepared
by his brother David Dudley for New York. In the former
act he embodied a provision regulating and giving authority
to the peculiar customs, usages, and regulations voluntarily
adopted by the miners in various districts of the state for the
adjudication of disputed mining claims. This, as Judge Field
truly says, " was the foundation of the jurisprudence respecting
mines in the country," having greatly influenced legislation upon
this subject in other states and in the Congress of the United
States. He was elected, in 1857, a justice of the California
Supreme Court, of which he became chief justice in 1859, on the
resignation of Judge David S. Terry to fight the duel with the
United States senator David C. Broderick which ended fatally
for the latter. Field held this position until 1863, when he was
appointed by President Lincoln a justice of the United States
Supreme Court. In this capacity he was conspicuous for fearless
independence of thought and action in his opinion in the test
oath case, and in his dissenting opinions in the legal tender,
conscription and " slaughter house " cases, which displayed un-
usual legal learning, and gave powerful expression to his strict
constructionist theory of the implied powers of the Federal
constitution. Originally a Democrat, and always a believer
in states' rights, his strong Union sentiments caused him never-
theless to accept Lincoln's doctrine of coercion, and that, together
with his anti-slavery sympathies, led him to act with the Re-
publican party during the period of the Civil War. He was a
member of the commission which revised the California code
in 1873 and of the Electoral Commission in 1877, voting in favour
of Tilden. In 1880 he received sixty-five votes on the first
ballot for the presidential nomination at the Democratic National
Convention at Cincinnati. In August 1889, as a result of a ruling
in the course of the Sharon-Hill litigation, a notorious conspiracy
case, he was assaulted in a California railway station by Judge
David S. Terry, who in turn was shot and killed by a United
States deputy marshall appointed to defend Justice Field against
the carrying out of Terry's often-expressed threats. He retired
from the Supreme Court on the ist of December 1897 after a
service of thirty-four years and six months, the longest in the
court's history, and died in Washington on the gth of April 1899.
His Personal Reminiscences of Early Days in California, originally
privately printed in 1878, was republished in 1893 with George C.
Gorham's Story of the Attempted Assassination of Justice Field.
FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907),
English judge, second son of Thomas Flint Field, of Fielden,
Bedfordshire, was born on the aist of August 1813. He was
educated at King's school, Bruton, Somersetshire, and entered
the legal profession as a solicitor. In 1843, however, he ceased
to practise as such, and entered at the Inner Temple, being called
to the bar in 1850, after having practised for some time as a
special pleader. He joined the Western circuit, but soon ex-
changed it for the Midland. He obtained a large business as a
junior, and became a queen's counsel and bencher of his inn in
1864. As a Q.C. he had a very extensive common law practice,
and had for some time been the leader of the Midland circuit,
when in February 1875, on the retirement of Mr Justice Keating,
he was raised to the bench as a justice of the queen's bench.
Mr Justice Field was an excellent puisne judge of the type that
attracts but little public attention. He was a first-rate lawyer,
* 323
had a good knowledge of commercial matters, great shrewdness
and a quick intellect, while he was also painstaking and scrupu-
lously fair. When the rules of the Supreme Court 1883 came
into force in the autumn of that year, Mr Justice Field was so
well recognized an authority upon all questions of practice that
the lord chancellor selected him to sit continuously at Judges'
Chambers, in order that a consistent practice under the new
rules might as far as possible be established. This he did for
nearly a year, and his name will always, to a large extent, be
associated with the settling of the details of the new procedure,
which finally did away with the former elaborate system of
" special pleading." In 1890 he retired from the bench and was
raised to the peerage as Baron Field of Bakeham, becoming at
the same time a member of the privy council. In the House of
Lords he at first took part, not infrequently, in the hearing of
appeals, and notably delivered a carefully-reasoned judgment
in the case of the Bank of England \. Vagliano Brothers (sth of
March 1891), in which, with Lord B ram well, he differed from the
majority of his brother peers. Before long, however, deafness
and advancing years rendered his attendances less frequent.
Lord Field died at Bognor on the 23rd of January 1907, and as
he left no issue the peerage became extinct.
FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf.
Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E,.folde, the earth,
and ultimately with root of the Gr. irXaros, broad), open country
as opposed to woodland or to the town, and particularly land for
cultivation divided up into separate portions by hedges, banks,
stone walls, &c. ; also used in combination with words denoting
the crop grown on such a portion of land, such as corn-field,
turnip-field, &c. The word is similarly applied to a region with
particular reference to its products, as oil-field, gold-field, &c.
For the " open " or " common field " system of agriculture in
village communities see COMMONS. Generally with a reference to
their " wild " as opposed to their " domestic " nature " field " is
applied to many animals, such as the " field-mouse." There are
many applications of the word ; thus from the use of the term for
the place where a battle is fought, and widely of the whole
theatre of war, come such phrases as to " take the field " for the
opening of a campaign, " in the field " of troops that are engaged
in the operations of a campaign. It is frequently used figura-
tively in this sense, of the subject matter of a controversy, and
also appears in military usage, in field-fortification, field-day and
the like. A " field-officer" is one who ranks above a captain and
below a general (see OFFICERS); a field marshal is the highest
rank of general officer in the British and many European armies
(see MARSHAL). " Field" is used in many games, partly with the
idea of an enclosed space, partly with the idea of the ground of
military operations, for the ground in which such games as
cricket, football, baseball and the like are played. Hence it is
applied to those players in cricket and baseball who are not " in,"
and " to field " is to perform the functions of such a player to
stop or catch the ball played by the " in " side. " The field " is
used in hunting, &c., for those taking part in the sport, and in
racing for all the horses entered for a race, and, in such ex-
pressions as " to back the field," is confined to all the horses with
the exception of the " favourite." A common application of the
word is to a surface, more or less wide, as of the sky or sea, or of
such physical phenomena as ice or snow, and particularly of the
ground, of a special " tincture," on which armorial bearings are
displayed (see HERALDRY); it is thus used also of the " ground "
of a flag, thus the white ensign of the British navy has a redSt
George's cross on a white " field." In scientific usage the word is
also used of the sphere of observation or of operations, and has
come to be almost equivalent to a department of knowledge. In
physics, a particular application is that to the area which is
influenced by some agent, as in the magnetic or electric field.
The field of observation or view is the area within which objects
can be seen through any optical instrument at any one position.
A " field-glass " is the name given to a binocular glass used in the
field (see BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT) ; the older form of field-glass
was a small achromatic telescope with joints. This terms is also
applied, in an astronomical telescope or compound microscope, to
324
FIELDFARE FIELDING
that one of the two lenses of the " eye-piece " which is next to the
object-glass; the other is called the " eye-glass."
FIELDFARE (O.E. /ea/o-/or = fallow-farer), a large species of
thrush, the Turdus pilaris of Linnaeus well known as a regular
and common autumnal visitor throughout the British Islands and
a great part of Europe, besides western Asia, and even reaching
northern Africa. It is the Veldjakker and \eld-lyste.r of the Dutch,
the Wachholderdrossel and Kramtsvogel of Germans, the Litorne of
the French, and the Cesena of Italians. This bird is of all
thrushes the most gregarious in habit, not only migrating in large
bands and keeping in flocks during the winter, but even commonly
breeding in society 200 nests or more having been seen within a
very small space. The birch-forests of Norway, Sweden and
Russia are its chief resorts in summer, but it is known also to
breed sparingly in some districts of Germany. Though its nest
has been many times reported to have been found in Scotland,
there is perhaps no record of such an incident that is not open to
doubt; and unquestionably the missel-thrush (T. viscivorus) has
been often mistaken for the fieldfare by indifferent observers.
The head, neck, upper part of the back and the rump are grey;
the wings, wing-coverts and middle of the back are rich hazel-
brown; the throat is ochraceous; and the breast reddish-brown
both being streaked or spotted with black, while the belly and
lower wing-coverts are white, and the legs and toes very dark-
brown. The nest and eggs resemble those of the blackbird
(T. merula), but the former is usually built high up in a tree.
The fieldfare's call-note is harsh and loud, sounding like t'chat-
t'chat: its song is low, twittering and poor. It usually arrives in
Britain about the middle or end of October, but sometimes earlier,
and often remains till the middle of May before departing for its
northern breeding-places. In hard weather it throngs to the
berry-bearing bushes which then afford it sustenance, but in open
winters the flocks spread over the fields in search of animal food
worms, slugs and the larvae of insects. In very severe seasons it.
will altogether leave the country, and then return for a shorter
or longer time as spring approaches. From William of Palerne
(translated from the French c. 1350) to the writers of ourownday
the fieldfare has occasionally been noticed by British poets with
varying propriety. Thus Chaucer's association of its name with
frost is as happy as true, while Scott was more than unlucky in his
well-known reference to its " lowly nest " in the Highlands.
Structurally very like the fieldfare, but differing greatly in
many other respects, is the bird known in North America as the
" robin " its ruddy breast and familiar habits reminding the
early British settlers in the New World of the household favourite
of their former homes. This bird, the Turdus migratorius of
Linnaeus, has a wide geographical range, extending from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Greenland to Guatemala, and,
except at its extreme limits, is almost everywhere a very abundant
species. As its scientific name imports, it is essentially a migrant,
and gathers in flocks to pass the winter in the south, though a few
remain in New England throughout the year. Yet its social
instincts point rather in the direction of man than of its own kind,
and it is not known to breed in companies, while it affects the
homesteads, villages and even the parks and gardens of the large
cities, where its fine song, its attractive plumage, and its great
services as a destroyer of noxious insects, combine to make it
justly popular. (A. N.)
FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY (1787-1855),
commonly called Copley Fielding, English landscape painter (son
of a portrait painter), became at an early age a pupil of John
Varley. He took to water-colour painting, and to this he con-
fined himself almost exclusively. In 1810 he became an associate
exhibitor in the Water-colour Society, in 1813 a full member, and
in 1831 president of that body. He also engaged largely in
teaching the art, and made ample profits. His death took place at
Worthing in March 1855. Copley Fielding was a painter of much
elegance, taste and accomplishment, and has always been highly
popular with purchasers, without reaching very high in originality
of purpose or of style: he painted in vast number all sorts of
views (occasionally in oil-colour) including marine subjects in
large proportion. Specimens of his work are to be seen in the
water-colour gallery of the Victoria and Albert Museum, of dates
ranging from 1829 to 1850. Among the engraved specimens of
his art is the Annual of British Landscape Scenery, published
in 1839. (W. M. R.)
FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754), English novelist and play-
wright, was born at Sharpham Park, near Glastonbury, Somerset,
on the 22nd of April 1707. His father was Lieutenant Edmund
Fielding, third son of John Fielding, who was canon of Salisbury
and fifth son of the earl of Desmond. The earl of Desmond
belonged to the younger branch of the Denbigh family, who,
until lately, were supposed to be connected with the Habsburgs.
To this claim, now discredited by the researches of Mr J. Horace
Round (Studies in Peerage, 1901, pp. 216-249), is to be attributed
the famous passage in Gibbon's Autobiography which predicts for
Tom Jones " that exquisite picture of human manners "
a diuturnity exceeding that of the house of Austria. Henry
Fielding's mother was Sarah Gould, daughter of Sir Henry
Gould, a judge of the king's bench. It is probable that the
marriage was not approved by her father, since, though she
remained at Sharpham Park for some time after that event,
his will provided that her husband should have nothing to do
with a legacy of 3000 left her in 1710. About this date the
Fieldings moved to East Stour in Dorset. Two girls, Catherine
and Ursula, had apparently been born at Sharpham Park;
and three more, together with a son, Edmund, followed at East
Stour. Sarah, the third of the daughters, born November
1710, and afterwards the author of David Simple and other
works, survived her brother.
Fielding's education up to his mother's death, which took
place in April 1718 at East Stour, seems to have been entrusted
to a neighbouring clergyman, Mr Oliver of Motcombe, in whom
tradition traces the uncouth lineaments of " Parson Trulliber "
in Joseph Andrews. But he must have contrived, nevertheless,
to prepare his pupil for Eton, tc which place Fielding went about
this date, probably as an oppidan. Little is known of his school-
days. There is no record of his name in the college lists; but,
if we may believe his first biographer, Arthur Murphy, by no
means an unimpeachable authority, he left " uncommonly
versed in the Greek authors, and an early master of the Latin
classics," a statement which should perhaps be qualified by
his own words to Sir Robert Walpole in 1730:
" Tuscan and French are in my head ;
Latin I write, and Greek I read."
But he certainly made friends among his class-fellows some of
whom continued friends for life. Winnington and Hanbury-
Williams were among these. The chief, however, and the most
faithful, was George, afterwards Sir George, and later Baron
Lyttelton of Frankley.
When Fielding left Eton is unknown. But in November 1725
we hear of him definitely in what seems like a characteristic
escapade. He was staying at Lyme (in company with a trusty
retainer, ready to " beat, maim or kill " in his young master's
behalf), and apparently bent on carrying off, if necessary by force,
a local heiress, Miss Sarah Andrew, whose fluttered guardians
promptly hurried her away, and married her to some one else
(Athenaeum, 2nd June 1883). Her baffled admirer consoled
himself by translating part of Juvenal's sixth satire into verse
as " all the Revenge taken by an injured Lover." After this
he must have lived the usual life of a young man about town,
and probably at this date improved the acquaintance of his
second cousin, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, to whom he in-
scribed his first comedy, Love in Several Masques, produced at
Drury Lane in February 1728. The moment was not particularly
favourable, since it succeeded Gibber's Provok'd Husband, and
was contemporary with Gay's popular Beggar's Opera. Almost
immediately afterwards (March i6th) Fielding entered himself
as " Stud. Lit." at Leiden University. He was still there in
February 1729. But he had apparently left before the annual
registration of February 1730, when his name is absent from
the books (Macmillan's Magazine, April 1907); and in January
1730 he brought out a second comedy at the newly-opened
theatre in Goodman's Fields. Like its predecessor, the Templt
FIELDING
325
Beau was an essay in the vein of Congreve and Wycherley,
though, in a measure, an advance on Love in Several Masques.
With the Temple Beau Fielding's dramatic career definitely
begins. His father had married again; and his Leiden career
had been interrupted for lack of funds. Nominally, he was
entitled to an allowance of 200 a year; but this (he was
accustomed to say) "any body might pay that would." Young,
handsome, ardent and fond of pleasure, he began that career as
a hand-to-mouth playwright around which so much legend has
gathered and gathers. Having in his own words no choice
but to be a hackney coachman or a hackney writer, he chose the
pen; and his inclinations, as well as his opportunities, led him
to the stage. From 1 730 to 1 736 he rapidly brought out a large
number of pieces, most of which had merit enough to secure their
being acted, but not sufficient to earn a lasting reputation for
their author. His chief successes, from a critical point of view,
the Author's Farce (1730) and Tom Thumb (1730, 1731), were
burlesques; and he also was fortunate in two translations from
Moliere, the Mock Doctor (1732) and the Miser (1733). Of the
rest (with one or two exceptions, to be mentioned presently)
the names need only be recorded. They are The Coffee-House
Politician, a comedy (1730); The Letter Writers, a farce (1731);
The Grub-Street Opera, a burlesque (1731); The Lottery, a farce
(1732); The Modern Husband, a comedy (1732); The Covent
Garden Tragedy, a burlesque (1732); The Old Debauchees, a
comedy (1732); Deborah; or, a Wife for you all, an after-piece
(!733); The Intriguing Chambermaid (from Regnard), a two-act
comedy (1734); and Don Quixote in England, a comedy, which
had been partly sketched at Leiden.
Don Quixote was produced in 1734, and the list of plays may
be here interrupted by an event of which the date has only
recently been ascertained, namely, Fielding's first marriage.
This took place on the 28th of November 1734 at St Mary,
Charlcombe, near Bath (Macmillan's Magazine, April 1907),
the lady being a Salisbury beauty, Miss Charlotte Cradock, of
whom he had been an admirer, if not a suitor, as far back as
1730. This is a fact which should be taken into consideration
in estimating the exact Bohemianism of his London life, for
there is no doubt that he was devotedly attached to her. After
a fresh farce entitled An Old Man taught Wisdom, and the com-
parative failure of a new comedy, The Universal Gallant, both
produced early in 1735, he seems for a time to have retired with
his bride, who came into 1500, to his old home at East Stour.
Around this rural seclusion fiction has freely accreted. He is
supposed to have lived for three years on the footing of a typical
18th-century country gentleman; to have kept a pack of
hounds; to have put his servants into impossible yellow liveries;
and generally, by profuse hospitality and reckless expenditure,
to have made rapid duck and drake of Mrs Fielding's modest
legacy. Something of this is demonstrably false; much,
grossly exaggerated. In any case, he was in London as late as
February 1735 (the date of the "Preface" to The Universal
Gallant) ; and early in March 1 736 he was back again managing
the Haymarket theatre with a so-called "Great Mogul's Company
of English Comedians."
Upon this new enterprise fortune, at the outset, seemed to
smile. The first piece (produced on the sth of March) was
Pasquin, a Dramatick Satire on the Times (a piece akin in its
plan to Buckingham's Rehearsal), which- contained, in addition
to much admirable burlesque, a good deal of very direct criticism
of the shameless political corruption of the Walpole era. Its
success was unmistakable; and when, after bringing out the
remarkable Fatal Curiosity of George Lillo, its author followed
up Pasquin by the Historical Register for the Year 1736, of which
the effrontery was even more daring than that of its predecessor,
the ministry began to bethink themselves that matters were
going too far. How they actually effected their object is obscure:
but grounds were speedily concocted for the Licensing Act of
I 737> which restricted the number of theatres, rendered the lord
chamberlain's licence an indispensable preliminary to stage
representation, and in a word effectually put an end to
Fielding's career as a dramatist.
Whether, had that career been prolonged to its maturity,
the result would have enriched the theatrical repertoire with
a new species of burlesque, or reinforced it with fresh variations
on the " wit-traps " of Wycherley and Congreve, is one of those
inquiries that are more academic than profitable. What may
be affirmed is, that Fielding's plays, as we have them, exhibit
abundant invention and ingenuity; that they are full of humour
and high spirits; that, though they may have been hastily
written, they were by no means thoughtlessly constructed;
and that, in composing them, their author attentively considered
either managerial hints, or the conditions of the market. Against
this, one must set the fact that they are often immodest; and
that, whatever their intrinsic merit, they have failed to rival
in permanent popularity the work of inferior men. Fielding's
own conclusion was, " that he left off writing for the stage, when
he ought to have begun " which can only mean that he himself
regarded his plays as the outcome of imitation rather than
experience. They probably taught him how to construct Tom
Jones; but whether he could ever have written a comedy at
the level of that novel, can only be established by a comparison
which it is impossible to make, namely, a comparison with
Tom Jones of a comedy written at the same age, and in similar
circumstances.
Tumble-Down Dick; or, Phaeton in the Suds, Eurydice and
Eurydice hissed are the names of three occasional pieces which
belong to the last months of Fielding's career as a Haymarket
manager. By this date he was thirty, with a wife and daughter.
As a means of support, he reverted to the profession of his
maternal grandfather; and, in November 1737, he entered the
Middle Temple, being described in the books of the society as
" of East Stour in Dorset." That he set himself strenuously to
master his new profession, is admitted; though it is unlikely
that he had entirely discarded the irregular habits which had
grown upon him in his irresponsible bachelorhood. He also
did a good deal of literary work, the best known of which is
contained in the Champion, a " News- Journal " of the Spectator
type undertaken with James Ralph, whose poem of " Night "
is made notorious in the Dunciad. That the Champion was not
without merit is undoubted; but the essay- type was for the
moment out-worn, and neither Fielding nor his coadjutor could
lend it fresh vitality. Fielding contributed papers from the
ijth of November 1739 to the igth of June 1740. On the aoth
of June he was called to the bar, and occupied chambers in
Pump Court. It is further related that, in the diligent pursuit
of his calling, he travelled the Western Circuit, and attended
the Wiltshire sessions.
Although, with the Champion, he professed, for the time,
to have relinquished periodical literature, he still wrote at
intervals, a fact which, taken in connexion with his past reputa-
tion as an effective satirist, probably led to his being " unjustly
censured " for much that he never produced. But he certainly
wrote a poem " Of True Greatness " (1741); a first book of a
burlesque epic, the Vernoniad, prompted by Vernon's expedition
of 1739; a vision called the Opposition, and, perhaps, a political
sermon entitled the Crisis (1741). Another piece, now known
to have been attributed to him by his contemporaries (Hist.
MSS. Comm., Rept. 12, App. Pt. ix., p. 204), is the pamphlet
entitled An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews, a clever
but coarse attack upon the prurient side of Richardson's Pamela,
which had been issued in 1740, and was at the height of its
popularity. Shamela followed early in 1741. Richardson, who
was well acquainted with Fielding's four sisters, at that date
his neighbours at Hammersmith, confidently attributed it to
Fielding (Corr. 1804, iv. 286, and unpublished letter at South
Kensington) ; and there are suggestive points of internal evidence
(such as the transformation of Pamela's "MrB." into "Mr
Booby ") which tend to connect it with the future Joseph
Andrews. Fielding, however, never acknowledged it, or referred
to it; and a great deal has been laid to his charge that he never
deserved (" Preface " to Miscellanies, 1743).
But whatever may be decided in regard to the authorship of
Shamela, it is quite possible that it prompted the more memorable
326
FIELDING
Joseph Andrews, which made its appearance in February 1742,
and concerning which there is no question. Professing, on his
title-page, to imitate Cervantes, Fielding set out to cover Pamela
with Homeric ridicule by transferring the heroine's embarrass-
ments to a hero, supposed to be her brother. Allied to this
purpose was a collateral attack upon the slipshod Apology of the
playwright Colley Gibber, with whom, for obscure reasons,
Fielding had long been at war. But the avowed object of the
book fell speedily into the background as its author warmed
to his theme. His secondary speedily became his primary
characters, and Lady Booby and Joseph Andrews do not interest
us now as much as Mrs Slipslop and Parson Adams the latter
an invention that ranges in literature with Sterne's " Uncle
Toby " and Goldsmith's " Vicar." Yet more than these and
others equally admirable in their round veracity, is the writer's
penetrating outlook upon the frailties and failures of human
nature. By the time he had reached his second volume, he had
convinced himself that he had inaugurated a new fashion of
fiction; and in a " Preface " of exceptional ability, he announced
his discovery. Postulating that the epic might be " comic "
or " tragic," prose or verse, he claimed to have achieved what
he termed the " Comic Epos in Prose," of which the action was
" ludicrous " rather than " sublime," and the personages
selected from society at large, rather than the restricted ranks
of conventional high life. His plan, it will be observed, was
happily adapted to his gifts of humour, satire, and above all,
irony. That it was matured when it began may perhaps be
doubted, but it was certainly matured when it ended. Indeed,
except for the plot, which, in his picaresque first idea, had not
preceded the conception, Joseph Andrews has all the character-
istics of Tom Jones, even (in part) to the initial chapters.
Joseph Andrews had considerable success, and the exact sum
paid for it by Andrew Millar, the publisher, according to the
assignment now at South Kensington, was 183 : us., one of
the witnesses being the author's friend, William Young, popularly
supposed to be the original of Parson Adams. It was with Young
that Fielding undertook what, with exception of " a very small
share " in the farce of Miss Lucy in Town (1742), "constituted
his next work, a translation of the Plutus of Aristophanes,
which never seems to have justified any similar experiments.
Another of his minor works was a Vindication of the Dowager
D^^chess of Marlborough (1742), then much before the public
by reason of the Account of her Life which she had recently put
forth. Later in the same year, Garrick applied to Fielding
for a play; and a very early effort, The Wedding Day, was
hastily patched together, and produced at Drury Lane in
February 1743 with no great success. It was, however, included
in Fielding's next important publication, the three volumes of
Miscellanies issued by subscription in the succeeding April.
These also comprised some early poems, some essays, a Lucianic
fragment entitled a Journey from this World to the Next, and,
last but not least, occupying the entire final volume, the remark-
able performance entitled the History of the Life of the late Mr
Jonathan Wild the Great.
It is probable that, in its composition, Jonathan Wild preceded
Joseph Andrews. At all events it seems unlikely that Fielding
would have followed up a success in a new line by an effort so
entirely different in character. Taking for his ostensible hero
a well-known thief-taker, who had been hanged in 1725, he
proceeds to illustrate, by a mock-heroic account of his progress
to Tyburn, the general proposition that greatness without
goodness is no better than badness. He will not go so far as to
say that all " Human Nature is Newgate with the Mask on ";
but he evidently regards the description as fairly applicable to
a good many so-called great people. Irony (and especially Irony
neat) is not a popular form of rhetoric; and the remorseless
pertinacity with which Fielding pursues his demonstration is
to many readers discomforting and even distasteful. Yet in
spite of Scott Jonathan Wild has its softer pages; and as a
purely intellectual conception it is not surpassed by any of the
author's works.
His actual biography, both before and after Jonathan Wild,
is obscure. There are evidences that he laboured diligently
at his profession; there are also evidences of sickness and
embarrassment. He had become early a_martyr to the malady
of his century gout, and the uncertainties of a precarious
livelihood told grievously upon his beautiful wife, who eventually
died of fever in his arms, leaving him for the time so stunned and
bewildered by grief that his friends feared for his reason. For
some years his published productions were unimportant. He
wrote " Prefaces " to the David Simple of his sister Sarah in
1744 and 1747; and, in 1745-1746 and 1747-1748, produced
two newspapers in the ministerial interest, the True Patriot
and the Jacobite's Journal, both of which are connected with,
or derive from, the rebellion of 1745, and were doubtless, when
they ceased, the pretext of a pension from the public service
money (Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon, " Introduction "). In
November 1747 he married his wife's maid, Mary Daniel, at St
Bene't's, Paul's Wharf; and in December 1748, by the interest
of his old school-fellow, Lyttelton, he was made a principal justice
of peace for Middlesex and Westminster, an office which put him
in possession of a house in Bow Street, and 300 per annum
" of the dirtiest money upon earth " (ibid.), which might have
been more had he condescended to become what was known as
a " trading " magistrate.
For some time previously, while at Bath, Salisbury, Twicken-
ham and other temporary resting-places, he had intermittently
occupied himself in composing his second great novel, Tom Jones;
or, the History of a Foundling. For this, in June 1 748, Millar had
paid him 600, to which he added 100 more in 1749. In the
February of the latter year it was published with a dedication
to Lyttelton, to whose pecuniary assistance to the author during
the composition it plainly bears witness. In Tom Jones Fielding
systematically developed the " new Province of Writing " he
had discovered incidentally in Joseph Andrews. He paid closer
attention to the construction and evolution of the plot; he
elaborated the initial essays to each book which he had partly
employed before, and he compressed into his work the flower
and fruit of his forty years' experience of life. He has, indeed,
no character quite up to the level of Parson Adams, but his
Westerns and Partridges, his Allworthys and Blifils, have the
inestimable gift of life. He makes no pretence to produce ' ' models
of perfection," but pictures of ordinary humanity, rather perhaps
in the rough than the polished, the natural than the artificial,
and his desire is to do this with absolute truthfulness, neither
extenuating nor disguising defects and shortcomings. One of the
results of this unvarnished naturalism has been to attract more
attention to certain of the episodes than their inventor ever
intended. But that, in the manners of his time, he had chapter
and verse for everything he drew is clear. His sincere purpose
was, he declared, "to recommend goodness and innocence,"
and his obvious aversions are vanity and hypocrisy. The
methods of fiction have grown more sophisticated since his day,
and other forms of literary egotism have taken the place of his
once famous introductory essays, but the traces of Tom Jones
are still discernible in most of our manlier modern fiction.
Meanwhile, its author was showing considerable activity
in his magisterial duties. In May 1749, he was chosen chairman
of quarter sessions for Westminster; and in June he delivered
himself of a weighty charge to the grand jury. Besides other
pamphlets, he produced a careful and still readable Enquiry into
the Causes of the late Increase of Robbers, &c. (1751), which, among
its other merits, was not ineffectual in helping on the famous
Gin Act of that year, a practical result to which the " Gin Lane "
and " Beer Street " of his friend Hogarth also materially con-
tributed. These duties and preoccupations left their mark on
his next fiction, Amelia (1752), which is rather more taken up
with social problems and popular grievances than its forerunners.
But the leading personage, in whom, as in the Sophia Western
of Tom Jones, he reproduced the traits of his first wife, is certainly,
as even Johnson admitted, " the most pleasing heroine of all the
romances." The minor characters, too, especially Dr Harrison
and Colonel Bath, are equal to any in Tom Jones. The book
nevertheless shows signs, not of failure but of fatigue, perhaps
FIELDING FIELDS
327
of haste a circumstance heightened by the absence of those
" prolegomenous " chapters over which the author had lingerec
so lovingly in Tom Jones. In 1749 he had been dangerously
ill, and his health was visibly breaking. The 1000 which Millar
is said to have given for Amelia must have been painfully
earned.
Early in 1752 his still indomitable energy prompted him to
start a third newspaper, the Covent Garden Journal, which ran
from the 4th of January to the 25th of November. It is an in-
teresting contemporary record, and throws a good deal of light
on his Bow Street duties. But it has no great literary value,
and it unhappily involved him. in harassing and undignified
hostilities with Smollett, Dr John Hill, Bonnell Thornton
and other of his contemporaries. To the following year belong
pamphlets on " Provision for the Poor," and the case of the
strange impostor, Elizabeth Canning (I734-I773). 1 By 1754
his own case, as regards health, had grown desperate; and he
made matters worse by a gallant and successful attempt to break
up a " gang of villains and cut-throats," who had become the
terror of the metropolis. This accomplished, he resigned his
office to his half-brother John (afterwards Sir John) Fielding.
But it was now too late. After fruitless essay both of Dr Ward's
specifics and the tar-water of Bishop Berkeley, it was felt that
his sole chance of prolonging life lay in removal to a warmer
climate. On the 26th of June 1754 he accordingly left his little
country house at Fordhook, Baling, for Lisbon, in the " Queen
of Portugal," Richard Veal master. The ship, as often, was
tediously wind-bound, and the protracted discomforts of the sick
man and his family are narrated at length in the touching
posthumous tract entitled the Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon,
which, with a fragment of a comment on Bolingbroke's then
recently issued essays, was published in February 1755 " for the
Benefit of his [Fielding's] Wife and Children." Reaching Lisbon
at last in August 1754, he died there two months later (8th
October), and was buried in the English cemetery, where a
monument was erected to him in 1830. Luget Britannia gremio
non darifovere nalum is inscribed upon it.
His estate, including the proceeds of a fair library, only
covered his just debts (Athenaeum, 25th Nov. 1905); but his
family, a daughter by his first, and two boys and a girl by his
second wife, were faithfully cared for by his brother John, and
by his friend Ralph Allen of Prior Park, Bath, the Squire
Allworthy of Tom Jones. His will (undated) was printed in
the Athenaeum for the ist of February 1890. There is but one
absolutely authentic portrait of him, a familiar outline by
Hogarth, executed from memory for Andrew Millar's edition
of his works in 1762. It is the likeness of a man broken by ill-
health, and affords but faint indication of the handsome Harry
Fielding who in his salad days " warmed both hands before
the fire of life." Far too much stress, it is now held, has been laid
by his first biographers upon the unworshipful side of his early
career. That he was always profuse, sanguine and more or less
improvident, is as probable as that he was always manly, generous
and sympathetic. But it is also plain that, in his later years,
he did much, as father, friend and magistrate, to redeem the
errors, real and imputed, of a too-youthful youth.
As a playwright and essayist his rank is not elevated. But
as a novelist his place is a definite one. If the Spectator is to be
credited with foreshadowing the characters of the novel, Defoe
with its earliest form, and Richardson with its first experiments
in sentimental analysis, it is to Henry Fielding that we owe its
first accurate delineation of contemporary manners. Neglecting,
or practically neglecting, sentiment as unmanly, and relying
chiefly on humour and ridicule, he set out to draw life pre-
cisely as he saw it around him, without blanks or dashes.
He was, it may be, for a judicial moralist, too indulgent to some
of its frailties, but he was merciless to its meaner vices. For
reasons which have been already given, his high-water mark is
Tom Jones, which has remained, and remains, a model in its way
of the kind he inaugurated.
1 For a full account of this celebrated case see Howell, State Trials
(1813), vol. xix.
An essay on Fielding's life and writings is prefixed to Arthur
Murphy's edition of his works (1762), and short biographies have
been written by Walter Scott and William Roscoe. There are also
lives by Watson (1807), Lawrence (1855), Austin Dobson (" Men of
Letters," 1883, 1907) and G. M. Godden (1909). An annotated
edition of the Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon is included in the
" World's Classics " (1907). (A. D.)
FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS (1848- ), Canadian
journalist and statesman, was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, on
the 24th of November 1848. From 1864 to 1884 he was one of
the staff of the Morning Chronicle, the chief Liberal paper of the
province, and worked at all departments of newspaper life. In
1882 he entered the local legislature as Liberal member for
Halifax, and from 1884 to 1896 was premier and provincial
secretary of the province, but in the latter year became finance
minister in the Dominion administration of Sir Wilfrid Laurier,
and was elected to the House of Commons for Shelburne and
Queen's county. He opposed Confederation in 1864-1867, and as
late as 1886 won a provincial election on the promise to advocate
the repeal of the British North America Act. His administration
as finance minister of Canada was important, since in 1897 he
introduced a new tariff, granting to the manufactures of Great
Britain a preference, subsequently increased; and later he
imposed a special surtax on German imports owing to unfriendly
tariff legislation by that country. In 1 902 he represented Canada
at the Colonial Conference in London.
FIELD-MOUSE, the popular designation of such mouse-like
British rodents as are not true or " house " mice. The term
thus includes the long-tailed field mouse, Mus (Micromys)
sylvaticus, easily recognized by its white belly, and sometimes
called the wood-mouse; and the two species of short-tailed
field-mice, Microtus agrestis and Evolomys glareolus, together with
their representatives in Skomer island and the Orkneys (see
MOUSE and VOLE).
FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD, the French Camp du drop
d'or, the name given to the place between Guines and Ardres
where Henry VIII. of England met Francis I. of France in June
1520. The most elaborate arrangements were made for the
accommodation of the two monarchs and their large retinues;
and on Henry's part especially no efforts were spared to make a
great impression in Europe by this meeting. Before the castle of
Guines a temporary palace, covering an area of nearly 12,000
sq. yds., was erected for the reception of the English king. It
was decorated in the most sumptuous fashion, and like the
chapel, served by thirty-five priests, was furnished with a
profusion of golden ornaments. Some idea of the size of Henry's
following may be gathered from the fact that in one month
2200 sheep and other viands in a similar proportion were con-
sumed. In the fields beyond the castle, tents to the number of
2800 were erected for less distinguished visitors, and the whole
scene was one of the greatest animation. Ladies gorgeously
clad, and knights, showing by their dress and bearing their
anxiety to revive the glories and the follies of the age of chivalry,
: ostled mountebanks, mendicants and vendors of all kinds.
Journeying from Calais Henry reached his headquarters at
uines on the 4th of June 1 520, and Francis took up his residence
at Ardres. After Cardinal Wolsey, with a splendid train had
visited the French king, the two monarchs met at the Val Dore, a
spot midway between the two places, on the 7th. The following
days were take up with tournaments, in which both kings took
>art, banquets and other entertainments, and after Wolsey had
said mass the two sovereigns separated on the 24th. This
meeting made a great impression on contemporaries, but its
political results were very small.
The Ordonnance for the Field is printed by J. S. Brewer in the
Calendar of State Papers, Henry VIII. vol. iii. (1867). See also
'. S. Brewer, Reign oj Henry VIII. (1884).
FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881), American publisher
and author, was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the
jist of December 1817. At the age of seventeen he went to
Joston as clerk in a bookseller's shop. Afterwards he wrote
or the newspapers, and in 1835 he read an anniversary poem
entitled " Commerce " before the Boston Mercantile Library
3 28
FIENNES FIESCHI
Association. In 1839 he became junior partner in the publishing
and bookselling firm known after 1846 as Ticknor & Fields, and
after 1868 as Fields, Osgood & Company. He was the publisher
of the foremost contemporary American writers, with whom he
was on terms of close personal friendship, and he was the
American publisher of some of the best-known British writers of
his time, some of whom, also, he knew intimately. The first
collected edition of De Quincey's works (20 vols., 1850-1855) was
published by his firm. As a publisher he was characterized by a
somewhat rare combination of keen business acumen and sound,
discriminating literary taste, and as a man he was known for his
geniality and charm of manner. In 1862-1870, as the successor
of James Russell Lowell, he edited the Atlantic M onthly. In 1871
Fields retired from business and from his editorial duties, and
devoted himself to lecturing and to writing. Of his books the
chief were the collection of sketches and essays entitled Under-
brush (1877) and the chapters of reminiscence composing Yester-
days with Authors (1871), in which he recorded his personal
friendship with Wordsworth, Thackeray, Dickens, Hawthorne
and others. He died in Boston on the 24th of April 1881.
His second wife, ANNIE ADAMS FIELDS (b. 1834), whom
he married in 1854, published Under the Olive (1880), a book
of verses; James T. Fields: Biographical Notes and Personal
Sketches (1882); Authors and Friends (1896); The Life and
Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe (1897); and Orpheus (1900).
FIENNES, NATHANIEL (c. 1608-1669) English politician,
second son of William, ist Viscount Saye and Sele, by Elizabeth,
daughter of John Temple, of Stow in Buckinghamshire, was born
in 1607 or 1608, and educated at Winchester and at New College,
Oxford, where as founder's kin he was admitted a perpetual
fellow in 1624. After about five years' residence he left without
taking a degree, travelled abroad, and in Switzerland imbibed or
strengthened those religious principles and that hostility to the
Laudian church which were to be the chief motive in his future
political career. He returned to Scotland in 1639, and established
communications with the Covenanters and the Opposition in
England, and as member for Banbury in both the Short and
Long Parliaments he took a prominent part in the attacks upon
the church. He spoke against the illegal canons on the I4th of
December 1640, and again on the 9th of February 1641 on the
occasion of the reception of the London petition, when he argued
against episcopacy as constituting a political as well as a religious
danger and made a great impression on the House, his name being
added immediately to the committee appointed to deal with
church affairs. He took a leading part in the examination into
the army plot; was one of the commissioners appointed to attend
the king to Scotland in August 1641; and was nominated one
of the committee of safety in July 1642. On the outbreak of
hostilities he took arms immediately, commanded a troop of
horse in the army of Lord Essex, was present at the relief of
Coventry in August, and at the fight at Worcester in September,
where he distinguished himself, and subsequently at Edgehill.
Of the last two engagements he wrote accounts, viz. True and
Exact Relation of both the Battles fought by . . . Earl of Essex . . .
against the Bloudy Cavaliers (1642). (See also A Narrative of the
Late Battle before Worcester taken by a Gentleman of the Inns of
Court from the mouth of Master Fiennes, 1642). In February
1643 Fiennes was sent down to Bristol, arrested Colonel Essex
the governor, executed the two leaders of a plot to deliver up the
city, and received a commission himself as governor on the ist
of May 1643. On the arrival, however, of Prince Rupert on the
22nd of July the place was in no condition to resist an attack,
and Fiennes capitulated. He addressed to Essex a letter in his
defence (Thomason Tracts E. 65, 26), drew up for the parliament
a Relation concerning the Surrender . . . (1643), answered by
Prynne and Clement Walker accusing him of treachery and
cowardice, to which he opposed Col. Fiennes his Reply. . . . He
was tried at St Albans by the council of war in December, was
pronounced guilty of having surrendered the place improperly,
and sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned, and the
.facility with which Bristol subsequently capitulated to the
parliamentary army induced Cromwell and the generals to
exonerate him completely. His military career nevertheless now
came to an end. He went abroad, and it was some time before he
reappeared on the political scene. In September 1647 he was
included in the army committee, and on the 3rd of January 1648
he became a member of the committee of safety. He was,
however, in favour of accepting the king's terms at Newport in
December, and in consequence was excluded from the House by
Pride's Purge. An opponent of church government in any form,
he was no friend to the rigid and tyrannical Presbyterianism of
the day, and inclined to Independency and Cromwell's party.
He was a member of the council of state in 1654, and in June
1655 he received the strange appointment of commissioner for
the custody of the great seal, for which he was certainly in no way
fitted. In the parliament of 1654 he was returned for Oxford
county and in that of 1656 for the university, while in January
1658 he was included in Cromwell's House of Lords. He was in
favour of the Protector's assumption of the royal title and urged
his acceptance of it on several occasions. His public career
closes with addresses delivered in his capacity as chief com-
missioner of the great seal at the beginning of the sessions of
January 20, 1658, and January 2, 1659, in which the religious
basis of Cromwell's government is especially insisted upon, the
feature to which Fiennes throughout his career had attached most
value. On the reassembling of the Long Parliament he was
superseded; he took no part in the Restoration, and died at
Newton Tony in Wiltshire on the i6th of December 1669.
Fiennes married (i), Elizabeth, daughter of the famous parlia-
mentarian Sir John Eliot, by whom he had one son, afterwards
3rd Viscount Saye and Sele; and (2), Frances, daughter of
Richard Whitehead of Tuderley, Hants, by whom he had three
daughters.
Besides the pamphlets already cited, a number of his speeches and
other political tracts were published (see Gen. Catalogue, British
Museum). Wood also attributed to him Monarchy Asserted (1660)
(reprinted in Somers Tracts, vi. 346 [ed. Scott]), but there seems no
reason to ascribe to him with Clement Walker the authorship of
Sprigge's Anglia Rediviva.
FIERI FACIAS, usually abbreviated fi. fa. (Lat. " that you
cause to be made "), in English law, a writ of execution after
judgment obtained in action of debt or damages. It is addressed
to the sheriff, and commands him to make good the amount
out of the goods of the person against whom judgment has been
obtained. (See EXECUTION.)
FIESCHI, GIUSEPPE MARCO (1790-1836), the chief con-
spirator in the attempt on the life of Louis Philippe in July
1835, was a native of Murato in Corsica. He served under
Murat, then returned to Corsica, where he was condemned to
ten years' imprisonment and perpetual surveillance by the
police for theft and forgery. After a period of vagabondage he
eluded the police and obtained a small post in Paris by means
of forged papers; but losing it on account of his suspicious
manner of living, he resolved to revenge himself on society.
He took lodgings on the Boulevard du Temple, and there, with
two members of the Societe des Droits de I'Homme, Morey and
Pepin by name, contrived an " infernal machine," constructed
with twenty gun barrels, to be fired simultaneously. On the
z8th of July 1835, as Louis Philippe was passing along the boule-
vard to the Bastille, accompanied by his three sons and a
numerous staff, the machine was exploded. A ball grazed the
king's forehead, and his horse, with those of the duke of Nemours
and of the prince de Joinville, was shot; Marshal Mortier was
killed, with seventeen other persons, and many were wounded;
but the king and the princes escaped as if by miracle. Fieschi
himself was severely wounded by the discharge of his machine,
and vainly attempted to escape. The attentions of the most
skilful physicians were lavished upon him, and his Me was saved
for the stroke of justice. On his trial he named his accomplices,
displayed much bravado, and expected or pretended to expect
ultimate pardon. He was condemned to death, and was guillo-
tined on the igth of February 1836. Morey and Pepin were
also executed, another accomplice was sentenced to twenty
years' imprisonment and one was acquitted. No less than
seven plots against the life of Louis Philippe had been discovered
FIESCO FIFE
329
by the police within the year, and apologists were not wanting
in the revolutionary press for the crime of Fieschi.
See Proces de Fieschi, precede de sa vie privee, so. condamnation par
la Cour des Pairs el celles de ses complices (2 vols., 1836); also P.
Thureau-Dangin, Hist, de la monarchic de Juillet (vol. iv. ch. xii.,
1884).
FIESCO (DE' FIESCHI), GIOVANNI LUIGI (c. 1523-1547),
count of Lavagna, was descended from one of the greatest
families of Liguria, first mentioned in the loth century. Among
his ancestors were two popes (Innocent IV. and Adrian V.),
many cardinals, a king of Sicily, three saints, and many generals
and admirals of Genoa and other states. Sinibaldo Fiesco,
his father, had been a close friend of Andrea Doria (q.v.), and
had rendered many important services to the Genoese republic.
On his death in 1532 Giovanni found himself at the age of
nine the head of the family and possessor of immense estates.
He grew up to be a handsome, intelligent youth, of attrac-
tive manners and very ambitious. He married Eleonora Cibo,
marchioness of Massa, in 1540, a woman of great beauty and
family influence. There were many reasons which inspired his
hatred of the Doria family; the almost absolute power wielded
by the aged admiral and the insolence of his nephew and heir
Giannettino Doria, the commander of the galleys, were galling
to him as to many other Genoese, and it is said that Giannettino
was the lover of Fiesco's wife. Moreover, the Fiesco belonged
to the French or popular party, while the Doria were aristocrats
and Imperialists. When Fiesco determined to conspire against
Doria he found friends in many quarters. Pope Paul III. was
the first to encourage him, while both Pier Luigi Farnese, duke
of Parma, and Francis I. of France gave him much assistance
and promised him many advantages. Among his associates in
Genoa were his brothers Girolamo and Ottobuono, Verrina
and R. Sacco. A number of armed men from the Fiesco fiefs
were secretly brought to Genoa, and it was agreed that on the
2nd of January 1547, during the interregnum before the election
of the new doge, the galleys in the port should be seized and the
city gates held. The first part of the programme was easily
carried out, and Giannettino Doria, aroused by the tumult,
rushed down to the port and was killed, but Andrea escaped
from the city in time. The conspirators attempted to gain
possession of the government, but unfortunately for them
Giovanni Luigi, while crossing a plank from the quay to one
of the galleys, fell into the water and was drowned. The news
spread consternation among the Fiesco faction, and Girolamo
Fiesco found few adherents. They came to terms with the
senate and were granted a general amnesty. Doria returned
to Genoa on the 4th thirsting for revenge, and in spite of the
amnesty he confiscated the Fiesco estates; Girolamo had shut
himself up, with Verrina and Sacco and other conspirators, in
his castle of Montobbia, which the Genoese at Doria's instiga-
tion besieged and captured. Girolamo Fiesco and Verrina were
tried, tortured and executed; all their estates were seized, some
of which, including Torriglia, Doria obtained for himself. Otto-
buono Fiesco, who had escaped, was captured eight years after-
wards and put to death by Doria's orders.
There are many accounts of the conspiracy, of which perhaps the
best is contained in E. Petit's Andre Doria (Paris, 1887), chs. xi.
and xii., where all the chief authorities are quoted ; see also Calligari,
La Congiura del Fiesco (Venice, 1892), and Gavazzo, Nuovi documenti
sulla congiura delconte Fiesco (Genoa, 1886) ; E. Bernabo-Brea, in his
Sulla congiura di Giovanni Luigi Fieschi, publishes many important
documents, while L. Capelloni's Congiura del Fiesco, edited by
Olivier!, and A. Mascardi's Congiura del conte Giovanni Luigi de'
Fieschi (Antwerp, 1629) may be commended among the earlier
works. The Fiesco conspiracy has been the subject of many poems
and dramas, of which the most famous is that by Schiller. See also
under DORIA, ANDREA; FARNESE. (L. V.*)
FIESOLE (anc. Faesulae, q.v.}, a town and episcopal see
of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, from which it
is 3 m. N.E. by electric tramway. Pop. (1901) town 4951,
commune 16,816. It is situated on a hill 970 ft. above sea-level,
and commands a fine view. The cathedral of S. Romolo is an
early and simple example of the Tuscan Romanesque style;
it is a small basilica, begun in 1028 and restored in 1256. The
picturesque battlemented campanile , belongs to 1213. The
tomb of the bishop Leonardo Salutati (d. 1466). with a beautiful
portrait bust by the sculptor Mino da Fiesole (1431-1484),
is fine. The 13th-century Palazzo Pretorio contains a small
museum of antiquities. The Franciscan monastery commands
a fine view. The church of S. Maria Primerana has some works
of art, and S. Alessandro, which is attributed to the 6th century,
contains fifteen ancient columns of cipollino. The inhabitants
of Fiesole are largely engaged in straw-plaiting.
Below Fiesole, between it and Florence, lies San Domenico
di Fiesole (485 ft.); in the Dominican monastery the painter,
Fra Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole (1387-1455), lived until he
went to S. Marco at Florence. Here, too, is the Badia di Fiesole,
founded in 1028 and re-erected about 1456-1466 by a follower
of Brunelleschi. It is an irregular pile of buildings, in fine and
simple early Renaissance style; a small part of the original
facade of 1028 in black and white marble is preserved. The
interior of the Church is decorated with sculptures by pupils of
Desiderio da Settignano. The slopes of the hill on which Fiesole
stands are covered with fine villas. To the S.E. of Fiesole lies
Monte Ceceri (1453 ft.), with quarries of grey pietra serena,
largely used in Florence for building. To the E. of this lies the
14th-century castle of Vincigliata restored and fitted up in the
medieval style.
FIFE, an eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the
Firth of Tay, E. by the North Sea, S. by the Firth of Forth,
and W. by the shires of Perth, Kinross and Clackmannan. The
Isle of May, Inchkeith, Inchcolm, Inchgarvie and the islet of
Oxcar belong to the shire. It has an area of 322,844, acres or
504 sq. m. Its coast-line measure 108 m. The Lomond Hills
to the S. and S.W. of Falkland, of which West Lomond is 1713 ft.
high and East Lomond 1471 ft., Saline Hill (1178 ft.) to the N.W.
of Dunfermline, and Benarty (1131 ft.) on the confines of Kinross
are the chief heights. Of the rivers the Eden is the longest;
formed on the borders of Kinross-shire by the confluence of
Beattie Burn and Carmore Burn, it pursues a wandering course
for 25 m. N.E., partly through the Howe, or Hollow of Fife, and
empties into the North Sea. There is good trout fishing in its
upper waters, but weirs prevent salmon from ascending it.
The Leven drains the loch of that name and enters the Forth
at the town of Leven after flowing eastward for ism. There
are numerous factories at various points on its banks. The
Ore, rising not far from Roscobie Hills to the north of Dunferm-
line, follows a mainly north-easterly course for 15 m. till it joins
the Leven at Windygates. The old loch of Ore which was an
expansion of its water was long ago reclaimed. Motray Water
finds its source in the parish of Kilmany, a few miles W. by N.
of Cupar, makes a bold sweep towards the north-east, and then,
taking a southerly turn, enters the head-waters of St Andrews
Bay, after a course of 12 m. The principal lochs are Loch
Fitly, Loch Gelly, Loch Glow and Loch Lindores; they are
small but afford some sport for trout, perch and pike. " Fresh-
water mussels " occur in Loch Fitty. There are no glens, and the
only large valley is the fertile Stratheden, which supplies part
of the title of the combined baronies of Stratheden (created
1836) and Campbell (created 1841).
Geology. Between Damhead and Tayport on the northern side of
the low-lying Howe of Fife the higher ground is formed of Lower Old
Red Sandstone volcanic rocks, consisting of red and purple por-
phvrites and andesites and some coarse agglomerates, which, in the
neighbourhood of Auchtermuchty, are rounded and conglomeratic.
These rocks have a gentle dip towards the S.S.E. They are overlaid
unconformably by the soft red sandstones of the Upper Old Red
series which underlie the Howe of Fife from Loch Leven to the
coast. The quarries in these rocks in Dura Den are famous for
fossil fishes. Following the Old Red rocks conformably are the
Carboniferous formations which occupy the remainder of the county,
and are well exposed on the coast and in the numerous quarries.
The Carboniferous rocks include, at the base, the Calciferous Sand-
stone series of dark shales with thin limestones, sandstones and coals.
They are best developed around Fife Ness, between St Andrews and
Elie, and again around Burntisland between Kirkcaldy and Inver-
keithing Bay. In the Carboniferous Limestone series, which comes
next in upward succession, are the valuable gas-coals and ironstones
worked in the coal-fields of Dunfermline, Saline, Oakley, Torryburn,
Kirkcaldy and Markinch. The true Coal Measures lie in the district
around Dysart and Leven, East Wemyss and Kinglassie, and they
330
FIFE
are separated from the coal-bearing Carboniferous Limestone series
by the sandstones and conglomerates of the Millstone Grit. Fourteen
seams of coal are found in the Dysart Coal Measures, associated
with sandstones, shales and clay ironstones. Fife is remarkably rich
in evidences of former volcanic activity. Besides the Old Red
Sandstone volcanic rocks previously mentioned, there are many beds
of contemporaneous basaltic lavas and tuffs in the Carboniferous
rocks; Saline Hill and Knock Hill were the sites of vents, which at
that time threw out ashes ; these interbedded rocks are well exposed
on the shore between Burntisland and Seafield Tower. There were
also many intrusive sheets of dolerite and basalt forced into tne
lower Carboniferous rocks, and these now play an important part
in the scenery of the county. They form the summits of the Lomond
Hills and Benarty, and they may be followed from Cult Hill by the
Cleish Hills to Blairadam ; and again near Dunfermline, Burntisland,
Torryburn, Auchtertool and St Andrews. Later, in Permian times,
eastern Fife was the seat of further volcanic action, and.grcat numbers
of " necks " or vents pierce the Carboniferous rocks; Largo Law is a
striking example. In one of these necks on the shore at Kincraig
Point is a fine example of columnar basalt ; the" Rock and Spindle "
near St Andrews is another. Last of all in Tertiary times, east and
west rifts in the Old Red Sandstone were filled by basalt dikes.
Glacial deposits, ridges of gravel and sand, boulder clay, &c., brought
from the N. W., cover much of the older rocks, and traces of old
raised beaches are found round the coast and in the Howe of Fife.
In the 25-ft. beach in the East Neuk of Fife is an island sea-cliff with
small caves.
Climate and Agriculture. Since the higher hills all lie in the
west, most of the county is exposed to the full force of the east
winds from the North Sea, which often, save in the more sheltered
areas, check the progress of vegetation. At an elevation of 500 or
600 ft. above the sea harvests are three or four weeks later than
in the valleys and low-lying coast-land. The climate, on the
whole, is mild, proximity to the sea qualifying the heat in summer
and the cold in winter. The average annual rainfall is 31 in.,
rather less in the East Neuk district and around St Andrews,
somewhat more as the hills are approached, late summer and
autumn being the wet season. The average temperature for
January is 38 F., for July 59-5, and for the year 47-6. Four-
fifths of the total area is under cultivation, and though the
acreage under grain is smaller than it was, the yield of each crop
is still extraordinarily good, oats, barley, wheat being the order
of acreage. Of the green crops most attention is given to turnips.
Potatoes also do well. The acreage under permanent pasture
and wood is very considerable. Cattle are mainly kept for feed-
ing purposes, and dairy farming, though attracting more notice,
has never been followed more than to supply local markets.
Sheep-farming, however, is on the increase, and the raising of
horses, especially farm horses, is an important pursuit. They
are strong, active and hardy, with a large admixture, or purely,
of Clydesdale blood. The ponies, hunters and carriage horses so
bred are highly esteemed. The strain of pigs has been improved
by the introduction of Berkshires. North of the Eden the soil,
though generally thin, is fertile, but the sandy waste of Tents
Moor is beyond redemption. From St Andrews southwards all
along the coast the land is very productive. That adjacent to
the East Neuk consists chiefly of clay and rich loam. From
Leven to Inverkeithing it varies from a light sand to a rich
clayey loam. Excepting Stratheden and Strathleven, which are
mostly rich, fertile loam, the interior is principally cold and stiff
clay or thin loam with strong clayey subsoil. Part of the Howe of
Fife is light and shingly and covered with heather. Some small
peat mosses still exist, and near Lochgelly there is a tract of
waste, partly moss and partly heath. The character of the farm
management may be judged by its results. The best methods are
pursued, and houses, steadings and cottages are all in good order,
commodious and comfortable. Rabbits, hares, pheasants and
partridges are common in certain districts; roe deer are occasion-
ally seen; wild geese, ducks and teal haunt the lochs; pigeon-
houses are fairly numerous; and grouse and blackcock are
plentiful on the Lomond moors. The shire is well suited for
fox-hunting, and there are packs in both the eastern and the
western division of Fife.
Mining. Next to Lanarkshire, Fife is the largest coal-
producing county in Scotland. The coal-field may roughly be
divided into the Dunfermline basin (including Halbeath, Loch-
gelly and Kelty), where the principal house coals are found, and
the Wemyss or Dysart basin (including Methil and the hinter-
land), where gas-coal of the best quality is obtained. Coal is also
extensively worked at Culross, Carnock, Falfield, Donibristle,
Ladybank, Kilconquhar and elsewhere. Beds of ironstone,
limestone, sandstone and shale lie in many places contiguous to
the coal. Blackband ironstone is worked at Lochgelly and
Oakley, where there are large smelting furnaces. Oil shale is
worked at Burntisland and Airdrie near Crail. Among the
principal limestone quarries are those at Charlestown, Burnt-
island and Cults. Freestone of superior quality is quarried at
Strathmiglo, Burntisland and Dunfermline. Whinstone of
unusual hardness and durability is obtained in nearly every
district. Lead has been worked in the Lomond Hills and copper
and zinc have been met with, though not in paying quantities.
It is of interest to note that in the trap tufa at Elie there have
been found pyropes (a variety of dark-red garnet), which are
regarded as the most valuable of Scottish precious stones and
are sold under the name of Elie rubies.
Other Industries. The staple manufacture is linen, ranging
from the finest damasks to the coarsest ducks and sackings. Its
chief seats are at Kirkcaldyand Dunfermline, but it is carried on at
many of the inland towns and villages, especially those situated
near the Eden and Leven, on the banks of which rivers, as well as
at Kirkcaldy, Dunfermline and Ceres, are found the bleaching-
greens. Kirkcaldy is famous for its oil-cloth and linoleum.
Most of the leading towns possess breweries and tanneries, and
the largest distilleries are at Cameron Bridge and Burntisland.
Woollen cloth is made to a small extent in several towns, and
fishing-net at Kirkcaldy, Largo and West Wemyss. Paper is
manufactured at Guardbridge, Markinch and Leslie; earthen-
ware at Kirkcaldy; tobacco at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy;
engineering'works and iron foundries are found at Kirkcaldy and
Dunfermline; and shipbuilding is carried on at Kinghorn,
Dysart, Burntisland, Inverkeithing and Tayport. From Inver-
keithing all the way round the coast to Newburgh there are
harbours at different points. They are mostly of moderate
dimensions, the principal port being Kirkcaldy. The largest
salmon fisheries are conducted at Newburgh and the chief seat of
the herring fishery is Anstruther, but most of the coast towns
take some part in the fishing either off the shore, or at stations
farther north, or in the deep sea.
Communications. The North British railway possesses a
monopoly in the shire. From the Forth Bridge the main line
follows the coast as far as Dysart and then turns northwards to
Ladybank, where it diverges to the north-east for Cupar and the
Tay Bridge, From Thornton Junction a branch runs to Dun-
fermline and another to Methil, and here begins also the coast
line for Leven, Crail and St Andrews which touches the main line
again at Leuchars Junction; at Markinch a branch runs to
Leslie; at Ladybank there are branches to Mawcarse Junction,
and to Newburgh and Perth; and at Leuchars Junction a loop
line runs to Tayport and Newport, joining the main at Wormit.
From the Forth Bridge the system also connects, via Dunferm-
line, with Alloa and Stirling in the W. and with Kinross and
Perth in the N. From Dunfermline there is a branch to Charles-
town, which on that account is sometimes called the port of
Dunfermline.
Population and Government. The population was 190,365
in 1891, and 218,840 in 1901, when 844 persons spoke Gaelic
and English and 3 Gaelic only. The chief towns are the
Anstruthers (pop. in 1.901, 4233), Buckhaven (8828), Burntisland
(4846), Cowdenbeath(79o8), Cupar (4511), Dunfermline(25,2so),
Dysart (3562), Kelty (3986), Kirkcaldy (34,079), Leslie (3587),
Leven (5577), Lochgelly (5472), Lumphinnans (2071), Newport
(2869), St Andrews (7621), Tayport (3325) and Wemyss (2522).
For parliamentary purposes Fife is divided into an eastern
and a western division, each returning one member. It also
includes the Kirkcaldy district of parliamentary burghs (com-
prising Burntisland, Dysart, Kinghorn and Kirkcaldy), and the
St Andrews district (the two Anstruthers, Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny,
Pittenweem and St Andrews); while Culross, Dunfermline
and Inverkeithing are grouped with the Stirling district. As
FIFE FIFTH MONARCHY MEN
regards education the county is under school-board jurisdiction,
and in respect of higher education its equipment is effective.
St Andrews contains several excellent schools; at Cupar there is
the Bell-Baxter school; at Dunfermline and Kirkclady there are
high schools and at Anstruther there is the Waid Academy.
History. In remote times the term Fife was applied to the
peninsula lying between the estuaries of the Tay and Forth
and separated from the rest of the mainland by the Ochil Hills.
Its earliest inhabitants were Picts of the northern branch and
their country was long known as Pictavia. Doubtless it was
owing to the fact that the territory was long subject to the rule
of an independent king that Fife itself came to be called distinct-
ively The Kingdom, a name of which the natives are still proud.
The Romans effected no settlement in the province, though it is
probable that they temporarily occupied points here and there.
In any case the Romans left no impression on the civilization of
the natives. With the arrival of the missionaries especially
St Serf, St Kenneth, St Rule, St Adrian, St Moran and St Fillan
and conversion of the Picts went on apace. Interesting memorials
of these devout missionaries exist in the numerous coast caves
between Dysart and St Andrews and in the crosses and sculptured
stones, some doubtless of pre-Christian origin, to be seen at various
places. The word Fife, according to Skene, seems to be identical
with the Jutland Fibh (pronounced Fife) meaning " forest,"
and was probably first used by the Frisians to describe the country
behind the coasts of the Forth and Tay, where Frisian tribes are
supposed to have settled at the close of the 4th century. The
next immigration was Danish, which left lasting traces in many
place-names (such as the frequent use of law for hill). An
ancient division of the Kingdom into Fife and Fothrif survived
for a period for ecclesiastical purposes. The line of demarcation
ran from Leven to the east of Cults, thence to the west of Collessie
and thence to the east of Auchtermuchty. To the east of this
line lay Fife proper. In 1426 the first shire of Kinross was
formed, consisting of Kinross and Orwell, and was enlarged to
its present dimensions by the transference from Fife of the
parishes of Portmoak, Cleish and Tullicbole. Although the
county has lain outside of the main stream of Scottish history,
its records are far from dull or unimportant. During the reigns
of the earlier Stuarts, Dunfermline, Falkland and St Andrews
were often the scene of solemn pageantry and romantic episodes.
Out of the seventy royal burghs in Scotland no fewer than
eighteen are situated in the shire. However, notwithstanding
the marked preference of the Stuarts, the Kingdom did not
hesitate to play the leading part in the momentous dramas of
the Reformation and the Covenant, and by the i8th century the
people had ceased to regard the old royal line with any but
sentimental interest, and the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745
evoked only the most lukewarm support.
See Sir Robert Sibbald, History of the Sheriff doms of Fife and
Kinross; Rev. J. W. Taylor, Historical Antiquities of Fife (1875);
A. H. Millar, Fife, Pictorial and Historical (Cupar, 1895); Sheriff
Aeneas Mackay, sketch of the History of Fife (Edinburgh, 1890);
History of Fife and Kinross (Scottish County History series) (Edin-
burgh, 1896) ; John Geddie, The Fringe of Fife (Edinburgh, 1894).
FIFE (Fr. fifre; Med. Ger. Schweizerpfeif, Feldpfeif; Ital.
ottamno), originally the small primitive cylindrical transverse
flute, now the small Bb military flute, usually conoidal in bore,
used in a drum and fife band. The pitch of the fife lies between
that of the concert flute and piccolo. The fife, like the flute, is
an open pipe, for although the upper end is stopped by means
of a cork, an outlet is provided by the embouchure which is
never entirely closed by the lips. The six finger-holes of the
primitive flute, with the open end of the tube for a key-note,
gave the diatonic scale of the fundamental octave; the second
octave was produced by overblowing the notes of the funda-
mental scale an octave higher; part of a third octave was
obtained by means of the higher harmonics produced by using
certain of the finger-holes as vent-holes. The modern fife has,
in addition to the six finger-holes, 4, 5 or 6 keys. Mersenne
describes and figures the fife, which had in his day the compass
of a fifteenth. 1 The fife, which, he states, differed from the
1 Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636), bk. v. prop. 9, pp. 241-244.
German flute only in having a louder and more brilliant tone and
a shorter and narrower bore, was the instrument used by the
Swiss with the drum. The sackbut, or serpent, was used as its
bass, for, as Mersenne explains, the bass instrument could not
be made long enough, nor could the hands reach the holes,
although some flutes were actually made with keys and had the
tube doubled back as in the bassoon. 2
The words fife and the Fr. fifre were undoubtedly derived from
the Ger. Pfeiff, the fife being called by Praetorius. 3 Schweizerpfeiff
and Feldpfeif, while Martin Agricola, 4 writing a century earlier
(1529), mentions the transverse flute by the names of Querchpfeiff
or Schweizerpfeiff, which Sebastian Virdung 6 writes Zwerchpfeiff.
The Old English spelling was phife, phiphe orffyffe. The fife was in
use in England in the middle of the l6th century, for at a muster of
the citizens of London in 1540, droumes and ffyffes are mentioned.
At the battle of St Quentin (1557) the list of the English army 6
employed states that one trumpet was allowed to each cavalry troop
of 100 men, and a drum and fife to each hundred of foot. A drumme
and phife were also employed at one shilling per diem for the " Trayne
of Artillery." 7 This was the nucleus of the modern military band,
and may be regarded as the first step in its formation. In England
the adoption of the fife as a military instrument was due to the
initiative of Henry VIII., who sent to Vienna for ten good drums
and as many fifers. 8 Ralph Smith 9 gives rules for drummers and
fifers who, in addition to the duty of giving signals in peace and war
to the company, were expected to be brave, secret and ingenious,
and masters of several languages, for they were oft sent to parley
with the enemy and were entrusted with honourable but dangerous
missions. In 1585 the drum and fife formed part of the furniture
for war among the companies of the city of London. 10 Queen
Elizabeth (according to Michaud, Biogr. universelle. tome xiii. p. 60)
had a peculiar taste for noisy music, and during meals had a concert
of twelve trumpets, two kettledrums, with files and drums. The
fife became such a favourite military instrument during the i6th
and 1 7th centuries in England that it displaced the bagpipe; it
was, however, in turn superseded early in the i8th century by the
hautboy (see OBOE), introduced from France. In the middle of the
1 8th century the fife was reintroduced into the British army band
by the duke of Cumberland u in the Guards in 1745, commemorated
by William Hogarth's picture of the " March of the Guards towards
Scotland in 1745," in which are seen a drummer and fifer; and by
Colonel Bedford into the royal regiment of artillery in 1748, at the
end of the war, when a Hanoverian fifer, John Ulrich, was brought
over from Flanders as instructor. 12 In 1747 the igth regiment,
known as Green Howards, also had the advantage of a Hanoverian
fifer as teacher, a youth presented by his colonel to Lieutenant-
Colonel Williams commanding the regiment at Bois-le-Duc. Drum
and fife bands in a short time became common in all infantry regi-
ments, while among the cavalry the trumpet prevailed.
For the acoustics, construction and origin of the fife see FLUTE.
Illustrations of the fife may be seen in Cowdray's picture of an en-
campment at Portsmouth in 1548; in Sandford's " Coronation
Procession of James II.," and in C. R. Day's Descriptive Catalogue,
pi. i. (F) (description No. 42, p. 27). (K. S.)
FIFTH MONARCHY MEN, the name of a Puritan sect in
England which for a time supported the government of Oliver
Cromwell in the belief that it was a preparation for the " fifth
monarchy," that is for the monarchy which should succeed the
Assyrian, the Persian, the Greek and the Roman, and during
which Christ should reign on earth with His saints for a thousand
years. These sectaries aimed at bringing about the entire aboli-
tion of the existing laws and institutions, and the substitution
of a simpler code based upon the law of Moses. Disappointed
at the delay in the fulfilment of their hopes, they soon began
to agitate against the government and to vilify Cromwell; but
the arrest of their leaders and preachers, Christopher Feake,
John Rogers and others, cooled their ardour, and they were,
perforce, content to cherish their hopes in secret until after the
Restoration. Then, on the 6th of January 1661, a band of fifth
monarchy men, headed by a cooper named Thomas Venner,
2 For an illustration of one of these bass flutes see article FLUTE,
fig. 2.
3 Syntagma musicum (Wolfenbuttel, 1618), pp. 40-41 of Reprint.
4 Musica instrumental (Wittenberg, 1529).
5 Musica getutscht und auszgezogen (Basel, 1511).
6 See Sir S. D. Scott, The British Army, vol. ii. p. 396.
7 See H. G. Farmer, Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band (London,
1904).
8 Id. Id. 10 Stowe's Chronicles, p. 702.
11 Grose, Military Antiquities (London, 1801), vol. ii.
12 See Colonel P. Forbes Macbean, Memoirs of the Royal Regiment oj
A rtillery.
332
FIG
who was one of their preachers, made an attempt to obtain
possession of London. Most of them were either killed or taken
prisoners, and on the igth and 2ist of January Venner and ten
others were executed for high treason. From that time the
special doctrines of the sect either died out, or became merged
in a milder form of millenarianism, similar to that which exists
at the present day.
For the proceedings of the sect see S. R. Gardiner, History of
the Commonwealth and Protectorate, passim (London, 1894-1901);
and for an account of the rising of 1661 see Sir John Reresby,
Memoirs, 1634-1689, edited by J. J. Cartwright (London, 1875).
FIG, the popular name given to plants of the genus Ficus, an
extensive group, included in the natural order Moraceae, and
characterized by a remarkable development of the pear-shaped
receptacle, the edge of which curves inwards, so as to form a
nearly closed cavity, bearing the numerous fertile and sterile
flowers mingled on its surface. The figs vary greatly in habit,
some being low trailing shrubs, others gigantic trees, among the
FIGURE I. Fruiting Branch of Fig, Ficus Carica ; about f nat. size.
i. Unripe fruit cut lengthwise; about i nat. size. 2. Female
flower taken from I ; enlarged.
| nat. size.
3. Ripe fruit cut lengthwise; about
most striking forms of those tropical forests to which they are
chiefly indigenous. They have alternate leaves, and abound in a
milky juice, usually acrid, though in a few instances sufficiently
mild to be used for allaying thirst. This juice contains caout-
chouc in large quantity.
Ficus Carica (figure i), which yields the well-known figs of
commerce, is a bush or small tree rarely more than 18 or 20 ft.
high, with broad, rough, deciduous leaves, very deeply lobed in
the cultivated varieties, but in the wild plant sometimes nearly
entire. The green, rough branches bear the solitary, nearly
sessile receptacles in the axils of the leaves. The male flowers are
placed chiefly in the upper part of the cavity, and in most
varieties are few in number. As it ripens, the receptacle enlarges
greatly, and the numerous single-seeded pericarps or true fruits
become imbedded in it. The fruit of the wild fig never acquires
the succulence of the cultivated kinds. The fig seems to be
indigenous to Asia Minor and Syria, but now occurs in a wild
state in most of the countries around the Mediterranean. From
the ease with which the nutritious fruit can be preserved, it
was probably one of the earliest objects of cultivation, as may
be inferred from the frequent allusions to it in the Hebrew
Scriptures. 1 From a passage in Herodotus the fig would seem to
have been unknown to the Persians in the days of the first Cyrus;
but it must have spread in remote ages over all the districts
around the Aegean and Levant. The Greeks are said to have
received it from Caria (hence the specific name) ; but the fruit so
improved under Hellenic culture that Attic figs became celebrated
throughout the East, and special laws were made to regulate
their exportation. From the contemptuous name given to in-
formers against the violation of those enactments, owo^dcrat
(awov, (^cupo)), our word sycophant is usually derived. The
fig 4 was one of the principal articles of sustenance among the
Greeks; the Spartans especially used it largely at their public
tables. From Hellas, at some prehistoric period, it was trans-
planted to Italy and the adjacent islands. Pliny enumerates
many varieties, and alludes to those from Ebusus (the modern
Iviza) as most esteemed by Roman epicures; while he describes
those of home growth as furnishing a large portion of the food of
the slaves, particularly those employed in agriculture, by whom
great quantities were eaten in the fresh state at the periods of
fig-harvest. In Latin myths the plant plays an important part.
Held sacred to Bacchus, it was employed in religious ceremonies;
and the fig-tree that overshadowed the twin founders of Rome in
the wolf's cave, as an emblem of the future prosperity of the race,
testified to the high value set upon the fruit by the nations of
antiquity. The tree is now cultivated in all the Mediterranean
countries, but the larger portion of our supply of figs comes from
Asia Minor, the Spanish Peninsula and the south of France.
Those of Asiatic Turkey are considered the best. The varieties
are extremely numerous, and the fruit is of various colours, from
deep purple to yellow, or nearly white. The trees usually bear
two crops, one in the early summer from the buds of the last
year, the other in the autumn from those on the spring growth;
the latter forms the chief harvest. Many of the immature
receptacles drop offjrom imperfect fertilization, which circum-
stance has led, from very ancient times, to the practice of
caprification? Branches of the wild fig in flower are placed over
the cultivated bushes. Certain hymenopterous insects, of the
genera Blastophaga and Sycophaga, which frequent the wild fig,
enter the minute orifice of the receptacle, apparently to deposit
their eggs; conveying thus the pollen more completely to the
stigmas, they ensure the fertilization and consequent ripening of
the fruit. By some the nature of the process has been questioned,
and the better maturation of the fruit attributed merely to the
stimulus given by the puncture of the insect, as in the case of the
apple; but the arrangement of the unisexual flowers in the fig
renders the first theory the more probable. In some districts a
straw or small twig is thrust into the receptacle with a similar
object. When ripe the figs are picked, and spread out to dry in
the sun, those of better quality being much pulled and extended
by hand during the process. Thus prepared, the fruit is packed
closely in barrels, rush baskets, or wooden boxes, for commerce.
The best kind, known as elemi, are shipped at Smyrna, where the
1 Of these the case of the Barren Fig-tree (Mark. xi. 12-14, 20-21 :
compare Matt. xxi. 18-20), which Jesus cursed and which then
withered away, has been much discussed among theologians. The
difficulty is in Mark xi. 13: " And seeing a fig-tree afar off having
leaves, he came, if haply he might find anything thereon ; and when
he came to it he found nothing but leaves, for the time of figs was
not yet." These last words obviously raise the question whether
the expectation of Jesus of finding figs, and his cursing of the tree
on finding none, were not unreasonable. Many ingenious solutions
have been propounded, by suggested emendations of the text and
otherwise, for which consult M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia
of Biblical Literature (sub " Fig ") and the Encyclopaedia Biblica
("Fig-tree"); the former demurs to the unreasonableness, and
contends that the appearance of the leaves at this season (March)
indicated a pretentious precocity in this particular fig-tree, so that
Jesus was entitled to expect that it would also have fruit, even
though the season had not arrived ; the Ency. Biblica, on the other
hand, supposes that some " early Christian," confounding parable
with history, has misunderstood the parable in Luke xiii. 6-9, and,
forgetting that the season was not one for figs, has transformed it
here into the narrative of an act of Jesus. The probability seems to
be that the words " for the time of figs was not yet " are an un-
intelligent gloss by an early reader, which has made its way into the
text. For authorities see the works mentioned above.
1 From Lat. caprificus, a wild fig; O. Eng. caprifig.
FIG
333
pulling and packing of figs form one of the most important
industries of the people.
This fruit still constitutes a large part of the food of the natives
of western Asia and southern Europe, both in the fresh and dried
state. A sort of cake made by mashing up the inferior kinds
serves in parts of the Archipelago as a substitute for bread.
Alcohol is obtained from fermented figs in some southern
countries; and a kind of wine, still made from the ripe fruit,
was known to the ancients, and mentioned by Pliny under the
name of sycites. Medicinally the fig is employed as a gentle
laxative, when eaten abundantly often proving useful in
chronic constipation; it forms a part of the well-known "con-
fection of senna." The milky juice of the stems and leaves is
very acrid, and has been used in some countries for raising
blisters. The wood is porous and of little value; though a piece,
saturated with oil and spread with emery, is in France a common
substitute for a hone.
The fig is grown for its fresh fruit (eaten as an article of dessert)
in all the milder parts of Europe, and in the United States, with
protection in winter, succeeds as far north as Pennsylvania.
The fig was introduced into England by Cardinal Pole, from
Italy, early in the i6th century. It lives to a great age, and
along the southern coast of England bears fruit abundantly as a
standard; but in Scotland and in many parts of England a south
wall is indispensable for its successful cultivation out of doors.
Fig trees are propagated by cuttings, which should be put into
pots, and placed in a gentle hotbed. They may be obtained more
speedily from layers, which should consist of two or three years old
shoots, and these, when rooted, will form plants ready to bear fruit
the first or second year after planting. The best soil for a fig border
is a friable loam, not too rich, but well drained; a chalky subsoil
is congenial to the tree, and, to correct the tendency to over-luxuri-
ance of growth, the roots should be confined within spaces surrounded
by a wall enclosing an area of about a square yard. The sandy soil
of Argenteuil, near Paris, suits the fig remarkably well ; but the best
trees are those which grow in old quarries, where their roots are free
from stagnant water, and where they are sheltered from cold, while
exposed to a very hot sun, which ripens the fruit perfectly. The fig
succeeds well planted in a paved court against a building with a
south aspect.
The fig tree naturally produces two sets of shoots and two crops
of fruit in the season. The first shoots generally show young figs
in July and August, but these in the climate of England very seldom
ripen, and should therefore be rubbed off. The late or midsummer
shoots likewise put forth fruit-buds, which, however, do not develop
themselves till the following spring; and these form the only crop of
figs on which the British gardener can depend.
The fig tree grown as a standard should get very little pruning,
the effect of cutting being to stimulate the buds to push shoots too
vigorous for bearing. When grown against a wall, it has been
recommended that a single stem should be trained to the height of
a foot. Above this a shoot should be trained to the right, and
another to the left; from these principals two other subdivisions
should be encouraged, and trained 15 in. apart; and along these
branches, at distances of about 8 in., shoots for bearing, as nearly
as possible of equal vigour, should be encouraged. The bearing shoots
produced along the leading branches should be trained in at full
length, and in autumn every alternate one should be cut back to
one eye. In the following summer the trained shoots should bear
and ripen fruit, and then be cut back in autumn to one eye, while
shoots from the bases of those cut back the previous autumn should
be trained for succession. In this way every leading branch will
be furnished alternately with bearing and successional shoots.
When protection is -necessary, as it may be in severe winters,
though it is too often provided in excess, spruce branches have been
found to answer the purpose exceedingly well, owing to the fact
that their leaves drop off gradually when the weather beco/nes
milder in spring, and when the trees require less protection and
more light and air. The principal part requiring protection is the
main stem, which is more tender than the young wood.
In forcing, the fig requires more heat than the vine to bring it
into leaf. It may be subjected to a temperature of 50 at night,
and from 60 to 65 in the day, and this should afterwards be in-
creased to 6o-and 65 by night, and 70 to 75 by day, or even
higher by sun heat, giving plenty of air at the same time. In this
temperature the evaporation from the leaves is very great, and this
must be replaced and the wants of the swelling fruit supplied by
daily watering, by syringing the foliage, and by moistening the
floor, this atmospheric moisture being also necessary to keep down
the red spider. When the crop begins to ripen, a moderately dry
atmosphere should be maintained, with abundant ventilation when
the weather permits.
The fig tree is easily cultivated in pots, and by introducing the
plants into heat in succession the fruiting season may be consider-
ably extended. The plants should be potted in turfy loam mixed
with charcoal and old mortar rubbish, and in summer top-dressings
of rotten manure, with manure water two or three times a week,
will be beneficial. While the fruit is swelling, the pots should be
plunged in a bed of fermenting leaves.
The following are a few of the best figs; those marked F. are good
forcing sorts, and those marked W. suitable for walls:
Agen: brownish-green, turbinate.
Brown Ischia, F. : chestnut-coloured, roundish-turbinate.
Brown Turkey (Lee's Perpetual), F., W. : purplish-brown, tur-
binate.
Brunswick, W. : brownish-green, pyriform.
Col di Signora Blanca, F. : greenish-yellow, pyriform.
Col di Signora Nero : dark chocolate, pyriform.
Early Violet, F. : brownish-purple, roundish.
Grizzly Bourjassotte: chocolate, round.
Grosse Monstreuse de Lipari : pale chestnut, turbinate.
Negro Largo, F. : black, long pyriform.
White Ischia, F. : greenish-yellow, roundish-obovate.
White Marseilles, F., W. : pale green, roundish-obovate.
The sycamore fig, Ficus Sycomorus, is a tree of large size, with
heart-shaped leaves, which, from their fancied resemblance to
those of the mulberry, gave origin to the name SuKo^iopos. From
the deep shade cast by its spreading branches, it is a favourite
tree in Egypt and Syria, being often planted along roads and
near houses. It bears a sweet edible fruit, somewhat like that of
the common fig, but produced in racemes on the older boughs.
The apex of the fruit is sometimes removed, or an incision made
FIGURE 2. India-rubber Tree, Ficus elastica, showing spreading
woody roots.
in it, to induce earlier ripening. The ancients, after soaking it in
water, preserved it like the common fig. The porous wood is only
fit for fuel.
The sacred fig, peepul, or bo, Ficus religiose., a large tree with
heart-shaped, long-pointed leaves on slender footstalks, is much
grown in southern Asia. The leaves are used for tanning, and
afford lac, and a gum resembling caoutchouc is obtained from the
juice; but in India it is chiefly planted with a religious object,
being regarded as sacred by both Brahmans and Buddhists.
The former believe that the last avatar of Vishnu took place
beneath its shade. A gigantic bo, described by Sir J. Emerson
Tennent as growing near Anarajapoora, in Ceylon, is, if tradition
may be trusted, one of the oldest trees in the world. It is said to
have been a branch of the tree under which Gautama Buddha
became endued with his divine powers, and has always been held
in the greatest veneration. The figs, however, hold as important
a place in the religious fables of the East as the ash in the myths
of Scandinavia.
Ficus elastica, the India-rubber tree (figure 2), the large,
oblong, glossy leaves, and pink buds of which are so familiar in
our greenhouses, furnishes most of the caoutchouc obtained
from the East Indies. It grows to a large size, and is remarkable
334
FIGARO FIGULUS
for the snake-like roots that extend in contorted masses around
the base of the trunk. The small fruit is unfit for food.
Ficus bengalensis, or the Banyan, wild in parts of northern
India, but generally planted throughout the country, has a woody
stem, branching to a height of 70 to 100 ft. and of vast extent
with heart-shaped entire leaves terminating in acute points.
Every branch from the main body throws out its own roots, at
first in small tender fibres, several yards from the ground; but
these continually grow thicker until they reach the surface,
when they strike in, increase to large trunks, and become parent
trees, shooting out new branches from the top, which again
in time suspend their roots, and these, swelling into trunks,
produce other branches, the growth continuing as long as the
earth contributes her sustenance. On the banks of the Nerbudda
stood a celebrated tree of this kind, which is supposed to be that
described by Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander the Great.
This tree once covered an area so immense, that it was known
to shelter no fewer than 7000 men, and though much reduced in
size by the destructive power of the floods, the remainder was
described by James Forbes (1749-1819), in his Oriental Memoirs
(1813-1815) as nearly 2000 ft. in circumference, while the trunks
large and small exceeded 3000 in number. The tree usually
grows from seeds dropped by birds on other trees. The leaf -axil
of a palm forms a frequent receptacle for their growth, the palm
becoming ultimately strangled by the growth of the fig, which
by this time has developed numerous daughter stems which
continue to expand and cover ultimately a large area. The
famous tree in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, began its
growth at the end of the i8th century on a sacred date-palm.
In 1907 it had nearly 250 aerial roots, the parent trunk was
42 ft. in girth, and its leafy crown had a circumference of 857 ft.;
and it was still growing vigorously. Both this tree and F. religiosa
cause destruction to buildings, especially in Bengal, from seeds
dropped by birds germinating on the walls. The tree yields an
inferior rubber, and a coarse rope is prepared from the bark and
from the aerial roots.
FIGARO, a famous dramatic character first introduced on the
stage by Beaumarchais in the Barbier de Seville, the Mariage
de Figaro, and the Folk Journee. The name is said to be an old
Spanish and Italian word for a wigmaker, connected with the
verb cigarrar, to roll in paper. Many of the traits of the character
are to be found in earlier comic types of the Roman and Italian
stage, but as a whole the conception was marked by great
originality; and Figaro soon seized the popular imagination,
and became the recognized representative of daring, clever and
nonchalant roguery and intrigue. Almost immediately after its
appearance, Mozart chose the Marriage of Figaro as the subject
of an opera, and the Barber of Seville was treated first by Paisiello,
and afterwards in 1816 by Rossini. In 1826 the name of the
witty rogue was taken by a journal which continued till 1833
to be one of the principal Parisian periodicals, numbering among
its contributors such men as Jules Janin, Paul Lacroix, Leon
Gozlan, Alphonse Karr, Dr Veron, Jules Sandeau and George
Sand. Various abortive attempts were made to restore the
Figaro during the next twenty years; and in 1854 the efforts of
M. de Villemessant were crowned with success (see NEWSPAPERS:
France).
See Marc Monnier, Les Aieux de Figaro (1868) ; H. de Villemessant,
Memoires d'un journaliste (1867).
FIGEAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Lot, 47 m. E. N. E. of
Cahors on the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 4330. It is enclosed
by an amphitheatre of wooded and vine-clad hills, on the right
bank of the Cele, which is here crossed by an old bridge. It is
ill-built and the streets are narrow and dirty; on the outskirts
shady boulevards have taken the place of the ramparts by which
it was surrounded. The town is very rich in old houses of the
I3th and i4th centuries; among them may be mentioned
the H6tel de Balene, of the i4th century, used as a prison.
Another house, dating from the i sth century, was the birthplace
of the Egyptologist J. F. Champollion, in memory of whom the
town has erected an obelisk. The principal church is that of
St Sauveur, which once belonged to the abbey of Figeac. It
was built at the beginning of the I2th century, but restored
later; the facade in particular is modern. Notre-Dame du Puy,
in the highest part of the town, belongs to the i2th and i3th
centuries. It has no transept and its aisles extend completely
round the interior. The altar-screen is a fine example of carved
woodwork of the end of the i7th century. Of the four obelisks
which used to mark the limits of the authority of the abbots
of Figeac, those to the south and the west of the town remain.
Figeac is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first in-
stance, and a communal college. Brewing, tanning, printing,
cloth-weaving and the manufacture of agricultural implements
are among the industries. Trade is in cattle, leather, wool, plums,
walnuts and grain, and there are zinc mines in the neighbour-
hood.
Figeac grew up round an abbey founded by Pippin the Short
in the Sth century, and throughout the middle ages it was the
property of the monks. At the end of the i6th century the lord-
ship was acquired by King Henry IV. 's minister, the duke of
Sully, who sold it to Louis XIII. in 1622.
FIGUEIRA DA FOZ, or FIGUEIRA, a seaport of central
Portugal, in the district of Coimbra, formerly included in the
province of Beira; on the north bank of the river Mondego,
at its mouth, and at the terminus of the Lisbon-Figueira and
Guarda-Figueira railways. Pop. (1900) 6221. Figueira da Foz
is an important fishing-station, and one of the headquarters of
the coasting trade in grain, fruit, wine, olive oil, cork and coal;
but owing to the bar at the mouth of the Mondego large ships
cannot enter. Glass is manufactured, and the city attracts many
visitors by its excellent climate and sea-bathing. A residential
suburb, the Bairro Novo, exists chiefly for their accommodation,
to the north-west of the old town. Figueira is connected by
a tramway running 4 m. N. W. with Buarcos (pop. 5033) and
with the coal-mines of Cape Mondego. Lavos (pop. 7939), on
the south bank of the Mondego, was the principal landing-place
of the British troops which came, in 1808, to take part in the
Peninsular War. Figueira da Foz received the title and privileges
of city by a decree dated the 2oth of September 1882.
FIGUERAS, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province
of Gerona, 14 m. S. of the French frontier, on the Barcelona-
Perpignan railway. Pop. (1900) 10,714. Figueras is built at
the foot of the Pyrenees, and on the northern edge of El
Ampurdan, a fertile and well-irrigated plain,which produces wine,
olives and rice,and derives its name from the seaport of Ampurias,
the ancient Emporiae. The castle of San Fernando, i m.N.W., is
an irregular pentagonal structure, built by order of Ferdinand VI.
(1746-1759), on the site of a Capuchin convent. Owing to its
situation, and the rocky nature of the ground over which a
besieger must advance, it is still serviceable as the key to the
frontier. It affords accommodation for 16,000 men and is well
provided with bomb-proof cover. In 1794 Figueras was sur-
rendered to the French, but it was regained in 1795. During
the Peninsular War it was taken by the French in 1808, re-
captured by the Spaniards in 1811, and retaken by the French
in the same year. In 1823, after a long defence, it was once more
captured by the French. An annual pilgrimage from Figueras
to the chapel of Nuestra Senora de Requesens, 15 m. N., com-
memorates the deliverance of the town from a severe epidemic
of fever in 1612.
FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS (c. 98-45 B.C.), Roman
savant, next to Varro the most learned Roman of the age. He
was a friend of Cicero, to whom he gave his support at the time
of the Catilinarian conspiracy (Plutarch, Cicero, 20; Cicero,
Pro Sulla, xiv. 42). In 58 he was praetor, sided with Pompey
in the Civil War, and after his defeat was banished by Caesar,
and died in exile. According to Cicero (Timaeus, i), Figulus
endeavoured with some success to revive the doctrines of Pytha-
goreanism. With this was included mathematics, astronomy
and astrology, and even the magic arts. According to Suetonius
(Augustus, 94) he foretold the greatness of the future emperor
on the day of his birth, and Apuleius (Apologia, 42) records
that, by the employment of " magic boys " (magici pueri), he
FIGURATE NUMBERS FIJI
335
helped to find a sum of money that had been lost. Jerome (the
authority for the date of his death) calls him Pythagoricus et
magus. The abstruse nature of his studies, the mystical character
of his writings, and the general indifference of the Romans to
such subjects, caused his works to be soon forgotten. Amongst
his scientific, theological and grammatical works mention may
be made of De diis, containing an examination of various cults
and ceremonials; treatises on divination and the interpretation
of dreams; on the sphere, the winds and animals. His Commen-
tarii grammalici in at least 29 books was an ill-arranged collection
of linguistic, grammatical and antiquarian notes. In these he
expressed the opinion that the meaning of words was natural,
not fixed by man. He paid especial attention to orthography,
and sought to differentiate the meanings of cases of like ending by
distinctive marks (the apex to indicate a long vowel is attributed
to him). In etymology he endeavoured to find a Roman ex-
planation of words where possible (according to him {rater was
=fere alter). Quintilian (Instil, oral. xi. 3. 143) speaks of a
rhetorical treatise De gestu by him.
See Cicero, Ad Fam. iv. 13; scholiast on Lucan i. 639; several
references in Aulus Gellius; Teuffel, Hist. of Roman Literature, 170;
M. Hertz, De N. F. studiis atque operibus (1845); Quaestiones
Nigidianae (1890), and edition of the fragments (1889) byA.Swoboda.
FIGURATE NUMBERS, in mathematics. If we take the sum
of n terms of the series 1 + 1 + 1+ , i-e. w,as the nth term of
a new series, we obtain the series 1+2+3+ > the sum
of n terms of which is 5 n . w+i. Taking this sum as the nth
term, we obtain the series 1+3+6+10+ . . ., which has
for the sum of n terms n (w+i) (w+z)/^! 1 This sum is taken as
the wth term of the next series, and proceeding in this way we
obtain series having the following wth terms:
i, n,n(n+i)/2\, n(n+i) (+2)/3!,...w(w+i)...
The numbers obtained by giving n any value in these expressions
are of the first, second, third, ... or rth order of figurate
numbers.
Pascal treated these numbers in his Traite du triangle arilh-
melique (1665), using them to develop a theory of combinations
and to solve problems in proba-
bility. His table is here shown
in its simplest form. It is to be
noticed that each number is the
sum of the numbers immediately
above and to the left of it; and
that the numbers along a line,
termed a base, which cuts off an
equal number of units along the
top row and column are the co-
efficients in the binomial ex-
pansion of (i+as) 1 " 1 , where r represents the number of units
cut off.
FIJI (Viti), a British colony consisting of an archipelago in
the Pacific Ocean, the most important in Polynesia, between
15 and 20 S., and on and about the meridian of 180. The
islands number about 250, of which some 80 are inhabited.
The total land area is 7435 sq. m. (thus roughly equalling that
of Wales), and the population is about 121, coo. The principal
island is Viti Levu, 98 m. in length (E. to W.) and 67 in extreme
breadth, with an area of 4112 sq. m. Forty miles N.E. lies
Vanua Levu, measuring 117 m. by 30, with an area of 2432 sq. m.
Close off the south-eastern shore of Vanua Levu is Taviuni,
26 m. in length by 10 in breadth; Kandavu or Kadavu, 36 m.
long and very narrow, is 41 m. S. of Viti Levu, and the three
other main islands, lying east of Viti Levu in the Koro Sea, are
Koro, Ngau or Gau, and Ovalau. South-east from Vanua Levu
a loop of islets extends nearly to 20 S., enclosing the Koro Sea.
North-west of Viti Levu lies another chain, the Yasawa or
western group; and, finally, the colony includes the island of
Rotumah (q.v.) , 300 m. N. W. by N. of Vanua Levu.
The formation of the larger islands is volcanic, their surface
rugged, their vegetation luxuriant, and their appearance very
1 The notation n\ denotes the product 1.2.3 n > an d is termed
" factorial n."
beautiful; their hills rise often above 3000, and, in the case of a
few summits, above 4000 ft., and they contrast strongly with the
low coral formation of the smaller members of the group. There
is not much level Country, except in the coral islets, and certain
rich tracts along the coasts of the two large islands, especially
near the mouths of the rivers. The large islands have a con-
siderable extent of undulating country, dry and open on their
lee sides. Streams and rivers are abundant, the latter very
large in proportion to the size of the islands, affording a waterway
to the rich districts along their banks. These and the extensive
mud flats and deltas at their mouths are often flooded, by which
their fertility is increased, though at a heavy cost to the culti-
vator. The Rewa, debouching through a wide delta at the
south-east of Viti Levu, is navigable for small vessels for 40 m.
There are also in this island the Navua and Sigatoka (flowing S.),
the Nandi (W.), and the Ba (N.W.). The Dreketi, flowing W.,
'Group
'** %f f""*"'
/
fcniety W*lkcf 40.
is the chief stream of Vanua Levu. It breaches the mountains
in a fine valley; for this island consists practically of one long
range, whereas the main valleys and ranges separating them in
Viti Levu radiate for the most part from a common centre.
With few exceptions the islands are surrounded by barriers
of coral, broken by openings opposite the mouths of streams.
Viti Levu is the most important island not only from its size,
but from its fertility, variety of surface, and population, which
is over one-third of that of the whole group. The town of Suva
lies on an excellent harbour at the south-east of the island, and
has been the capital of the colony since 1882, containing the
government buildings and other offices. Vanua Levu is less
fertile than Viti Levu; it has good anchorages along its entire
southern coast. Of the other islands, Taviuni, remarkable for
a lake (presumably a crater-lake) at the top of its lofty central
ridge, is fertile, but exceptionally devoid of harbours; whereas
the well-timbered island of Kandavu has an excellent one. On
the eastern shore of Ovalau, an island which contains in a small
area a remarkable series of gorge-like valleys between command-
ing hills, is the town of Levuka, the capital until 1882. It stands
partly upon the narrow shore, and partly climbs the rocky slope
behind. The chief islands on the west of the chain enclosing
the Koro Sea are Koro, Ngau, Moala and Totoya, all productive,
affording good anchorage, elevated and picturesque. The
eastern islands of the chain are smaller and more numerous,
Vanua Batevu (one of the Exploring Group) being a centre of
trade. Among others, Mago is remarkable for a subterranean
outlet of the waters of the fertile valley in its midst.
The land is of recent geological formation, the principal
ranges being composed of igneous rock, and showing traces of
much volcanic disturbance. There are boiling springs in Vanua
33^
FIJI
Levu and Ngau, and slight shocks of earthquake are occasionally
felt. The tops of many of the mountains, from Kandavu in the
S.W., through Nairai and Koro, to the Ringgold group in the
N.E., have distinct craters, but their activity has long ceased.
The various decomposing volcanic rocks tufas, conglomerates
and basalts mingled with decayed vegetable matter, and
abundantly watered, form a very fertile soil. Most of the high
peaks on the larger islands are basaltic, and the rocks generally
are igneous, with occasional upheaved coral found sometimes
over 1000 ft. above the sea; but certain sedimentary rocks
observed on Viti Levu seem to imply a nucleus of land of con-
siderable age. Volcanic activity in the neighbourhood is further
shown by the quantities of pumice-stone drifted on to the south
coasts of Kandavu and Viti Levu; malachite, antimony and
graphite, gold in small quantities, and specular iron-sand occur.
Climate. The colony is beyond the limits of the perpetual
S.E. trades, while not within the range of the N.W. monsoons.
From April to November the winds are steady between S.E. and
E.N.E., and the climate is cool and dry, after which the weather
becomes uncertain and the winds often northerly, this being the
wet warm season. In February and March heavy gales are
frequent, and hurricanes sometimes occur, causing scarcity by
destroying the crops. The rainfall is much greater on the wind-
ward than on the lee sides of the islands (about no in. at Suva),
but the mean temperature is much the same, viz., about 80 F.
In the hills the temperature sometimes falls below 50. The
climate, especially from November to April, is somewhat enervat-
ing to the Englishman, but not unhealthy. Fevers are hardly
known. Dysentery, which is common, and the most serious
disease in the islands, is said to have been unknown before the
advent of Europeans.
Fauna. Besides the dog and the pig, which (with the domestic
fowl) must have been introduced in early times, the only land
mammals are certain species of rats and bats. Insects are numerous,
but the species few. Bees have been introduced. The avifauna is
not remarkable. Birds of prey are few ; the parrot and pigeon tribes
are better represented. Fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are numerous
and varied; Mollusca, especially marine, and Crustaceae are also
very numerous. These three form an important element in the food
supply.
- Flora. The vegetation is mostly of a tropical Indo-Malayan
character thick jungle with great trees covered with creepers and
epiphytes. The lee sides of the larger islands, however, have grassy
plains suitable for grazing, with scattered trees, chiefly Pandanus,
and ferns. The flora has also some Australian and New Zealand
affinities (resembling in this respect the New Caledonia and New
Hebrides groups), shown especially in these western districts by the
Pandanus, by certain acacias and others. At an elevation of about
2000 ft. the vegetation assumes a more mountainous type. Among
the many valuable timber trees are the vesi (Afzelia bijuga) ; the
dilo (Calophyllum Inophyllum), the oil from its seeds being much
used in the islands, as in India, in the treatment of rheumatism;
the dakua (Dammara Vitiensis), allied to the New Zealand kauri,
and others. The dakua or Fiji pine, however, has become scarce.
Most of the fruit trees are also valuable as timber. The native cloth
(ntasi) is beaten out from the bark of the paper mulberry cultivated
for the purpose. Of the palms the cocoanut is by far the most
important. The yasi or sandal-wood was formerly a valuable
product, but is now rarely found. There are various useful drugs,
spices and perfumes; and many plants are cultivated for their
beauty, to which the natives are keenly alive. Among the plants
used as pot-herbs are several ferns, and two or three Solanums,
one of which, 5. anthropophagorum, was one of certain plants always
cooked with human flesh, which was said to be otherwise difficult of
digestion. The use of the kava root, here called yanggona, from
which the well-known national beverage is made, is said to have been
introduced from Tonga. Of fruit trees, besides the cocoanut, there
may be mentioned the many varieties of the bread-fruit, of bananas
and plantains, of sugar-cane and of lemon ; the wi ( Spondias dulcis),
the kavika (Eugenia malaccensis) , the ivi or Tahitian chestnut
(Inocarpus edulis), the pine-apple and others introduced in modern
times. Edible roots are especially abundant. The chief staple of
life is the yam, the names of several months in the calendar haying
reference to its cultivation and ripening. The natives use no grain or
pulse, but make a kind of bread (mandrai) from this, the taro, and other
roots, as well as from the banana (which is the best), the bread-fruit,
the ivi, the kavika, the arrowroot, and in times of scarcity the
mangrove. This bread is made by burying the materials for months,
till the mass is thoroughly fermented and homogeneous, when it is
dug up and cooked by baking or steaming. This simple process,
applicable to such a variety of substances, is a valuable security
against famine.
People. The Fijians are a people of Melanesian (Papuan)
stock much crossed with Polynesians (Tongans and Samoans).
They occupy the extreme east limits of Papuan territory and
are usually classified as Melanesians; but they are physically
superior to the pure examples of that race, combining their dark
colour, harsh hirsute skin, crisp hair, which is bleached with lime
and worn in an elaborately trained mop, and muscular limbs,
with the handsome features and well proportioned bodies of the
Polynesians. They are tall and well built. The features are
strongly marked, but not unpleasant, the eyes deep set, the beard
thick and bushy. The chiefs are fairer, much better-looking, and
of a less negroid type of face than the people. This negroid type
is especially marked on the west coasts, and still more in the
interior of Viti Levu. The Fijians have other characteristics of
both Pacific races, e.g. the quick intellect of the fairer, and the
savagery and suspicion of the dark. They wear a minimum of
covering, but, unlike the Melanesians, are strictly decent, while
they are more moral than the Polynesians. They are cleanly and
particular about their personal appearance, though, unlike other
Melanesians, they care little for ornament, and only the women
are tattooed. A partial circumcision is practised, which is
exceptional with the Melanesians, nor have these usually an
elaborate political and social system like that of Fiji. The status
of the women is also somewhat better, those of the upper class
having considerable freedom and influence. If less readily
amenable to civilizing influences than their neighbours to the
eastward, the Fijians show greater force of character and in-
genuity. Possessing the arts of both races they practise them
with greater skill than either. They understand the principle of
division of labour and production, and thus of commerce. They
are skilful cultivators and good boat-builders, the carpenters
being an hereditary caste; there are also tribes of fishermen and
sailors; their mats, baskets, nets, cordage and other fabrics
are substantial and tasteful; their pottery, made, like many of
the above articles, by women, is far superior to any other in
the South Seas; but many native manufactures have been
supplanted by European goods.
The Fijians were formerly notorious for cannibalism, which
may have had its origin in religion, but long before the first
contact with Europeans had degenerated into gluttony. The
Fijian's chief table luxury was human flesh, euphemistically
called by him " long pig," and to satisfy his appetite he would
sacrifice even friends and relatives. The Fijians combined with
this greediness a savage and merciless natures. Human sacrifices
were of daily occurrence. On a chief's death wives and slaves
were buried alive with him. When building a chief's house a
slave was buried alive in the hole dug for each foundation post.
At the launching of a war-canoe living men were tied hand and
foot between two plantain stems making a human ladder over
which the vessel was pushed down into the water. The people
acquiesced in these brutal customs, and willingly met their deaths.
Affection and a firm belief in a future state, in which the exact
condition of the dying is continued, are the Fijians' own explana-
tions of the custom, once universal, of killing sick or aged
relatives. Yet in spite of this savagery the Fijians have always
been remarkable for their hospitality, open-handedness and
courtesy. They are a sensitive, proud, if vindictive, and boastful
people, with good conversational and reasoning powers, much
sense of humour, tact and perception of character. Their code of
social etiquette is minute and elaborate, and the graduations of
rank well marked. These are (i) chiefs, greater and lesser; (2)
priests; (3) Mala ni Vanua (lit., eyes of the land), employes,
messengers or counsellors; (4) distinguished warriors of low
birth; (5) common people; (6) slaves.
The family is the unit of political society. The families are
grouped in townships or otherwise (qali) under the lesser chiefs,
who again owe allegiance to the supreme chief of the matanitu or
tribe. The chiefs are a real aristocracy, excelling the people in
physique, skill, intellect and acquirements of all sorts; and the
reverence felt for them, now gradually diminishing, was very
great, and had something of a religious character. All that a man
had belonged to his chief. On the other hand, the chief's property
practically belonged to his people, and they were as ready to give
as to take. In a time of famine, a chief would declare the
contents of the plantations to be common property. A system
of feudal service-tenures (lala) is the institution on which their
social and political fabric mainly depended. It allowed the chief
to call for the labour of any district, and to employ it in planting,
house or canoe-building,supplying food on the occasion of another
chief's visit, &c. This power was often used with much discern-
ment; thus an unpopular chief would redeem his character by
calling for some customary service and rewarding it liberally, or a
district would be called on to supply labour or produce as a
punishment. The privilege might, of course, be abused by needy
or unscrupulous chiefs, though they generally deferred somewhat
to public opinion; it has now, with similar customary exactions
of cloth, mats, salt, pottery, &c. been reduced within definite
limits. An allied custom, solevu, enabled a district in want of any
particular article to call on its neighbours to supply it, giving
labour or something else in exchange. Although, then, the chief
is lord of the soil, the inferior chiefs and individual families have
equally distinct rights in it, subject to payment of certain dues;
and the idea of permanent alienation of land by purchase was
never perhaps clearly realized. Another curious custom was that
of vasu (lit. nephew) . The son of a chief by a woman of rank had
almost unlimited rights over the property of his mother's family,
or of her people. In time of war the chief claimed absolute
control over life and property. Warfare was carried on with
many courteous formalities, and considerable skill was shown in
the fortifications. There were well-defined degrees of dependence
among the different tribes or districts: the first of these, bati, is
an alliance between two nearly equal tribes, but implying a sort
of inferiority on one side, acknowledged by military service; the
second, qali, implies greater subjection, and payment of tribute.
Thus A, being bati to B, might hold C in qali, in which case C was
also reckoned subject to B, or might be protected by B for
political purposes.
The former religion of the Fijians was a sort of ancestor-
worship, had much in common with the creeds of Polynesia, and
included a belief in a future existence. There were two classes of
gods the first immortal, of whom Ndengei is the greatest, said
to exist eternally in the form of a serpent, but troubling himself
little with human or other affairs, and the others had usually only
a local recognition. The second rank (who, though far above
mortals, are subject to their passions, and even to death) com-
prised the spirits of chiefs, heroes and other ancestors. The
gods entered and spoke through their priests, who thus pro-
nounced on the issue of every enterprise, but they were not
represented by idols; certain groves and trees were held sacred,
and stones which suggest phallic associations. The priesthood
usually was hereditary, and their influence great, and they had
generally a good understanding with the chief. The institution
of Taboo existed in full force. The mbure or temple was also the
council chamber and place of assemblage for various purposes.
The weapons of the Fijians are spears, slings, throwing clubs
and bows and arrows. Their houses, of which the framework is
timber and the rest lattice and thatch, are ingeniously con-
structed, with great taste in ornamentation, and are well
furnished with mats, mosquito-curtains, baskets, fans, nets and
cooking and other utensils. Their canoes, sometimes more than
100 ft. long, are well built. Ever excellent agriculturists, their
implements were formerly digging sticks and hoes of turtlebone
or flat oyster-shells. In irrigation they showed skill, draining
their fields with built watercourses and bamboo pipes. Tobacco,
maize, sweet potatoes, yams, kava, taro, beans and pumpkins,
are the principal crops.
Fijians are fond of amusements. They have various games,
and dancing, story-telling and songs are especially popular.
Their poetry has well-defined metres, and a sort of rhyme.
Their music is rude, and is said to be always in the major key.
They are clever cooks, and for their feasts preparations are some-
times made months in advance, and enormous waste results
from them. Mourning is expressed by fasting, by shaving the
head and face, or by cutting off the little finger. This last is
FIJI 337
sometimes done at the death of a rich man in the hope that his
family will reward the compliment; sometimes it is done vicari-
ously, as when one chief cuts off the little finger of his dependent
in regret or in atonement for the death of another.
A steady, if not a very rapid, decrease in the native population
set in after 1875. A terrible epidemic of measles in that year
swept away 40,000, or about one-third of the Fijians. Sub-
sequent epidemics have not been attended by anything like this
mortality, but there has, however, been a steady decrease,
principally among young children, owing to whooping-cough,
tuberculosis and croup. Every Fijian child seems to contract
yaws at some time in its life, a mistaken notion existing on the
part of the parents that it strengthens the child's physique.
Elephantiasis, influenza, rheumatism, and a skin disease, thoko t
also occur. One per cent of the natives are lepers. A commission
appointed in 1891 to inquire into the causes of the native de-
crease collected much interesting anthropological information-
regarding native customs, and provincial inspectors and medical
officers were specially appointed to compel the natives to carry
out the sanitary reforms recommended by the commission.
A considerable sum was also spent in laying on good water to the
native villages. The Fijians show no disposition to intermarry
with the Indian coolies. The European half-castes are not
prolific inter se, and they are subject to a scrofulous taint. The
most robust cross in the islands is the offspring of the African
negro and the Fijian. Miscegenation with the Micronesians,
the only race in the Pacific which is rapidly increasing, is regarded
as the most hopeful manner of preserving the native Fijian
population. There is a large Indian immigrant population.
Trade, Administration, &c. The principal industries are the
cultivation of sugar and fruits and the manufacture of sugar and
copra, and these three are the chief articles of export trade,
which is carried on almost entirely with Australia and New
Zealand. The fruits chiefly exported are bananas and pine-
apples. There are also exported maize, vanilla and a variety
of fruits in small quantities; pearl and other shells and beche-
de-mer. There is a manufacture of soap from coconut oil; a fair
quantity of tobacco is grown, and among other industries may
be included boat-building and saw-milling. Regular steamship
communications are maintained with Sydney, Auckland and
Vancouver. Good bridle-tracks exist in all the larger islands,
and there are some macadamized roads, principally in Viti Levu.
There is an overland mail service by native runners. The export
trade is valued at nearly 600,000 annually, and the imports at
500,000. The annual revenue of the colony is about 140,000-
and the expenditure about 125,000. The currency and weights
and measures are British. Besides the customs and stamp
duties, some 18,000 of the annual revenue is raised from native
taxation. The seventeen provinces of the colony (at the head of
which is either a European or a roko tui or native official) are
assessed annually by the legislative council for a fixed tax in kind.
The tax on each province is distributed among districts under
officials called bulis, and further among villages within these
districts. Any surplus of produce over the assessment is sold to-
contractors, and the money received is returned to the natives.
Under a reconstruction made in 1904 there is an executive
council consisting of the governor and four official members.
The legislative council consists of the governor, ten official, six:
elected and two native members. The native chiefs and pro-
vincial representatives meet annually under the presidency of
the governor, and their recommendations are submitted for
sanction to the legislative council. Suva and Levuka have each
a municipal government, and there are native district and
village councils. There is an armed native constabulary; and
a volunteer and cadet corps in Suva and Levuka.
The majority of the natives are Wesleyan Methodists. The
Roman Catholic missionaries have about 3000 adherents; the
Church of England is confined to the Europeans and kanakas
in the towns; the Indian coolies are divided between Mahom-
medans and Hindus. There are public schools for Europeans,
and half-castes in the towns, but there is no provision for the
education of the children of settlers in the out-districts. By an
33
FILANDER FILANGIERI, CARLO
ordinance of 1890 provision was made for the constitution of
school boards, and the principle was first applied in Suva and
Levuka. The missions have established schools in every native
village, and most natives are able to read and write their own
language. The government has established a native technical
school for the teaching of useful handicrafts. The natives show
themselves very slow in adopting European habits in food,
clothing and house-building.
History. A few islands in the north-east of the group were
first seen by Abel Tasman in 1643. The southernmost of the
group, Turtle Island, was discovered by Cook in 1 773. Lieutenant
Bligh, approaching them in the launch of the "Bounty," 1789,
had a hostile encounter with natives. In 1827 Dumont d'Urville
in the " Astrolabe " surveyed them much more accurately, but
the first thorough survey was that of the United States exploring
expedition in 1840. Up to this time, owing to the evil reputation
of the islanders, European intercourse was very limited. The
labours of the Wesleyan missionaries, however, must always have
a prominent place in any history of Fiji. They came from Tonga
in 1835 and naturally settled first in the eastern islands, where
the Tongan element, already familiar to them, preponderated.
They perhaps identified themselves too closely with their Tongan
friends, whose dissolute, lawless, tyrannical conduct led to much
mischief; but it should not be forgotten that their position was
difficult, and it was mainly through their efforts that many
terrible heathen practices were stamped out.
About 1804 some escaped convicts from Australia and runaway
sailors established themselves around the east part of Viti Levu,
and by lending their services to the neighbouring chiefs probably
led to their preponderance over the rest of the group. Na
Ulivau, chief of the small island of Mbau, established before
his death in 1829 a sort of supremacy, which was extended by
his brother Tanoa, and by Tanoa's son Thakombau, a ruler
of considerable capacity. In his time, however, difficulties
thickened. The Tongans, who had long frequented Fiji (especi-
ally for canoe-building, their own islands being deficient in
timber), now came in larger numbers, led by an able and am-
bitious chief, Maafu, who, by adroitly taking part in Fijian
quarrels, made himself chief in the Windward group, threatening
Thakombau's supremacy. He was harassed, too, by an arbitrary
demand for 9000 from the American government, for alleged
injuries to their consul. Several chiefs who disputed his authority
were crushed by the aid of King George of Tonga, who (1855)
had opportunely arrived on a visit; but he afterwards, taking
some offence, demanded 12,000 for his services. At last
Thakombau, disappointed in the hope that his acceptance
of Christianity (1854) would improve his position, offered the
sovereignty to Great Britain (1859) with the fee simple of 100,000
acres, on condition of her paying the American claims. Colonel
Smythe, R.A., was sent out to report on the question, and
decided against annexation, but advised that the British consul
should be invested with full magisterial powers over his country-
men, a step which would have averted much subsequent difficulty.
Meanwhile Dr B. Seemann's favourable report on the
capabilities of the islands, followed by a time of depression in
Australia and New Zealand, led to a rapid increase of settlers
from 200 in 1860 to 1800 in 1869. This produced fresh complica-
tions, and an increasing desire among the respectable settlers
for a competent civil and criminal jurisdiction. Attempts
were made at self-government, and the sovereignty was again
offered, conditionally, to England, and to the United States.
Finally, in 1871, a " constitutional government " was formed
by certain Englishmen under King Thakombau; but this,
after incurring heavy debt, and promoting the welfare of neither
whites nor natives, came after three years to a deadlock, and
the British government felt obliged, in the interest of all parties,
to accept the unconditional cession now offered (1874). It had
besides long been thought desirable to possess a station on the
route between Australia and Panama; it was also felt that the
Polynesian labour traffic, the abuses in which had caused much
indignation, could only be effectually regulated from a point
contiguous to the recruiting field, and the locality where that
labour was extensively employed. To this end the governor of
Fiji was also created " high commissioner for the western
Pacific." Rotumah (q.v.) was annexed in 1881.
At the time of the British annexation the islands were suffering
from commercial depression, following a fall in the price of cotton
after the American Civil War. Coffee, tea, cinchona and sugar
were tried in turn, with limited success. The coffee was attacked
by the leaf disease; the tea could not compete with that grown
by the cheap labour of the East; the sugar machinery was too
antiquated to withstand the fall in prices consequent on the
European sugar bounties. In 1878 the first coolies were im-
ported from India and the cultivation of sugar began to pass
into the hands of large companies working with modern
machinery. With the introduction of coolies the Fijians began
to fall behind in the development of their country. Many of the
coolies chose to remain in the colony after the termination of
their indentures, and began to displace the European country
traders. With a regular and plentiful supply of Indian coolies,
the recruiting of kanaka labourers practically ceased. The
settlement of European land claims, and the measures taken
for the protection of native institutions, caused lively dissatisfac-
tion among the colonists, who laid the blame of the commercial
depression at the door of the government; but with returning
prosperity this feeHng began to disappear. In 1900 the govern-
ment of New Zealand made overtures to absorb Fiji. The
Aborigines Society protested to the colonial office, and the
imperial government refused to sanction the proposal.
See Smyth, Ten Months in the Fiji Islands (London, 1864) ;
B. Seemann, Flora Vitiensis (London, 1865); and Viti: Account of
a Government Mission in the Vitian or Fijian Islands (1860-1861);
W. T. Pritchard, Polynesian Reminiscences (London, 1866); H.
Forbes, Two Years in Fiji (London, 1875) ; Commodore Goodenough,
Journal (London, 1876) ; H. N. Moseley, Notes of a Naturalist in the
" Challenger " (London, 1879); Sir A. H. Gordon, Story of a Little
War (Edinburgh, privately printed, 1879); J. W. Anderson, Fiji
and New Caledonia (London, 1880); C. F. Gordon-Gumming, At
Home in Fiji (Edinburgh, 1881); John Home, A Year in Fiji
(London, 1881); H. S. Cooper, Our New Colony, Fiji (London,
1882) ; S. E. Scholes, Fiji and the Friendly Islands (London, 1882) :
Princes Albert Victor and George of Wales, Cruise of H. M. S. " Bac-
chante " (London, 1886) ; A. Agassiz, The Islands and Coral Reefs of
Fiji (Cambridge, Mass., U.S., 1899); H. B. Guppy, Observations of
a Naturalist in the Pacific (1896-1899), vol. i.; Vanua Levu, Fiji
(Phys. Geoa. and Geology) (London, 1903); Lorimer Fison, Tales
from Old fiji (folk-lore, &c.) (London, 1904); B. Thomson, The
Fijians (London, 1908).
FILANDER, the name by which the Aru Island wallaby
(Macropus brunii) was first described. It occurs in a translation
of C. de Bruyn's Travels (ii. 101) published in 1737.
FILANGIERI, CARLO (1784-1867), prince of Satriano,
Neapolitan soldier and statesman, was the son of Gaetano
Filangieri (1752-1788), a celebrated philosopher and jurist.
At the age of fifteen he decided on a military career, and having
obtained an introduction to Napoleon Bonaparte, then first
consul, was admitted to the Military Academy at Paris. In
1803 he received a commission in an infantry regiment, and
took part in the campaign of 1805 under General Davoust, first
in the Low Countries, and later at Ulm, Maria Zell and Austerlitz,
where he fought with distinction, was wounded several times
and promoted. He returned to Naples as captain on Massena's
staff to fight the Bourbons and the Austrians in 1806, and
subsequently went to Spain, where he followed Jerome Bona-
parte in his retreat from Madrid. In consequence of a fatal
duel he was sent back to Naples ; there he served under Joachim
Murat with the rank of general, and fought against the Anglo-
Sicilian forces in Calabria and at Messina. On the fall of
Napoleon he took part in Murat's campaign against Eugene
Beauharnais, and later in that against Austria, and was severely
wounded at the battle of the Panaro (1815). On the restoration
of the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (I.), Filangieri retained his
rank and command, but found the army utterly disorganized
and impregnated with Carbonarism. In the disturbances of
1820 he adhered to the Constitutionalist party, and fought
under General Pepe (q.v.) against the Austrians. On the re-
establishment of the autocracy he was dismissed from the
FILANGIERI, GAETANO FILE
339
service, and retired to Calabria where he had inherited the
princely title and estates of Satriano. In 1831 he was recalled
by Ferdinand II. and entrusted with various military reforms.
On the outbreak of the troubles of 1848 Filangieri advised the
king to grant the constitution, which he did in February 1848,
but when the Sicilians formally seceded from the Neapolitan
kingdom Filangieri was given the command of an armed force
with which to reduce the island to obedience. On the 3rd of
September he landed near Messina, and after very severe fighting
captured the city. He then advanced southwards, besieged
and took Catania, where his troops committed many atrocities,
and by May 1849 he had conquered the whole of Sicily, though
not without much bloodshed. He remained in Sicily as governor
until 1855, when he retired into private life, as he could not
carry out the reforms he desired owing to the hostility of Giovanni
Cassisi, the minister for Sicily. On the death of Ferdinand II.
(22nd of May 1859) the new king Francis II. appointed Filangieri
premier and minister of war. He promoted good relations
with France, then fighting with Piedmont against the Austrians
in Lombardy, and strongly urged on the king the necessity of
an alliance with Piedmont and a constitution as the only means
whereby the dynasty might be saved. These proposals being
rejected, Filangieri resigned office. In May 1860, Francis at
last promulgated the constitution, but it was too late, for Gari-
baldi was in Sicily and Naples was seething with rebellion.
On the advice of Liborio Romano, the new prefect of police,
Filangieri was ordered to leave Naples. He went to Marseilles
with his wife and subsequently to Florence, where at the instance
of General La Marmora he undertook to write an account of
the Italian army. Although he adhered to the new government
he refused to accept any dignity at its hands, and died at his
villa of San Giorgio a Cremano near Naples on the 9th of October
1867.
Filangieri was a very distinguished soldier, and a man of
great ability; although he changed sides several times he
became really attached to the Bourbon dynasty, which he hoped
to save by freeing it from its reactionary tendencies and infusing
a new spirit into it. His conduct in Sicily was severe and harsh,
but he was not without feelings of humanity, and he was an
honest man and a good administrator.
His biography has been written by his daughter Teresa Filangieri
Fieschi-Ravaschieri, // Generale Carlo Filangieri (Milan, 1902), an
interesting, although somewhat top laudatory volume based on the
general's own unpublished memoirs; for the Sicilian expedition see
V. Finpcchiaro, La Rivoluzione siciliana del 1848-49 (Catania, 1906,
with bibliography), in which Filangieri is bitterly attacked; see also
under NAPLES; FERDINAND IV.; FRANCIS I.; FERDINAND II.;
FRANCIS II. (L. V.*)
FILANGIERI, GAETANO (1752-1788), Italian publicist, was
born at Naples on the i8th of August 1752. His father, Caesar,
prince of Arianiello, intended him for a military career, which he
commenced at the early age of seven, but soon abandoned for the
study of the law. At the bar his knowledge and eloquence early
secured his success, while his defence of a royal decree reforming
abuses in the administration of justice gained him the favour of
the king, Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, and led to
several honourable appointments at court. The first two books of
his great work, La Scienza delta legislazione, appeared in 1780.
The first book contained an exposition of the rules on which
legislation in general ought to proceed, while the second was
devoted to economic questions. These two books showed him an
ardent reformer, and vehement in denouncing the abuses of his
time. He insisted on unlimited free trade, and the abolition of the
medieval institutions which impeded production and national
well-being. Its success was great and immediate not only in
Italy, but throughout Europe at large. In 1783 he married, re-
signed his appointments at court, and retiring to Cava, devoted
himself steadily to the completion of his work. In the same year
appeared the third book, relating entirely to the principles of
criminal jurisprudence. The suggestion which he made in it as to
the need for reform in the Roman Catholic church brought upon
him the censure of the ecclesiastical authorities, and it was
condemned by the congregation of the Index in 1 784. In 1 785 he
published three additional volumes, making the fourth book of
the projected work, and dealing with education and morals. In
1787 he was appointed a member of the supreme treasury council
by Ferdinand IV., but his health, impaired by close study and
over-work in his new office, compelled his withdrawal to the
country at Vico Equense. He died somewhat suddenly on the
zist of July 1788, having just completed the first part of the
fifth book of his Scienza. He left an outline of the remainder of
the work, which was to have been completed in six books.
La Scienza della legislazione has gone through many editions, and
has been translated into most of the languages of Europe. The
best Italian edition is in 5 vols. 8vo. (1807). The Milan edition (1822)
contains the Opusculi scelti and a life by Donato Tommasi. A French
translation appeared in Paris in 7 vols. 8vo (1786-1798); it was
republished in 1822-1824, with the addition of the Opusdes and
notes by Benjamin Constant. The Science of Legislation was trans-
lated into English by Sir R. Clayton (London, 1806).
FILARIASIS, the name of a disease due to the nematode
Filaria sanguinis hominis. A milky appearance of the urine, due
to the presence of a substance like chyle, which forms a clot, had
been observed from time to time, especially in tropical and
subtropical countries; and it was proved by Dr Wucherer of
Bahia, and by Dr Timothy Lewis, that this peculiar condition is
uniformly associated with the presence in the blood of minute
eel-like worms, visible only under the microscope, being the
embryo forms of a Filaria (see NEMATODA). Sometimes the
discharge of lymph takes place at one or more points of the
surface of the body, and there is in other cases a condition of
naevoid elephantiasis of the scrotum, or lymph-scrotum. More
or less of blood may occur along with the chylous fluid in the
urine. Both the chyluria and the presence of filariae in the blood
are curiously intermittent; it may happen that not a single
filaria is to be seen during the daytime, while they swarm in the
blood at night, and it has been ingeniously shown by Dr S.
Mackenzie that they may be made to disappear if the patient sits
up all night, reappearing while he sleeps through the day.
Sir P. Manson proved that mosquitoes imbibe the embryo
filariae from the blood of man; and that many of these reach full
development within the mosquito, acquiring their freedom when
the latter resorts to water, where it dies after depositing its eggs.
Mosquitoes would thus be the intermediate host of the filariae,
and their introduction into the human body would be through the
medium of water (see PARASITIC DISEASES).
FILDES, SIR LUKE (1844- ), English painter, was born at
Liverpool, and trained in the South Kensington and Royal
Academy schools. At first a highly successful illustrator, he took
rank later among the ablest English painters, with " The Casual
Ward " (1874), " The Widower " (1876)," The Village Wedding "
(1883), "An Al-fresco Toilette" (1889); and "The Doctor"
(1891), now in the National Gallery of British Art. He also
painted a number of pictures of Venetian life and many notable
portraits, among them the coronation portraits of King Edward
VII. and Queen Alexandra. He was elected an associate of the
Royal Academy in 1879, and academician in 1887; and was.
knighted in 1906.
See David Croal Thomson, The Life and Work of Luke Fildes. R.A.
(i895).
FILE. i. A bar of steel having sharp teeth on its surface, and
used for abrading orsmoothing hard surfaces. (The 0. Eng. word
is Jeol, and cognate forms appear in Dutch vijl, Ger. Feile, &c. ;
the ultimate source is usually taken to be an Indo-European root
meaning to mark or scratch, and seen in the Lat. pingere, to
paint.) Some uncivilized tribes polish their weapons with such
things as rough stones, pieces of shark skin or fishes' teeth.
The operation of filing is recorded in i Sam. xiii. 21; and, among
other facts, the similarity of the name for the filing instrument
among various European peoples points to an early practice of
the art. A file differs from a rasp (which is chiefly used for
working wood, horn and the like) in having its teeth cut with a
chisel whose straight edge extends across its surface, while the
teeth of the rasp are formed by solitary indentations of a pointed
chisel. According to the form of their teeth, files may be single-
cut or double-cut; the former have only one set of parallel ridges.
340
FILE-FISH
(either at right angles or at some other angle with the length) ;
the latter (and more common) have a second set cut at an angle
with the first. The double-cut file presents sharp angles to the
filed surface, and is better suited for hard metals. Files are
classed according to the fineness of their teeth (see TOOL), and
their shapes present almost endless varieties. Common forms
are the flat file, of parallelogram section, with uniform breadth
and thickness, or tapering, or " bellied "; the four-square file, of
square section, sometimes with one side " safe," or left smooth;
and the so-called three-square file, having its cross section an
equilateral triangle, the half-round file, a segment of a circle, the
round or rat-tail file, a circle, which are generally tapered. The
float file is like the flat, but single-cut. There are many others.
Files vary in length from three-quarters of an inch (watchmakers')
to 2 or 3 ft. and upwards (engineers'). The length is reckoned
exclusively of the spike or tang which enters the handle. Most
files are tapered; the blunt are nearly parallel, with larger section
near the middle; a few are parallel. The rifflers of sculptors and
a few other files are curvilinear in their central line.
In manufacturing files, steel blanks are forged from bars which
have been sheared or rolled as nearly as possible to the sections
required, and after being carefully annealed are straightened, if
necessary, and then rendered clean and accurate by grinding or
filing. The process of cutting them used to be largely performed
by hand, but machines are now widely employed. The hand-
cutter, holding in his left hand a short chisel (the edge of which is
wider than the width of the file), places it on the blank with an
inclination from the perpendicular of 12 or 14, and beginning
near the farther end (the blank is placed with the tang or handle
end towards him) strikes it sharply with a hammer. An indenta-
tion is thus made, and the steel, slightly thrown up on the side
next the tang, forms a ridge. The chisel is then transferred to the
uncut surface and slid away from the operator till it encounters
the ridge just made; the position of the next cut being thus
determined, the chisel is again struck, and so on. The workman
seeks to strike the blows as uniformly as possible, and he will
make 60 or 80 cuts a minute. If the file is to be single-cut, it is
now ready to be hardened, but if it is to be double-cut he pro-
ceeds to make the second series or course of cuts, which are
generally somewhat finer than the first. Thus the surface is
covered with teeth inclined towards the point of the file. If the
file is flat and is to be cut on the other side, it is turned over, and a
thin plate of pewter placed below it to protect the teeth. Tri-
angular and other files are supported in grooves in lead. In
cutting round and half-round files, a straight chisel is applied as
tangent to the curve. The round face of a half-round file requires
eight, ten or more courses to complete it. Numerous attempts
were made, even so far back as the i8th century, to invent
machinery for cutting files, but little success was attained till the
latter part of the ipth century. In most of the machines the
idea was to arrange a metal arm and hand to hold the chisel with
a hammer to strike the blow, and so to imitate the manual
process as closely as possible. The general principle on which the
successful forms are constructed is that the blanks, laid on a
moving table, are slowly traversed forward under a rapidly
reciprocating chisel or knife.
The filing of a flat surface perfectly true is the test of a good
filer; and this is no easy matter to the beginner. The piece to be
operated upon is generally fixed about the level of the elbow,
the operator standing, and, except in the case of small files,
grasping the file with both hands, the handle with the right,
the farther end with the left. The great point is to be able to
move the file forward with pressure in horizontal straight lines;
from the tendency of the hands to move in arcs of circles, the heel
and point of the file are apt to be alternately raised. This is
partially compensated by the bellied form given to many files
(which also counteracts the frequent warping effect of the harden-
ing process, by which one side of a flat file may be rendered
concave and useless). In bringing back the file for the next
thrust it is nearly lifted off the work. Further, much delicacy
and skill are required in adapting the pressure and velocity,
ascertaining if foreign matters or filings remain interposed
between the file and the work, &c. Files can be cleaned with
a piece of the so-called cotton-card (used in combing cotton wool)
nailed to a piece of wood. In draw-filing, which is sometimes
resorted to to give a neat finish, the file is drawn sideways to
and fro over the work. New files are generally used for a time
on brass or cast-iron, and when partially worn they are still
available for filing wrought iron and steel.
2. A string or thread (through the Fr. fil and file, from Lat.
filum, a thread) ; hence used of a device, originally a cord, wire
or spike on which letters, receipts, papers, &c., may be strung
for convenient reference. The term has been extended to
embrace various methods for the preservation of papers in a
particular order, such as expanding books, cabinets, and in-
genious improvements on the simple wire file which enable any
single document to be readily found and withdrawn without
removing the whole series. From the devices used for filing the
word is transferred to the documents filed, and thus is used of a
catalogue, list, or collection of papers, &c. File is also employed
to denote a row of persons or objects arranged one behind the
other. In military usage a " file " is the opposite of a " rank,"
that is, it is composed of a (variable) number of men aligned from
front to rear one behind the other, while a rank contains a number
of men aligned from right to left abreast. Thus a British infantry
company, in line two deep, one hundred strong, has two ranks
of fifty men each, and fifty " files " of two men each. Up to
about 1600 infantry companies or battalions were often sixteen
deep, one front rank man and the fifteen " coverers " forming a
file. The number of ranks and, therefore, of men in the file
diminished first to ten (1600), then to six (1630), then to three
(1700), and finally to two (about 1808 in the British army, 1888
in the German). Denser formations when employed have been
formed, not by altering the order of men within the unit, but by
placing several units, one closely behind the other (" doubling "
and " trebling " the line of battle, as it used to be called). In
the i7th century a file formed a small command under the " file
leader," the whole of the front rank consisting therefore of old
soldiers or non-commissioned officers. This use of the word to
express a unit of command gave rise to the old-fashioned term
" file firing," to imply a species of fire (equivalent to the modern
" independent ") in which each man in the file fired in succession
after the file leader, and to-day a corpora! or sergeant is still
ordered to take one or more files under his charge for independent
work. In the above it is to be understood that the men are facing
to the front or rear. If they are turned to the right or left so
that the company now stands two men broad and fifty deep, it
is spoken of as being " in file." From this come such phrases as
" single file " or " Indian file " (one man leading and the rest
following singly behind him). 1 The use of verbs " to file " and
" to defile," implying the passage from fighting to marching
formation, is to be derived from this rather than from the re-
semblance of a marching column to a long flexible thread, for
in the days when the word was first used the infantry company
whether in battle or on the march was a solid rectangle of men,
a file often containing even more men than a rank.
FILE-FISH, or TRIGGER-FISH, the names given to fishes
of the genus Balistes (and Monacanthus) inhabiting all tropical
and subtropical seas. Their body is compressed and not covered
with ordinary scales, but with small juxtaposed scutes. Their
other principal characteristics consist in the structure of their
first dorsal fin (which consists of three spines) and in their peculiar
dentition. The first of the three dorsal spines is very strong,
roughened in front like a file, and hollowed out behind to receive
the second much smaller spine, which, besides, has a projection
in front, at its base, fitting into a notch of the first. Thus these
two spines can only be raised or depressed simultaneously, in
such a manner that the first cannot be forced down unless the
second has been previously depressed. The latter has been com-
pared to a trigger, hence the name of Trigger-fish. Also the
1 This may also be understood as meaning simply " a single file,"
but the explanation given above is more probable, as it is essentially
a marching and not a fighting formation that is expressed by the
phrase.
FILELFO
generic name Balistes and the Italian name of " Pesce balistra"
refer to this structure. Both jaws are armed with eight strong
incisor-like and sometimes pointed teeth, by which these fishes are
enabled, not only to break off pieces of madrepores and other
corals on which they feed, but also to chisel a hole into the hard
shells of Mollusca, in order to extract the soft parts. In this way
they destroy an immense number of molluscs, and become most
injurious to the pearl-fisheries. The gradual failure of those
Balistes vidua.
fisheries in Ceylon has been ascribed to this cause, although
evidently other agencies must have been at work at the same
time. The Monacanthi are distinguished from the Balistes in
having only one dorsal spine and a velvety covering of the skin.
Some 30 different species are known of Balistes and about 50
of Monacanthus. Two species (B. macvlatus and capriscus),
common in the Atlantic, sometimes wander to the British
coasts.
FILELFO, FRANCESCO (1398-1481), Italian humanist, was
born in 1398 at Tolentino, in the March of Ancona. When he
appeared upon the scene of human life, Petrarch and the students
of Florence had already brought the first act in the recovery of
classic culture to conclusion. They had created an eager appetite
for the antique, had disinterred many important Roman
authors, and had freed Latin scholarship to some extent from
the barbarism of the middle ages. Filelfo was destined to carry
on their work in the field of Latin literature, and to be an im-
portant agent in the still unaccomplished recovery of Greek
culture. His earliest studies in grammar, rhetoric and the Latin
language were conducted at Padua, where he acquired so great
a reputation for learning that in 1417 he was invited to teach
eloquence and moral philosophy at Venice. According to the
custom of that age in Italy, it now became his duty to explain the
language, and to illustrate the beauties of the principal Latin
authors, Cicero and Virgil being considered the chief masters of
moral science and of elegant diction. Filelfo made his mark
at once in Venice. He was admitted to the society of the first
scholars and the most eminent nobles of that city; and in 1419
he received an appointment from the state, which enabled him
to reside as secretary to the consul-general (baylo) of the Venetians
in Constantinople. This appointment was not only honourable
to Filelfo as a man of trust and general ability, but it also gave
him the opportunity of acquiring the most coveted of all posses-
sions at that moment for a scholar a knowledge of the Greek
language. Immediately after his arrival in Constantinople,
Filelfo placed himself under the tuition of John Chrysoloras,
whose name was already well known in Italy as relative of Manuel,
the first Greek to profess the literature of his ancestors in Florence.
At the recommendation of Chrysoloras he was employed in several
diplomatic missions by the emperor John Palaeologus. Before
very long the friendship between Filelfo and his tutor was
cemented by the marriage of the former to Theodora, the
daughter of John Chrysoloras. He had now acquired a thorough
knowledge of the Greek language, and had formed a large
collection of Greek manuscripts. There was no reason why he
should not return to his native country. Accordingly, in 1427 he
accepted an invitation from the republic of Venice, and set sail for
Italy, intending to resume his professorial career. From this
time forward until the date of his death, Filelfo's history consists
of a record of the various towns in which he lectured, the masters
whom he served, the books he wrote, the authors he illustrated,
the friendships he contracted, and the wars he waged with rival
scholars. He was a man of vast physical energy, of inexhaustible
mental activity, of quick passions and violent appetites; vain,
restless, greedy of gold and pleasure and fame; unable to stay
quiet in one place, and perpetually engaged in quarrels with his
compeers.
When Filelfo arrived at Venice with his family in 1427, he
found that the city had almost been emptied by the plague,
and that his scholars would be few. He therefore removed to
Bologna; but here also he was met with drawbacks. The
city was too much disturbed with political dissensions to attend
to him; so Filelfo crossed the Apennines and settled in Florence.
At Florence began one of the most brilliant and eventful periods
of his life. During the week he lectured to large audiences of
young and old on the principal Greek and Latin authors, and on
Sundays he explained Dante to the people in the Duomo. In
addition to these labours of the chair, he found time to translate
portions of Aristotle, Plutarch, Xenophon and Lysias from the
Greek. Nor was he dead to the claims of society. At first he
seems to have lived with the Florentine scholars on tolerably
good terms; but his temper was so arrogant that Cosimo de'
Medici's friends were not long able to put up with him. Filelfo
hereupon broke out into open and violent animosity; and when
Cosimo was exiled by the Albizzi party in 1433, he urged the
signoria of Florence to pronounce upon him the sentence of
death. On the return of Cosimo to Florence, Filelfo's position
in that city was no longer tenable. His life, he asserted, had
been already once attempted by a cut-throat in the pay of the
Medici; and now he readily accepted an invitation from the
state of Siena. In Siena, however, he was not destined to remain
more than four years. His fame as a professor had grown great
in Italy, and he daily received tempting offers from princes and
republics. The most alluring of these, made him by the duke
of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, he decided on accepting; and
in 1440 he was received with honour by his new master in the
capital of Lombardy.
Filelfo's life at Milan curiously illustrates the multifarious
importance of the scholars of that age in Italy. It was his duty
to celebrate his princely patrons in panegyrics and epics, to
abuse their enemies in libels and invectives, to salute them with
encomiastic odes on. their birthdays, and to compose poems on
their favourite themes. For their courtiers he wrote epithalamial
and funeral orations; ambassadors and visitors from foreign
states he greeted with the rhetorical lucubrations then so much
in vogue. The students of the university he taught in daily
lectures, passing in review the weightiest and lightest authors
of antiquity, and pouring forth a flood of miscellaneous erudition.
No satisfied with these outlets for his mental energy, Filelfo
went on translating from the Greek, and prosecuted a paper
warfare with his enemies in Florence. He wrote, moreover,
political pamphlets on the great events of Italian history; and
when Constantinople was taken by the Turks, he procured the
liberation of his wife's mother by a message addressed in his own
name to the sultan. In addition to a fixed stipend of some
700 golden florins yearly, he was continually in receipt of special
payments for the orations and poems he produced; so that,
had he been a man of frugal habits or of moderate economy,
he might have amassed a considerable fortune. As it was, he
spent his money as fast as he received it, living in a style of
splendour ill befitting a simple scholar, and indulging his taste
for pleasure in more than questionable amusements. In con-
sequence of this prodigality, he was always poor. His letters
and his poems abound in impudent demands for money from
patrons, some of them couched in language of the lowest adula-
tion, and others savouring of literary brigandage.
During the second year of his Milanese residence Filelfo lost
his first wife, Theodora. He soon married again; and this time
he chose for his bride a young lady of good Lombard family,
called Orsina Osnaga. When she died he took in wedlock for
342
FILEY FILICAJA
the third time a woman of Lombard birth, Laura Magiolini. To
all his three wives, in spite of numerous infidelities, he seems
to have been warmly attached; and this is perhaps the best
trait in a character otherwise more remarkable for arrogance
and heat than for any amiable qualities.
On the death of Filippo Maria Visconti, Filelfo, after a short
hesitation, transferred his allegiance to Francesco Sforza, the
new duke of Milan; and in order to curry favour with this
parvenu, he began his ponderous epic, the Sforziad, of which
1 2,800 lines'were written, but which was never published. When
Francesco Sforza died, Filelfo turned his thoughts towards
Rome. He was now an old man of seventy-seven years, honoured
with the friendship of princes, recognized as the most distin-
guished of Italian humanists, courted by pontiffs, and decorated
with the laurel wreath and the order of knighthood by kings.
Crossing the Apennines and passing through Florence, he reached
Rome in the second week of 1475. The terrible Sixtus IV. now
ruled in the Vatican; and from this pope Filelfo had received
an invitation to occupy the chair of rhetoric with good emolu-
ments. At first he was vastly pleased with the city and court
of Rome; but his satisfaction ere long turned to discontent,
and he gave vent to his ill-humour in a venomous satire on the
pope's treasurer, Milliardo Cicala. Sixtus himself soon fell
under the ban of his displeasure; and when a year had passed
he left Rome never to return. Filelfo reached Milan to find that
his wife had died of the plague in his absence, and was already
buried. His own death followed speedily. For some time past
he had been desirous of displaying his abilities and adding to
his fame in Florence. Years had healed the breach between
him and the Medicean family; and on the occasion of the Pazzi
conspiracy against the life of Lorenzo de' Medici, he had sent
violent letters of abuse to his papal patron Sixtus, denouncing
his participation in a plot so dangerous to the security of Italy.
Lorenzo now invited him to profess Greek at Florence, and
thither Filelfo journeyed in 1481. But two weeks after his
arrival he succumbed to dysentery, and was buried at the age
of eighty-three in the church of the Annunziata.
Filelfo deserves commemoration among the greatest humanists
of the Kalian Renaissance, not for the beauty of his style, not
for the elevation of his genius, not for the accuracy of his learning,
but for his energy, and for his complete adaptation to the times
in which he lived. His erudition was large but ill-digested;
his knowledge of the ancient authors, if extensive, was superficial ;
his style was vulgar; he had no brilliancy of imagination, no
pungency of epigram, no grandeur of rhetoric. Therefore he
has left nothing to posterity which the world would not very
willingly let die. But in his own days he did excellent service
to learning by his untiring activity, and by the facility with
which he used his stores of knowledge. It was an age of accumula-
tion and preparation, when the world was still amassing and
cataloguing the fragments rescued from the wrecks of Greece
and Rome. Men had to receive the very rudiments of culture
before they could appreciate its niceties. And in this work of
collection and instruction Filelfo excelled, passing rapidly from
place to place, stirring up the zeal for learning by the passion
of his own enthusiastic temperament, and acting as a pioneer
for men like Poliziano and Erasmus.
All that is worth knowing about Filelfo is contained in Carlo de'
Rosmini's admirable Vita di Filelfo (Milan, 1808) ; see also W.
Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de' Medici, Vespasiano's Vite di uomini
illustri, and J. A. Symonds's Renaissance in Italy (1877).
(J. A. S.)
A complete edition of Filelfo's Greek letters (based on the Codex
Trevulzianus) was published for the first time, with French transla-
tion, notes and commentaries, by E. Legrand in 1892 at Paris (C. xii.
of Publications de I'ecole des lang. orient.). For further references,
especially to monographs, &c., on Filelfo's life and work, see Ulysse
Chevalier, Repertoire des sources hist., bio-bibliographie (Paris, 1905),
s. v. Philelphe, Francois.
FILEY, a seaside resort in the Buckrose parliamentary
division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 9^ m. S.E. of
Scarborough by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 3003. It stands upon the slope and
summit of the cliffs above Filey Bay, which is fringed by a fine
sandy beach. The northern horn of the bay is formed by Filey
Brigg, a narrow and abrupt promontory, continued seaward by
dangerous reefs. The coast-line sweeps hence south-eastward to
the finer promontory of Flamborough Head, beyond which is the
watering-place of Bridlington. The church of St Oswald at
F. ; ley is a fine cruciform building with central tower, Transitional
Norman and Early English in date. There are pleasant
promenades and good golf links, also a small spa which has fallen
into disuse. Filey is in favour with visitors who desire a quiet
resort without the accompaniment of entertainment common to
the larger watering-places. Roman remains have been dis-
covered on the cliff north of the town; the site was probably
important, but nothing is certainly known about it.
FILIBUSTER, a name originally given to the buccaneers
(q.v.). The term is derived most probably from the Dutch my
butter, Ger. Freibeuter, Eng. freebooter, the word changing first into
fribustier, and then into Fr. flibustier, Span, filibustero. Fli-
bustier has passed into the French language, and filibustero into
the Spanish language, as a general name for a pirate. The term
" filibuster " was revived in America to designate those
adventurers who, after the termination of the war between
Mexico and the United States, organized expeditions within the
United States to take part in West Indian and Central American
revolutions. From this has sprung the modern use of the word
to imply one who engages in private, unauthorized and irregular
warfare against any state. In the United States it is colloquially
applied to legislators who practise obstruction.
FILICAJA, VINCENZO DA (1642-1707), Italian poet, sprung
from an ancient and noble family of Florence, was born in that
city on the 3oth of December 1642. From an incidental notice
in one of his letters, stating the amount of house rent paid during
his childhood, his parents must have been in easy circumstances,
and the supposition is confirmed by the fact that he enjoyed all
the advantages of a liberal education, first under the Jesuits of
Florence, and then in the university of Pisa.
At Pisa his mind became stored, not only with the results of
patient study in various branches of letters, but with the great
historical associations linked with the former glory of the Pisan
republic, and with one remarkable institution of which Pisa was
the seat. To the tourist who now visits Pisa the banners and
emblems of the order of St Stephen are mere matter of curiosity,
but they had a serious significance two hundred years ago to the
young Tuscan, who knew that these naval crusaders formed the
main defence of his country and commerce against the Turkish,
Algerine and Tunisian corsairs. After a five years' residence in
Pisa he returned to Florence, where he married Anna, daughter of
the senator and marquis Scipione Capponi, and withdrew to a
small villa at Figline, not far from the city. Abjuring the thought
of writing amatory poetry in consequence of the premature death
of a young lady to whom he had been attached, he occupied
himself chiefly with literary pursuits, above all the composition of
Italian and Latin poetry. His own literary eminence, the
opportunities enjoyed by him as a member of the celebrated
Academy Delia Crusca for making known his critical taste and
classical knowledge, and the social relations within the reach of a
noble Florentine so closely allied with the great house of Capponi,
sufficiently explain the intimate terms on which he stood with
such eminent men of letters as Magalotti, Menzini, Gori and Redi.
The last-named, the author of Bacchus in Tuscany, was not only
one of the most brilliant poets of his time, and a safe literary
adviser; he was the court physician, and his court influence was
employed with zeal and effect in his friend's favour. Filicaja's
rural seclusion was owing even more to his straitened means than
to his rural tastes. If he ceased at length to pine in obscurity, the
change was owing not merely to the fact that his poetical genius,
fired by the deliverance of Vienna from the Turks in 1683, poured
forth the right strains at the right time, but also to the influence of
Redi, who not only laid Filicaja's verses before his own sovereign,
but had them transmitted with the least possible delay to the
foreign princes whose noble deeds they sung. The first recom-
pense came, however, not from those princes, but from Christina,
the ex-queen of Sweden, who, from her circle of savants and
FILIGREE
343
courtiers at Rome, spontaneously and generously announced to
Filicaja her wish to bear the expense of educating his two sons,
enhancing her kindness by the delicate request that it should
remain a secret.
The tide of Filicaja's fortunes now turned. The grand-duke of
Tuscany, Cosmo III., conferred on him an important office, the
commissionership of official balloting. He was named governor
of Volterra in 1696, where he strenuously exerted himself to raise
the tone of public morality. Both there and at Pisa, where he
was subsequently governor in 1700, his popularity was so great
that on his removal the inhabitants of both cities petitioned for
his recall. He passed the close of his life at Florence; the grand-
duke raised him to the rank of senator, and he died in that city on
the 24th of September 1707. He was buried in the family vault in
the church of St Peter, and a monument was erected to his
memory by his sole surviving son Scipione Filicaja. In the six
celebrated odes inspired by the great victory of Sobieski, Filicaja
took a lyrical flight which has placed him at moments on a level
with the greatest Italian poets. They are, however, unequal,
like all his poetry, reflecting in some passages the native vigour of
his genius and purest inspirations of his tastes, whilst in others
they are deformed by the affectations of the Seicentisti. When
thoroughly natural and spontaneous as in the two sonnets
" Italia, Italia, o tu cui feo la sorte " and " Dov' e, Italia, il tuo
braccio? e a che ti serve;" in the verses " Alia beata Vergine,"
"Al divino amore;" in the sonnet "Sulla fede nelle disgrazie"
the truth and beauty of thought and language recall the verse
of Petrarch.
Besides the poems published in the complete Venice edition of
1762, several other pieces appeared for the first time in the small
Florence edition brought out by Barbera in 1864.
FILIGREE (formerly written filigrain or filigrane; the Ital.
filigrana, Fr. filigrane, Span, filigrana, Ger. Drahtgejlecht),
jewel work of a delicate kind made with twisted threads usually
of gold and silver. The word, which is usually derived from the
Lat. filum, thread, and granum, grain, is not found in Ducange,
and is indeed of modern origin. According to Prof. Skeat it is
derived from the Spun, filigrana, from "filar, to spin, and grano,
the grain or principal fibre of the material." Though filigree has
become a special branch of jewel work in modern times it was
anciently part of the ordinary work of the jeweller. Signer A.
Castellani states, in his Memoir on the Jewellery of the Ancients
(1861), that all the jewelry of the Etruscans and Greeks (other
than that intended for the grave, and therefore of an unsub-
stantial character) was made by soldering together and so building
up the gold rather than by chiselling or engraving the material.
The art may be said to consist in curling, twisting and plaiting
fine pliable threads of metal, and uniting them at their points of
contact with each other, and with the ground, by means of gold
or silver solder and borax, by the help of the blowpipe. Small
grains or beads of the same metals are often set in the eyes of
volutes, on the junctions, or at intervals at which they will set
off the wire-work effectively. The more delicate work is generally
protected by framework of stouter wire. Brooches, crosses,
earrings and other personal ornaments of modern filigree are
generally surrounded and subdivided by bands of square or flat
metal, giving consistency to the filling up, which would not other-
wise keep its proper shape. Some writers of repute have laid equal
stress on the filum and the granum, and have extended the use of
the term filigree to include the granulated work of the ancients,
even where the twisted wire-work is entirely wanting. Such a
wide application of the term is not approved by current usage,
according to which the presence of the twisted threads is the
predominant fact.
The Egyptian jewellers employed wire, both to lay down on a
background and to plait or otherwise arrange a jour. But, with
the exception of chains, it cannot be said that filigree work was
much practised by them. Their strength lay rather in their
cloisonne work and their moulded ornaments. Many examples,
however, remain of round plaited gold chains of fine wire, such
as are still made by the filigree workers of India, and known
as Trichinopoly chains. From some of these are hung smaller
chains of finer wire with minute fishes and other pendants
fastened to them. In ornaments derived from Phoenician sites,
such as Cyprus and Sardinia, patterns of gold wire are laid
down with great delicacy on a gold ground, but the art was
advanced to its highest perfection in the Greek and Etruscan
filigree of the 6th to the 3rd centuries B.C. A number of earrings
and other personal ornaments found in central Italy are pre-
served in the Louvre and in the British Museum. Almost all
of them are made of filigree work. Some earrings are in the
form of flowers of geometric design, bordered by one or more
rims each made up of minute volutes of gold wire, and this kind
of ornament is varied by slight differences in the way of disposing
the number or arrangement of the volutes. But the feathers
and petals of modern Italian filigree are not seen in these ancient
designs. Instances occur, but only rarely, in which filigree
devices in wire are self-supporting and not applied to metal
plates. The museum of the Hermitage at St Petersburg contains
an amazingly rich collection of jewelry from the tombs of the
Crimea. Many bracelets and necklaces in that collection are
made of twisted wire, some in as many as seven rows of plaiting,
with clasps in the shape of heads of animals of beaten work.
Others are strings of large beads of gold, decorated with volutes,
knots and other patterns of wire soldered over the surfaces.
(See the Antiquilis du Bosphore Cimmerien, by Gille, 1854;
reissued by S. Reinach, 1892, in which will be found careful
engravings of these objects.) In the British Museum a sceptre,
probably that of a Greek priestess, is covered with plaited and
netted gold wire, finished with a sort of Corinthian capital and
a boss of green glass.
It is probable that in India and various parts of central Asia
filigree has been worked from the most remote period without
any change in the designs. Whether the Asiatic jewellers were
influenced by the Greeks settled on that continent, or merely
trained under traditions held in common with them, it is certain
that the Indian filigree workers retain the same patterns as those
of the ancient Greeks, and work them in the same way, down to
the present day. Wandering workmen are given so much gold,
coined or rough, which is weighed, heated in a pan of charcoal,
beaten into wire, and then worked in the courtyard or verandah
of the employer's house according to the designs of the artist,
who weighs the complete work on restoring it and is paid at a
specified rate for his labour. Very fine grains or beads and
spines of gold, scarcely thicker than coarse hair, projecting
from plates of gold are methods of ornamentation still used.
Passing to later times we may notice in many collections of
medieval jewel work (such as that in the South Kensington
Museum) reliquaries, covers for the gospels, &c., made either
in Constantinople from the 6th to the i2th centuries, or in
monasteries in Europe, in which Byzantine goldsmiths' work
was studied and imitated. These objects, besides being enriched
with precious stones, polished, but not cut into facets, and with
enamel, are often decorated with filigree. Large surfaces of gold
are sometimes covered with scrolls of filigree soldered on; and
corner pieces of the borders of book covers, or the panels of
reliquaries, are not unfrequently made up of complicated pieces
of plaited work alternating with spaces encrusted with enamel.
Byzantine filigree work occasionally has small stones set amongst
the curves or knots. Examples of such decoration can be seen
in the South Kensington and British Museums.
In the north of Europe the Saxons, Britons and Celts were
from an early period skilful in several kinds of goldsmiths' work.
Admirable examples of filigree patterns laid down in wire on
gold, from Anglo-Saxon tombs, may be seen in the British
Museum notably a brooch from Dover, and a sword-hilt from
Cumberland.
The Irish filigree work is more thoughtful in design and more
varied in pattern than that of any period or country that could
be named. Its highest perfection must be placed in the loth
and nth centuries. The Royal Irish Academy in Dublin
contains a number of reliquaries and personal jewels, of which
filigree is the general and most remarkable ornament. The
" Tara " brooch has been copied and imitated, and the shape and
344
FILLAN, SAINT FILLMORE
decoration of it are well known. Instead of fine curls or volutes
of gold thread, the Irish filigree is varied by numerous designs
in which one thread can be traced through curious knots and
complications, which, disposed over large surfaces, balance one
another, but always with special varieties and arrangements
difficult to trace with the eye. The long thread appears and
disappears without breach of continuity, the two ends generally
worked into the head and the tail of a serpent or a monster.
The reliquary containing the " Bell of St Patrick " is covered
with knotted work in many varieties. A two-handled chalice,
called the " Ardagh cup," found near Limerick in 1868, is
ornamented with work of this kind of extraordinary fineness.
Twelve plaques on a band round the body of the vase, plaques
on each handle and round the foot of the vase have a series of
different designs of characteristic patterns, in fine filigree wire
work wrought on the front of the repousse ground. (See a paper
by the 3rd earl of Dunraven in Transactions of Royal Irish
Academy, xxiv. pt. iii. 1873.)
Much of the medieval jewel work all over Europe down to
the isth century, on reliquaries, crosses, croziers and other
ecclesiastical goldsmiths' work, is set off with bosses and borders
of filigree. Filigree work in silver was practised by the Moors
of Spain during the middle ages with great skill, and was intro-
duced by them and established all over the Peninsula, whence
it was carried to the Spanish colonies in America. The Spanish
filigree work of the i7th and i8th centuries is of extraordinary
complexity (examples in the Victoria and Albert Museum), and
silver filigree jewelry of delicate and artistic design is still made
in considerable quantities throughout the country. The manu-
facture spread over the Balearic Islands, and among the popula-
tions that border the Mediterranean. It is still made all over
Italy, and in Malta, Albania, the Ionian Islands and many
other parts of Greece. That of the Greeks is sometimes on a
large scale, with several thicknesses of wires alternating with
larger and smaller bosses and beads, sometimes set with
turquoises, &c., and mounted on convex plates, making rich
ornamental headpieces, belts and breast ornaments. Filigree
silver buttons of wire-work and small bosses are worn by the
peasants in most of the countries that produce this kind of
jewelry. Silver filigree brooches and buttons are also made
in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Little chains and pendants
are added to much of this northern work.
Some very curious filigree work was brought from Abyssinia
after the capture of Magdala arm-guards, slippers, cups, &c.,
some of which are now in the South Kensington Museum. They
are made of thin plates of silver, over which the wire-work is
soldered. The filigree is subdivided by narrow borders of simple
pattern, and the intervening spaces are made up of many
patterns, some with grains set at intervals.
A few words must be added as to the granulated work which,
as stated above, some writers have classed under the term of
filigree, although the twisted wires may be altogether wanting.
Such decoration consists of minute globules of gold, soldered
to form patterns on a metal surface. Its use is rare in Egypt.
(See J. de Morgan, Fouilles a Dahchour, 1894-1895, pi. xii.)
It occurs in Cyprus at an early period, as for instance on a gold
pendant in the British Museum from Enkomi in Cyprus (loth
century B.C.). The pendant is in the form of a pomegranate,
and has upon it a pattern of triangles, formed by more than
3000 minute globules separately soldered on. It also occurs on
ornaments of the 7th century B.C. from Camirus in Rhodes.
But these globules are large, compared with those which are
found on Etruscan jewelry. Signer Castellani, who had made
the antique jewelry of the Etruscans and Greeks his special
study, with the intention of reproducing the ancient models,
found it for a long time impossible to revive this particular
process of delicate soldering. He overcame the difficulty at
last, by the discovery of a traditional school of craftsmen at
St Angelo in Vado, by whose help his well-known reproductions
were executed.
For examples of antique work the student should examine the
gold ornament rooms of the British Museum, the Louvre and the
collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The last contains a
large and very varied assortment of modern Italian, Spanish, Greek
and other jewelry made for the peasants of various countries. It
also possesses interesting examples of the modern work in granulated
gold by Castellani and Giuliano. The Celtic work is well represented
in the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin.
FILLAN, SAINT, or FAELAN, the name of the two Scottish
saints ; of Irish origin, whose lives are of a purely legendary
character The St Fillan whose feast is kept on the 2oth of June
had churches dedicated to his honour at Ballyheyland, Queen's
county, Ireland, and at Loch Earn, Perthshire. The other,
who is commemorated on the 9th of January, was specially
venerated at Cluain Mavscua, Co. Westmeath, Ireland, and so-
early as the 8th or gth century at Strathfillan,Perthshire, Scotland,
where there was an ancient monastery dedicated to him, which,
like most of the religious houses of early times, was afterwards,
secularized. The lay-abbot, who was its superior in the reign
of William the Lion, held high rank in the Scottish kingdom.
This monastery was restored in the reign of Robert Bruce, and
became a cell of the abbey of canons regular at Inchaffray.
The new foundation received a grant from King Robert, in grati-
tude for the aid which he was supposed to have obtained from a
relic of the saint on the eve of the great victory of Bannockburn.
Another relic was the saint's staff or crozier, which became
known as the coygerach or quigrich, and was long in the posses-
sion of a family of the name of Jore or Dewar, who were its
hereditary guardians. They certainly had it in their custody
in the year 1428, and their right was formally recognized by
King James III. in 1487. The head of the crozier, which is of
silver-gilt with a smaller crozier of bronze inclosed within it, is
now deposited in the National Museum of the Society of Anti-
quaries of Scotland.
The legend of the second of these saints is given in the Bollandist
Acta SS. (1643), 9th of January, i. 594-595; A. P. Forbes, Kalendars
of Scottish Saints (Edinburgh, 1872), pp. 341-346; D. O'Hanlon's
Lives of Irish Saints (Dublin), n.d. pp. 134-144. See also Historical
Notices of St Fillan' s Crozier, by Dr John Stuart (Aberdeen, 1877).
FILLET (through Fr. filet, from the med. Lat. filettum, diminu-
tive olfilum, a thread), a band or ribbon used for tying the hair,
the Lat. villa, w"hich was used as a sacrificial emblem, and also
worn by vestal virgins, brides and poets. The word is thus
applied to anything in the shape of a band or strip, as, in coining,
to the metal ribbon from which the blanks are punched. In
architecture, a " fillet " is a narrow fla't band, sometimes called
a " listel," which is used to separate mouldings one from the other,
or to terminate a suite of mouldings as at the top of a cornice.
In the fluted column of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders the fillet
is employed between the flutes. It is a very important feature
in Gothic work, being frequently worked on large mouldings;,
when placed on the front and sides of the moulding of a rib it
has been termed the " keel and wings " of the rib.
In cooking, " fillet " is used of the " undercut " of a sirloin of
beef, or of a. thick slice of fish or meat; more particularly of a
boned and rolled piece of veal or other meat, tied by a " fillet n
or string.
FILLMORE, MILLARD (1800-1874), thirteenth president of
the United States of America, came of a family of English stock,
which had early settled in New England. His father, Nathaniel,
in 1795, made a clearing within the limits of what is now the town
of Summerhill, Cayuga county. New York, and there Millard
Fillmore was born, on the 7th of February 1800. Until he was
fifteen he could have acquired only the simplest rudiments of
education, and those chiefly from his parents. At that age he
was apprenticed to a fuller and clothier, to card wool, and to dye
and dress the cloth. Two years before the close of his term, with
a promissory note for thirty dollars, he bought the remainder
of his time from his master, and at the age of nineteen began to
study law. In 1820 he made his way to Buffalo, then only
a village, and supported himself by teaching school and aiding,
the postmaster while continuing his studies.
In 1823 he was admitted to the bar, and began practice at
Aurora, New York, to which place his father had removed.
Hard study, temperance and integrity gave him a good reputa-
tion and moderate success, and in 1827 he was made an attorney
FILMER FILON
345
and, in 1829, counsellor of the supreme court of the state.
Returning to Buffalo in 1830 he formed, in 1832, a partnership
with Nathan K. Hall (1810-1874), later a member of Congress
and postmaster-general in his cabinet. Solomon G. Haven (1810-
1861), member of Congress from 1851 to 1857, joined them in
1836. The firm met with great success. From 1829 to 1832
Fillmore served in the state assembly, and, in the single term
of 1833-1835, in the national House of Representatives, coming
in as anti-Jackson, or in opposition to the administration. From
1837 to 1843, when he declined further service, he again repre-
sented his district in the House, this time as a member of the
Whig party. In Congress he opposed the annexation of Texas
as slave territory, was an advocate of internal improvements and
a protective tariff, supported J. Q. Adams in maintaining the
right of offering anti-slavery petitions, advocated the prohibition
by Congress of the slave trade between the states, and favoured
the exclusion of slavery from the District of Columbia. His
speech and tone, however, were moderate on these exciting
subjects, and he claimed the right to stand .free of pledges, and
to adjust his opinions and his course by the development of
circumstances. The Whigs having the ascendancy in the Twenty-
Seventh Congress, he was made chairman of the House Com-
mittee of Ways and Means. Against a strong opposition he
carried an appropriation of $30,000 to Morse's telegraph,
and reported from his committee the Tariff Bill of 1842. In
1844 he was the Whig candidate for the governorship of New
York, but was defeated. In November 1847 he was elected
comptroller of the state of New York, and in 1848 he was
elected vice-president of the United States on the ticket with
Zachary Taylor as president. Fillmore presided over the senate
during the exciting debates on the " Compromise Measures of
1850."
President Taylor died on the gth of July 1850, and on the next
day Fillmore took the oath of office as his successor. The cabinet
which he called around him contained Daniel Webster, Thomas
Corwin and John J. Crittenden. On the death of Webster in
1852, Edward Everett became secretary of state. Unlike Taylor,
Fillmore favoured the " Compromise Measures," and his signing
one of them, the Fugitive Slave Law, in spite of the vigorous
protests of anti-slavery men, lost him much of his popularity
in the North. Few of his opponents, however, questioned his
own full persuasion that the Compromise Measures were vitally
necessary to pacify the nation. In 1851 he interposed promptly
but ineffectively in thwarting the projects of the " filibusters,"
under Narciso Lopez for the invasion of Cuba. Commodore
Matthew Calbraith Perry's expedition, which opened up diplo-
matic relations with Japan, and the exploration of the valley
of the Amazon by Lieutenants William L. Herndon (1813-1857)
and Lardner Gibbon also occurred during his term. In the
autumn of 1852 he was an unsuccessful candidate for nomination
for the presidency by the Whig National Convention, and he went
out of office on the 4th of March 1853. In February 1856, while
he was travelling abroad, he was nominated for the presidency
by the American or Know Nothing party, and later this nomina-
tion was also accepted by the Whigs; but in the ensuing pre-
sidential election, the last in which the Know Nothings and the
Whigs as such took any part, he received the electoral votes of
only one state, Maryland. Thereafter he took no public share
in political affairs. Fillmore was twice married: in 1826 to
Abigail Powers (who died in 1853, leaving him with a son and
daughter), and in 1858 to Mrs. Caroline C. Mclntosh. He died
at Buffalo on the 8th of March 1874.
In 1907 the Buffalo Historical Society, of which Fillmore was one
of the founders and the first president, published the Millard Fillmore
Papers (2 vols., vol. x. and xi. of the Society's publications; edited
by F. H. Severance), containing miscellaneous writings and speeches,
and official and private correspondence. Most of his correspondence,
however, was destroyed in pursuance of a direction in his son's will.
FILMER, SIR ROBERT (d. 1653), English political writer, was
the son of Sir Edward Filmer of East Sutton in Kent. He
studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he matriculated in
1604. Knighted by Charles I. at the beginning of his reign, he
was an ardent supporter of the king's cause, and his house is said
to have been plundered by the parliamentarians ten times. He
died on the 26th of May 1653.
Filmer was already a middle-aged man when the great contro-
versy between the king and the Commons roused him into literary
activity. His writings afford an exceedingly curious example of
the doctrines held by the most extreme section of the Divine
Right party. Filmer's theory is founded upon the statement that
the government of a family by the father is the true original and
model of all government. In the beginning of the world God gave
authority to Adam, who had complete control over his descend-
ants, even as to life and death. From Adam this authority was
inherited by Noah; and Filmer quotes as not unlikely the
tradition that Noah sailed up the Mediterranean and allotted the
three continents of the Old World to the rule of his three sons.
From Shem, Ham and Japheth the patriarchs inherited the
absolute power which they exercised over their families and
servants; and from the patriarchs all kings and governors
(whether a single monarch or a governing assembly) derive their
authority, which is therefore absolute, and founded upon divine
right. The difficulty that a man " by the secret will of God may
unjustly" attain to power which he has not inherited appeared to
Filmer in no way to alter the nature of the power so obtained,
for " there is, and always shall be continued to the end of the
world, a natural right of a supreme father over every multitude."
The king is perfectly free from all human control. He cannot be
bound by the acts of his predecessors, for which he is not re-
sponsible; nor by his own, for " impossible it is in nature that a
man should give a law unto himself " a law must be imposed by
another than the person bound by it. With regard to the English
constitution, he asserted, in his Freeholder's Grand Inquest
touching our Sovereign Lord the King and his Parliament (1648),
that the Lords only give counsel to the king, the Commons only
" perform and consent to the ordinances of parliament," and the
king alone is the maker of laws, which proceed purely from his
will. It is monstrous that the people should judge or depose
their king, for they would then be judges in their own cause.
The most complete expression of Filmer's opinions is given in
the Patriarcha, which was published in 1680, many years after his
death. His position, however, was sufficiently indicated by the
works which he published during his lifetime: the Anarchy of a
Limited and Mixed Monarchy (1648), an attack upon a treatise on
monarchy by Philip Hunton (1604 ?-i682), who maintained that
the king's prerogative is not superior to the authority of the
houses of parliament; the pamphlet entitled The Power of Kings,
and in particular of the King of England (1648), first published
in 1680; and his Observations upon Mr Hobbes's Leviathan, Mr
Milton against Salmasius, and H. Grolius De jure belli el pads,
concerning the Originall of Government (1652). Filmer's theory,
owing to the circumstances of the time, obtained a recognition
which it is now difficult to understand. Nine years after the
publication of the Patriarcha, at the time of the Revolution which
banished the Stuarts from the throne, Locke singled out Filmer
as the most remarkable of the advocates of Divine Right, and
thought it worth while to attack him expressly in the first part of
the Treatise on Government, going into all his arguments seriatim,
and especially pointing out that even if the first steps of his
argument be granted, the rights of the eldest born have been so
often set aside that modern kings can claim no such inheritance of
authority as he asserted.
FILMY FERNS, a general name for a group of ferns with
delicate much-divided leaves and often moss-like growth,
belonging to the genera Hymenophyttum, Todea and Trichomanes.
They require to be kept in close cases in a cool fernery, and the
stones and moss amongst which they are grown must be kept
continually moist so that the evaporated water condenses on the
very numerous divisions of the leaves.
FILON, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN (1841- ), French man
of letters, son of the historian Charles Auguste Desire Filon
(1800-1875), was born in Paris in 1841. His father became
professor of history at Douai, and eventually " inspecleur
d'academie " in Paris; his principal works were Hisloire comparee
346
FILOSA FILTER
de France el de I' Angleterre (1832), Histoire de I'Europe au
XVI' siecle (1838), La Diplomatic franc.aise sous Louis XV
(1843), Histoire de I' Italic meridionale (1849), Histoire du senat
romain (1850), Histoire de la dimocratie athenienne (1854).
Educated at the Ecole normale, Augustin Filon was appointed
tutor to the prince imperial and accompanied him to England,
where he remained for some years. He is the author of Guy
Patin, sa vie, sa correspondance (1862); Nos grands-peres (1887);
Prosper Merimee (1894); Sous la tyrannic (1900). On English
subjects he has written chiefly under the pseudonym of Pierre
Sandrie, Les Manages de Londres (1875) ; Histoire de la liMralure
anglaise (1883); Le Thedtre anglais (1896), and La Caricature
en Angleterre (1902).
FILOSA (A. Lang), one of the two divisions of Rhizopoda,
characterized by protoplasm granular at the surface, and fine
pseudopodia branching and usually acutely pointed at the tips.
FILTER (a word common in various forms to most European
languages, adapted from the medieval Lat. filtrum, felt, a
material used as a filtering agent), an arrangement for separating
solid matter from liquids. In some cases the operation of
filtration is performed for the sake of removing impurities from
the filtrate or liquid filtered, as in the purification of water for
drinking purposes; in others the aim is to recover and collect
the solid matter, as when the chemist filters off a precipitate from
the liquid in which it is suspended.
In regard to the purification of water, filtration was long looked
upon as merely a mechanical process of straining out the solid
particles, whereby a turbid water could be rendered clear. In
the course of time it was noticed that certain materials, such as
charcoal, had the power to some extent also of softening hard
water and of removing organic matter, and at the beginning of
the igth century charcoal, both animal and vegetable, came into
use for filtering purposes. Porous carbon blocks, made by
strongly heating a mixture of powdered charcoal with oil, resin,
&c., were introduced about a generation later, and subsequently
various preparations of iron (spongy iron, magnetic oxide) found
favour. Innumerable forms of filters made with these and other
materials were put on the market, and were extolled as removing
impurities of every kind from water, and as affording complete
protection against the communication of disease. But whatever
merits they had as clarifiers of turbid water, the advent of
bacteriology, and the recognition of the fact that the bacteria of
certain diseases may be water-borne, introduced a new criterion
of effectiveness, and it was perceived that the removal of solid
particles, or even of organic impurities (which were realized to be
important not so much because they are dangerous to health
per se as because their presence affords grounds for suspecting
that the water in which they occur has been exposed to circum-
stances permitting contamination with infective disease), was not
sufficient; the filter must also prevent the passage of pathogenic
organisms, and so render the water sterile bacteriologically.
Examined from this point of view the majority of domestic
filters were found to be gravely defective, and even to be worse
than useless, since unless they were frequently and thoroughly
cleansed, they were liable to become favourable breeding-places for
microbes. The first filter which was more or less completely
impermeable to bacteria was the Pasteur-Chamberland, which
was devised in Pasteur's laboratory, and is made of dense biscuit
porcelain. The filtering medium in this, as in other filters of the
same kind, takes the form of a hollow cylinder or " candle,"
through the walls of which the water has to pass from the outside
to the inside, the candles often being arranged so that they may
be directly attached to a tap, whereby the rate of flow, which is
apt to be slow, is accelerated by the pressure of the main. But
even filters of this type, if they are to be fully relied upon, must be
frequently cleaned and sterilized, and great care must be taken
that the joints and connexions are watertight, and that the
candles are without cracks or flaws. In cases where the water
supply is known to be infected, or even where it is merely
doubtful, it is wise to have recourse to sterilization by boiling,
rather than trust to any filter. Various machines have been
constructed to perform this operation, some of them specially
designed for the use of troops in the field; those in which
economy of fuel is studied have an exchange-heater, by means of
which the incoming cold water receives heat from the outgoing
hot water, which thus arrives at the point of outflow at a
temperature nearly as low as that of the supply. Chemical
methods of sterilization have also been suggested, depending on
the use of iodine, chlorine, bromine, ozone, potassium per-
manganate, copper sulphate or chloride and other substances.
For the sand-filtration of water on a large scale, in which the
presence of a surface film containing zooglaea of bacteria is an
essential feature, see WATER SUPPLY.
Filtration in the chemical laboratory is commonly effected
by the aid of a special kind of unsized paper, which in the more
expensive varieties is practically pure cellulose, impurities like
feric oxide, alumina, lime, magnesia and silica having been re-
moved by treatment with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids.
A circular piece of this paper is folded twice upon itself so as to
form a quadrant, one of the folds is pulled out, and the cone thus
obtained is supported in a glass or porcelain funnel having an
apical angle of 60. The liquid to be filtered is poured into the
cone, preferably down a glass rod upon the sides of the funnel
to prevent splashing and to preserve the apex of the filter-paper,
and passes through the paper, upon which the solid matter is
retained. In the case of liquids containing strong acids or
alkalis, which the paper cannot withstand, a plug of carefully
purified asbestos or glass-wool (spun glass) is often employed,
contained in a bulb blown as an enlargement on a narrow " filter-
tube." To accelerate the rate of filtration various devices are
resorted to, such as lengthening the tube below the filtering
material, increasing the pressure on the liquid being filtered,
or decreasing it in the receiver of the filtrate. R. W. Bunsen may
be regarded as the originator of the second method, and it was he
who devised the small cone of platinum foil, sometimes replaced
by a cone of parchment perforated with pinholes, arranged, at
the apex of the funnel to serve as a support for the paper, which
is apt to burst under the pressure differences. In the so-called
" Buchner funnel," the filtering vessel is cylindrical, and the
paper receives support by being laid upon its flat perforated
bottom. In filtering into a vacuum the flask receiving the filtrate
should be connected to the exhaust through a second flask.
The suction may be derived from any form of air-pump; a form
often employed where water at fair pressure is available is
the jet-pump, which in consequence is known as a filter-pump.
Another method of filtering into a vacuum is to immerse a porous
jar (" Pukall cell ") in the liquid to be filtered, and attach a
suction-pipe to its interior. A filtering arrangement devised
by F. C. Gooch, which has come into common use in quantitative
analysis where the solid matter has to be submitted to heating
or ignition, consists of a crucible having a perforated bottom.
By means of a piece of stretched rubber tubing, this crucible
is supported in the mouth of an ordinary funnel which is con-
nected with an exhausting apparatus; and water holding in
suspension fine scrapings of asbestos, purified by boiling with
strong hydrochloric acid and washing with water, is run through
it, so that the perforated bottom is covered with a layer of felted
asbestos. The crucible is then removed from the rubber support,
weighed and replaced; the liquid is filtered through in the
ordinary way; and the crucible with its contents is again removed,
dried, ignited and weighed. A perforated cone, similarly coated
with asbestos and fitted into a conical funnel, is sometimes
employed.
In many processes of chemical technology filtration plays an
important part. A crude method consists of straining the liquid
through cotton or other cloth, either stretched on wooden frames
or formed into long narrow bags (" bag-filters "). Occasionally
filtration into a vacuum is practised, but more often, as in filter-
presses, the liquid is forced under pressure, either hydrostatic
or obtained from a force-pump or compressed air, into a series of
chambers partitioned off by cloth, which arrests the solids, but
permits the passage of the liquid portions. For separating
liquids from solids of a fibrous or crystalline character " hydro-
extractors " or " centrifugals " are frequently employed. The
FIMBRIA FINANCE
347
material is placed in a perforated cage or " basket," which
is enclosed in an outer casing, and when the cage is rapidly
rotated by suitable gearing, the liquid portions are forced out
into the external casing.
FIMBRIA, GAIUS FLAVIUS (d. 84 B.C.), Roman soldier and
a violent partisan of Marius. He was sent to Asia in 86 B.C.
as legate to L. Valerius Flaccus, but quarrelled with him and was
dismissed. Taking advantage of the absence of Flaccus at
Chalcedon and the discontent aroused by his avarice and severity,
Fimbria stirred up a revolt and slew Flaccus at Nicomedia.
He then assumed the command of the army and obtained several
successes against Mithradates, whom he shut up in Pitane on
the coast of Aeolis, and would undoubtedly have captured him
had Lucullus co-operated with the fleet. Fimbria treated most
cruelly all the people of Asia who had revolted from Rome or
sided with Sulla. Having gained admission to Ilium by declaring
that, as a Roman, he was friendly, he massacred the inhabitants
and burnt the place to the ground. But in 84 Sulla crossed over
from Greece to Asia, made peace with Mithradates, and turned
his arms against Fimbria, who, seeing that there was no chance
of escape, committed suicide. His troops were made to serve in
Asia till the end of the third Mithradatic War.
See ROME: History; and arts, on SULLA and MARIUS.
FIMBRIATE (from Lat. fimbriae, fringe), a zoological and
botanical term, meaning fringed. In heraldry, " fimbriate "
or " fimbriated " refers to a narrow edge or border running round
a bearing.
FINALE (Ital. for " end "), a term in music for the concluding
movement in an instrumental composition, whether symphony,
concerto or sonata, and, in dramatic music, the concerted piece
which ends each act. Of instrumental finales, the great choral
finale to Beethoven's Qth symphony, and of operatic finales,
that of Mozart's Nozze di Figaro, to the second act, and to the
last act of Verdi's Falstaff may be mentioned. In the Wagnerian
opera the finale has no place.
FINANCE. The term " finance," which comes into English
through French, in its original meaning denoted a payment
(finalio). In the later middle ages, especially in Germany, it
acquired the sense of usurious or oppressive dealing with money
and capital. The specialized use of the word as equivalent to
the management of the public expenditure and receipts first
became prominent in France during the i6th century and quickly
spread to other countries. The plural form (Les Finances) was
particularly reserved for this application, while the singular
came to denote business activity in respect to monetary dealings
(as in the expression la haute finance). For the Germans the
phrase " science of finance " (Finanzwissenschaft) refers ex-
clusively to the economy of the state. English and American
writers are less definite in their employment of the term, which
varies with the convenience of the author.
A work on " finance " may deal with the Money Market or the
Stock Exchange; it may treat of banking and credit organiza-
tion, or it may be devoted to state revenue and expenditure,
which is on the whole the prevailing sense. The expressions
" science of finance " and " public finance " have been suggested as
suitable to delimit the last mentioned application. At all events,
the broad sense is quite intelligible. " Financial " means what is
concerned with business, and the idea of a balance between
effort and return is also prominent. In the present article
attention will be directed to " public finance "; for the other
aspects of the subject reference may be made (inter alia} to the
following: BANKS AND BANKING; COMPANY; EXCHANGE;
MARKET; STOCK EXCHANGE. See also ENGLISH FINANCE,
and the sections on finance under headings of countries.
Finance, regarded as state house-keeping, or " political
economy " (see ECONOMICS) in the older sense of the term, deals
with (i) the expenditure of the state; (2) state revenues; (3)
the balance between expenditure and receipts; (4) the organiza-
tion which collects and applies the public funds. Each of these
large divisions presents a series of problems of which the practical
treatment is illustrated in the financial history of the great nations
of the world. Thus the amount and character of public ex-
penditure necessarily depends on the functions that the state
undertakes to perform national defence, the maintenance of
internal order, and the efficient equipment of the state organiza-
tion; such are the tasks that all governments have to discharge,
and for their cost due provision has to be made. The widening
sphere of state activity, so marked a characteristic of modern
civilization, involves outlay for what may be best described
as " developmental " services. Education, relief of distress,
regulation of labour and trade, are duties now in great part
performed by public agencies, and their increasing prominence
involves augmented expense. The first problem on this side of
expenditure is the due balancing of outlay by income. The
financier has to " cover " his outlay. There is, further, the duty
of establishing a proper proportion between the several forms of
expenditure. Not only has there to be a strict control over the
total national expense; supervision has to be carried into each
department of the state. No one branch of public activity is
entitled to make unlimited calls on the state's revenue. The
claims of the " expert " require to be carefully scrutinized. The
great financiers have made their reputation quite as much by
rigorous control over extravagance in expenditure as by dexterity
in devising new forms of revenue. Unfortunately they have not
been able to reduce their methods to rule. As yet no more definite
principle has been discovered than the somewhat obvious one of
measuring the proposed items of outlay (i) against each other,
(2) against the sacrifice that additional taxation involves. Of
almost equal importance is the rule that the utmost return is to
be obtained for the given outlay. The canon of economy is as
fundamental in regard to public expenditure as it will appear,
later, to be in respect to revenue. Just application of the outlay
of the state, so that no class receives undue advantage, and the
use of public funds for " reproductive," in preference to " un-
productive " objects, are evident general principles whose
difficulty lies in their application to the circumstances of each
particular case.
Far greater progress has been made in the formulation of
general canons as to the nature, growth and treatment of the
public revenues. Historically, there is, first, the tendency
towards increase in state income to balance the advance in outlay.
A second general feature is the relative decline of the receipts
from state property and industries in contrast to the expansion
of taxation. Regarded as an organized system, the body of
receipts has to be made conformable to certain general conditions.
Thus there should be revenue sufficient to meet the public re-
quirements. Otherwise the financial organization has failed in
one of its essential purposes. In order continuously to attain
this end, the revenue must be flexible, or, as is often said, elastic
enough to vary in response to pressure. Frequently recurring
deficits are, in themselves, a condemnation of the methods
under which they are found. Again, the rule of " economy "
in raising revenue, or, in other words, taking as little as possible
from the contributors over and above what the state receives,
holds good for the whole and for each part of public revenue.
In like manner the principle of formal justice has the same claim
in respect to revenue as to expenditure. No class of person should
bear more than his or its proper share. In fact the special maxims
usually placed under the head of taxation have really a wider
scope as governing the whole financial system. The recognition
of even the most elementary rules has been a very slow process,
as the course of financial history abundantly proves. Until the
i8th century no scientific treatment of financial problems was
attained, though there had been great advances on the admini-
strative side.
A brief description of the historical evolution of the earlier
financial forms will be the most effective illustration of this
statement. The theory of well-organized public finance is also
discussed under TAXATION and NATIONAL DEBT.
The earliest forms of public revenue are those obtained
from the property of the chief or ruler. Land, cattle and slaves
are the principal kinds of wealth, and they are all constituents
of the king's revenue; enforced work contributed by members of
the community, and the furnishing commodities on requisition,
348
FINANCE
further aid in the maintenance of the primitive state. Financial
organization makes its earliest appearance in the great Eastern
monarchies, in which tribute was regularly collected and the
oldest and most general form of taxation that levied on the
produce of land was established. In its normal shape this
impost consisted in a given proportion of the yield, or of certain
portions of the yield, of the soil; one-fourth as in India, one-
fifth as in Egypt, or two separate levies of a tenth as in Palestine,
are examples of what may from the last instance be called the
" tithe " system. Dues of various kinds were gradually added
to the land revenue, until, as in the later Egyptian monarchy,
the forms of revenue reached a bewildering complexity. But
no Eastern state advanced beyond the condition generally
characterized as the " patrimonial," i.e. an organization on the
model of the household. The part played by money economy
was small, and it is noticeable that the revenues were collected
by the monarch's servants, the farming out of taxes being
completely unknown. Tribute, however, was paid by subject
communities as a whole, and was collected by them for trans-
mission to the conquerors.
A much higher stage was reached in the financial methods
of the Greek states, or more correctly speaking of Athens, the
best-known specimen of the class. Instead of the
comparatively simple expedients of the barbarian
monarchies, as indicated above, the Athenian city
state by degrees developed a rather complex revenue system.
Some of the older forms are retained. The city owned public
land which was let on lease and the rents were farmed out by
auction. A specially valuable property of Athens was the
possession of the silver mines at Laurium, which were worked on
lease by slave labour. The produce, at first distributed amongst
the citizens, was later a part of the state income, and forms the
subject of some of the suggestions respecting the revenue in
the treatise formerly ascribed to Xenophon. The reverence
that attached to the precious metals caused undue exaltation
of the services rendered by this property.
One of the characteristics of the ancient state was its extensive
control over the persons and property of its citizens. In respect
to finance this authority was strikingly manifested in the
burdens imposed on wealthy citizens by the requirements of the
" liturgies " (Keirovpyiai.) , which consisted in the provision of
a chorus for theatrical performances, or defraying the expenses
of the public games, or, finally, the equipment of a ship, " the
trierarchy," which was economically and politically the most
important. Athenian statesmanship in the time of Demosthenes
was gravely exercised to make this form of contribution more
effective. The grouping into classes and the privilege of exchang-
ing property, granted to the contributor against any one whom
he believed entitled to take his place, are marks of the defective
economic and financial organization of the age.
Amongst taxes strictly so called were the market dues or tolls,
which in some cases approximated to excise duties, though in
their actual mode of levy they were closely similar to the octrois
of modern times. Of greater importance were the customs
duties on imports and exports. These at the great period of
Athenian history were only 2%. The prohibition of export
of corn was an economic rather than a financial provision. In
the treatment of her subject allies Athens was more rigorous,
general import and export duties of 5 % being imposed on their
trade. The high cost of carriage, and the need of encouraging
commerce in a community relying on external sources for its
food supply, help to explain the comparatively low rates adopted.
Neither as financial nor as protective expedients were the custom
duties of classical societies of much importance.
Direct taxation received much greater expansion. A special
levy on the class of resident aliens (titTo'uaov) , probably
paralleled by a duty on slaves, was in force. A far more important
source of revenue was the general tax on property (fia<jx>pa) ,
which according to one view existed as early as the time of Solon,
who made it a part of his constitutional system. Modern
inquiry, however, tends towards the conclusion that it was under
the stress of the Peloponnesian War 'that this impost was intro-
duced (428 B.C.). At first it was only levied at irregular intervals;
afterwards, in 378 B.C., it became a permanent tax based on
elaborate valuation under which the richer members paid on a
larger quota of their capital; in the case of the wealthiest class
the taxable quota was taken as one-fifth, smaller fractions being
adopted for those belonging to the other divisions. The assess-
ment (ripj/ici) included all the property of the contributor,
whose accuracy in making full returns was safeguarded by the
right given to other citizens to proceed against him for fraudulent
under-valuation. A further support was provided in the reform
of 378 B.C. by the establishment of the symmories, or groups
of tax-paying citizens; the wealthier members of each group
being responsible for the tax payments of all the members.
The scanty and obscure references to finance, and to economic
matters generally, in classical literature do not elucidate all the
details of the system; but the analogies of other countries, e.g.
the mode of levying the tattle in i8th century France and the
" tenth and fifteenth " in medieval England, make it tolerably
plain that in the 4th century B.C. the Athenian state had developed
a mode of taxation on property which raised those questions of
just distribution and effective valuation that present themselves
in the latest tax systems of the modern world. Taken together
with the liturgies, the " eisphora " placed a very heavy burden
on the wealthier citizens, and this financial pressure accounts
in great part for the hostility of the rich towards the democratic
constitution that facilitated the imposition of graduated taxation
and super-taxes to use modern terms on the larger incomes.
The normal yield of the property tax is reported as 60 talents
(14,400); but on special occasions it reached 200 talents
(48,000), or about one-sixth of the total receipts.
On the administrative side also remarkable advances were
made by the entrusting of military expenditure to the " generals,"
and in the 4th century B.C. by the appointment of an admini-
strator whose duty it was to distribute the revenue of the state
under the directions of the assembly. The absence of settled
public law and the influence of direct democracy made a complete
ministry of finance impossible.
The Athenian " hegemony " j its earlier and later phases
had an important financial side. The confederacy of Delos
made provision for the collection of a revenue (<>6pos) from the
members of the league, which was employed at first for defence
against Persian aggression, but afterwards was at the disposal
of Athens as the ruling state. The annual collection of 460
talents (110,400) shows sufficiently the magnitude of the league.
Too little is known of the financial methods of the other
Greek states and of the Macedonian kingdoms to allow of any
definite account of their position. In the latter, particularly
in Egypt, the methods of the earlier rulers probably survived.
Their finance, like their social life generally, exhibited a blending
of Hellenic and barbarian elements. The older land-taxes were
probably accompanied by import dues and taxes on property.
In the infancy of the Roman republic its revenues were of
the kind usual in such communities. The public land yielded
receipts which may indifferently be regarded as rents Roman.
or taxes; the citizens contributed their services or
commodities, and dues were raised on certain articles coming
to market. With the progress of the' Roman dominion the
financial organization grew in extent. In order to meet the
cost of the early wars a special contribution from property
(tributum ex censu) was levied at times of emergency, though it
was in some cases regarded as an advance to be repaid when
the occasion of expense was over. Owing to the great military
successes, and the consequent increase of the other sources of
revenue, it became feasible to suspend the tributum in 167 B.C.,
and it was not again levied till after the death of Julius Caesar.
From this date the expenses of the Roman state " were un-
disguisedly supported by the taxation of the provinces."
Neither the state monopolies nor the public land in Italy afforded
any appreciable revenue. The other charges that affected Italy
were the 5% duty on manumissions, and customs dues on sea-
borne imports. But with the acquisition of the important
provinces of Sicily, Spain and Africa, the formation of a tar
FINANCE
349
system based on the tributes of the dependencies became possible.
To a great extent the pre-existing forms of revenue were retained,
but were gradually systematized. In legal theory the land of
conquered communities passed into the ownership of the Roman
state; in practice a revenue was obtained through land taxes
in the form of either tithes (decumae) or money payments
(stipendia) . To the latter were adjoined capitation and trade
taxes (the tributum capitis). For pasture land a special rent
was paid. In some provinces (e.g. Sicily) payment in produce
was preferred, as affording the supply needed for the free
distribution of corn at Rome.
The great form of indirect taxation consisted in the customs
dues (portoria), which were collected at the provincial boundaries
and varied in amount, though the maximum did not exceed 5 %.
Under the same head were included the town dues (or octrois).
Further, the local administration was charged on the district
concerned, and requisitions for the public service were frequently
made on the provincial communities. Supplies of grain, ships
and timber for military use were often demanded.
The methods of levy may be regarded as an additional tax.
" Vexation," as Adam Smith remarks, " though not strictly
speaking expense, is certainly equivalent to the expense at which
every man would be willing to redeem himself from it "; and
the Roman system was extraordinarily vexatious. From an
early date the collection of the taxes had been farmed out to
companies of contractors (socielates vectigales), who became a
by-word for rapacity. Being bound to pay a stated sum to the
public authorities these publicani naturally aimed at extracting
the largest possible amount from the unfortunate provincials,
and, as they belonged to the Roman capitalist class, they were
able to influence the provincial governors. Undue claims on the
part of the tax collectors were aggravated by the extortion of
the public officials. The defects of the financial organization
were a serious influence in the complex of causes that brought
about the fall of the Republic.
One of the reasons that induced the subject populations
to accept with pleasure the establishment of the Empire was the
improvement in financial treatment that it secured. The corrupt
and uneconomical method of farming out the collection of the
revenue was, to a great extent, replaced by collection through
the officials of the imperial household. The earlier Roman
treasury (aerarium) was formally retained for the receipt of
revenue from the senatorial provinces, but the officials were
appointed by the Princeps and became gradually mere municipal
officers. The real centre of finance was the fiscus or imperial
treasury, which was under the exclusive control of the ruler
(" res fiscales," says Ulpian, " quasi propriae et privatae principis
sunt "), and was administered by officials of his household.
Under the Republic the Senate had been the financial authority,
with the Censors as finance ministers and the Quaestors as
secretaries of the treasury. Never very precise, this system in
the ist century B.C. fell into extreme decay. By means of his
freedmen the emperor introduced the more rigorous economy
of the Roman household into public finance. The census as a
method of valuation was revived; the important and productive
land taxes were placed on a more definite footing; while, above
all, the substitution of direct collection by state officials for the
letting out by auction, of the tax-collection to the companies
of publicani was made general. Thus some of the most valuable
lessons as to the normal evolution of a system of finance are to
be learned in this connexion. Of equal, or even greater moment
is the failure of the administrative reforms of the Empire to
secure lasting improvement, a result due to the absence of
constitutional guarantees. The close relation between finance
and general policy is most impressively illustrated in this failure
of benevolent autocracy.
Viewed broadly, the financial resources of the earlier Empire
were obtained from (i) the public land alike of the state and the
Princeps; (2) the monopolies, principally of minerals; (3) the
land tax; (4) the customs; (5) the taxes on inheritances, on
sales and on the purchase of slaves (vectigalia) . One result
of the establishment of the Principate was the consolidation of
the public domain. The old " public land " in Italy had nearly
disappeared; but the royal possessions in the conquered provinces
and the private properties of the emperor became ultimately
a part of the property of the Fiscus. Such land was let either
on five-year leases or in perpetuity to coloni. Mines were also
taken over for public use and worked by slaves or, in later times,
by convict labour. The tendency towards state monopoly
became more marked in the closing days of the Empire, the 4th
and 5th centuries A.D. Perhaps the most comprehensive of the
fiscal reforms of the Empire was the reconstruction of the land
tax, based on a census or (to use the French term) cadastre, in
which the area, the modes of cultivation and the estimated
productiveness of each holding were stated, the average of ten
preceding years being taken as the standard. After the recon-
struction under Diocletian at the end of the 3rd century A.D.,
fifteen years (the indictio) though probably used as early as
the time of Hadrian was recognized as the period for revalua-
tion. With the growing needs of the state this taxation became
more rigorous and was one of the great grievances of the popula-
tion, especially of the sections that were declining in status and
passing into the condition of villenage. The portoria, or customs,
received a better organization, though the varying rates for
different provinces continued. By degrees the older maximum
of 5% was exceeded, until in the 4th century 125% was in
some cases levied. Even at this higher rate the facilities for
trade were greater than in medieval or (until the revolution in
transport) modern times. In spite of certain prejudices against
the import of luxuries and the export of gold, there is little
indication of the influence of mercantilist or protectionist ideas.
The nearest approach to excise was the duty of i % on all sales,
a tax that in Gibbon's words " has ever been the occasion of
clamour and discontent." The higher charge of 4% on the
purchase of slaves, and the still heavier 5 % on successions after
death, were likewise established at the beginning of the Empire
and specially applied to the full citizens. Escheats and lapsed
legacies (caduca) were further miscellaneous sources of gair to
the state.
Taken as a whole, the financial system of Imperial Rome
shows a very high elaboration in form. The patrimonium,
the tributa and the iiectigalia are divisions parallel to the domaine,
the contributions directes and the contributions indirectes of
modern French administration; or the English " non-tax "
revenue, inland revenue and " customs and excise." The
careful regulations given in the Codes and the Digest show the
observance of technical conditions as to assessment and account-
ing. In substance and spirit, however, Roman finance was
essentially backward. Without altogether accepting Merivale's
judgment that " their principles of finance were to the last rude
and unphilosophiral," it may be granted that Roman states-
men never seriously faced the questions of just distribution and
maximum productiveness in the tax system. Still less did they
perceive the connexion between these two aspects of finance.
Mechanical uniformity and minute regulation are inadequate
substitutes for observance of the canons of equality, certainty
and economy in the operation of the tax system. Whether
(as has been suggested) an Adam Smith in power could have
saved the Empire is doubtful; but he would certainly have
remodelled its finance. The most glaring fault was plainly
the undue and increasing pressure on the productive classes.
Each century saw heavier burdens imposed on the actual workers
and on their employers, while expenditure was chiefly devoted
to unproductive purposes. The distribution was also unfair as
between the different territorial divisions. The capital and
certain provincial towns were favoured at the expense of the
provinces and the country districts. Again, the cost of collection,
though less than under the farming-out system, was far too
great. Some alleviation was indeed obtained by the apportion-
ment of contributions amongst the districts liable, leaving to
the community to decide as it thought best between its members.
The allotment of the land-tax to units (juga) of equal value
whatever might be the area, was a contrivance similar in
character.
35
FINANCE
The gradual way in which the several provinces were brought
under the general tax system, and the equally gradual extension
of Roman citizenship, account further for the irregularity and
increased weight of the taxes; as the absence of publicity and
the growth of autocracy explain the sense of oppression and the
hopelessness of resistance so vividly indicated in the literature
of the later Empire. Exemptions at first granted to the
citizens were removed, while the cost of local government which
continually increased was placed on the middle-class of the
towns as represented by the decuriones, or members of the
municipalities.
The fact that no ingenuity of modern research has been able
to construct a real budget of expenditure and receipt for any
part of the long centuries of the Empire is significant as to the
secrecy that surrounded the finances, especially in the later
period. For at the beginning of the principate Augustus seems
to have aimed at a complete estimate of the financial situation,
though this may be regarded as due to the influence of the freer
republican traditions which the reverence that soon attached
to the emperor's dignity completely extinguished.
In addition to its value as illustrating the difficulties and
defects that beset the development of a complex financial
organization from the simpler forms of the city and the province,
Roman finance is of special importance in consequence of its
place as supplying a model or rather a guide for the administra-
tion of the states that arose on its ruins. The barbarian invaders,
though they were accustomed to contributions to their chiefs
and to the payment of commodities as tributes or as penalties,
had no acquaintance with the working of a regular system of
taxation. The more astute rulers utilized the machinery that
they inherited from the Roman government. Under the Franks
the land tax and the provincial customs continued as forms of
revenue, while beside them the gifts and court fees of Teutonic
origin took their place. Similar conditions appear in Theodoric's
administration of Italy. The maintenance of Roman forms and
terms is prominent in fiscal administration. But institutions
that have lost their life and animating spirit can hardly be
preserved for any length of time. All over western Europe the
elaborate devices of the census and the stations for the collection
of customs crumbled away; taxation as such disappeared,
through the hostility of the clergy and the exemptions accorded
to powerful subjects. This process of disintegration spread out
over centuries. The efforts made from time to time by vigorous
rulers to enforce the charges that remained legally due, proved
quite ineffectual to restore the older fiscal system. The final
result was a complete transformation of the ingredients of
revenue. The character of the change may be best indicated
as a substitution of private claims for public rights. Thus, the
land-tax disappears in the ;th century and only comes into
notice in the gth century in the shape of private customary
dues. The customs duties become the tolls and transit charges
levied by local potentates on the diminishing trade of the earlier
middle ages. This revolution is in accordance with indeed it
is one side of the movement towards feudalism which was the
great feature of this period. Finance is essentially a part of public
law and administration. It could, therefore, hold no prominent
place in a condition of society which hardly recognized the state,
as distinct from the members of the community, united by feudal
ties. The same conception may be expressed in another way,
viz. by the statement that the kingdoms which succeeded the
Roman Empire were organized on the patrimonial basis (i.e. the
re venues passed into the hands of the king or, rather, his domestic
officials), and thus in fact returned to the condition of pre-
classical times. Notwithstanding the differing features in the
several countries, retrogression is the common characteristic
of European history from the 5th to the loth century, and it
was from the ruder state that this decline created that the re-
building of social and political organization had to be accom-
plished. On the financial side the work, as already suggested,
was aided by the ideas and institutions inherited from the Roman
Empire. This influence was common to all the continental states
and indirectly was felt even in England. Each of the great realms
has, however, worked out its financial system on lines suitable
to its own particular conditions, which are best considered in
connexion with the separate national, histories.
Running through the different national systems there are
some common elements the result not of inheritance merely but
still more of necessity, or at the lowest of similarity in environ-
ment. Over and above the details of financial development
there is a thread of connexion which requires treatment under
Finance taken as a whole. As the great aim of this side of public
activity is to secure funds for the maintenance of the state's life
and working, the administration which operates for this end is the
true nucleus of all national finance. The first sign of revival
from the catastrophe of the invasions is the reprganization of the
Imperial household under Charlemagne with the intention of
establishing a more exact collection of revenue. The later
German empire of Otto and the Frederics; the French Capetian
monarchy and, in a somewhat different sphere, the medieval
Italian and German cities show the same movement. The
treasury is the centre towards which the special receipts of the
ruler or rulers should be brought, and from it the public wants
should be supplied. Feudalism, as the antithesis of this orderly
treatment, had to be overthrown before national finance could
become established. The development can be traced in the
financial history of England, France and the German states;
but the advance in the French financial organization of the isth
and 1 6th centuries affords the best illustration. The gradual
unification operates on all the branches of finance, expenditure,
revenue, debt and methods of control. In respect to the first
head there is a well-marked " integration " of the modes for
meeting the cost of the public services. What were semi-private
duties become public tasks, which, with the growing importance
of " money-economy," have to be defrayed by state payments.
Thus, the creation of the standing army in France by Charles VII.
marks a financial change of the first order. The English navy,
though more gradually developed, is an equally good illustration
of the movement. All outlay by the state is brought into due
co-ordination, and it becomes possible for constitutional govern-
ment to supervise and direct it. This improvement, due to
English initiative, has been adopted amongst the essential forms
of financial administration on the continent. The immense im-
portance of this view of public expenditure as representing the
consumption of the state in its unified condition is obvious;
it has affected, for the most part unconsciously, the conception of
all modern peoples as to the functions of the state and the right
of the people to direct them.
On the side of receipts a similar unifying process has been
accomplished. The almost universal separation between
" ordinary " and " extraordinary " receipts, taxation being put
under the latter head, has completely ceased. It was, how-
ever, the fundamental division for the early French writers on
finance, and it survives for England as late as Blackstone's Com-
mentaries. The idea that the ruler possessed a normal income
in certain rents and dues of a quasi-private character, which on
emergency he might supplement by calls on the revenues of his
subjects, was a bequest of feudalism which gave way before the
increasing power of the state. In order to meet the unified
public wants, an equally unified public fund was requisite. The
great economic changes which depreciated the value of the
king's domain contributed towards the result. Only by well-
adjusted taxation was it possible to meet the public necessities.
In respect to taxation also there has been a like course of re-
adjustment. Separate charges, assigned for distinct purposes,
have been taken into the national exchequer and come to form
a part of the general revenue. There has been taking long
periods a steady absorption of special taxes into more general
categories. The replacement of the four direct taxes by the
income tax in France, as proposed in 1909, is a very recent
example. Equally important is the growth of " direct " taxa-
tion. As tax contributions have taken the places of the revenue
from land and fees, so, it would seem, are the taxes on com-
modities likely to be replaced or at least exceeded by the imposts
levied on income as such, in the shape either of income taxes
FINANCE
proper or of charges on accumulated wealth. The recent history
of the several financial systems of the world is decisive on this
point. A clearer perception of the conditions under which the
effective attainment of revenue is possible is another outcome of
financial development. Security, and in particular the absence
of arbitrary impositions, combined with convenient modes of
collection, have come to be recognized as indispensable auxiliaries
in financial administration which further aims at the selection of
really productive forms of charge. Unproductiveness is, accord-
ing to modern standard, the cardinal fault of any particular tax.
How great has been the progress in these aspects is best illustrated
in the case of English finance, but both French and German
fiscal history can supply many instructive examples.
In a third direction the co-ordination of finance has been just
as remarkable. Financial adjustment implies the conception of
a balance, and this should be found in the relation of outlay and
income. Under the pressure of war and other emergencies it has
been found impossible to maintain this desirable equilibrium.
But the use of the system of credit, and the general establishment
of constitutional government, have enabled the difficulty to be
surmounted by the creation on a vast scale of national debts.
Apart from the special problems that this system of borrowing
raises, there is the general one of its aid in making national
finance continuous and orderly. Deficits can be transferred to
the capital account, and the country's resources employed most
usefully by repaying liabilities contracted in times of extreme
need. The growth of this department, parallel with the general
progress of finance, is significant of its function.
Finally, in all countries though with diversities due to national
peculiarities, the modes of account and control have been brought
into a more effective condition. Previous legislative sanction for
both expenditure and receipts in all their particular forms is
absolutely necessary; so is thorough scrutiny of the actual
application of the funds provided. Either by administrative
survey or by judicial examination care is taken to see that there
has been no improper diversion from the designed purposes. It
is only when the varied systems of financial organization are
studied in their general bearing, and with regard to what may be
called their frame-work, that their essential resemblance is
thoroughly realized. Such a real underlying unity is the reason
and justification for regarding " public finance " as a distinct
subject of study and as an independent division of political
science.
Local Finance. One of the most remarkable features of
modern financial development has been the growth of the com-
plementary system of local finance, which in extent and complica-
tion bids to rival that of the central authority. Under the
constraining power of the Roman Empire the older city states
were reduced to the position of municipalities, and their financial
administration became dependent on the control of the Emperor
as is abundantly illustrated in the correspondence of Pliny and
Trajan. After the fall of the Western Empire, a partial revival
of city life, particularly in Italy and Germany, gave some scope
for a return to the type of finance presented by the Athenian
state. Florence affords an instructive specimen; but the
passage from feudalism to the national state under the authority
of monarchy made the cities and country districts parts of a
larger whole. It is in this condition of subordination that the
finance of localities has been framed and effectively organized.
Though each great state has adopted its own methods, influenced
by historical circumstances and by ideas of policy, there are
general resemblances that furnish material for scientific treat-
ment and allow of important generalizations being made.
Amongst these the first to be noticed is the essential subordina-
tion of local finance. Alike in expenditure, in forms of receipt,
and in methods of administration the central government has
the right of directing and supervising the work of municipal and
provincial agencies. The modes employed are various, but they
all rest on the sovereignty of the state, whether exercised by the
central officials or by the courts. A second characteristic is the
predominance of the economic element in the several tasks that
local administrations have to perform, and the consequent
tendency to treat the charges of local finance as payments for
services rendered, or, in the usual phrase, to apply the " benefits"
principle, in contrast to that of " ability," which rightly prevails
in national finance. Over a great part of municipal administra-
tion particularly that engaged in supplying the needs of the
individual citizens the finance may be assimilated to that of the
joint-stock company, with of course the necessary differences,
viz. that the association is compulsory; and that dividends are
paid, not in money, but in social advantage. The great expansion
in recent years of what is known as Municipal Trading has
brought this aspect of local finance into prominence. Water
supply, transport and lighting have become public services,
requiring careful financial management, and still retaining traces
of their earlier private character.
Corresponding to the mainly economic nature of local ex-
penditure there is the further limitation imposed on the side of
revenue. Unlike the state in this, localities are limited in respect
to the amount and form of their taxation. Several distinct
influences combine to produce this result. The needs of the
central government lead to its retention of the more profitable
modes of procuring revenue. No modern country can surrender
the chief direct and indirect taxes to the local administrations.
Another limiting condition is found in the practical impossibility
of levying by local agencies such imposts as the customs and the
income-tax in their modern forms. The elaborate machinery
that is requisite for covering the national area and securing the
revenue against loss can only be provided by an authority that
can deal with the whole territory. Hence the very general
limitation of local revenues to certain typical forms. Though in
some cases municipal taxation is imposed on commodities in the
form of octrois or entry duties as is notably the case in France
yet the prevailing tendency is towards the levy of direct charges
on immovable property, which cannot escape by removal outside
the tax jurisdiction. In addition to these " land " and " house "
taxes, the employment of licence duties on trades, particularly
those that are in special need of supervision, is a favourite
method. Closely akin are the payments demanded for privileges
to industrial undertakings given as " franchises," very often in
connexion with monopolies, e.g. gas-works and tramways.
Over and above the peculiar revenues of local bodies there is the
further resource which emphasizes the subordinate position of
local finance of obtaining supplemental revenue from the
central treasury, either by taxes additional to the charges of the
state, and collected at the same time; or by donations from its
funds, in the shape of grants for special services, or assignments of
certain parts of the state's receipts. Great Britain, France and
Prussia furnish good examples of these different modes of
preserving local administration from financial collapse.
The broad resemblance between the two parts of the entire
system of public finance is seen in another direction. To national
debts there has been added a great mass of municipal and local
indebtedness, which seems likely to equal, or even exceed in
magnitude the liabilities of the central governments. But here
also the essential limitations of the newer form are easily per-
ceptible. The sovereignty of the state enables it to deal as it
thinks best with the public creditor. In its methods of borrowing,
in its plans for repayment, or, in extremity, in its power of
repudiation it is independent of external control. Local debt on
the other hand can only be contracted under the sanction of the
appropriate administrative organ of the state. The creditor has
the right of claiming the aid of the law against the defaulting
municipality; and the amounts, the terms, and the time of
duration of local debt are supervised in order to prevent injustice
to particular persons or improvidence with regard to the revenue
and property of the local units. The chief reason for contracting
local debt being the establishment of works that are, directly or
indirectly, reproductive, the governing conditions are evidently
to be found in the character and probable yield of those businesses.
The principles of company investments are fully applicable: the
creation of sinking-funds, the fixing the term of each loan to the
time at which the return from its employment ceases, and the
avoidance of the formation of fictitious capital, become guiding
FINCH, FINCH-HATTON FINCH
352
rules from this part of finance, and indicate the connexion with
what the commercial world calls " financial operations."
Finally, there is the same set of problems in respect to account-
ing and control in local as in central finance. Though the
materials are simpler, the need for a well-prepared budget is
existent in the case of the city, county or department, if there is
to be clear and accurate financial management. Perhaps the
greatest weakness of local finance lies in this direction. The
public opinion that affects the national budget is unfortunately
too often lacking in the most important towns, not excluding
those in which political life is highly developed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The English literature on finance is rather un-
satisfactory; for public finance the available text-books are:
Adams, Science of Finance (New York, 1898); Bastable, Public
Finance (London, 1892; 3rd ed., 1903); Daniels, Public Finance
(New York, 1899), and Plehn, Public Finance (yd ed., New York,
1909). In French, Leroy-Beaulieu, Traite de la science des finances
(1877 ; 3rd ed., 1908), is the standard work. The German literature
is abundant. Roscher, 5th ed. (edited by Gerlach), 1901 ; Wagner
(4 vols.), incomplete; Cohn (1889) and Eheberg (gth ed., 1908)
have published works entitled Finanzwissenschaft, dealing with
all the aspects of state finance. For Greek financial history Boekh,
Staatshaushaltung der Athenen (ed. Frankel, 1887), is still a standard
work. For Rome, Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, vol. ii.,
and Humbert, Les Finances et la comptabilite publique chez les Remains,
are valuable. Clamageran, Histoire de I'impot en France (1876),
gives the earlier development of French finance. R. H. Patterson,
Science of Finance (London, 1868), C. S. Meade, Trust Finance (1903),
and E. Carroll, Principles and Practice of Finance, deal with finance
in the wider sense of business transactions. (C. F. B.)
FINCH, FINCH-HATTON. This old English family has had
many notable members, and has contributed in no small degree
to the peerage. Sir Thomas Finch (d. 1563), who was knighted
for his share in suppressing Sir T. Wyatt's insurrection against
Queen Mary, was a soldier of note, and was the son and heir of
Sir William Finch, who was knighted in 1513. He was the
father of Sir Moyle Finch (d. 1614), who was created a baronet
in 1611, and whose widow Elizabeth (daughter of Sir Thomas
Heneage) was created a peeress as countess of Maidstone in 1623
and countess of Winchilsea in 1628; and also of Sir Henry
Finch (1558-1625), whose son John, Baron Finch of Fordwich
(1584-1660), is separately noticed. Thomas, eldest son of Sir
Moyle, succeeded his mother as first earl of Winchilsea; and
Sir Heneage, the fourth son (d. 1631), was the speaker of the
House of Commons, whose son Heneage (1621-1682), lord
chancellor, was created earl of Nottingham in 1675. The latter's
second son Heneage (1640-1719) was created earl of Aylesford
in 1714. The earldoms of Winchilsea and Nottingham became
united in 1729, when the fifth earl of Winchilsea died, leaving
no son, and the title passed to his cousin the second earl of
Nottingham, the earldom of Nottingham having since then been
held by the earl of Winchilsea. In 1826, on the death of the ninth
earl of Winchilsea and fifth of Nottingham, his cousin George
William Finch-Hatton succeeded to the titles, the additional
surname of Hatton (since held in this line) having been assumed
in 1764 by his father under the will of an aunt, a daughter of
Christopher, Viscount Hatton (1632-1706), whose father was
related to the famous Sir Christopher Hatton.
FINCH OF FORDWICH, JOHN FINCH, BARON (1584-1660),
generally known as Sir John Finch, English judge, a member
of the old family of Finch, was born on the i7th of September
1584, and was called to the bar in 1611. He was returned to
parliament for Canterbury in 1614, and became recorder of the
same place in 1617. Having attracted the notice of Charles I.,
who visited Canterbury in 1625, and was received with an address
by Finch in his capacity as recorder, he was the following year
appointed king's counsel and attorney-general to the queen and
was knighted. In 1628 he was elected speaker of the House of
Commons, a post which he retained till its dissolution in 1629.
He was the speaker who was held down in his chair by Holies
and others on the occasion of Sir John Eliot's resolution on
tonnage and poundage. In 1 634 he was appointed chief justice of
the court of common pleas, and distinguished himself by the active
zeal with which he upheld the king's prerogative. Notable
also was the brutality which characterized his conduct as chief
justice, particularly in the cases of William Prynne and John
Langton. He presided over the trial of John Hampden, who
resisted the payment of ship-money, and he was chiefly re-
sponsible for the decision of the judges that ship-money was
constitutional. As a reward for his services he was, in 1640,
appointed 'lord keeper, and was also created Baron Finch of
Fordwich. He had, however, become so unpopular that one of
the first acts of the Long Parliament, which met in the same
year was his impeachment. He took refuge in Holland, but had
to suffer the sequestration of his estates. When he was allowed
to return to England is uncertain, but in 1660 he was one of the
commissioners for the trial of the regicides, though he does not
appear to have taken much part in the proceedings. He died
on the 27th ol November 1660 and was buried in St Martin's
church near Canterbury, his peerage becoming extinct.
See Foss, Lives of the Judges ; Campbell, Lives of the Chief Justices.
FINCH (Ger. Fink, Lat. Fringilla), a name applied (but
almost always in composition as bullfinch, chaffinch, goldfinch,
hawfinch, &c.) to a great many small birds of the order Passeres,
and now pretty generally accepted as that of a group or family
the Fringillidae of most ornithologists. Yet it is one the extent
of which must be regarded as being uncertain. Many writers
have included in it the buntings (Emberizidae) , though these
seem to be quite distinct, as well as the larks (Alaudidae) , the
tanagers (Tanagridae) , and the weaver-birds (Ploceidae).
Others have separated from it the crossbills, under the title of
Loxiidae, but without due cause. The difficulty which at this
time presents itself in regard to the limits of the Fringillidae
arises from our ignorance of the anatomical features, especially
those of the head, possessed by many exotic forms.
Taken as a whole, the finches, concerning which no reasonable
doubt can exist, are not only little birds with a hard bill, adapted
in most cases for shelling and eating the various seeds that form
the chief portion of their diet when adult, but they appear to be
mainly forms which predominate in and are highly characteristic
of the Palaearctic Region; moreover, though some are found
elsewhere on the globe, the existence of but very few in the
Notogaean hemisphere can as yet be regarded as certain.
But even with this limitation, the separation of the undoubted
Fringillidae * into groups is a difficult task. Were we merely
to consider the superficial character of the form of the bill, the
genus Loxia (in its modern sense) would be easily divided not
only from the other finches, but from all other birds. The birds
of this genus the crossbills when their other characters are
taken into account, prove to be intimately allied on the one hand
to the grosbeaks (Pinicola) and on the other through the redpolls
(Aegiothuf) to the linnets (Linota) if indeed these two can be
properly separated. The linnets, through the genus Leucosticle,
lead to the mountain-finches (Montifringilla), and the redpolls
through the siskins (Chrysomitris) to the goldfinches (Carduelis) ;
and these last again to the hawfinches, one group of which
(Coccothraustes) is apparently not far distant from the chaffinches
(Fringilla proper), and the other (Hesperiphona) seems to be
allied to the greenfinches (Ligurinus). Then there is the group
of serins (Serinus), to which the canary belongs, that one is in
doubt whether to refer to the vicinity of the greenfinches or that
of the redpolls. The mountain-finches may be regarded as
pointing first to the rock-sparrows (Petronia) and then to the
true sparrows (Passer); while the grosbeaks pass into many
varied forms and throw out a very well marked form the
bullfinches (Pyrrhula). Some of the modifications of the family
are very gradual, and therefore conclusions founded on them
are likely to be correct; others are further apart, and the links
which connect them, if not altogether missing, can but be
surmised. To avoid as much as possible prejudicing the case,
we shall therefore take the different groups of Fringillidae which
it is convenient to consider in this article in an alphabetical
arrangement.
Of the Bullfinches the best known is the familiar bird (Pyrrhula
1 About 200 species of these have been described, and perhaps 150
may really exist.
FINCHLEY FINCK, HEINRICH
353
europaea). The varied plumage of the cock his bright red
breast and his grey back, set off by his coal-black head and quills
is naturally attractive; while the facility with which he
is tamed, with his engaging disposition in confinement, makes
him a popular cage-bird, to say nothing of the fact (which
in the opinion of so many adds to his charms) of his readily
learning to " pipe " a tune, or some bars of one. By gardeners
the bullfinch has long been regarded as a deadly enemy, from its
undoubted destruction of the buds of fruit-trees in spring-time,
though whether the destruction is really so much of a detriment
is by no means so undoubted. Northern and eastern Europe
is inhabited by a larger form (P. major), which differs in nothing
but size and more vivid tints from that which is common in the
British Isles and western Europe. A very distinct species (P.
murina), remarkable for its dull coloration, is peculiar to the
Azores, and several others are found in Asia from the Himalayas
to Japan. A bullfinch (P. cassini) has been discovered in Alaska,
being the first recognition of this genus in the New World.
The Canary (Serinus canarius) is indigenous to the islands
whence it takes its name, as well, apparently, as to the neighbour-
ing groups of the Madeiras and Azores, in all of which it abounds.
It seems to have been imported into Europe at least as early
as the first half of the i6th century, 1 and has since become the
commonest of cage-birds. The wild stock is of an olive-green,
mottled with dark brown above, and greenish-yellow beneath.
All the bright-hued examples we now see in captivity have been
induced by carefully breeding from any chance varieties that
have shown themselves; and not only the colour, but the build
and stature of the bird have in this manner been greatly modified.
The ingenuity of " the fancy," which might seem to have ex-
hausted itself in the production of topknots, feathered feet,
and so forth, has brought about a still further change from the
original type. It has been found that by a particular treatment,
in which the mixing of large quantities of vegetable colouring
agents with the food plays an important part, the ordinary
" canary yellow " may be intensified so as to verge upon a
more or less brilliant flame colour. 2
Very nearly resembling the canary, but smaller in size, is the
Serin (Serinus hortulanus), a species which not long since was
very local in Europe, and chiefly known to inhabit the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean. It has pushed its way towards
the north, and has even been several times taken in England
(Yarrell's Brit. Birds, ed. 4, ii. pp. m-ii6). A closely allied
species (S. canonicus) is peculiar to Palestine.
The Chaffinches are regarded as the type-form of Fringillidae.
The handsome and sprightly Fringilla coelebs 3 is common
throughout the whole of Europe. Conspicuous by his variegated
plumage, his peculiar call note 4 and his glad song, the cock is
almost everywhere a favourite. In Algeria the British chaffinch
is replaced by a closely-allied species (F. spodogenia), while in
the Atlantic Islands it is represented by two others (F. tintillon
and F. teydea) all of which, while possessing the general appear-
ance of the European bird, are clothed in soberer tints. 5 Another
1 The earliest published description seems to be that of Gesner in
1555 (Orn. p. 234), but he had not seen the bird, an account of which
was communicated to him by Raphael Seller of Augsburg, under the
name of Suckeruogele.
s See also The Canary Book, by Robert L. Wallace ; Canaries and
Cage Birds, by W. A. Blackston; and Darwin's Animals and Plants
under Domestication, vol. i. p. 295. An excellent monograph on the
wild bird is that by Dr Carl Bolle (Journ.filr Orn., 1858, pp. 125-151).
3 This fanciful trivial name was given by Linnaeus on the sup-
position (which later observations dp not entirely confirm) that in
Sweden the hens of the species migrated southward in autumn,
leaving the cocks to lead a celibate life till spring. It is certain,
however, that in some localities the sexes live apart during the
winter.
4 This call-note, which to many ears sounds like " pink " or
" spink," not only gives the bird a name in many parts of Britain,
but is also obviously the origin of the German Fink and the English
Finch. The similar Celtic form Pine is said to have given rise to the
Low Latin Pincio, and thence come the Italian Pincione, the Spanish
Pinzon, and the French Pinson.
6 This is especially the case with F. teydea of the Canary Islands,
which from its dark colouring and large size forms a kind of parallel
to the Azorean Pyrrhula murina.
X. 12
species of true Fringilla is the brambling (F. montifringilla) ,
which has its home in the birch forests of northern Europe and
Asia, whence it yearly proceeds, often in flocks of thousands,
to pass the winter in more southern countries. This bird is
still more beautifully coloured than the chaffinch especially
in summer, when, the brown edges of the feathers being shed, it
presents a rich combination of black, white and orange. Even
in winter, however, its diversified plumage is sufficiently striking.
With the exception of the single species of bullfinch already
noticed as occurring in Alaska, all the above forms of finches
are peculiar to the Palaearctic Region. (A. N.)
FINCHLEY, an urban district in the Hornsey parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, 7 m. N.W. of St Paul's cathedral,
London, on a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop.
(1891) 16,647; ( I 9 I ) 22,126. A part, adjoining Highgate on
the north, lies at an elevation between 300 and 400 ft., while a
portion in the Church End district lies lower, in the valley of
the Dollis Brook. The pleasant, healthy situation has caused
Finchley to become a populous residential district. Finchley
Common was formerly one of the most notorious resorts of high-
waymen near London; the Great North Road crossed it, and
it was a haunt of Dick Turpin and Jack Sheppard, and was
still dangerous to cross at night at the close of the i8th century.
Sheppard was captured in this neighbourhood in 1724. The
Common has not been preserved from the builder. In 1660
George Monk, marching on London immediately before the
Restoration, made his camp on the Common, and in 1745 a
regular and volunteer force encamped here, prepared to resist
the Pretender, who was at Derby. The gathering of this force
inspired Hogarth's famous picture, the " March of the Guards
to Finchley."
FINCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON (1718-1766), Prussian
soldier, was born at Strelitz in 1718. He first saw active service
in 1734 on the Rhine, as a member of the suite of Duke Anton
Ulrich of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel. Soon after this he trans-
ferred to the Austrian service, and thence went to Russia, where
he served until the fall of his patron Marshal Miinnich put an end
to his prospects of advancement. In 1742 he went to Berlin, and
Frederick the Great made him his aide-de-camp, with the rank of
major. Good service brought him rapid promotion in the Seven
Years' War. After the battle of Kolin (June i8th, 1757) he was
made colonel, and at the end of 1757 major-general. At the
beginning of 1759 Finck became lieutenant-general, and in this
rank commanded a corps at the disastrous battle of Kunersdorf ,
where he did good service both on the field of battle and
(Frederick having in despair handed over to him the command)
in the rallying of the beaten Prussians. Later in the year he
fought in concert with General Wunsch a widespread combat,
called the action of Korbitz (Sept. 2ist) in which the Austrians and
the contingents of the minor states of the Empire were sharply
defeated. For this action Frederick gave Finck the Black Eagle
(Seyfarth, Beilagen, ii. 621-630). But the subsequent catastrophe
of Maxen (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR) abruptly put an end to Finck's
active career. Dangerously exposed, and with inadequate forces,
Finck received the king's positive order to march upon Maxen
(a village in the Pirna region of Saxony). Unfortunately for
himself the general dared not disobey his master, and, cut off by
greatly superior numbers, was forced to surrender with some
11,000 men (2ist Nov. 1759). After the peace, Frederick sent
him before a court-martial, which sentenced him to be cashiered
and to suffer a term of imprisonment in a fortress. At the expiry
of this term Finck entered the Danish service as general of
infantry. He died at Copenhagen in 1766.
He left a work called Gedanken iiber militdrische Gegenstdnde
(Berlin, 1788). See Denkwilrdigkeiten der militdrischen Gesellschaft,
vol. ii. (Berlin, 1802-1805), and the report of the Finck court-martial
in Zeitschrift fur Kunst, Wissenschaft und Geschichte des Krieges, pt.
81 (Berlin, 1851). There is a life of Finck in MS. in the library
of the Great General Staff.
FINCK, HEINRICH (d. c. 1519), German musical composer,
was probably born at Bamberg, but nothing is certainly known
either of the place or date of his birth. Between 1492 and 1506
he was a musician in, and later possibly conductor of the court
354
orchestra of successive kings of Poland at Warsaw. He held the
post of conductor at Stuttgart from 1510 till about 1519, in
which year he probably died. His works, mostly part songs and
other vocal compositions, show great musical knowledge, and
amongst the early masters of the German school he holds a high
position. They are found scattered amongst ancient and modern
collections of songs and other musical pieces (see R. Eitner,
Bibl. der Musiksammelwerke des 16. und 77. Jahrh., Berlin, 1877).
The library of Zwickau possesses a work containing a collection of
fifty-five songs by Finck, printed about the middle of the i6th
century.
FINCK, HERMANN (1527-1558), German composer, the
great-nephew of Heinrich Finck, was born on the 2ist of March
1527 in Pirna, and died at Wittenberg on the 28th of December
1558. After 1553 he lived at Wittenberg, where he was organist,
and there, in 1555, was published his collection of "wedding
songs." Few details of his life have been preserved. His
theoretical writing was good, particularly his observations on the
art of singing and of making ornamentations in song. His most
celebrated work is entitled Practica musica, exempla variorum
signorum, proportion-urn, et canonum,judicium de tonis ac quaedam
de arte suaviter et artificiose cantandi continens (Wittenberg,
1556). It is of great historic value, but very rare.
FINDEN, WILLIAM (1787-1852), English line engraver, was
born in 1 787. He served his apprenticeship to one James Milan,
but appears to have owed far more to the influence of James
Heath, whose works he privately and earnestly studied. His
first employment on his own account was engraving illustrations
for books, and among the most noteworthy of these early plates
were Smirke's illustrations to Don Quixote. His neat style and
smooth finish made his pictures very attractive and popular, and
although he executed several large plates, his chief work through-
out his life was book illustration. His younger brother, Edward
Finden, worked in conjunction with him, and so much demand
arose for their productions that ultimately a company of
assistants was engaged, and plates were produced in increasing
numbers, their quality as works of art declining as their quantity
rose. The largest plate executed by William Finden was the
portrait of King George IV. seated on a sofa,after the painting by
Sir Thomas Lawrence. For this work he received two thousand
guineas, a sum larger than had ever before been paid for an
engraved portrait. Finden's next and happiest works on a large
scale were the " Highlander's Return " and the "Village Festival,"
after Wilkie. Later in life he undertook, in co-operation with his
brother, aided by their numerous staff, the publication as well as
the production of various galleries of engravings. The first of
these, a series of landscape and portrait illustrations to the life
and works of Byron, appeared in 1833 an d following years, and
was very successful. But by his Gallery of British Art (in fifteen
parts, 1838-1840), the most costly and best of these ventures, he
lost the fruits of all his former success. Finden's last undertaking
was an engraving on a large scale of Hilton's " Crucifixion." The
plate was bought by the Art Union for 1470. He died in London
on the aoth of September 1852.
FINDLATER, ANDREW (1810-1885), Scottish editor, was
born in 1810 near Aberdour, Aberdeenshire, the son of a small
farmer. By hard study in the evening, after his day's work on
the farm was finished, he qualified himself for entrance at
Aberdeen University, and after graduating as M.A. he attended
the Divinity classes with the idea of entering the ministry. In
1853 he began that connexion with the firm of W. & R. Chambers
which gave direction to his subsequent activity. His first
engagement was the editing of a revised edition of their Informa-
tion for the People (1857). In this capacity he gave evidence of
qualities and acquirements that marked him as a suitable editor
for Chambers's Encyclopaedia, then projected, and his was the
directing mind that gave it its character. Many of the more
important articles were written by him. This work occupied him
till 1868, and he afterwards edited a revised edition (1874). He
also had charge of other publications for the same firm, and wrote
regularly for the Scotsman. In 1864 he was made LL.D. of
Aberdeen University. In 1877 he gave up active work for
FINCK, HERMANN FINDLAY
Chambers, but his services were retained as consulting editor.
He died in Edinburgh on the ist of January 1885.
FINDLAY, SIR GEORGE (1829-1893), English railway
manager, was of pure Scottish descent, and was born at Rainhill,
in Lancashire, on the i8th of May 1829. For some time he
attended Halifax grammar school, but left at the age of fourteen,
and began to learn practical masonry on the Halifax railway,
upon which his father was then employed. Two years later he
obtained a situation on the Trent Valley railway works, and
when that line was finished in 1847 went up to London. There
he was for a short time among the men employed in building
locomotive sheds for the London & North- Western railway at
Camden Town, and years afterwards, when he had become
general manager of that railway, he was able to point out stones
which he had dressed with his own hands. For the next two or
three years he was engaged in a higher capacity as supervisor
of the mining and brickwork of the Harecastle tunnel on the
North Staffordshire line, and of the Walton tunnel on the
Birkenhead, Lancashire & Cheshire Junction railway. In 1850
the charge of the construction of a section of the Shrewsbury
& Hereford line was entrusted to him, and when the line was
opened for traffic T. Brassey, the contractor, having determined
to work it himself, installed him as manager. In the course
of his duties he was brought for the first time into official relations
with the London & North-Western railway, which had under-
taken to work the Newport, Abergavenny & Hereford line,
and he ultimately passed into the service of that company, when
in 1862, jointly with the Great Western, it leased the railway
of which he was manager. In 1864 he was moved to Euston as
general goods manager, in 1872 he became chief traffic manager,
and in 1880 he was appointed full general manager; this last
post he retained until his death, which occurred on the 26th
of March 1893 at Edgware, Middlesex. He was knighted in
1892. Sir George Findlay was the author of a book on the
Working and Management of an English Railway (London, 1889),
which contains a great deal of information, some of it not easily
accessible to the general public, as to English railway practice
about the year 1890.
FINDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE (1824-1898), Scottish newspaper
owner and philanthropist, was born at Arbroath on the 2ist of
October 1824, and was educated at Edinburgh University.
He entered first the publishing office and then the editorial
department of the Scotsman, became a partner in the paper
in 1868, and in 1870 inherited the greater part of the property
from his great uncle, John Ritchie, the founder. The large
increase in the influence and circulation of the paper was in
a great measure due to his activity and direction, and it brought
him a fortune, which he spent during his lifetime in public
benefaction. He presented to the nation the Scottish National
Portrait Gallery, opened in Edinburgh in 1889, and costing
over 70,000; and he contributed largely to the collections of
the Scottish National Gallery. He held numerous offices in
antiquarian, educational and charitable societies, showing his
keen interest in these matters, but he avoided political office
and refused the offer of a baronetcy. The freedom of Edinburgh
was given him in 1896. He died at Aberlour, Banff shire, on the
i6th of October 1898.
FINDLAY, a city and the county-seat of Hancock county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on Blanchard's Fork of the Auglaize river, about
42 m. S. by W. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 18,553; (1900) 17,613
(1051 foreign-born) ; (1910) 14,858. It is served by the Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton &
Dayton, the Lake Erie & Western, and the Ohio Central railways,
and by three interurban electric railways. Findlay lies about
780 ft. above sea-level on gently rolling ground. The city is the
seat of Findlay College (co-educational), an institution of the
Church of God, chartered in 1882 and opened in 1886; it has
collegiate, preparatory, normal, commercial and theological
departments, a school of expression, and a conservatory of
music, and in 1907 had 588 students, the majority of whom were
in the conservatory of music. Findlay is the centre of the
Ohio natural gas and oil region, and lime and building stone
FINE FINE ARTS
355
abound in the vicinity. Among manufactures are refined
petroleum, flour and grist-mill products, glass, boilers, bricks,
tile, pottery, bridges, ditching machines, carriages and furniture.
The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $2,925,309, an
increase of 73-6 % since 1900. The municipality owns and
operates the water-works. Findlay was laid out as a town in
1821, was incorporated as a village in 1838, and was chartered
as a city in 1890. The city was named in honour of Colonel
James Findlay (c. 1775-1835), who built a fort here during the
war of 1812; he served in this war under General William
Hull, and from 1825 to 1833 was a Democratic representative
in Congress.
FINE, a word which in all its senses goes back to the Lat.
finire, to bring to an end (finis). Thus in the common
adjectival meanings of elegant, thin, subtle, excellent, reduced
in size, &c., it is in origin equivalent to " finished." In the
various substantival meanings in law, with which this article
deals, the common idea underlying them is an end or final
settlement of a matter.
A fine, in the ordinary sense, is a pecuniary penalty inflicted
for the less serious offences. Fines are necessarily discretionary
as to amount; but a maximum is generally fixed when the
penalty is imposed by statute. And it is an old constitutional
maxim that fines must not be unreasonable. In Magna Carta,
c. in, it is ordained " Liber homo non amercietur pro parvo
delicto nisi secundum modum ipsius delicti, et pro magno delicto
secundum magnitudinem delicti."
The term is also applied to payments made to the lord of a
manor on the alienation of land held according to the custom
of the manor, to payments made by a lessee on a renewal of a
lease, and to other similar payments.
Fine also denotes a fictitious suit at law, which played the
part of a conveyance of landed property. " A fine," says
Blackstone, " may be described to be an amicable composition
or agreement of a suit, either actual or fictitious, by leave of
the king or his justices, whereby the lands in question become
or are acknowledged to be the right of one of the parties. In
its original it was founded on an actual suit commenced at law
for the recovery of the possession of land or other hereditaments;
and the possession thus gained by such composition was found
to be so sure and effectual that fictitious actions were and
continue to be every day commenced for the sake of obtaining
the same security." Freehold estates could thus be transferred
from one person to another without the formal delivery of
possession which was generally necessary to a feoffment. This
is one of the oldest devices of the law. A statute of 18 Edward
I. describes it as the most solemn and satisfactory of securities,
and gives a reason for its name " Qui quidem finis sic vocatur,
eo quod finis et consummatio omnium placitorum esse debet,
et hac de causa providebatur." The action was supposed to
be founded on a breach of covenant: the defendant, owning
himself in the wrong, 1 makes overtures of compromise, which
are authorized by the licentia concordandi; then followed the
concord, or the compromise itself. These, then were the essential
parts of the peformance, which became efficient as soon as
they were complete; the formal parts were the notes, or abstract
of the proceedings, and the foot of the fine, which recited the
final agreement. Fines were said to be of four kinds, according
to the purpose they had in view, as, for instance, to convey lands
in pursuance of a covenant, to grant revisionary interest only,
&c. In addition to the formal record of the proceedings, various
statutes required other solemnities to be observed, the great
object of which was to give publicity to the transaction. Thus
by statutes of Richard III. and Henry VII. the fine had to be
openly read and proclaimed in court no less than sixteen times.
A statute of Elizabeth required a list of fines to be exposed in the
court of common pleas and at assizes. The reason for these
formalities was the high and important nature of the conveyance,
which, according to the act of Edward I. above mentioned,
" precludes not only those which are parties and privies to the
1 Hence called cognizor ; the other party, the purchaser, is the
cognizes.
fine and their heirs, but all other persons in the world who are
of full age, out of prison, of sound memory, and within the four
seas, the day of the fine levied, unless they put in their claim
on the foot of the fine within a year and a day." This barring
by non-claim was abolished in the reign of Edward III., but
restored with an extension of the time to five years in the reign
of Henry VII. The effect of this statute, intentional according
to Blackstone, unintended and brought about by judicial
construction according to others, was that a tenant-in-tail
could bar his issue by a fine. A statute of Henry VIII. expressly
declares this to be the law. Fines, along with the kindred
fiction of recoveries, were abolished by the Fines and Recoveries
Act 1833, which substituted a deed enrolled in the court of
chancery.
Fines are so generally associated in legal phraseology with
recoveries that it may not be inconvenient to describe the
latter in the present place. A recovery was employed as a means
for evading the strict law of entail. The purchaser or alienee
brought an action against the tenant-in-tail, alleging that he had
no legal title to the land. The tenant-in-tail brought a third
person into court, declaring that he had warranted his title,
and praying that he might be ordered to defend the action.
This person was called the vouchee, and he, after having appeared
to defend the action, takes himself out of the way. Judgment
for the lands is given in favour of the plaintiff; and judgment to
recover lands of equal value from the vouchee was given to the
defendant, the tenant-in-tail. In real action, such lands when
recovered would have fallen under the settlement of entail;
but in the fictitious recovery the vouchee was a man of straw,
and nothing was really recovered from him, while the lands
of the tenant-in-tail were effectually conveyed to the successful
plaintiff. A recovery differed from a fine, as to form, in being
an action carried through to the end, while a fine was settled
by compromise, and as to effect, by barring all reversions and
remainders in estates tail, while a fine barred the issue only of
the tenant. (See also EJECTMENT; PROCLAMATION.)
FINE ARTS, the name given to a whole group of human
activities, which have for their result what is collectively known
as Fine Art. The arts which constitute the group are the
five greater arts of architecture, sculpture, painting, music and
poetry, with a number of minor or subsidiary arts, of which
dancing and the drama are among the most ancient and universal.
In antiquity the fine arts were not explicitly named, nor even
distinctly recognized, as a separate class. In other modern
languages besides English they are called by the equivalent
name of the beautiful arts (belle arti, beaux arts, schone Kiinste).
The fine or beautiful arts then, it is usually said, are those among
the arts of man which minister, not primarily to his material
necessities or conveniences, but to his love of beauty; and if
any art fulfils both these purposes at once, still as fulfilling the
latter only is it called a fine art. Thus architecture, in so far as
it provides shelter and accommodation, is one of the useful or
mechanical arts, and one of the fine arts only in so far as its
structures impress or give pleasure by the aspect of strength,
fitness, harmony and proportion of parts, by disposition and
contrast of light and shade, by colour and enrichment, by variety
and relation of contours, surfaces and intervals. But this,
the commonly accepted account of the matter, does not really
cover the ground. The idea conveyed by the words " love of
beauty," even stretched to its widest, can hardly be made to
include the love of caricature and the grotesque; and these are
admittedly modes of fine art. Even the terrible, the painful,
the squalid, the degraded, in a word every variety of the signifi-
cant, can be so handled and interpreted as to be brought within
the province of fine art. A juster and more inclusive, although
clumsier, account of the matter might put it that the fine arts
are those among the arts of man which spring from his impulse
to do or make certain things in certain ways for the sake, first,
of a special kind of pleasure, independent of direct utility, which
it gives him so to do or make them, and next for the sake of the
kindred pleasure which he derives from witnessing or contem-
plating them when they are so done or made by others.
356
FINE ARTS
[GENERAL DEFINITION
The nature of this impulse, and the several grounds of these
pleasures, are subjects which have given rise to a formidable
body of speculation and discussion, the chief phases of which
will be found summarized under the heading AESTHETICS.
In the present article we have only to attend to the concrete
processes and results of the artistic activities of man; in other
words, we shall submit (i) a definition of fine art in general,
(2) a definition and classification of the principal fine arts
severally, (3) some observations on their historical development.
I. Of Fine Art in General.
According to the popular and established distinction between
art and nature, the idea of Art (q.v.) only includes phenomena
Premeai- l which man is deliberately the cause; while the
tation idea of Nature includes all phenomena, both in man
essential an d j n the world outside him, which take place without
forethought or studied initiative of his own. Art,
accordingly, means every regulated operation or dexterity where-
by we pursue ends which we know beforehand; and it means
nothing but such operations and dexterities. What is true of
art generally is of course also true of the special group of the
fine arts. One of the essential qualities of all art is premedita-
tion; and when Shelley talks of the skylark's profuse strains
of " unpremeditated art," he in effect lays emphasis on the
fact that it is only by a metaphor that he uses the word art in
this case at all; he calls attention to that which (if the songs of
birds are as instinctive as we suppose) precisely makes the
difference between the skylark's outpourings and his own. We a re
slow to allow the title of fine art to natural eloquence, to charm
or dignity of manner, to delicacy and tact in social intercourse,
and other such graces of life and conduct, since, although in any
given case they may have been deliberately cultivated in early
life, or even through ancestral generations, they do not produce,
their full effect until they are so ingrained as to have become
unreflecting and spontaneous. When the exigencies of a philo-
sophic scheme lead some writers on aesthetics to include such
acts or traits of beautiful and expressive behaviour among
the deliberate artistic activities of mankind, we feel that an
essential distinction is being sacrificed to the exigencies of a
system. That distinction common parlance very justly observes,
with its opposition of " art " to " nature " and its phrase of
" second nature " for those graces which have become so habitual
as to seem instinctive, whether originally the result of discipline
or not. When we see a person in all whose ordinary movements
there are freedom and beauty, we put down the charm of these
with good reason to inherited and inbred aptitudes of which
the person has never thought or long since ceased to think, and
could not still be thinking without spoiling the charm by self-
consciousness; and we call the result a gift of nature. But
when we go on to notice that the same person is beautifully
and appropriately dressed, since we know that it is impossible
to dress without thinking of it, we put down the charm of this
to judicious forethought and calculation and call the result a
work of art.
The processes then of fine art, like those of- all arts properly
so called, are premeditated, and the property of every fine art
The active * s to & ve to t -h e person exercising it a special kind of
ana the active pleasure, and a special kind of passive or
passive receptive pleasure to the person witnessing the results
o^fioelrt. of sucn exerc i se - This latter statement seems to imply
that there exist in human societies a separate class
producing works of fine art and another class enjoying them.
Such an implication, in regard to advanced societies, is near
enough the truth to be theoretically admitted (like the analogous I
assumption in political economy that there exist separate '
classes of producers and consumers). In developed communities
the gifts and calling of the artist constitute in fact a separate
profession of the creators or purveyors of fine art, while the rest
of the community are its enjoyers or recipients. In the most
primitive societies, apparently, this cannot have been so, and we
can go back to an original or rudimentary stage of almost every
fine art at which the separation between a class of producers
or performers and a class of recipients hardly exists. Such an
original or rudimentary stage of the dramatic art is presented
by children, who will occupy themselves for ever with mimicry
and make-believe for their own satisfaction, with small regard
or none to the presence or absence of witnesses. The original
or rudimentary type of the profession of imitative sculptors or
painters is the cave-dweller of prehistoric ages, who, when he
rested from his day's hunting, first took up the bone handle of
his weapon, and with a flint either carved it into the shape,
or on its surface scratched the outlines, of the animals of the
chase. The original or rudimentary type of the architect, con-
sidered not as a mere builder but as an artist, is the savage
who, when his tribe had taken to live in tents or huts instead
of caves, first arranged the skins and timbers of his tent or hut
in one way because it pleased his eye, rather than in some other
way which was as good for shelter. The original type of the
artificer or adorner of implements, considered in the same light,
was the other savage who first took it into his head to fashion
his club or spear in one way rather than another for the pleasure
of the eye only and not for any practical reason, and to ornament
it with tufts or markings. In none of these cases, it would
seem, can the primitive artist have had much reason for pleas-
ing anybody but himself. Again, the original or rudimentary
type of lyric song and dancing arose when the first reveller
clapped hands and stamped or shouted in time, in honour of his
god, in commemoration of a victory, or in mere obedience to the
blind stirring of a rhythmic impulse within him. To some very
remote and solitary ancestral savage the presence or absence
of witnesses at such a display may in like manner have been
indifferent; but very early in the history of the race the primitive
dancer and singer joined hands and voices with others of his
tribe, while others again sat apart and looked on at the perform-
ance, and the rite thus became both choral and social. A
primitive type of the instrumental musician is the shepherd who
first notched a reed and drew sounds from it while his sheep
were cropping. The father of all artists in dress and personal
adornment was the first wild man who tattooed himself or be-
decked himself with shells and plumes. In both of these latter
instances, it may be taken as certain, the primitive artist had the
motive of pleasing not himself only, but his mate, or the female
whom he desired to be his mate, and in the last instance of all
the further motive of impressing his fellow-tribesmen and striking
awe or envy into his enemies. The tendency of recent specula-
tion and research concerning the origins of art has been to
ascribe the primitive artistic activities of man less and less to
individual and solitary impulse, and more and more to social
impulse and the desire of sharing and communicating pleasure.
(The writer who has gone furthest in developing this view,
and on grounds of the most careful study of evidence, has
been Dr Yrjo Hirn of Helsingfors.) Whatever relative parts the
individual and the social impulses may have in fact played at
the outset, it is clear that what any one can enjoy or admire by
himself, whether in the way of mimicry, of rhythmical movements
or utterances, of imitative or ornamental carving and drawing,
of the disposition and adornment of dwelling-places and utensils
the same things, it is clear, others are able also to enjoy or
admire with him. And so, with the growth of societies, it came
about that one class of persons separated themselves and became
the ministers or producers of this kind of pleasures, while the rest
became the persons ministered to, the participators in or recipi- .
ents of the pleasures. Artists are those members of a society
who are so constituted as to feel more acutely than the rest
certain classes of pleasures which all can feel in their degree.
By this fact of their constitution they are impelled to devote
their active powers to the production of such pleasures, to the
making or doing of some of those things which they enjoy so
keenly when they are made and done by others. At the same
time the artist does not, by assuming these ministering or
creative functions, surrender his enjoying or receptive functions.
He continues to participate in the pleasures of which he is
himself the cause, and remains a conscious member of his own
public. The architect, sculptor, painter, are able respectively
GENERAL DEFINITION]
FINE ARTS
357
to stand off from and appreciate the results of their own labours;
the singer enjoys the sound of his own voice, and the musician
of his own instrument; the poet, according to his temperament,
furnishes the most enthusiastic or the most fastidious reader
for his own stanzas. Neither, on the other hand, does the person
who is a habitual recipient from others of the pleasures of fine
art forfeit the privilege of producing them according to his
capabilities, and of becoming, if he has the power, an amateur
or occasional artist.
Most of the common properties which have been recognized
by consent as peculiar to the group of fine arts will be found on
Pleasures examination to be implied in, or deducible from,
offiaeart the one fundamental character generally claimed for
<"* them, namely, that they exist independently of direct
' practical necessity or utility. Let us take, first, a
point relating to the frame of mind of the recipient, as distin-
guished from the producer, of the pleasures of fine art. It is
an observation as old as Aristotle that such pleasures differ
from most other pleasures of experience in that they are dis-
interested, in the sense that they are not such as nourish a man's
body nor add to his riches; they are not such as can gratify
him, when he receives them, by the sense of advantage or
superiority over his fellow-creatures; they are not such as one
human being can in any sense receive exclusively from the
object which bestows them. Thus it is evidently characteristic
of a beautiful building that its beauty cannot be monopolized,
but can be seen and admired by the inhabitants of a whole city
and by all visitors for all generations. The same thing is true
of a picture or a statue, except in so far as an individual possessor
may choose to keep such a possession to himself, in which case
his pride in exclusive ownership is a sentiment wholly independent
of his pleasure in artistic contemplation. Similarly, music is
composed to be sung or played for the enjoyment of many at a
time, and for such enjoyment a hundred years hence as much as
to-day. Poetry is written to be read by all readers for ever
who care for the ideas and feelings of the poet, and can apprehend
the meaning and melody of his language. Hence, though we
can speak of a class of the producers of fine art, we cannot
speak of a class of its consumers, only of its recipients or
enjoyers. If we consider other pleasures which might seem to be
analogous to those of fine art, but to which common consent
yet declines to allow that character, we shall see that one reason
is that such pleasures are not in their nature thus disinterested.
Thus the sense of smell and taste have pleasures of their own
like the senses of sight and hearing, and pleasures neither less
poignant nor very much less capable of fine graduation and
discrimination than those. Why, then, is the title of fine art not
claimed for any skill in arranging and combining them? Why
are there no recognized arts of savours and scents corresponding
in rank to the arts of forms, colours and sounds or at least
none among Western nations, for in Japan, it seems, there is a
recognized and finely regulated social art of the combination
and succession of perfumes? An answer commonly given is
that sight and hearing are intellectual and therefore higher
senses, that through them we have our avenues to all knowledge
and all ideas of things outside us; while taste and smell are
unintellectual and therefore lower senses, through which few
such impressions find their way to us as help to build up our
knowledge and our ideas. Perhaps a more satisfactory reason
why there are no fine arts of taste and smell or let us in deference
to Japanese modes leave out smell, and say of taste only is this,
that savours yield only private pleasures, which it is not possible
to build up into separate and durable schemes such that every
one may have the benefit of them, and such as cannot be mono-
polized or used up. If against this it is contended that what the
programme of a performance is in the musical art, the same is
a menu in the culinary, and that practically it is no less possible
to serve up a thousand times and to a thousand different com-
panies the same dinner than the same symphony, we must fall
back upon that still more fundamental form of the distinction
between the aesthetic and non-aesthetic bodily senses, upon
which the physiological psychologists of the English school lay
stress. We must say that the pleasures of taste cannot be
pleasures of fine art, because their enjoyment is too closely
associated with the most indispensable and the most strictly
personal of utilities, eating and drinking. To pass from these
lower pleasures to the highest; consider the nature of the delight
derived from the contemplation, by the person who is their
object, of the signs and manifestations of love. That at least
is a beautiful experience; why is the pleasure which it affords
not an artistic pleasure either? Why, in order to receive an
artistic pleasure from human signs and manifestations of this
kind, are we compelled to go to the theatre and see them exhibited
in favour of a third person who is not really their object any
more than ourselves? This is so, for one reason, evidently,
because of the difference between art and nature. Not to art,
but to nature and life, belongs love where it is really felt, with its
attendant train of vivid hopes, fears, passions and contingencies.
To art belongs love displayed where it is not really felt; and in
this sphere, along with reality and spontaneousness of the
display, and along with its momentous bearings, there disappear
all those elements of pleasure in its contemplation which are
not disinterested the elements of personal exultation and
self-congratulation, the pride of exclusive possession or accept-
ance, all these emotions, in short, which are summed up in the
lover's triumphant monosyllable, " Mine." Thus, from the
lowest point of the scale to the highest, we may observe that
the element of personal advantage or monopoly in human grati-
fications seems to exclude them from the kingdom of fine art.
The pleasures of fine art, so far as concerns their passive or
receptive part, seem to define themselves as pleasures of gratified
contemplation, but of such contemplation only when it is
disinterested which is simply another way of saying, when it is
unconcerned with ideas of utility.
Modern speculation has tended in some degree to modify and
obscure this old and established view of the pleasures of fine
art by urging that the hearer or spectator is not after Ao
all so free from self-interest as he seems; that in the objection
act of artistic contemplation he experiences an enhance- aad lts
ment or expansion of his being which is in truth a * aswer -
gain of the egoistic kind; that in witnessing a play, for instance,
a large part of his enjoyment consists in sympathetically identify-
ing himself with the successful lover or the virtuous hero. All
this may be true, but does not really affect the argument, since
at the same time he is well aware that every other spectator
or auditor present may be similarly engaged with himself. At
most the objection only requires us to define a little more
closely, and to say that the satisfactions of the ego excluded
from among the pleasures of fine art are not these ideal, sym-
pathetic, indirect satisfactions, which every one can share
together, but only those which arise from direct, private and
incommunicable advantage to the individual.
Next, let us consider another generally accepted observation
concerning the nature of the fine arts, and one, this time, relating
to the disposition and state of mind of the practising
artist himself. While for success in other arts it is only
necessary to learn their rules and to apply them until practised
practice gives facility, in the fine arts, it is commonly by rule
and justly said, rules and their application will carry
but a little way towards success. All that can depend
on rules, on knowledge, and on the application of knowledge
by practice, the artist must indeed acquire, and the acquisition
is often very complicated and laborious. But outside of and
beyond such acquisitions he must trust to what is called genius
or imagination, that is, to the spontaneous working together
of an incalculably complex group of faculties, reminiscences,
preferences, emotions, instincts in his constitution. This char-
acteristic of the activities of the artist is a direct consequence
or corollary of the fundamental fact that the art he practices
is independent of utility. A utilitarian end is necessarily a
determinate and prescribed end, and to every end which is
determinate and prescribed there must be one road which is
the best. Skill in any useful art means knowing practically, by
rules and the application of rules, the best road to the particular
and
precept.
358
FINE ARTS
[GENERAL DEFINITION
ends of that art. Thus the farmer, the engineer, the carpenter,
the builder so far as he is not concerned with the look of his
buildings, the weaver so far as he is not concerned with the
designing of the patterns which he weaves, possesses each his
peculiar skill, but a skill to which fixed problems are set, and
which, if it indulges in new inventions and combinations at all,
can indulge them only for the sake of an improved solution of
those particular problems. The solution once found, the inven-
tion once made, its rules can be written down, or at any rate
its practice can be imparted to others who will apply it in their
turn. Whereas no man can write down, in a way that others
can act upon, how Beethoven conquered unknown kingdoms
in the world of harmony, or how Rembrandt turned the aspects
of gloom, squalor and affliction into pictures as worthy of con-
templation as those into which the Italians before him had
turned the aspects of spiritual exaltation and shadowless day.
The reason why the operations of the artist thus differ from the
operations of the ordinary craftsman or artificer is that his ends,
being ends other than useful, are not determinate nor fixed as
theirs are. He has large liberty to choose his own problems, and
may solve each of them in a thousand different ways according
to the prompting of his own ordering or creating instincts.
The musical composer has the largest liberty of all. Having
learned what is learnable in his art, having mastered the compli-
cated and laborious rules of musical form, having next deter-
mined the particular class of the work which he is about to
compose, he has then before him the whole inexhaustible world
of appropriate successions and combinations of emotional sound.
He is merely directed and not fettered, in the case of song,
cantata, oratorio or opera, by the sense of the words which he
has to set. The value of the result depends absolutely on his
possessing or failing to possess powers which can neither be
trained in nor communicated to any man. And this double
freedom, alike from practical service and from the representation
of definite objects, is what makes music in a certain sense the
typical fine art, or art of arts. Architecture shares one-half of
this freedom. It has not to copy or represent natural objects;
for this service it calls in sculpture to its aid; but architecture
is without the other half of freedom altogether. The architect
has a sphere of liberty in the disposition of his masses, lines,
colours, alternations of light and shadow, of plain and orna-
mented surface, and the rest ; but upon this sphere he can only
enter on condition that he at the same time fulfils the strict
practical task of supplying the required accommodation, and
obeys the strict mechanical necessities imposed by the laws of
weight, thrust, support, resistance and other properties of
solid matter. The sculptor again, the painter, the poet, has
each in like manner his sphere of necessary facts, rules and
conditions corresponding to the nature of his task. The sculptor
must be intimately versed both in the surface aspects and the
inner mechanism of the human frame alike in rest and motion,
and in the rules and conditions for its representation in solid
form; the painter in a much more extended range of natural
facts and appearances, and the rules and conditions for repre-
senting them on a plane surface ; the poet's art of words has its
own not inconsiderable basis of positive and disciplined acquisi-
tion. So far as rules, precepts, formulas and other communicable
laws or secrets can carry the artist, so far also the spectator
can account for, analyse, and, so to speak, tabulate the effects
of his art. But the essential character of the artist's operation,
its very bloom and virtue, lies in those parts of it which fall
outside this range of regulation on the one hand and analysis
on the other. His merit varies according to the felicity with
which he is able, in that region, to exercise his free choice and
frame his individual ideal, and according to the tenacity with
which he strives to grasp and realize his choice, or to attain
perfection according to that ideal.
In this connexion the question naturally arises, In what way
do the progress and expansion of mechanical art affect the power
and province of fine art? The great practical movement of
the world in our age is a movement for the development of
mechanical inventions and multiplication of mechanical pro-
ducts. So far as these inventions are applied to purposes purely
useful, and so far as their products to not profess to offer any-
thing delightful to contemplation, this movement in Flaearls
no way concerns our argument. But there is a vast aa a
multitude of products which do profess qualities of machin-
pleasantness, and upon which the ornaments intended ery: " art
to make them pleasurable are bestowed by machinery; ^"uns."
and in speaking of these we are accustomed to the
phrases art-industry, industrial art, art manufactures and the
like. In these cases the industry or ingenuity which directs the
machine is not fine art at all, since the object of the machine
is simply to multiply as easily and as perfectly as possible a
definite and prescribed impress or pattern. This is equally
true whether the machine is a simple one, like the engraver's
press, for producing and multiplying impressions from an
engraved plate, or a highly complex one, like the loom, in which
elaborate patterns of carpet or curtain are set for weaving. In
both cases there exists behind the mechanical industry an
industry which is one of fine art in its degree. In the case of the
engraver's press, there exists behind the industry of the printer
the art of the engraver, which, if the engraver is also the free
inventor of the design, is then a fine art, or, if he is but the
interpreter of the invention of another, is then in its turn a
semi-mechanical skill applied in aid of the fine art of the first
inventor. In the case of the weaver's loom there is, behind the
mechanical industry which directs the loom at its given task, the
fine art, or what ought to be the fine art, of the designer who has
contrived the pattern. In the case of the engraving, the mechani-
cal industry of printing only exists for the sake of bringing out
and disseminating abroad the fine art employed upon the design.
In the case of the carpet or curtain, the fine art is often only
called in to make the product of the useful or mechanical industry
of the loom acceptable, since the eye of man is so constituted
as to receive pleasure or the reverse of pleasure from whatever
it rests upon, and it is to the interest of the manufacturer to
have his product so made as to give pleasure if it can. Whether
the machine is thus a humble servant to the artist, or the artist
a kind of humble purveyor to the machine, the fine art in the
result is due to the former alone; and in any case it reaches
the recipient at second-hand, having been put in circulation by
a medium not artistic but mechanical.
Again, with reference not to the application of mechanical
contrivances but to their invention; is not, it may be inquired,
the title of artist due to the inventor of some of the p brferterf
astonishingly complex and astonishingly efficient machines:
machines of modern times? Does he not spend as are they
much thought, labour, genius as any sculptor or J^^*/
musician in perfecting his construction according to
his ideal, and is not the construction when it is done so finished,
so responsive in all its parts, so almost human is not that
worthy to be called a work of fine art? The answer is that the
inventor has a definite and practical end before him; his ideal
is not free; he deserves all credit as the perfector of a particular
instrument for a prescribed function, but an artist, a free follower
of the fine arts, he is not; although we may perhaps have to
concede him a narrow sphere for the play of something like an
artistic sense when he contrives the proportion, arrangement,
form or finish of the several parts of his machine in one way
rather than another, not because they work better so but simply
because their look pleases him better.
Returning from this digression, let us consider one common
observation more on the nature of the fine arts. They are
activities, it is said, which were put forth not because f/ ae arts
they need but because they like. They have the called a
activity to spare, and to put it forthin this way pleases u a ol
them. Fine art is to mankind what play is to the pay '
individual, a free and arbitrary vent for energy which is not
needed to be spent upon tasks concerned with the conservation,
perpetuation or protection of life. To insist on the superfluous
or optional character of the fine arts, to call them the play or
pastime of the human race as distinguished from its inevitable
and sterner tasks, is obviously only to reiterate our fundamental
GENERAL DEFINITION]
FINE ARTS
359
assocla-
tloalsts.
distinction between the fine arts and the useful or necessary.
But the distinction, as expressed in this particular form, has been
interpreted in a great variety of ways find followed out to an
infinity of conclusions, conclusions regarding both the nature
of the activities themselves and the character and value of their
results.
For instance, starting from this saying that the aesthetic
activities are a kind of play, the English psychology of association
goes back to the spontaneous cries and movements
Wea 'as* ^ cn '^ ren ' ln which their superfluous energies find a
worked out vent. It then enumerates pleasures of which the
by the human constitution is capable apart from direct
English advantage or utility. Such are the primitive or
organic pleasures of sight and hearing, and the second-
ary or. derivative pleasures of association or unconscious
reminiscence and inference that soon become mixed up with
these. Such are also the pleasures derived from following any
kind of mimicry, or representation of things real or like reality.
The association psychology describes the grouping within the
mind of predilections based upon these pleasures; it shows
how the growing organism learns to govern its play, or direct
its superfluous energies, in obedience to such predilections,
till in mature individuals, and still more in mature societies, a
highly regulated and accomplished group of leisure activities are
habitually employed in supplying to a not less highly cultivated
group of disinterested sensibilities their appropriate artistic
pleasures. It is by Herbert Spencer that this view has been
most fully and systematically worked out.
Again, in the views of an ancient philosopher, Plato, and a
modern poet, Schiller, the consideration that the artistic activities
are in the nature of play, and the manifestations in
which theyresult independent of realities and utilities,
has led to judgments so differing as the following. Plato held
that the daily realities of things in experience are not realities,
indeed, but only far-off shows or reflections of the true realities,
that is, of certain ideal or essential forms which can be appre-
hended as existing by the mind. Holding this, Plato saw in
the works of fine art but the reflections of reflections, the shows
of shows, and depreciated them according to their degree of
remoteness from the ideal, typical or sense-transcending exist-
ences. He sets the arts of medicine, agriculture, shoemaking
and the rest above the fine arts, inasmuch as they produce
something serious or useful (o-irovSalov TL) . Fine art, he says, pro-
duces nothing useful, and makes only semblances (eiiwXoTrou/oj) ,
whereas what mechanical art produces are utilities, and even in
the ordinary sense realities (avroiroa]Tixif).
In another age, and thinking according to another system,
Schiller, so far from holding thus cheap the kingdom of play
and show, regarded his sovereignty over that kingdom
ScJWtfer as t ^ ie n blest prerogative of man. Schiller wrote his
famous Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Man in
order to throw into popular currency, and at the same time
to modify and follow up in a particular direction, certain meta-
physical doctrines which had lately been launched upon the
schools by Kant. The spirit of man, said Schiller after Kant,
is placed between two worlds, the physical world or world of
sense, and the moral world or world of will. Both of these are
worlds of constraint or necessity. In the sensible world, the
spirit of man submits to constraint from without; in the moral
world, it imposes constraint from within. So far as man yields
to the importunities of sense, in so far he is bound and passive,
the subject of outward shocks and victim of irrational forces.
So far as he asserts himself by the exercise of will, imposing upon
sense and outward things the dominion of the moral law within
him, in so far he is free and active, the rational lord of nature
and not her slave. Corresponding to these two worlds, he has
within him two conflicting impulses or impulsions of his nature,
the one driving him towards one way of living, the other towards
another. The one, or sense-impulsion (Staff trieb), Schiller
thinks of as that which enslaves the spirit of man as the victim
of matter, the other or moral impulsion (Formtrieb) as that
which enthrones it as the dictator of form. Between the two
the conflict at first seems inveterate. The kingdom of brute
nature and sense, the sphere of man's subjection and passivity,
wages war against the kingdom of will and moral law, the sphere
of his activity and control, and every conquest of the one is an
encroachment upon the other. Is there, then, no hope of truce
between the two kingdoms, no ground where the two contending
impulses can be reconciled ? Nay, the answer comes, there is
such a hope; such a neutral territory there exists. Between
the passive kingdom of matter and sense, where man is compelled
blindly to feel and be, and the active kingdom of law and reason,
where he is compelled sternly to will and act, there is a kingdom
where both sense and will may have their way, and where man
may give the rein to all his powers. But this middle kingdom
does not lie in the sphere of practical life and conduct. It lies
in the sphere of those activities which neither subserve any
necessity of nature nor fulfil any moral duty. Towards activities
of this kind we are driven by a third impulsion of our nature not
less essential to it than the other two, the impulsion, as Schiller
calls it, of Play (Spiellrieb). Relatively to real life and conduct,
play is a kind of harmless show; it is that which we are free to
do or leave undone as we please, and which lies alike outside the
sphere of needs and duties. In play we may do as we like, and
no mischief will come of it. In this sphere man may put forth
all his powers without risk of conflict, and may invent activities
which will give a complete ideal satisfaction to the contending
faculties of sense and will at once, to the impulses which bid him
feel and enjoy the shocks of physical and outward things, and
the impulse which bids him master such things, control and
regulate them. In play you may impose upon Matter what
Form you choose, and the two will not interfere with one another
or clash. The kingdom of Matter and the kingdom of Form
thus harmonized, thus reconciled by the activities of play and
show, will in other words be the kingdom of the Beautiful.
Follow the impulsion of play, and to the beautiful you will find
your road; the activities you will find yourself putting forth
will be the activities of aesthetic creation you will have dis-
covered or invented the fine arts. " Midway " these are Schiller's
own words " midway between the formidable kingdom of
natural forces and the hallowed kingdom of moral laws, the
impulse of aesthetic creation builds up a third kingdom un-
perceived, the gladsome kingdom of play and show, wherein it
emancipates man from all compulsion alike of physical and of
moral forces." Schiller, the poet and enthusiast, thus making
his own application of the Kantian metaphysics, goes on to set
forth how the fine arts, or activities of play and show, are for
him the typical, the ideal activities of the race, since in them
alone is it possible for man to put forth his whole, that is his ideal
self. " Only when he plays is man really and truly man."
" Man ought only to play with the beautiful, and he ought to
play with the beautiful only." " Education in taste and beauty
has for its object to train up in the utmost attainable harmony
the whole sum of the powers jboth of sense and spirit." And the
rest of Schiller's argument is addressed to show how the activities
of artistic creation, once invented, react upon other departments
of human life, how the exercise of the play impulse prepares
men for an existence in which the inevitable collision of the two
other impulses shall be softened or averted more and more.
That harmony of the powers which clash so violently in man's
primitive nature, having first been found possible in the sphere
of the fine arts, reflects itself, in his judgment, upon the whole
composition of man, and attunes him, as an aesthetic being, into
new capabilities for the conduct of his social existence.
Our reasons for dwelling on this wide and enthusiastic formula
of Schiller's are both its importance in the history of reflection
it remained, indeed, for nearly a century a formula _ A
almost classical and the measure of positive value strong
which it still retains. The notion of a sphere of points of
voluntary activity for the human spirit, in which, ^" /er>s
under no compulsion of necessity or conscience, we
order matters as we like them apart from any practical end,
seems coextensive with the widest conception of fine art and the
fine arts as they exist in civilized and developed communities.
3 6
FINE ARTS
[GENERAL DEFINITION
It insists on and brings into the light the free or optional character
of these activities, as distinguished from others to which we are
compelled by necessity or duty, as well as the fact that these
activities, superfluous as they may be from the points of view of
necessity and of duty, spring nevertheless from an imperious
and a saving instinct of our nature. It does justice to the part
which is, or at any rate may be, filled in the world by pleasures
which are apart from profit, and by delights for the enjoyment
of which men cannot quarrel. It claims the dignity they deserve
for those shows and pastimes in which we have found a way to
make permanent all the transitory delights of life and nature,
to turn even our griefs and yearnings, by their artistic utterance,
into sources of appeasing joy, to make amends to ourselves for
the confusion and imperfection of reality by conceiving and
imaging forth the semblances of things clearer and more complete,
since in contriving them we incorporate with the experiences
we have had the better experiences we have dreamed of and
longed for.
One manifestly weak point of Schiller's theory is that though
it asserts that man ought only to play with the beautiful, and
that he is his best or ideal self only when he does so,
points' vet ' l does not sufficiently indicate what kinds of
play are beautiful nor why we are moved to adopt
them. It does not show how the delights of the eye and spirit
in contemplating forms, colours and movements, of the ear and
spirit in apprehending musical and verbal sounds, or of the whole
mind at once in following the comprehensive current of images
called up by poetry it does not clearly show how delights
like these differ from those yielded by other kinds of play or
pastime, which are by common consent excluded from the
sphere of fine art.
The chase, for instance, is a play or pastime which gives scope
for any amount of premeditated skill; it has pleasures, for
Kinds of those wno take part in it, which are in some degree
play analogous to the pleasures of the artist; we all know
which the claims made on behalf of the noble art of venerie
flHe^art. (following true medieval precedent) by the knights
and woodmen of Sir Walter Scott's romances. It is an
obvious reply to say that though the chase is play to us, who in
civilized communities follow it on no plea of necessity, yet to a
not remote ancestry it was earnest; in primitive societies
hunting does not belong to the class of optional activities at all,
but is among the most pressing of utilitarian needs. But this
reply loses much of its force since we have learnt how many of
the fine arts, however emancipated from direct utility now,
have as a matter of history been evolved out of activities
primarily utilitarian. It would be more to the point to remark
that the pleasures of the sportsman are the only pleasures
arising from the chase; his exertions afford pain to the victim,
and no satisfaction to any class of recipients but himself; or
at least the sympathetic pleasures of the lookers-on at a hunt
or at a battle are hardly to be counted as pleasures of artistic
contemplation. The issue which they witness is a real issue;
the skilled endeavours with which they sympathize are put
forth for a definite practical result, and a result disastrous to one
of the parties concerned.
What then, it may be asked, about athletic games and sports,
which hurt nobody, have no connexion with the chase, and
give pleasure to thousands of spectators ? Here the difference
is, that the event which excites the spectator's interest and
pleasure at a race or match or athletic contest is not a wholly
unreal or simulated event; it is less real than life, but it is more
real than art. The contest has no momentous practical conse-
quences, but it is a contest, an aflXos, all the same, in which
competitors put forth real strength, and one really wins and
others are defeated. Such a struggle, in which the exertions
are real and the issue uncertain, we follow with an excitement
and a suspense different in kind from the feelings with which
we contemplate a fictitious representation. For example, let
the reader recall the feelings with which he may have watched
a real fencing bout, and compare them with those with which
he watches the simulated fencing bout in Shakespeare's Hamlet.
The instance is a crucial one, because in the fictitious case the
excitement is heightened by the introduction of the poisoned
foil, and by the tremendous consequences which we are aware
will turn, in the representation, on the issue. Yet because the
fencing scene in Hamlet is a representation, and not real, we find
ourselves watching it in a mood quite different from that in
which we watch the most ordinary real fencing-match with
vizors and blunt foils; a mood more exalted, if the representa-
tion is good, but amid the aesthetic emotions of which the
fluctuations of strained, if trivial, suspense and the eagerness of
sympathetic participation find no place. " The delight of tragedy,"
says Johnson, "proceeds from our consciousness of fiction;
if we thought murders and treasons real, they would please no
more." So does the peculiar quality of our pleasure in watching
the fencing-match in Hamlet, or the wrestling-match in As You
Like It, depend on our consciousness of fiction: if we thought
the matches real they might please us still, but please us in a
different way. Again, of athletics in general, they are pursuits
to a considerable degree definitely utilitarian, having for their
specific end the training and strengthening of individual human
bodies. Nevertheless, in some systems the title of fine arts
has been consistently claimed, if not for athletics technically
so called, and involving the idea of competition and defeat, at
any rate for gymnastics, regarded simply as a display of the
physical frame of man cultivated by exercise as, for instance,
it was cultivated by the ancient Greeks to an ideal perfection
of beauty and strength.
But apart from criticisms like these on the theory of Schiller,
the Kantian doctrine of a metaphysical opposition between
the senses and the reason has for most minds of to-day
lost its validity, and with it falls away Schiller's
derivative theory of a Slojftrieb and a Formtrieb the light
contending like enemies for dominion over the human ofaathro-
spirit, with a neutral or reconciling Spieltrieb standing
between them. Even taking the existence of the
Spieltrieb, or play-impulse, by itself as a plain and in-
dubitable fact in human nature, the theory that this impulse
is the general or universal source of the artistic activities of the
race, which seemed adequate to thinkers so far apart as Schiller
and Herbert Spencer, is found no longer to hold water. The
tendency of recent thought and study on these subjects has been
to abandon the abstract or dialectical method in favour of the
methods of historical and anthropological inquiry. In the
light of these methods it is claimed that the artistic activities
of the race spring in point of fact from no single source but from
a number of different sources. It is admitted that the play-
impulse is one of these, and the allied and overlapping, but not
identical, impulse of mimicry or imitation another. But it is
urged at the same time that these twin impulses, rooted as they
both are among the primordial faculties both of men and animals,
are far from existing merely to provide a vent whereby the
superfluous energies of sentient beings may discharge themselves
at pleasure, but are indispensable utilitarian instincts, by which
the young are led to practise and rehearse in sport those activities
the exercise of which in earnest will be necessary to their pre-
servation in the adult state. (The researches of Professor Karl
Groos in this field seem to be conclusive.) A third impulse
innate in man, though scarcely so primordial as the other two,
and one which the animals cannot share with him, is the impulse
of record or commemoration. Man instinctively desires, alike
for safety, use and pleasure, to perpetuate and hand on the
memory of his deeds and experiences whether by words or by
works of his hands contrived for permanence. This impulse
of record is the most stimulating ally of the impulse of mimicry
or imitation, and perhaps a large part of the arts usually put
down as springing from the love of imitation ought rather to
be put down as springing from the commemorative or recording
impulse, using imitation as its necessary means. Granting the
existence in primitive man of these three allied impulses of play,
of mimicry, and of record, it is urged that they are so many
distinct though contiguous sources from which whole groups of
the fine arts have sprung, and that all three in their origin
GENERAL DEFINITION]
FINE ARTS
361
served ends primarily or in great part utilitarian. Examining
any of the rudimentary artistic activities of primitive man already
mentioned: the decoration of the person with tattooings or
strings of shells or teeth or feathers had primarily the object
of attracting or impressing the opposite sex, or terrifying an
enemy, or indicating the tribal relations of the person so adorned ;
some of the same purposes were served by the scratches and
tufts and markings on weapons or utensils; the graffiti or outline
drawings of animals incised by cave-dwellers on bones are
surmised to have sprung in like manner from the desire of con-
veying information, combined, probably, sometimes with that of
obtaining magic power over the things represented; the erection
of memorial shrines and images of all kinds, from the rudest
upwards, had among other purposes the highly practical one of
propitiating the spirits of the departed; and so on through the
whole range of kindred activities. It is contended, next, that
such activities only take on the character of rudimentary fine
arts at a certain stage of their evolution. Before they can
assume that character, they must come under the influence
and control of yet another rooted and imperious impulse in
mankind. That is the impulse of emotional self-expression,
the instinct which compels us to seek relief under the stimulus
of pent-up feeling; an instinct, it is added, second only in
power to those which drive us to seek food, shelter, protection
from enemies, and satisfaction for sexual desires. According
to a law of our constitution, the argument goes on, this need for
emotional self-expression finds itself fully satisfied only by
certain modes of activity; those, namely, which either have
in themselves, or impress on their products, the property of
rhythm, that is, of regular interval and recurrence, flow, order
and proportion. Leaping, shouting, and clapping hands is the
human animal's most primitive way of seeking relief under the
pressure of emotion; so soon as one such animal found out
that he both expressed and relieved his emotions best, and
communicated them best to his fellows, when he moved in regular
rhythm and shouted in regular time and with regular changes
of pitch- he ceased to be a mere excited savage and became a
primitive dancer, singer, musician in a word, artist. So soon
as another found himself taking pleasure in certain qualities of
regular interval, pattern and arrangement of lines, shapes
and colours, apart from all questions of purpose or utility,
in his tattooings and self-adornments, his decoration of tools
or weapons or structures for shelter or commemoration, he in
like manner became a primitive artist in ornamental and
imitative design.
The special qualities of pleasure felt and communicated by
doing things in one way rather than another, independently
of direct utility, which we indicated at the outset as characteristic
of the whole range of the fine arts, appear on this showing to
be dependent primarily on the response of our organic sensibilities
of nerve and muscle, eye, ear and brain to the stimulus of rhythm
(using the word in its widest sense) imparted either to our own
actions and utterances or to the works of our hands. Such
pleasures would seem to have been first experienced by man
directly, in the endeavour to find relief with limbs and voice
from states of emotional tension, and then incidentally, as a
kind of by-product arising and affording similar relief in the
development of a wide range of utilitarian activities. Into the
nature of those organic sensibilities, and the grounds of the
relief they afford us when gratified, it is the province of physio-
logical and psychological aesthetics to inquire: our business
here is only with the activities directed towards their satisfaction
and the results of those acti\rties in the works of fine art. On
the whole the account of the matter yielded by the method of
anthropological research, and here very briefly summarized,
may be accepted as answering more closely to the complex
nature of the facts than any of the accounts hitherto current;
and so we may expand our first tentative suggestion of a defini-
tion into one more complete, which from the nature of the case
cannot be very brief or simple and must run somehow thus:
Fine art is everything which man does or makes in one way rather
than another, freely and with premeditation, in order to express
and arouse emotion, in obedience to laws of rhythmic movement
or utterance or regulated design, and with results independent of
direct utility and capable of affording to many permanent and
disinterested delight.
II. Of the Fine Arts severally.
Architecture, sculpture, painting, music and poetry are by
common consent, as has been said at the outset, the five principal
or greater fine arts practised among developed com-
munities of men. It is possible in thought to group 'J^f"/"
these five arts in as many different orders as there are // Ke
among them different kinds of relation or affinity, greater
One thinker fixes his attention upon one kind of rela- arts have
tions as the most important, and arranges his group classified.
accordingly; another upon another; and each, when
he has done so, is very prone to claim for his arrangement the
virtue of being the sole essentially and fundamentally true.
For example, we may ascertain one kind of relations between
the arts by inquiring which is the simplest or most limited in
its effects, which next simplest, which another degree less
simple, which least simple or most complex of them all. This,
the relation of progressive complexity or comprehensiveness
between the fine arts, is the relation upon which Auguste Comte
fixed his attention, and it yields in his judgment the following
order: Architecture lowest in complexity, because both of the
kinds of effects which it produces and of the material conditions
and limitations under which it works; sculpture next; painting
third; then music; and poetry highest, as the most complex
or comprehensive art of all, both in its own special effects and
in its resources for ideally calling up the effects of all the other
arts as well as all the phenomena of nature and experiences of
life. A somewhat similar grouping was adopted, though from
the consideration of a wholly different set of relations, by Hegel.
Hegel fixed his attention on the varying relations borne by the
idea, or spiritual element, to the embodiment of the idea, or
material element, in each art. Leaving aside that part of his
doctrine which concerns, not the phenomena of the arts thprn-
selves, but their place in the dialectical world-plan or scheme of
the universe, Hegel said in effect something like this. In certain
ages and among certain races, as in Egypt and Assyria, and
again in the Gothic age of Europe, mankind has only dim ideas
for art to express, ideas insufficiently disengaged and realized,
of which the expression cannot be complete or lucid, but only
adumbrated and imperfect; the characteristic art of those
ages is a symbolic art, with its material element predominating
over and keeping down its spiritual; and such a symbolic art
is architecture. In other ages, as in the Greek age, the ideas
of men have come to be definite, disengaged, and clear; the
characteristic art of such an age will be one in which the spiritual
and material elements are in equilibrium, and neither predomi-
nates over nor keeps down the other, but a thoroughly realized
idea is expressed in a thoroughly adequate and lucid form;
this is the mode of expression called classic, and the classic art
is sculpture. In other ages, again, and such are the modern
ages of Europe, the idea grows in power and becomes importunate;
the spiritual and material elements are no longer in equilibrium,
but the spiritual element predominates; the characteristic
arts of such an age will be those in which thought, passion,
sentiment, aspiration, emotion, emerge in freedom, dealing with
material form as masters or declining its shackles altogether;
this is the romantic mode of expression, and the romantic arts
are painting, music and poetry. A later systematizer, Lotze,
fixed his attention on the relative degrees of freedom or independ-
ence which the several arts enjoy their freedom, that is, from
the necessity of either imitating given facts of nature or minister-
ing; as part of their task, to given practical uses. In his grouping,
instead of the order architecture, sculpture, painting, music,
poetry, music comes first, because it has neither to imitate any
natural facts nor to serve any practical end; architecture next,
because, though it is tied to useful ends and material conditions,
yet it is free from the task of imitation, and pleases the eye in
its degree, by pure form, light and shade, and the rest, as music
362
FINE ARTS
[CLASSIFICATION
pleases the ear by pure sound; then, as arts all tied to the t'ask
of imitation, sculpture, painting and poetry, taken in progressive
order according to the progressing comprehensiveness of their
several resources.
The thinker on these subjects has, moreover, to consider the
enumeration and classification of the lesser or subordinate fine
Place of arts - Whole clusters or families of these occur to the
the minor mind at once; such as dancing, an art subordinate
or sub- to music, but quite different in kind; acting, an art
flnearfs auxiliary to poetry, from which in kind it differs no
less; eloquence in all kinds, so far as it is studied and
not merely spontaneous; and among the arts which fashion or
dispose material objects, embroidery and the weaving of patterns,
pottery, glassmaking, goldsmith's work -and jewelry, joiner's work,
gardening (according to the claim of some), and a score of other
dexterities and industries which are more than mere dexterities
and industries because they add elements of beauty and pleasure
to elements of serviceableness and use. To decide whether any
given one of these has a right to the title of fine art, and, if so,
to which of the greater fine arts it should be thought of as
appended and subordinate, or between which two of them
intermediate, is often no easy task.
The weak point of all classifications of the kind of which
we have above given examples is that each is intended to be
No one fi na l> an d to serve instead of any other. The truth
classifies- is that the relations between the several fine arts are
tion final much too complex for any single classification to bear
or ._ this character. Every classification of the fine arts
sufficient, .11 ... , .
must necessarily be provisional, according to the
particular class of relations which it keeps in view. And for
practical purposes it is requisite to bear in mind not one classifica-
tion but several. Fixing our attention, not upon comph'cated
or problematical relations between the various arts, but only
upon their simple and undisputed relations, and giving the first
place in our consideration to the five greater arts of architecture,
sculpture, painting, music and poetry, we shall find at least
three principal modes in which every fine art either resembles
or differs from the rest.
i. The Shaping and the Speaking Arts (or Arts of Form and Arts of
Utterance, or Arts of Space and Arts of Time). Each of the greater
arts either makes something or not which can be seen and
I lfl handled. The arts which make something which can be
seen and handled are architecture, sculpture and painting.
. ' . In the products or results of all these arts external matter
and the ' s ' n . some wa V or another manually put together, fashioned
speaking or disposed. But music and poetry do not produce any
art& results of this kind. What music produces is something
that can be heard, and what poetry produces is something
that can be either heard or read which last is a kind of ideal hearing,
haying for its avenue the eye instead of the ear, and for its material,
written signs for words instead of the spoken words themselves.
Now what the eye sees from any one point of view, it sees all at once;
in other words, the parts of anything we see fill or occupy not time
but space, and reach us from various points in space at a single
simultaneous perception. If we are at the proper distance we see
at one glance a house from the ground to the chimneys, a statue from
head to foot, and in a picture at once the foreground and background,
and everything that is within the four corners of the frame. There
is, indeed, this distinction to be drawn, that in walking round or
through a temple, church, house or any other building, new parts
and proportions of the building unfold themselves to view; and the
same thing happens in walking round a statue or turning it on a turn-
table: so that the spectator, by his own motions and the time it
takes to effect them, can impart to architecture and sculpture
something of the character of time arts. But their products, as
contemplated from any one point of view, are in themselves solid,
stationary and permanent in space. Whereas the parts of anything
we hear, or, reading, can imagine that we hear, fill or occupy not
space at all but time, and can only reach us from various points in
time through a continuous series of perceptions, or, in the case of
reading, of images raised by words in the mind. We have to wait,
in music, while one note follows another in a theme, and one theme
another in a movement; and in poetry, while one line with its
images follows another in a stanza, and one stanza another in a
canto, and so on. It is a convenient form of expressing both aspects
of this difference between the two groups of arts, to say that archi-
tecture, sculpture and painting are arts which give shape to things
in space, or, more briefly, shaping arts ; and music and poetry arts
which give utterance to things in time, or, more briefly, speaking
arts. These simple terms of the shaping and the speaking arts (the
equivalent of the Ger. bildende und redende Kiinste) are not usual
in English; but they seem appropriate and clear; the simplest
alternatives for their use is to speak of the manual and the vocal
arts, or the arts of space and the arts of time. This is practically,
if not logically, the most substantial and vital distinction upon which
a classification of the fine arts can be based. The arts which surround
us in space with stationary effects for the eye, as the house we live
in, the pictures on the walls, the marble figure in the vestibule, are
stationary, hold a different kind of place in our experience not a
greater or a higher place, but essentially a different place from the
arts which provide us with transitory effects in time, effects capable
of being awakened for the ear or mind at any moment, as a symphony
is awakened by playing and an ode by reading, but lying in abeyance
until we bid that moment come, and passing away when the perform-
ance or the reading is over. Such, indeed, is the practical force of the
distinction that in modern usage the expression fine art, or even art,
is often used by itself in a sense which tacitly excludes music and
poetry, and signifies the group of manual or shaping arts alone.
As between three of the five greater arts and the other two, the
distinction on which we are now dwelling is complete. Buildings,
statues, pictures, belong strictly to sight and space; to
time and to hearing, real through the ear, or ideal through " ' * '
the mind in reading, belong music and poetry. Among e * e f
the lesser or subordinate arts, however, there are several . .
in which this distinction finds no place, and which produce, motion
in space and time at once, effects midway between the
stationary or stable, and the transitory or fleeting. Such is the
dramatic art, in which the actor makes with his actions and gestures,
or several actors make with the combination of their different
actions and gestures, a kind of shifting picture, which appeals to the
eyes of the witnesses while the sung or spoken words of the drama
appeal to their ears; thus making of them spectators and auditors
at once, and associating with the pure time art of words the mixed
time-and-space art of bodily movements. As all movement whatso-
ever is necessarily movement through space, and takes time to
happen, so every other fine art which is wholly or in part an act of
movement partakes in like manner of this double character. Along
with acting thus comes dancing. Dancing, when it is of the mimic
character, may itself be a kind of acting; historically, indeed, the
dancer's art was the parent of the actor's; whether apart from or in
conjunction with the mimic element, dancing is an art in which
bodily movements obey, accompany, and, as it were, express or
accentuate in space the time effects of music. Eloquence or oratory
in like manner, so far as its power depends on studied and pre-
meditated gesture, is also an art which to some extent enforces its
primary appeal through the ear in time by a secondary appeal
through the eye in space. So much for the first distinction, that
between the shaping or space arts and the speaking or time arts,
with the intermediate and subordinate class of arts which, like
acting, dancing, oratory, add to the pure time element a mixed
'time-and-space element. These last can hardly be called shaping
arts, because it is his own person, and not anything outside himself,
which the actor, the dancer, the orator disposes or adjusts; they
may perhaps best be called arts of motion, or moving arts.
2. Tlie Imitative and the_ Non-Imitative Arts. Each art either does
or does not represent or imitate something which exists already in
nature. Of the five greater fine arts, those which thus
represent objects existing in nature are sculpture, painting * "!?
and poetry. Those which do not represent anything so J^* s . the '
existing are music and architecture. On this principle we i m n' a t\ ve
get a new grouping. Two shaping or space arts and one aal j non-
speaking or time art now form the imitative group of t m itatlve
sculpture, painting and poetry; while one space art and gji^,
one time art form the non-imitative group of music and
architecture. The mixed space-and-time arts of the actor, and of the
dancer, so far as he or she is also a mimic, belong, of course, by their
very name and nature, to the imitative class.
It was the imitative character of the fine arts which chiefly
occupied the attention of Aristotle. But in order to understand the
art theories of Aristotle it is necessary to bear in mind
the very different meanings which the idea of imitation e
bore to his mind and bears to ours. For Aristotle the lm .
idea of imitation or representation (mimesis) was extended . aft
so as to denote the expressing, evoking or making manifest according
of anything whatever, whether material objects or ideas to ^ r / s .
or feelings. Music and dancing, by which utterance or totle.
expression is given to emotions that may be quite detached
from all definite ideas or images, are thus for him varieties of imita-
.tion. He says, indeed, most music ^nd dancing, as if he was aware
that there were exceptions, but he does not indicate what the ex-
ceptions are; and under the head of imitative music, he. distinctly
reckons some kinds of instrumental music without words. But in
our own more restricted usage, to imitate means to copy, mimic or
represent some existing phenomenon, some definite reality of
experience; and we can only call those imitative arts which bring
before us such things, either directly by showing us their actual
likeness, as sculpture does in solid form, and as painting does by
means of lines and colours on a plane surface, or else indirectly, by
calling up ideas or images of them in the mind, as poetry and litera-
ture do by means of words. It is by a stretch of ordinary usage
CLASSIFICATION]
FINE ARTS
3 6 3
that we apply the word imitation even to this last way of representing
things; since words are no true likeness of, but only customary signs
for, the thing they represent. And those arts we cannot call
imitative at all, which by combinations of abstract sound or form
express and arouse emotions unattended by the recognizable likeness,
idea or image of any definite thing.
Now the emotions of music when music goes along with words,
whether in the shape of actual song or even of the instrumental
accompaniment of song, are no doubt in a certain sense
i"~ . attended with definite ideas; those, namely, which are
heir ex P resse d by the words themselves. But the same ideas
' f 1 ' sic. wou 'd be conveyed to the mind equally well by the same
words if they were simply spoken. What the music
contributes is a special element of its own, an element of pure
emotion, aroused through the sense of hearing, which heightens the
effect of the words upon the feelings without helping to elucidate
them for the understanding. Nay, it is well known that a song well
sung produces its intended effect upon the feelings almost as fully
though we fail to catch the words or are ignorant of the language
to which they belong. Thus the view of Aristotle cannot be defended
on the ground that he was familiar with music only in an elementary
form, and principally as the direct accompaniment of words, and
that in his day the modern development of the art, as an art for
building up constructions of independent sound, vast and intricate
fabrics of melody and harmony detached from words, was a thing
not yet imagined. That is perfectly true; the immense technical
and intellectual development of music, both in its resources and its
capacities, is an achievement of the modern world ; but the essential
character of musical sound is the same in its most elementary as in
its most complicated stage. Its privilege is to give delight, not by
communicating definite ideas, or calling up particular images, but
by appealing to certain organic sensibilities in our nerves of hearing,
and through such appeal expressing on the one part and arousing
on the other a unique kind of emotion. The emotion caused by
music may be altogether independent of any ideas conveyable by
words. Or it may serve to intensify and enforce other emotions
arising at the same time in connexion with the ideas conveyed by
words; and it was one of the contentions of Richard Wagner that
in the former phase the art is now exhausted, and that only in the
latter are new conquests in store for it. But in either case the music
is the music, and is like nothing else; it is no representation or
similitude of anything whatsoever.
But does not instrumental music, it will be said, sometimes really
imitate the sounds of nature, as the piping of birds, the whispering
of woods, the moaning of storms or explosion of thunder;
An objec- or ( j oes j t not> at any rat6| SU gg es t these things by rescin-
d/on a blances so close that they almost amount in the strict
r ' sense to imitation? Occasionally, it is true, music does
allow itself these playful excursions into a region of quasi-imitation
or mimicry. It modifies the character of its abstract sounds into
something, so to speak, more concrete, and, instead of sensations
which are like nothing else, affords us sensations which recognizably
resemble those we receive from some of the sounds of nature. But
such excursions are hazardous, and to make them often is the surest
proof of vulgarity in a musician. Neither are the successful effects
of the great composers in evoking ideas of particular natural pheno-
mena generally in the nature of real imitations or representations;
although passages such as the notes of the dove and nightingale in
Haydn's Creation, and of the cuckoo in Beethoven's Pastoral Sym-
phony, the bleating of the sheep in the Don Quixote symphony of
Richard Strauss, must be acknowledged to be exceptions. Again,
it is a recognized fact concerning the effect of instrumental music
on those of its hearers who try to translate such effect into words,
that they will all find themselves in tolerable agreement as to the
meaning of any passage so long as they only attempt to describe
it in terms of vague emotion, and to say such and such a passage
expresses, as the case may be, dejection or triumph, effort or the
relaxation of effort, eagerness or languor, suspense or fruition,
anguish or glee. But their agreement comes to an end the moment
they begin to associate, in their interpretation, definite ideas with
these vague emotions; then we find that what suggests in idea to
one hearer the vicissitudes of war will suggest to another, or to the
same at another time, the vicissitudes of love, to another those of
spiritual yearning and aspiration, to another, it may be, those of
changeful travel by forest, field and ocean, to another those of
life's practical struggle and ambition. The infinite variety of ideas
which may thus be called up in different minds by the same strain
of music is proof enough that the music is not like any particular
thing. The torrent of varied and entrancing emotion which it pours
along the heart, emotion latent and undivined until the spell of
sound begins, that is music's achievement and its secret. It is this
effect, whether coupled or not with a trained intellectual recognition
of the highly abstract and elaborate nature of the laws of the relation,
succession and combinations of sounds on which the effect depends,
that has caused some thinkers, with Schopenhauer at their head, to
find in music the nearest approach we have to a voice from behind
the veil, a universal voice expressing the central purpose and
deepest essence of things, unconfused by fleeting actualities or by the
distracting duty of calling up images of particular and perishable
phenomena. " Music," in Schopenhauer's own words, " reveals the
innermost essential being of the world, and expresses the highest
wisdom in a language the reason does not understand."
Aristotle endeavoured to frame a classification of the arts, in their
several applications and developments, on two grounds the nature
of the objects imitated by each, and the means or instru- _ ...
ments employed in the imitation. But in the case of f
music, as it exists in the modern world, the first part of '
this endeavour falls to the ground, because the object imitated has,
in the sense in which we now use the word imitation, no existence.
The means employed by music are successions and combinations of
vocal or instrumental sounds regulated according to the three
conditions of time and pitch (which together make up melody) and
harmony, or the relations of different strains of time and tone co-
operant but not parallel. With these means, music either creates
her independent constructions, or else accompanies, adorns, enforces
the imitative art of speech but herself imitates not; and may be
best defined simply as a speaking or time art, of which the business is to
express and arouse emotion by successions and combinations of regulated
sound.
That which music is thus among the speaking or time-arts,
architecture is among the shaping or space-arts. As music appeals
to our faculties for taking pleasure in non-imitative .
combinations of transitory sound, so architecture appeals if t ' tl
to our faculties for taking pleasure in non-imitative "! J f
combinations of stationary mass. Corresponding to the f aK hl-
system of ear-effects or combinations of time, tone and tecture
harmony with which music works, architecture works
with a system of eye-effects or combinations of mass, contour, light
and shade, colour, proportion, interval, alternation of plain and
decorated parts, regularity and variety in regularity, apparent
stability, vastness, appropriateness and the rest. Only the materials
of architecture are not volatile and intangible like sound, but solid
timber, brick, stone, metal and mortar, and the laws of weight and
force according to which these materials have to be combined are
much more severe and cramping than the laws of melody and harmony
which regulate the combinations of music. The architect is further
subject, unlike the musician, to the dictates and precise prescriptions
of utility. Even in structures raised for purposes not of everyday
use and necessity, but of commemoration or worship, the rules for
such commemoration and such worship have prescribed a more or
less fixed arrangement and proportion of the parts or members,
whether in the Egyptian temple or temple-tomb, the Greek temple
or heroon, or in the churches of the middle ages and Renaissance in
the West.
Hence the effects of architecture are necessarily less full of various,
rapturous and unforeseen enchantment than the effects of music.
Yet for those who possess sensibility to the pleasures of the j na / OJ ,/ es
eye and the perfections of shaping art, the architecture ofarc j,i.
of the great ages has yielded combinations which, so far t ec t ure aa a
as comparison is permissible between things unlike in their mus ic.
materials, fall little short of the achievements of music
in those kinds of excellence which are common to them both. In
the virtues of lucidity, of just proportion and organic interdependence
of the several parts or members, in the mathematic subtlety of their
mutual relations, and of the transitions from one part or member to
another, in purity and finish of individual forms, in the character
of one thing growing naturally out of another and everything serving
to complete the whole-^in these qualities, no musical combination
can well surpass a typical Doric temple such as the Parthenon at
Athens. None, again, can well surpass some of the great cathedrals
of the middle ages in the qualities of sublimity, of complexity, in the
power both of expressing and suggesting spiritual aspiration, in the
invention of intricate developments and ramifications about a central
plan, in the union of majesty in the main conception with fertility
of adornment in detail. In fancifulness, in the unexpected, in
capricious and far-sought opulence, in filling the mind with mingled
enchantments of east and west and south and north, music can
hardly dp more than a building like St Mark's at Venice does with
its blending of Byzantine elements, Italian elements, Gothic elements,
each carried to the utmost pitch of elaboration and each enriched
with a hundred caprices of ornament, but all working together, all in
obedience to a law, and " all beginning and ending with the Cross."
In the case of architecture, however, as in the case of music, the
non-imitative character must not be stated quite without exception
or reserve. There have been styles of architecture in
which forms suggesting or imitating natural or other Bxcep-
phenomena have held a place among the abstract forms *
proper to the art. Often the mode of such suggestions *
is rather symbolical to the mind than really imitative to
the eye ; as when the number and relations of the heavenly y OI .
planets were imaged by that race of astronomers, the Baby- la arclll .
lonians, in the seven concentric walls of their great temple, tecture. '
and in many other architectural constructions; or as when
the shape of the cross was adopted, with innumerable slight varieties
and modifications, for the ground plan of the churches of Christen-
dom. Passing to examples of imitation more properly so called,
it may be true, and was, at any rate, long believed, that the aisles
of Gothic churches, when once the use of the pointed arch had been
evolved as a principle of construction, were partly designed to evoke
the idea of the natural aisles of the forest, and that the upsoaring
364
FINE ARTS
[CLASSIFICATION
forest trunks and meeting branches were more or less consciously
imaged in their piers and vaultings. In the temple-palaces of
Egypt, one of the regular architectural members, the sustaining pier,
is often systematically wrought in the actual likeness of a con-
ventionalized cluster of lotus stems, with lotus flowers for the capital.
When we come to the fashion, not rare in Greek architecture, of
carving this same sustaining member, the column, in complete human
likeness, and employing caryatids, canephori, atlases or the like,
to support the entablature of a building, it then becomes difficult
to say whether we have to do with a work of architecture or of
sculpture. The case, at any rate, is different from that in which
the sculptor is called in to supply surface decoration to the various
members of a building, or to fill with the products of his own art
spaces in the building specially contrived and left vacant for that
purpose. When the imitative feature is in itself an indispensable
member of the architectural construction, to architecture rather
than sculpture we shall probably do best to assign it.
Defining architecture, then (apart from its utility, which for the
present we leave out of consideration), as a shaping art, of -which the
function is to express and arouse emotion by combinations
Definition O j or fo rea ana decorated mass, we pass from the character-
ofarchl- i st ; cs o f t he non-imitative to those of the imitative group
lecture. Q j ^ name ] y scu lpture, painting and poetry.
If we keep in mind the source and origin of these arts, we must
remember what has already been observed, that they spring by no
means from man's love of imitation alone, but from his
The Italia- d es i re to record and commemorate experience, using the
live arts f acu lty pf imitation as his means. Mnemosyne (Memory)
are arts of was ; n Greek tradition the mother of the Muses ; imitation,
record in the sense above defined, is but their instrument. Hence
" sl " g .. we might think " arts of record " a better name for this
tmitatit group than arts of imitation. The answer is but a large
part of purs architecture is also commemorative; from
the pyramids and obelisks of Egypt down there are many
monuments in which the impulse of men to perpetuate their own or
others' memories has worked without any aid of imitation. Hence
as the definition of a class of arts contrasted with architecture and
music the name " arts of record " would fail; and we have to fall
back on the current and established name of the " imitative arts."
In considering them we cannot do better than follow that Aristotelian
division which describes each art according, first, to the objects
which it imitates, and, secondly, to the means it employs.
Taking sculpture first, as imitating a smaller range of objects than
the other two, and imitating them more completely : sculpture may
have for the objects of its imitation the shapes of whatever
Sculpture t j,; n g s p OsseS s length, breadth and magnitude. For its
as an imi- means or instruments it has solid form, which the sculptor
' either carves out of a hard substance, as in the case of
wood and stone, or models in a yielding substance, as in the case of
clay and wax, or casts in a dissolved or molten substance, as in the
case of plaster and of metal in certain uses, or beats, draws or chases
in a malleable and ductile substance, as in the case of metal in other
uses, or stamps from dies or moulds, a method sometimes used in
all soft or fusible materials. Thus a statue or statuette may either
be carved straight out of a block of stone or wood, or first modelled
in clay or wax, then moulded in plaster or some equivalent material,
and then carved in stone or cast in bronze. A gem is wrought in
stone by cutting and grinding. Figures in jeweller's work are
wrought by beating and chasing; a medatlion t>y beating and
chasing or else by stamping irom a die; a coin by stamping from a
die ; and so forth. The process of modelling (Gr. n-\drTc) in a soft
substance being regarded as the typical process of the sculptor, the
name plastic art has been given to his operations in general.
In general terms, the task of sculpture is to imitate solid form with
solid form. But sculptured form may be either completely or in-
. completely solid. Sculpture in completely solid form
exactly reproduces, whether on the original or on a different
round scale, the relations or proportions of the object imitated
* n *^ e three dimensions of length, breadth and depth or
thickness. Sculpture in incompletely solid form re-
produces the proportions of the objects with exactness
only so far as concerns two of its dimensions, namely, those of
length and breadth; while the third dimension, that of depth
or thickness, it reproduces in a diminished proportion, leaving it
to the eye to infer, from the partial degree of projection given to
the work, the full projection of the object imitated. The former, or
completely solid kino; of sculpture, is called sculpture in the round ;
its works stand free, and can be walked round and seen from all
points. The latter, or incompletely solid kind of sculpture, is called
sculpture in relief; its works do not stand free, but are engaged in or
attached to a background, and can only be seen from in front.
According, in the latter kind of sculpture, to its degree of projection
from the background, a work is said to be in high or in low relief.
Sculpture in the round and sculpture in relief are alike in this, that
the properties of objects which they imitate are their external forms
as defined by their outlines that is, by the boundaries and circum-
scriptions of their masses and their light and shade the lights and
shadows, that is, which diversify the curved surfaces of the masses
in consequence of their alternations and gradations of projection and
recession. But the two kinds of sculpture differ in this. A work
and in
relief.
P r P erfe
""
of sculpture in the round imitates the whole of the outlines by
which the object imitated is circumscribed in the three dimensions
of space, and presents to the eye, as the object itself would do,
a new outline succeeding the last every moment as you walk round it.
Whereas a work of sculpture in relief imitates only one outline of
any object; it takes, so to speak, a section of the object as seen
from a particular point, and traces on the background the boundary-
line of that particular section; merely suggesting, by modelling the
surface within such boundary according to a regular, but a dimin-
ished, ratio of projection, the other outlines which the object would
present if seen from all sides successively.
As sculpture in the round reproduces the real relations of a solid
object in space, it follows that the only kind of object which it can
reproduce with pleasurable effect according to the laws ..*
of regulated or rhythmical design must be one not too '
vast or complicated, one that can afford to be detached
and isolated from its surroundings, and of which all the
parts can easily be perceived and apprehended in their
organic relations. Further, it will need to be an object
interesting enough to mankind in general to make them take
delight in seeing it reproduced with all its parts in complete
imitation. And again, it must be such that some considerable
part of the interest lies in those particular properties of outline,
play of surface, and light and shade which it is the special function
of sculpture to reproduce. Thus a sculptured representation in
the round, say, of a mountain with cities on it, would hardly be a
sculpture at all; it could only be a model, and as a model might
have value; but value as a work of fine art it could not have, because
the object imitated would lack organic definiteness and complete-
ness; it would lack universality of interest, and of the interest
which it did possess, a very inconsiderable part would depend upon
its properties of outline, surface, and light and shade. Obviously
there is no kind of object in the world that so well unites the required
conditions for pleasurable imitation in sculpture as the human body.
It is atonce the most complete of organisms, and the shape of all
others the most subtle as well as the most intelligible in its outlines;
the most habitually detached in active or stationary freedom;
the most interesting to mankind, because its own; the richest in
those particular effects, contours and modulations, contrasts,
harmonies and transitions of modelled surface and circumscribing
line, which it is the prerogative of sculpture to imitate. Accordingly
the object of imitation for this art is pre-eminently the body of man
or woman. That it has not been for the sake of representing men and
women as such, but for the sake of representing gods in the likeness
of men and women, that the human form has been most enthusiastic-
ally studied, does not affect this fact in the theory of the art, though
it is a consideration of great importance in its history. Besides the
human form, sculpture may imitate the forms of those of the lower
animals whose physical endowments have something of a kindred
perfection, with other natural or artificial objects as may be needed
merely by way of accessory or symbol. The body must for the
purposes of this art be divested of covering, or covered only with
such tissues as reveal, translate or play about without concealing
it. Chiefly in lands and ages where climate and social use have
given the sculptor the opportunity of studying human forms so
draped or undraped has this art attained perfection, and become
exemplary and enviable to that of other races.
Relief sculpture is more closely connected with architecture than
the other kind, and indeed is commonly used in subordination to it.
But if its task is thus somewhat different from that of
sculpture in the round, its principal objects of imitation *
are the same. The human body remains the principal P!*"
theme of the sculptor in relief; but the nature of his art
allows, and sometimes compels, him to include other
objects in the range of his imitation. As he has not to
represent the real depth or projection of things, but only
to suggest them according to a ratio which he may fix himself, so
he can introduce into the third or depth dimension, thus arbitrarily
reduced, a multitude of objects for which the sculptor in the round,
having to observe the real ratio of the three dimensions, has no room.
He can place one figure in slightly raised outline emerging from
behind the more fully raised outline of another, and by the same
system can add to his representation rocks, trees, nay mountains
and cities and birds on the wing. But the more he uses this liberty
the less will he be truly a sculptor. Solid modelling, and real light
and shade, are the special means or instruments of effect which the
sculptor alone among imitative artists enjoys. Single outlines and
contours, the choice of one particular section and the tracing of its
circumscription, are means which the sculptor enjoys in common
with the painter or draughtsman. And indeed, when we consider
works executed wholly or in part in very low relief, whether Assyrian
battle-pieces and hunting-pieces in alabaster or bronze, or the
backgrounds carved in bronze, marble or wood by the Italian
sculptors who followed the example set by Ghiberti at the Renais-
sance, we shall see that the principle of such work is not the principle
of sculpture at all. Its effect depends little on qualities of surface-
light and shadow, and mainly on qualities of contour, as traced by a
slight line of shadow on the side away from the light, and a slight
line of light on the side next to it. And we may fairly hesitate
whether we shall rank the artist who works on this principle, which
sculpture
la relief.
CLASSIFICATION]
FINE ARTS
3 6 5
is properly a graphic rather than a plastic principle, among sculptors
or among draughtsmen. The above are cases in which the relief
sculptor exercises his liberty in the introduction of other objects
besides human figures into his sculptured compositions. But there is
another kind of relief sculpture in which the artist has less choice.
That is, the kind in which the sculptor is called in to decorate with
carved work parts of an architectural construction which are not
adapted for the introduction of figure subjects, or for their introduc-
tion only as features in a scheme of ornament that comprises many
other elements. To this head belongs most of the carving of capitals,
moujdings, friezes (except the friezes of Greek temples), bands,
cornices, and, in the Gothic style, of doorway arches, niches, canopies,
pinnacles, brackets, spandrels and the thousand members and parts
of members which that style so exquisitely adorned with true or
conventionalized imitations of natural forms. This is no doubt a
subordinate function of the art ; and it is impossible, as we have seen
already, to find a precise line of demarcation between carving, in this
decorative use, which is properly sculpture, and that which belongs
properly to architecture.
Leaving such discussions, we may content ourselves with the
definition of sculpture as a shaping art, of which the business is to
D fl HI express and arouse emotion by the imitation of natural
objects, and principally the human body, in solid form,
sculoture reproducing either their true proportions in three dimensions,
or their proportions in the two dimensions of length and
breadth only, with a diminished proportion in the third dimension of
depth or thickness.
In considering bas-relief as a form of sculpture, we have found
ourselves approaching the confines of the second of the shaping
imitative arts, the graphic art or art of painting. Painting,
n " g as to its means or instruments of imitation, dispenses
Imit tl with the third dimension altogether. It imitates natural
grt objects by representing them as they are represented on
the retina of the eye itself, simply as an assemblage of
variously shaped and variously shaded patches of colour on a flat
surface. Painting does not reproduce the third dimension of reality
by any third dimension of its own whatever; but leaves the eye to
infer the solidity of objects, their recession and projection, their
nearness and remoteness, by the same perspective signs by which
it also infers those facts in nature, namely, by the direction of their
several boundary lines, the incidence and distribution of their lights
and shadows, the strength or faintness of their tones of colour.
Hence this art has an infinitely greater range and freedom than
any form of sculpture. Near and far is all the same to it, and
_ . whatever comes into the field of vision can come also
oWeSs ' nto *^ e ^ e '^ ^ a picture; trees as well as persons, and
linkable by c ' ou ^ s as we " as trees, and stars as well as clouds; the
paintinjr remotest mountain snows, as well as the violet of the
foreground, and far-off multitudes of people as well as
one or two near the eye. Whatever any man has seen, or can imagine
himself as seeing, that he can also fix by painting, subject only to
one great limitation, that of the range of brightness which he is
able to attain in imitating natural colour illuminated by light.
In this particular his art can but correspond according to a greatly
diminished ratio with the effects of nature. But excepting this it
can do for the eye almost all that nature herself does; or at least
ajl that nature would do if man had only one eye since the three
dimensions of space produce upon our binocular machinery of vision
a particular stereoscopic effect of which a picture, with its two
dimensions only, is incapable. The range of the art being thus almost
unbounded, its selections have naturally been dictated by the varying
interest felt in this or that subject of representation by the societies
among whom the art has at various times been practised. As in
sculpture, so in painting, the human form has always held the first
place. For the painter, the intervention of costume between man
and his environment is not a misfortune in the same degree as it is
for the sculptor. For him, clothes of whatever fashion or amplitude
have their own charm; they serve to diversify the aspect of the
world, and to express the characters and stations, if not the physical
frames, of his personages; and he is as happy or happier among the
brocades of Venice as among the bare limbs of the Spartan palaestra.
Along with man, there come into painting all animals and vegetation,
all man's furniture and belongings, his dwelling-places, fields and
landscape; and in modern times also landscape and nature for their
own sakes, skies, seas, mountains and wildernesses apart from man.
Besides the two questions about any art, what objects does it
imitate, and by the use of what means or instruments, Aristotle
The chl f P r P ses ( in the case of poetry) the further question,
forms or w . mcl1 f several possible forms does the imitation in any
modes of f?' ven case assume? We may transfer very nearly the
palntinz- ^T 16 i nc l u i r y to painting, and may ask, concerning any
line llziit painter, according to which of three possible systems he
ana-shade works. The three possible systems are (l) that which
and colour, attends principally to the configuration and relations of
natural objects as indicated by the direction of their
boundaries, for defining which there is a convention in universal
use, the convention, that is, of line; this may be called for short
the system of line; (2) that which attends chiefly to their configura-
tion and relations as indicated by the incidence and distribution
of their lights and shadows this is the system of light-and- shade or
Technical
varieties
of the
painter's
craft.
chiaroscuro; and (3) that which attends chiefly, not to their con-
figuration at all, but to the distribution, qualities and relations of
local colours upon their surface this is the system of colour. It is
not possible for a painter to imitate natural objects to the eye at all
without either denning their boundaries by outlines, or suggesting
the shape of their masses by juxtapositions of light and dark or of
local colours. In the complete art of painting, of course, all three
methods are employed at once. But in what is known as outline
drawing and outline engraving, one of the three methods only is
employed, line; in monochrome pictures, and in shaded drawings
and engravings, two only, line with light-and-shade; and in the
various shadeless forms of decorative painting and colour-printing,
two only, line with colour. Even in the most accomplished examples
of the complete art of painting, as was pointed out by Ruskin, we
find that there almost always prevails a predilection for some one
of these three parts of painting over the other two. Thus among
the mature Italians of the Renaissance, Titian is above all things a
painter in colour, Michelangelo in line, Leonardo in light-and-shade.
Many academic painters in their day tried to combine the three
methods in equal balance; to the impetuous spirit of the great
Venetian, Tintoretto, it was alone given to make the attempt with a
great measure of success. A great part of the effort of modern
painting has been to get rid of the linear convention altogether, to
banish line and develop the resources of the oil medium in imitating
on canvas, more strictly than the early masters attempted, the actual
appearance of things on the retina as an assemblage of coloured
streaks and patches modified and toned in the play of light-and-shade
and atmosphere.
It remains to consider, for the purpose of our classification, what
are the technical varieties of the painter's craft. Since we gave the
generic name of painting to all imitation of natural objects
by the assemblage of lines, colours and lights and darks
on a single plane, we must logically include as varieties of
painting not only the ordinary crafts of spreading or
laying pictures on an opaque surface in fresco, oil, .dis-
temper or water-colour, but also the craft of arranging a
picture to be seen by the transmission of light through a transparent
substance, in glass painting; the craft of fitting together a multitude
of solid cubes or cylinders so that their united surface forms a
picture to the eye, as in mosaic; the craft of spreading vitreous
colours in a state of fusion so that they form a picture when hardened,
as in enamel ; and even, it would seem, the crafts of weaving, tapestry,
and embroidery, since these also yield to the eye a plane surface
figured in imitation of nature. As drawing we must also count
incised or engraved work of all kinds representing merely the out-
lines of objects and not their modellings, as for instance the graffiti
on Greek and Etruscan mirror-backs and dressing-cases; while
raised work in low relief, in which outlines are plainly marked and
modellings neglected, furnishes, as we have seen, a doubtful class
between sculpture and painting. In all figures that are first modelled
in the solid and then variously coloured, sculpture and painting
bear a common share; and by far the greater part both of ancient
and medieval statuary was in fact tinted so as to imitate or at least
suggest the colours of life. But as the special characteristic of
sculpture, solidity in the third dimension, is in these cases present,
it is to that art and not to painting that we shall still ascribe the
resulting work.
With these indications we may leave the art of painting defined
in general terms as a shaping or space art, of which the business is to
express and arouse emotion by the imitation of all kinds of ,. ...
natural objects, reproducing on a plane surface the relations f '
of their boundary lines, lights and shadows, or colours, or painting.
all three of these appearances together.
The next and last of the imitative arts is the speaking art of poetry.
The transition from sculpture and painting to poetry is, from the
point of view not of our present but of our first division _
among the fine arts, abrupt and absolute. It is a transition ia,lta-
from space into time, from the sphere of material forms tf nrL '
to the sphere of immaterial images. Following Aristotle's
method, we may define the objects of poetry's imitation or evocation,
as everything of which the idea or image can be called up by words,
that is, every force and phenomenon of nature, every operation and
result of art, every fact of life and history, or every imagination of
such a fact, every thought and feeling of the human spirit, for which
mankind in the course of its long evolution has been able to create
in speech an explicit and appropriate sign. The means or instru-
ments of poetry's imitation are these verbal signs or words, arranged
in lines, strophes or stanzas, so that their sounds have some of the
regulated qualities and direct emotional effect of music.
The three chief modes or forms of the imitation may still be
defined as they were defined by Aristotle himself. First comes the
epic or narrative form, in which the poet speaks alternately
for himself and his characters, now describing their
situations and feelings in his own words, and anon making
each of them speak in the first person for himself. Second
comes the lyric form, in which the poet speaks in his own
name exclusively, and gives expression to sentiments which are
purely personal. Third comes the dramatic form, in which the poet
does not speak for himself at all, but only puts into the mouths of
each of his personages successively such discourse as he thinks
. . .
i<jgs
3 66
FINE ARTS
[CLASSIFICATION
Relation
of poetry
a* aa Imi-
tative art
to paint-
Ing and
sculpture.
appropriate to the part. The last of these three forms of poetry,
the dramatic, calls, if it is merely read, on the imagination of the
reader to fill up those circumstances of situation, action and the rest,
which in the first or epic form are supplied by the narrative between
the speeches, and for which in the lyric or personal form there is no
occasion. To avoid making this call upon the imagination, to bring
home its effects with full vividness, dramatic poetry has to call in
the aid of several subordinate arts, the shaping or space art of the
scene-painter, the mixed time and space arts of the actor and the
dancer. Occasionally also, or in the case of opera throughout,
dramatic poetry heightens the emotional effect of its words with
music. A play or drama is thus, as performed upon the theatre,
not a poem merely, but a poem accompanied, interpreted, completed
and brought several degrees nearer to reality by a combination of
auxiliary effects of the other arts. Besides the narrative, the lyric
and dramatic forms of poetry, the didactic, that is the teaching or
expository form, has usually been recognized as a fourth. Aristotle
refused so to recognize it, regarding a didactic poem in the light
not so much of a poem as of a useful treatise. But from the Works
and Days down to the Loves of the Plants there has been too much
literature produced in this form for us to follow Aristotle here. We
shall do better to regard didactic poetry as a variety corresponding,
among the speaking arts, to architecture and the other manual
arts of which the first purpose is use, but which are capable of
accompanying and adorning use by a pleasurable appeal to the
emotions.
We shall hardly make our definition of poetry, considered as an
imitative art, too extended if we say that it is a speaking or time art,
of which the business is to express and arouse emotion by
Definition imitating or evoking all or any of the phenomena of life and
of poetry. na ture by means of words arranged with musical regularity.
Neither the varieties of poetical form, however, nor the modes in
which the several forms have been mixed up and interchanged as
such mixture and interchange are implied, for instance,
by the very title of a group of Robert Browning's poems,
the Dramatic Lyrics, the observation of neither of these
things concerns us here so much as the observation of the
relations of poetry in general, as an art of representation
or imitation, to the other arts of imitation, painting and
sculpture. Verbal signs have been invented for in-
numerable things which cannot be imitated or represented
at all either in solid form or upon a coloured surface. You cannot
carve or paint a sigh, or the feeling which finds utterance in a sigh ;
you can only suggest the idea of the feeling, and that in a somewhat
imperfect and uncertain way, by representing the physical aspect of a
person in the act of breathing the sigh. Similarly you cannot carve
or paint any movement, but only figures or groups in which the
movement is represented as arrested in some particular point of time ;
nor any abstract idea, but only figures or groups in which the
abstract idea, as for example release, captivity, mercy, is symbolized
in the concrete shape of allegorical or illustrative figures. The whole
field of thought, of propositions, arguments, injunctions and ex-
hortations is open to poetry but closed to sculpture and painting.
Poetry, by its command over the regions of the understanding, of
abstraction, of the movement and succession of things in time, by
its power of instantaneously associating one image with another
from the remotest regions of the mind, by its names for every shade
of feeling and experience, exercises a sovereignty a hundred times
more extended than that of either of the two arts of manual imitation.
But, on the other hand, words do not as a rule bear any sensible
resemblance to the things of which they are the signs. There are few
things that words do not stand for or cannot call up ; but they stand
for things symbolically and at second hand, and call them up only
in idea, and not in actual presentment to the senses. In strictness,
the business of poetry should not be called imitation at all, but rather
evocation. The strength of painting and sculpture lies in this, that
though there are countless phenomena which they cannot represent
at all, and countless more which they can only represent by symbolism
and suggestion more or less ambiguous, yet there are a few which
each can represent more fully and directly than poetry can represent
any thing at all. These are, for sculpture, the forms or configurations
of things, which that art represents directly to the senses both of
sight and touch; and for painting the forms and colours of things
and their relations to each other in space, air and light, which the
art represents to the sense of sight, directly so far as regards surface
appearance, and indirectly so far as regards solidity. For many
delicate qualities and differences in these visible relations of things
there are no words at all the vocabulary of colours, for instance,
is in all languages surprisingly scanty and primitive. And those
visible qualities for which words exist, the words still call up in-
distinctly and at second hand. Poetry is almost as powerless to
bring before the mind's eye with precision a particular shade of red
or blue, a particular linear arrangement or harmony of colour-tones,
as sculpture is to relate a continuous experience, or painting to en-
force an exhortation or embellish an abstract proposition. The
wise poet, as has been justly remarked, when he wants to produce a
vivid impression of a visible thing, does not attempt to catalogue or
describe its stationary beauties. Shakespeare, when he wants to
make us realize the perfections of Perdita, puts into the mouth of
Florizel, not, as a bad poet would have done, a description of her
Oeneral
weans and
arts:
sculpture.
lilies and carnations, and the other charms which a painter could
make us realize better, but the praises of her ways and movements ;
and with the final touch,
" When you do dance, I wish you
A wave o' the sea, that you might ever do
Nothing but that,"
he evokes a twofold image of beauty in motion, of which one half
might be the despair of those painters who designed the dancing
maidens of the walls of Herculaneum, and the other half the despair
of all artists who in modern times, have tried to fix upon their canvas,
the buoyancy and grace of dancing waves. In representing the
perfections of form in a bride's slender foot, the speaking art, poetry,
would find itself distanced by either of the shaping arts, painting or
sculpture. Suckling calls up the charm of such a foot by describing
it not at rest but in motion, and in the feet which
" Beneath the petticoat,
Like little mice, went in and out,"
leaves us an image which baffles the power of the other arts. Keats r
when he tells of Madeline unclasping her jewels on St Agnes's Eve,
does not attempt to conjure up their lustre to the eye, as a painter
would have done, and a less poetical poet might have tried to do,
but in the words " her warmed jewels " evoked instead a quality,
breathing of the very life of the wearer, which painting could not
even have remotely suggested.
The differences between the means and capacities of representation
proper to the shaping arts of sculpture and painting and those
proper to the speaking art of poetry were for a long while
overlooked or misunderstood. The maxim of Simonides,
that poetry is a kind of articulate painting, and painting
a kind of mute poetry, was vaguely accepted until the
days of Lessing, and first overthrown by the famous
treatise of that writer on the Laocoon. Following in the ^J^jJ^ e
main the lines laid down by Lessing, other writers have severa i
worked out the conditions of representation or imitation /n,/^,^/^
proper not only to sculpture and painting as distinguished
from poetry, but to sculpture as distinguished from
painting. The chief points established may really all be
condensed under one simple law, that the more direct and complete
the imitation effected by any art, the less is the range and number of
phenomena which that art can imitate. Thus sculpture in the round
imitates its objects much more completely and directly than any other
single art, reproducing one whole set of their relations which no
other art attempts to reproduce at all, namely, their solid relations
in space. Precisely for this reason, such sculpture is limited to a
narrow class of objects. As we have seen, it must represent human
or animal figures ; nothing else has enough either of universal interest
or of organic beauty and perfection. Sculpture in the round must
represent such figures standing free in full clearness and detachment,
in combinations and with accessories comparatively simple, on pain
of teasing the eye with a complexity and entanglement of masses and
lights and shadows; and in attitudes comparatively quiet, on pain
of violating, or appearing to violate, the conditions of mechanical
stability. Being a stationary or space-art, it can only represent a
single action, which it fixes and perpetuates for ever; and it must
therefore choose for that action one as significant and full of interest
as is consistent with due observation of the above laws of simplicity
and stability. Such actions, and the facial expressions accompanying
them, should not be those of sharp crisis or transition, because sudden
movement or flitting expression, thus arrested and perpetuated in
full and solid imitation by bronze or marble, would be displeasing
and not pleasing to the spectator. They must be actions and ex-
pressions in some degree settled, collected and capable of continuance,
and in their collectedness must at the same time suggest to the
spectator as much as possible of the circumstances which have led
up to them and those which will next ensue. These conditions evi-
dently bring within a very narrow range the phenomena with which
this art can deal, and explain why, as a matter of fact, the greater
number of statues represent simply a single figure in repose, with the
addition of one or two symbolic or customary attributes. Paint a
statue (as the greater part both of Greek and Gothic statuary was
in fact painted), and you bring it to a still further point of imitative
completeness to the eye; but you do not thereby lighten the restric-
tions laid upon the art by its material, so long as it undertakes to
reproduce in full the third or solid dimension of bodies. You only
begin to lighten its restrictions when you begin to relieve it of that
duty. We have traced how sculpture in relief, which is satisfied
with only a partial reproduction of the third dimension, is free to
introduce a larger range of objects, bringing forward secondary
figures and accessories, indicating distant planes, indulging even in
considerable violence and complexity of motion, since limbs attached
to a background do not alarm the spectator by any idea of danger of
fragility. But sculpture in the round has not this licence. It is true
that the art has at various periods made efforts to escape from its
natural limitations. Several of the later schools of antiquity,
especially that of Pergamus in the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C., strove
hard both for violence of expression and complexity of design, not
only in relief-sculptures, like the great altar-friezes now at Berlin,
but in detached groups, such as (pace Lessing) the Laocoon itself.
Many modern virtuosi of sculpture since Bernini have misspent their
CLASSIFICATION]
FINE ARTS
367
of paint
tag.
skill in trying to fix in marble both the restlessness of momentary
actions and the flimsiness of fluttering tissues. In latter days
Auguste Rodin, an innovating master with a real genius for his art,
has attacked many problems of complicated grouping, more or less
in the nature of the Greek symplegmata, but keeps these interlocked
or contorted actions circumscribed within strict limiting lines, so
that they do not by jutting or straggling suggest a kind of acrobatic
challenge to the laws of gravity. The same artist and others inspired
by him have further sought to emancipate sculpture from the
necessity of rendering form in clear and complete definition, and to
enrich it with a new power of mysterious suggestion, by leaving his
figures wrought in part to the highast finish and vitality of surface,
while other parts (according to a precedent set in some unfinished
works of Michelangelo) remain scarcely emergent from the rough-
hewn or unhewn block. But it may be doubted whether such ex-
periments and expedients can permanently do much to enlarge
the scope of the art.
Next we arrive at painting, in which the third dimension is dis-
missed altogether, and nothing is actually reproduced, in full or
partially, except the effect made by the appearance of
"/ natural objects upon the retina of the eye. The conse-
' quence is that this art can range over distance and
multitude, can represent complicated relations between its
various figures and groups of figures, extensive back-
grounds, and all those infinite subtleties of appearance in natural
things which depend upon local colours and their modification in
the play of light and shade and enveloping atmosphere. These last
phenomena of natural things are in our experience subject to change
in a sense in which the substantial or solid properties of things are
not so subject. Colours, shadows and atmospheric effects are
naturally associated with ideas of transition, mystery and evanes-
cence. Hence painting is able to extend its range to .another kind
of facts over which sculpture has no power. It can suggest and
perpetuate in its imitation, without breach of its true laws, many
classes of facts which are themselves fugitive and transitory, as a
smile, the glance of an eye, a gesture of horror or of passion, the
waving of hair in the wind, the rush of horses, the strife of mobs,
the whole drama of the clouds, the toss and gathering of ocean waves,
even the flashing of lightning across the sky. Still, any long or
continuous series of changes, actions or movements is quite beyond
the means of this art to represent. Painting remains, in spite of its
comparative width of range, tied down to the inevitable conditions
of a space-art : that is to say, it has to delight the mind by a har-
monious variety in its effects, but by a variety apprehended not
through various points of time successively, but from various points
in space at the same moment. The old convention which allowed
painters to indicate sequence in time by means of distribution in
space, dispersing the successive episodes of a story about the different
parts of a single picture, has been abandoned since the early Renais-
sance; and Wordsworth sums up our modern view of the matter
when he says that it is the business of painting
" to give
To one blest moment snatched from fleeting time
The appropriate calm of blest eternity."
Lastly, a really unfettered range is only attained by the art which
does not give a full and complete reproduction of any natural fact
at all, but evokes or brings natural facts before the mind
Means ana mere iy j,y tne ; ma ges which words convey. The whole
capacities wor i ( j of movem ent, of continuity, of cause and effect,
of poetry. Q J t k e success ; onS) alternations and interaction of events,
characters and passions of everything that takes time to happen and
time to declare, is open to poetry as it is open to no other art. As
an imitative or, more properly speaking, an evocative art, then,
poetry is subject to no limitations except those which spring from
the poverty of human language, and from the fact that its means of
imitation are indirect. Poetry's account of the visible properties of
things is from these causes much less full, accurate and efficient than
the reproduction or delineation of the same properties by sculpture
and painting. And this is the sum of the conditions concerning the
respective functions of the three arts of imitation which had been
overlooked, in theory at least, until the time of Lessing.
To the above law, in the form in which we have expressed it,
it may perhaps be objected that the acted drama is at once the most
full and complete reproduction of nature which we owe
he acted to ^ fi ne arts anc j ^1 at the same time the number of
drama no f actg over wn ; c h its imitation ranges is the greatest.
.. The answer is that our law applies to the several arts
JfJJJr only >n tnat which we may call their pure or unmixed
- state. Dramatic poetry is in that state only when it is
k read or spoken like any other kind of verse. When it is
witnessed on the stage, it is in a mixed or impure state;
the art of the actor has been called in to give actual reproduction
to the gestures and utterances of the personages, that of the costumier
to their appearances and attire, that of the stage-decorator to their
furniture and surroundings, that of the scene-painter to imitate to
the eye the dwelling-places and landscapes among which they
move; and only by the combination of all these subordinate arts
does the drama gain its character of imitative completeness or
reality.
shadowed
forth by
imitation
of things
known.
Imitation
by art
neces-
sarily an
Idealized
Imitation.
Throughout the above account of the imitative and non-imitative
groups of fine arts, we have so far followed Aristotle as to allow the
name of imitation to all recognizable representation or
evocation of realities, using the word " realities " in no Thl ''S s
metaphysical sense, but to signify the myriad phenomena *
of life and experience, whether as they actually and
literally exist to-day, or as they may have existed in the
past, or may be conceived to exist in some other world
not too unlike our own for us to conceive and realize in
thought. When we find among the ruins of a Greek
temple the statue of a beautiful young man at rest, or above
the altar of a Christian church the painting of one transfixed
with arrows, we know that the statue is intended to bring to our
minds no mortal youth, but the god Hermes or Apollo, the trans-
fixed victim no simple captive, but Sebastian the holy saint. At
the same time we none the less know that the figures in either
case have been studied by the artist from living models before his
eyes. In like manner, in all the representations alike of sculpture,
painting and poetry the things and persons represented may bear
symbolic meanings and imaginary names and characters; they may
be set in a land of dreams, and grouped in relations and circumstances
upon which the sun of this world never shone; in point of fact,
through many ages of history they have been chiefly used to embody
human ideas of supernatural powers; but it is from real things
and persons that their lineaments and characters have been taken
in the first instance, in order to be attributed by the imagination to
another and more exalted order of existences.
The law which we have last laid down is a law defining the relations
of sculpture, painting and poetry, considered simply as arts having
their foundations at any rate in reality, and drawing from
the imitation of reality their indispensable elements and
materials. It is a law defining the range and character
of those elements or materials in nature which each art is
best fitted, by its special means and resources, to imitate.
But we must remember that, even in this fundamental
part of its operations, none of these arts proceeds by
imitation or evocation pure and simple. None of them con-
tents itself with seeking to represent realities, however literally
taken, exactly as those realities are. A portrait in sculpture or
painting, a landscape in painting, a passage of local description in
poetry, may be representations of known things taken literally or
for their own sakes, and not for the sake of carrying out thoughts
to the unknown ; but none of them ought to be, or indeed can possibly
be, a representation of all the observed parts and details of such a
reality on equal terms and without omissions. Such a representation,
were it possible, would be a mechanical inventory and not a work of
fine art.
Hence the value of a pictorial imitation is by no means necessarily
in proportion to the number of facts which it records. Many accom-
plished pictures, in which all the resources of line, colour
and light-and-shade have been used to the utmost of Com P lete -
the artist's power for the imitation of all that he could see '
in nature, are dead and worthless in comparison with a
few faintly touched outlines or lightly laid shadows or
tints of another artist who could see nature more vitally
and better. Unless the painter knows how to choose and
combine the elements of his finished work so that it
shall contain in every part suggestions and delights over and
above the mere imitation, it will fall short, in that which
is the essential charm of fine art, not only of any scrap
of a great master's handiwork, such as an outline sketch of
a child by Raphael or a colour sketch of a boat or a mackerel by
Turner, but even of any scrap of the merest journeyman's handiwork
produced by an artistic race, such as the first Japanese drawing in
which a water-flag and kingfisher, or a spray of peach or almond
blossom across the sky, is dashed in with a mere hint of colour,
but a hint that tells a whole tale to the imagination. That only, we
know, is fine art which affords keen and permanent delight to con-
templation. Such delight the artist can never communicate by the
display of a callous and pedantic impartiality in presence of the
facts of life and nature. His representation of realities will only
strike or impress others in so far as it concentrates their attention on
things by which he has been struck and impressed himself. To
arouse emotion, he must have felt emotion ; and emotion is impos-
sible without partiality. The artist is one who instinctively tends to
modify and work upon every reality before him in conformity with
some poignant and sensitive principle of preference or selection in his
mind. He instinctively adds something to nature in one direction
and takes away something in another, overlooking this kind of fact
and insisting on that, suppressing many particulars which he holds
irrelevant in order to insist on and bring into prominence others by
which he is attracted and arrested.
The instinct by which an artist thus prefers, selects and brings into
light one order of facts or aspects in the thing before him rather
than the rest, is part of what is called the idealizing or ideal
faculty. Interminable discussion has been spent on the
questions, What is the ideal, and how do we idealize?
The answer has been given in one form by those thinkers
(e.g. Vischer and Lotze) who have pointed out that the
process of aesthetic idealization carried on by the artist is only the
ness not
the test
of value
in a
pictorial
imitation.
Nature
%~ ,
" " x
p
3 68
FINE ARTS
[CLASSIFICATION
Subjec-
tive and
objective
ideals.
higher development of a process carried on in an elementary fashion
by all men, from the very nature of their constitution. The physical
organs of sense themselves do not retain or put on record all the
impressions made upon them. When the nerves of the eye receive
a multitude of different stimulations at once from different points in
space, the sense of eyesight, instead of being aware of all these
stimulations singly, only abstracts and retains a total impression
of them together. In like manner we are not made aware by the
sense of hearing of all the several waves of sound that strike in a
momentary succession upon the nerves of the ear; that sense only
abstracts and retains a total impression from the combined effect
of a number of such waves. And the office which each sense thus
performs singly for its own impressions, the mind performs in a
higher degree for the impressions of all the senses equally, and for
all the other parts of our experience. We are always dismissing or
neglecting a great part of our impressions, and abstracting and
combining among those which we retain. The ordinary human
consciousness works like an artist up to this point; and when we
speak of the ordinary or inartistic man as being impartial in the
retention or registry of his daily impressions, we mean, of course,
in the retention or registry of his impressions as already thus far
abstracted and assorted in consciousness. The artistic man, whose
impressions affect him much more strongly, has the faculty of
carrying much farther these same processes of abstraction, com-
bination and selection among his impressions.
The possession of this faculty is the artist's most essential gift.
To attempt to carry farther the psychological analysis of the gift is
outside our present object ; but it is worth while to con-
sider somewhat closely its modes of practical operation.
One mode is this : the artist grows up with certain innate
or acquired predilections which become a part of his
constitution whether he will or no, predilections, say,
if he is a dramatic poet, for certain types of plot, character and
situation; if he is a sculptor, for certain proportions and a certain
habitual carriage and disposition of the limbs; if he is a figure
painter, for certain schemes of composition and moulds of figure
and airs and expressions of countenance; if a landscape painter,
for a certain class of local character, sentiment and pictorial effect in
natural scenery. To such predilections he cannot choose but make
his representations of reality in large measure conform. This is one
part of the transmuting process which the data of life and experience
have to undergo at the hands of artists, and may be called the
subjective or purely personal mode of idealization. But there is
another part of that work which springs from an impulse in the
artistic constitution not less imperious than the last named, and in a
certain sense contrary to it. As an imitator or evoker of the facts
of life and nature, >.he artist must recognize and accept the character
of those facts with which he has in any given case to deal. All facts
cannot be of the cast he prefers, and in so far as he undertakes to
deal with those of an opposite cast he must submit to them; he
must study them as they actually are, must apprehend, enforce and
bring into prominence their own dominant tendencies. If he cannot
find in them what is most pleasing to himself, he will still be led
by the abstracting and discriminating powers of his observation to
discern what is most expressive and significant in them, he will
emphasize and put on record this, idealizing the facts before him not
in his direction but in their own. This is the second or objective
half of the artist's task of idealization. It is this half upon which
Taine dwelt almost exclusively, and on the whole with a just insight
into the principles of the operation, in his well-known treatise On
the Ideal in Art, Both these modes of idealization are legitimate;
that which springs from inborn and overmastering personal preference
in the artist for particular aspects of life and nature, and that which
springs from his insight into the dominant and significant character
of the phenomena actually before him, and his desire to emphasize
and disengage them. But there is a third mode of idealizing which
is less vital and genuine than either of these, and therefore less
legitimate, though unfortunately far more common. This mode
consists in making things conform to a borrowed and conventional
standard of beauty and taste, which corresponds neither to any
strong inward predilection of the artist nor to any vital characteristic
in the objects of his representation. Since the rediscovery of Greek
and Roman sculpture in the Renaissance, a great part of the efforts
of artists have been spent in falsifying their natural instincts and
misrepresenting the facts of nature in pursuit of a conventional ideal
of abstract and generalized beauty framed on a false conception
and a shallow knowledge of the antique. School after school from
the i6th century downwards has been confirmed in this practice by
academic criticism and theory, with resulting insipidities and in-
sincerities of performance which have commonly been acclaimed in
their day, but from which later generations have sooner or later
turned away with a wholesome reaction of distaste.
The two genuine modes of idealization, the subjective land the
objective, are not always easy to be reconciled. The greatest artist
is no doubt he who can combine the strongest personal instincts
of preference with the keenest power of observing characteristics as
they are. yet in fact we find few in whom both these elements of the
ideal faculty have been equally developed. To take an example
among Florentine painters, Sandro Botticelli is usually thought of as
one who could never escape from the dictation of his own personal
ideals, in obedience to which he is supposed to have invested all the
creations of his art with nearly the same conformation of brows,
lips, cheeks and chin, nearly the same looks of wistful
yearning and dejection. There is some truth in this Examples
impression, though it is largely based on the works not of '" la
the master himself, but of pupils who exaggerated his two .
mannerisms. Leonardo da Vinci was strong in both m ^ saaa
directions; haunted in much of his work by a particular otlKelr
human ideal of intellectual sweetness and alluring J^J
mystery, he has yet left us a vast number of exercises
which show him as an indefatigable student of objective character-
istics and psychological expressions of an order the most opposed to
this. And in this case again followers have over-emphasized the
master's predilections, Luini, Sodoma and the rest borrowing and
repeating the mysterious smile of Leonardo till it becomes in their
work an affectation cloying however lovely. Among latter-day
painters, Burne-Jones will occur to every reader as the type of an
artist always haunted and dominated by ideals of an intensely
personal cast partly engendered in his imagination by sympathy
with the early Florentines. If we seek for examples of the opposite
principle, of that idealism which idealizes above all things objectively,
and seeks to disengage the very inmost and individual characters
of the thing or person before it, we think naturally of certain great
masters of the northern schools, as Diirer, Holbein and Rembrandt.
Diirer's endeavour to express such characters by the most searching
intensity of linear definition was, however, hampered and conditioned
by his inherited national and Gothic predilection for the strained in
gesture and the knotted and the gnarled in structure, against which
his deliberate scholarly ambition to establish a canon of ideal
proportion contended for the most part in vain. And Rembrandt's
profound spiritual insight into human character and personality
did not prevent him from plunging his subjects, ever deeper and
deeper as his life advanced, into a mysterious shadow-world of his
own imagination, whereall local colours were brokenupand crumbled,
and where amid the struggle of gloom and gleam he could make his
intensely individualized men and women breathe more livingly than
in plain human daylight.
It is by the second mode of operation chiefly, that is by imagina-
tively discerning, disengaging and forcing into prominence their
inherent significance, that the idealizing faculty brings
into the sphere of fine art deformities and degeneracies Car ' ca <"*
to which the name beautiful or sublime can by no stretch aaa ***
of usage be applied. Hence arise creations like the Stryge f tes 1 ae
of Notre- Dame and a thousand other grotesques of Gothic "* modes
architectural carving. Hence, although on a lower plane . f
and interpreted with a less transmuting intensity of in- ea '
sight and emphasis, the snarling or jovial grossness of the
peasants of Adrian Brauwer and the best of his Dutch compeers.
Hence Shakespeare's Caliban and figures like those of Quilp and
Quasimodo in the romances of Dickens and Hugo; hence the cynic
grimness of Goya's Caprices and the profound and bitter impres-
siveness of Daumier's caricatures of Parisian bourgeois life; or
again, in an angrier and more insulting and therefore less under-
standing temper, the brutal energy of the political drawings of
Gilray.
Sculpture, painting and poetry, then, are among the greater fine
arts those which express and arouse emotion by imitating or evoking
real and known things, either for their own sakes literally,
or for the sake of shadowing forth things not known but '
imagined. In either case they represent their originals, "' ,
not indiscriminately as they are, but sifted, simplified, fi a ^
enforced and enhanced to our apprehensions partly by
the artist's power of making things conform to his own in-
stincts and preferences, partly by his other power of interpreting
and emphasizing the significant characters of the facts before him.
Any imitation that does not do one or other or both of these things
in full measure fails in the quality of emotional expression and
emotional appeal, and in so failing falls short, taken merely as
imitation, of the standard of fine art.
But we must remember that idealized imitation, as such, is not the
whole task of these arts nor their only means of appeal. There is
another part of their task, logically though not practically
independent of the relations borne by their imitations f
to the original phenomena of nature, and dependent on e
the appeal made through the eye and ear to our primal
organic sensibilities by the properties of rhythm, pattern
and regulated design in the arrangement of sounds, lines, non
masses, colours and light-and-shade. That appeal we /,
noted as lying at the root of the art impulse in its most e i emea t s .
elementary stage. In its most developed stage every
fine art is bound still to play upon the same sensibilities.
In a work of sculpture the contours and interchanges of
light and shadow are bound to be such as would please the eye,
whether the statue or relief represented the figure of anything real
in the world or not. The flow and balance of line, and the distribution
of colours and light-and-shade, in a picture are bound to be such as
would make an agreeable pattern although they bore no resemblance
to natural fact (as, indeed, many subordinate applications of this
art, in decorative painting and geometrical and other ornaments,
do, we know, give pleasure though they represent nothing). The
CLASSIFICATION]
FINE ARTS
3 6 9
Necessity
of due
balance
between
nlque:
the nan-
imitative
arts and
their
technique.
sound of a line or verse in poetry is bound to be such as would thrill
the physical ear in hearing, or the mental ear in reading, with a
delightful excitement even though the meaning went for nothing.
If the imitative arts are to touch and elevate the emotions, if they
are to afford permanent delight of the due pitch and volume, it is
not a more essential law that their imitation, merely as such, should
be of the order which we have denned as ideal, than that they should
at the same time exhibit these independent effects which they share
with the non-imitative group.
So far we have assumed, without asserting, the necessity that
the artist in whatever kind should possess a power of execution,
or technique as it is called in modern phrase, adequate
to the task of embodying and giving shape to his ideals.
In thought it is possible to separate the conception of a
work of art from its execution; in practice it is not
possible, and half the errors in criticism and speculation
a bout the fine arts spring from failing to realize that an
artistic conception can only be brought home to us through
and by its appropriate embodiment. Whatever the artist's
cast of imagination or degree of sensibility may be in
presence of the materials of life, it is essential that he
should be able to express himself appropriately in the
material of his particular art. To quote the writer
(R. A. M. Stevenson) who has enforced this point most
clearly and vividly, perhaps with some pardonable measure
of over-statement: " It is a sensitiveness to the special qualities
of some visible or audible medium of art which distinguishes the
species artist from the genus man." And again:" There are as many
separate faculties of imagination as there are separate mediums in
which to conceive an image clay, words, paint, notes of music."
..." Technique differs as the material of each art differs differs
as marble, pigments, musical notes and words differ." The artist
who does not enjoy and has not with delighted labour mastered
the effects of his own chosen medium will never be a master; the
hearer, reader or spectator who cannot appreciate the qualities of
skill, vitality and charm in the handling of the given material, or
who fails to feel their absence when they are lacking, or who looks
in one material primarily for the qualities appropriate to another,
will never make a critic. The technique of the space-arts differs
radically from that of the time-arts. So again do those of the imita-
tive and the non-imitative arts differ among themselves. The non-
imitative arts of music and architecture are in a certain degree
alike in this, that the artist is in neither case his own executant
(this at least is true of music so far as concerns its modern con-
certed and orchestral developments) ; the musical composer and the
architect each imagines and composes a design in the medium of
his own art which it is left for others to carry out under his direction.
The technique in each case consists not in mastery of an instrument
(though the musical composer may be, and often is, a master of
some one of the instruments whose effects he in his mind's ear
co-ordinates and combines); it lies in the power of knowing and
conjuring up all the emotional resources and effects of the various
materials at his command, and of conceiving and designing to their
last detail vast and ordered structures, to be raised by subordinate
executants from those materials, which shall adequately express his
temperament and embody his ideals.
In the imitative arts, on the other hand, the sculptor, unless he
is a fraud, must be wholly his own executant in the original task
f modelling his design in the soft material of clay or
11 " a " wax, though he must accept the aid of assistants whether
" V rfffc*f '" tne cast ' n g f hi g worl< m bronze or in first roughing
it out from the block in marble. Too many sculptors
' have been inclined further to trust to trained mechanical
!nd iscflo hel P in finishing their work with the chisel; with the
ture p ~ result that the surface loses the touch which is the ex-
pression of personal temperament and personal feeling
for the relations of his material to nature. The artist in
love with the vital qualities of form, or those of his own
handiwork in expressing such qualities in modelling-clay, will
never stop until he learns how to translate them for himself in
marble. Proceeding to that imitative art which leaves out the third
dimension of nature, and by so doing enormously increases the range
of objects and effects which come within its power proceeding to
the art of painting, the painter is in theory exclusively his own
executant, and in practice mainly so, though in certain schools and
periods the great artists have been accustomed to surround themselves
with pupils to whom they have imparted their methods and who
have helped them ii i the subordinate and preparatory parts of their
work. But the painter fit to teach and lead can by no means escape
the necessity of being himself a master of his material, and his
handling of it must needs bear the immediate impress of his tempera-
ment. His emotional preferences among the visible facts of nature,
his feeling for the relative importance and charm of line, colour,
light and shade, used whether for the interpretation and heightening
of natural fact or for producing a pattern in itself harmonious and
suggestive to the eye, his sense of the special modes of handling most
effective for communicating the impression he desires, all these
together inevitably appear in, and constitute, his style and technique.
If he is careless or inexpert or conventional, or cold or without delight,
in technique, though he may be animated by the noblest purposes
and the loftiest ideas, he is a failure as a painter. At certain periods
in the history of painting, as in the I3th and I4th centuries in Italy,
the technique seems indeed to modern eyes wholly immature;
but that was because there were many aspects of visible things which
the art had not yet attempted or desired to portray, not because it
did not put forth with delight its best traditional or newly acquired
skill in portraying the special aspects with which it had so far
attempted to grapple. At certain other periods, as in the later
l6th and 1 7th centuries in the same country, the elements of inherited
technical facility and academic pride of skill outweigh the sincerity
and freshness of interest taken in the aspects of things to be portrayed,
and the true balance is lost. At other times, as in much of the work
of the igth century, especially in England, painters have been
diverted from their true task, and lost hold of intelligent and living
technique altogether, in trying to please a public blind to the special
qualities of their art, and prone to seek in it the effects, frivolous or
serious, which are appropriate not to paint and canvas but to
literature.
Lastly, the poet and literary artist must obviously be the exclusive
master of his own technique. No one can help him : all depends on
the keenness of his double sensibility to the thrill of life _ ..
and to that of words, and to his power of maintaining a .
just balance between the two. If he is truly and organic- Jjf > jjf a ''fc
ally sensitive to words alone, and has learnt life only ,
i i i J e of w arils,
through their medium and not through the energies of
his own imagination, nor through personal sensibility to the impact
of things and thoughts and passions and experience, then his work
may be a miracle of accomplished verbal music, and may entrance
the ear for the moment, but will never live to illuminate and sustain
and console. If, on the other hand, he has imagination and sensibility
in full measure, and lacks the inborn love of and gift for words
and their magic, he will be but a dumb or stammering poet all his
days. There is no better witness on this point than Wordsworth.
His own prolonged lapses from verbal felicity, and continual habit
of solemn meditation on themes not always inspiring, might make us
hesitate to choose him as an example of that particular love and gift.
But Wordsworth could never have risen to his best and greatest self
had he not truly possessed the sensibilities which he attributes to
himself in the Prelude :
" Twice five years
Or less I might have seen, when first my mind
With conscious pleasure opened to the charm
Of words in tuneful order, found them sweet
For their own sakes, a passion, and a power;
And phrases pleased me chosen for delight,
For pomp, or love."
And again, expressing better than any one else the relation which
words in true poetry hold to things, he writes:
" Visionary power
Attends the motions of the viewless winds,
Embodied in the mystery of words;
There darkness makes abode, and all the host
Of shadowy things work endless changes, there,
As in a mansion Tike their proper home,
Even forms and substances are circumfused
By that transparent veil with light divine,
And, through the turnings intricate of verse,
Present themselves as objects recognized,
In flashes, and with glory not their own."
3. The Serviceable and the Non-Serviceable Arts. It has been
established from the outset that, though the essential distinction of
fine art as such is to minister not to material necessity or
practical use, but to delight, yet there are some among the . lfk
arts of men which do both these things at once and are J/**?' *'
arts of direct use and of beauty or emotional appeal s niceable
together. Under this classification a survey of the field sna the
of art at different periods of history would yield different 000m
results. In ruder times, we have seen, the utilitarian aim
was still the predominant aim of art, and most of what
we now call fine arts served in the beginning to fulfil the
practical needs of individual and social life ; and this not only among
primitive or savage races. In ancient Egypt and Assyria the primary
purpose of the relief-sculptures on palace and temple walls was the
practical one of historical record and commemoration. Even as late
as the middle ages and early Renaissance the primary business of
the painter was to give instruction to the unlearned in Bible history
and in the lives of the saints, and to rouse him to' moods of religious
and ethical exaltation. The pleasures of fine art proper among the
manual-imitative group the pleasures, namely, of producing and
contemplating certain arrangements rather than others of design,
proportion, pattern, colour and light and shade, and of putting forth
and appreciating certain qualities of skill, truth and significance in
idealized imitation, these were, historically speaking, by-products
that arose gradually in the course of practice and development.
As time went on, the conscious aim of ministering to such pleasures
displaced and threw into the background the utilitarian ends for
which the arts had originally been practised, and the pleasures
became ends in themselves.
But even in advanced societies the double qualities of use and
370
FINE ARTS
[HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
beauty still remain inseparable, among the five greater arts, in
architecture. We build in the first instance for the sake of
Among the necessary shelter and accommodation, or for the corn-
greater memoration, propitiation or worship of spiritual powers on
whom we believe our welfare to depend. By and by we
hnd out that the aspect of our constructions is pleasurable
e or the reverse. Architecture is the art of building at once
Irii as we need and as we like ' and a P ractical treatise on
pnmaniy arc hj tecture must treat the beauty and the utility of
senlce buildings as bound up together. But for our present
purpose it has been proper to take into account one half
only of the vocation of architecture, the half by which it im-
presses, gives delight and belongs to that which is the subject of
our study, to fine art ; and to neglect the other half of its vocation,
by which it belongs to what is not the subject of our study, to useful
or mechanical art. It is plain, however, that the presence or absence
of this foreign element, the element of practical utility, constitutes
a fair ground for a new and separate classification of the fine arts.
If we took the five greater arts as they exist in modern times by
themselves, architecture would on this ground stand alone in one
division, as the directly useful or serviceable fine art ; with sculpture,
painting, music and poetry together in the other division, as fine
arts unassociated with such use or service. Not that the divi-
sions would, even thus, be quite sharply and absolutely separated.
Didactic poetry, we have already acknowledged, is a branch of the
poetic art which aims at practice and utility. Again, the hortatory
and patriotic kinds of lyric poetry, from the strains of Tyrtaeus to
those of Arndt or Rouget de Lisle or Wordsworth's sonnets written
in war-time, may fairly be said to belong to a phase of fine art which
aims directly at one of the highest utilities, the stimulation of
patriotic feeling and self-devotion. So may the strains of music
which accompany such poetry. The same practical character, as
stimulating and attuning the mind to definite ends and actions,
might indeed have been claimed for the greater part of the whole art
of music as that art was practised in antiquity, when each of several
prescribed and highly elaborated moods, or modes, of melody was
supposed to have a known effect upon the courage and moral temper
of the hearer. Compare Milton, when he tells of the Dorian mood of
flutes and soft recorders which assuaged the suffering^ and renewed
the courage of Satan and his legions as they marched through hell.
In modern music, .of which the elements, much more complex in
themselves than tliose of ancient music, have the effect of stirring
our fibres to moods of rapturous contemplation rather than of
action, military strains in march time are in truth the only purely
instrumental variety of the art which may still be said to retain
this character.
To reinforce, however, the serviceable or useful division of fine
arts in our present classification, it is not among the greater arts
that we must look. We must look among the lesser or
otherand aux iij arv ar ts of the manual or shaping group. The
"/ 'tee* weaver - the joiner, the potter, the smith, the goldsmith,
the glass-maker, these and a hundred artificers who pro-
"rdinjitf duce wares primarily for use, produce them in a form or
with embellishments that have the secondary virtue of
tecture ' gi vm g pleasure both to the producer and the user. Much
ingenuity has been spent to little purpose in attempting to
group and classify these lesser shaping arts under one or other of
the greater shaping arts, according to the nature of the means
employed in each. Thus the potter's art has been classed under
sculpture, because he moulds in solid form the shapes of his cups,
plates and ewers; the art of the joiner under that of the architect,
because his tables, seats and cupboards are fitted and framed together,
like the houses they furnish, out of solid materials previously pre-
pared and cut ; and the weaver and embroiderer, from the point of
view of the effects produced by their art, among painters. But the
truth is, that each one of these auxiliary handicrafts has its own
materials and technical procedure, which cannot, without forcing
and confusion, be described by the name proper to the materials
and technical procedure of any of the greater arts. The only satis-
factory classification of these handicrafts is that now before us,
according to which we think of them all together in the same group
with architecture, not because any one or more of them may be
technically allied to that art, but because, like it, they all yield
products capable of being practically useful and beautiful at the
same time. Architecture is the art which fits and frames together,
of stone, brick, mortar, timber or iron, the abiding and assembling
places of man, all his houses, palaces, temples, monuments, museums,
workshops, roofed places of meeting and exchange, theatres for
spectacle, fortresses of defence, bridges, aqueducts, and ships for
seafaring. The wise architect having fashioned any one of these
great constructions at once for service and beauty in the highest
degree, the lesser or auxiliary manual arts (commonly called " in-
dustrial " or " applied " arts) come in to fill, furnish and adorn it
with things of service and beauty in a lower degree, each according
to its own technical laws and capabilities; some, like pottery,
delighting the user at once by beauty of form, delicacy of substance,
and pleasantness of imitative or non-imitative ornament ; some, like
embroidery, by richness of tissue, and by the same twofold pleasant-
ness of ornament; some, like goldsmith's work, by exquisiteness
of fancy and workmanship proportionate to the exquisiteness of the
Current
enera/-
material. To this vast group of workmen, whose work is at the same
time useful and fine in its degree, the ancient Greek gave the place
which is most just and convenient for thought, when he classed
them all together under the name of Tinroj-es, or artificers, and called
the builder by the name of 6.p\iTiKTuv, arch-artificer or artificer-in-
chief. Modern usage has adopted the phrase " arts and crafts "
as a convenient general name for their pursuits.
III. Of the History of the Fine Arts.
Students of human culture have concentrated a great deal
of attentive thought upon the history of fine art, and have put
forth various comprehensive generalizations intended
at once to sum up and to account for the phases and
vicissitudes of that history. The most famous formulae
are those of Hegel, who regarded particular arts as being on the
characteristic of and appropriate to particular forms h ' stor y r
r ] i- 1 ci.- t T? i_- flneart:
of civilization and particular ages of history. For mm, H ege i.
architecture was the symbolic art appropriate to ages of
obscure and struggling ideas, and characteristic of the Egyptian
and the Asiatic races of old and of the medieval age in Europe.
Sculpture was the classical art appropriate to ages of lucid and
self-possessed ideas, and characteristic of the Greek and Roman
period. Painting, music and poetry were the romantic arts,
appropriate to the ages of complicated and overmastering ideas,
and characteristic of modern humanity in general. In the
working out of these generalizations Hegel brought together
a mass of judicious and striking observations; and that they
contain on the whole a preponderance of truth may be admitted.
It has been objected against them, from the philosophical
point of view, that they too much mix up the definition of what
the several arts theoretically are with considerations of what
in various historical circumstances they have practically been.
From the historical point of view there can be taken what
seems a more valid objection, that these formulae of Hegel
tend too much to fix the attention of the student upon the one
dominant art chosen as characteristic of any period, and to
give him false ideas of the proportions and relations of the several
arts at the same period of the proportions and relations which
poetry, say, really bore to sculpture among the Greeks and
Romans, or sculpture to architecture among the Christian nations
of the middle age. The truth is, that the historic survey gained
over any field of human activity from the height of generaliza-
tions so vast in scope as these are must needs, in the complexity
of earthly affairs, be a survey too distant to give much guidance
until its omissions are filled up by a great deal of nearer study;
and such nearer study is apt to compel the student in the long
run to qualify the theories with which he has started until they
are in danger of disappearing altogether.
Another systematic exponent of the universe, whose system
is very different from that of Hegel, Herbert Spencer, brought
the doctrine of evolution to bear, not without interest- Wertert
ing results, upon the history of the fine arts and their spencer
development. Herbert Spencer set forth how the and the
manual group of fine arts, architecture, sculpture
and painting, were in their first rudiments bound up
together, and how each of them in the course of history has
liberated itself from the rest by a gradual process of separation.
These arts did not at first exist in the distinct and developed
forms in which we have above described them. There were no
statues in the round, and no painted panels or canvases hung
upon the wall. Only the rudiments of sculpture and painting
existed, and that only as ornaments applied to architecture,
in the shape of tiers of tinted reliefs, representing in a kind of
picture-writing the exploits of kings upon the walls of their
temple-palaces. Gradually sculpture took greater salience
and roundness, and tended to disengage itself from the wall,
while painting found out how to represent solidity by means of
its own, and dispensed with the raised surface upon which it
was first applied. But the old mixture and union of the three
arts, with an undeveloped art of painting and an undeveloped
art of sculpture still engaged in or applied to the works of archi-
tecture, continued on the whole to prevail through the long
cycles of Egyptian and Assyrian history. In the Egyptian
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT]
FINE ARTS
37 1
palace-temple we find a monument at once political and religious,
upon the production of which were concentrated all the energies
and faculties of all the artificers of the race. With its incised
and pictured walls, its half-detached colossi, its open and its
colonnaded chambers, the forms of the columns and their
capitals recalling the stems and blossoms of the lotus and papyrus,
with its architecture everywhere taking on the characters and
covering itself with the adornments of immature sculpture and
painting this structure exhibits within its single fabric the
origins of the whole subsequent group of shaping arts. From
hence it is a long way to the innumerable artistic surroundings
of later Greek and Roman life, the many temples with their
detached and their engaged statues, the theatres, the porticoes,
the baths, the training-schools, the stadiums, with free and
separate statues both of gods and men adorning every building
and public place, the frescoes upon the walls, the panel pictures
hung in temples and public and private galleries. In the terms
of the Spencerian theory of evolution, the advance from the
early Egyptian to the later Greek stage is an advance from the
one to the manifold, from the simple to the complex, from the
homogeneous to the heterogeneous, and affords a striking
instance of that vast and ceaseless process of differentiation and
integration which it is the law of all things to undergo. In the
Christian monuments of the early middle age, again, the arts,
owing to the political and social cataclysm in which Roman
civilization went down, have gone back to the rudimentary
stage, and are once more attached to and combined with each
other. The single monument, the one great birth of art, in that
age, is the Gothic church. In this we find the art of applied
sculpture exercised in fashions infinitely rich and various, but
entirely in the service and for the adornment of the architecture ;
we find painting exercised in fashions more rudimentary still,
principally in the forms of translucent imagery in the chancel
windows and tinted decorations on the walls and vaultings.
From this stage again the process of the differentiation of the
arts is repeated. It is by a new evolution or unfolding, and
by one carried to much further and more complicated stages
than the last had reached, that the arts since the middle age
have come to the point where we find them to-day; when
architecture is applied to a hundred secular and civil uses with
not less magnificence, or at least not less desire of magnificence,
than that with which it fulfilled its two only uses in the middle
age, the uses of worship and of defence; when detached sculptures
adorn, or are intended to adorn, all our streets and commemorate
all our likenesses; when the subjects of painting have been
extended from religion to all life and nature, until this one art
has been divided into the dozen branches of history, landscape,
still life, genre, anecdote and the rest. Such being in brief the
successive stages, and such the reiterated processes, of evolution
among the shaping or space arts, the action of the same law
can be traced, it is urged, in the growth of the speaking or time
arts also. Originally poetry and music, the two great speaking
arts, were not separated from each other and from the art of
bodily motion, dancing. The father of song, music and dancing,
all three, was that primitive man of whom so much has already
been said, he who first clapped hands and leapt and shouted in
time at some festival of his tribe. From the clapping, or rudi-
mentary rhythmical noise, has been evolved the whole art of
instrumental music, down to the entrancing complexity of the
modern symphony. From the shout, or rudimentary emotional
utterance, has proceeded by a kindred evolution the whole art
of vocal music down to the modern opera or oratorio. From
the leap, or rudimentary expression of emotion by rhythmical
movements of the body, has descended every variety of dancing,
from the stately figures of the tragic chorus of the Greeks to
the kordax of their comedy or the complexities of the modern
ballet.
That the theory of evolution serves usefully to group and to
interpret many facts in the history of art we shall not deny,
though it would be easy to show that Herbert Spencer's instances
and applications are not sufficient to sustain all the conclusions
that he seems to draw from them. Thus, it is perfectly true
that the Egyptian or Assyrian palace wall is an instance of
rudimentary painting and rudimentary sculpture in subser-
vience to architecture. But it is not less true that races
who had no architecture at all, but lived in caverns of ^^g" c
the earth, exhibit, as we have already had occasion to points of
notice, excellent rudiments of the other two shaping arts Spencer's
in a different form, in the carved or incised handles of general-
their weapons. And it is almost certain that, among
the nations of oriental antiquity themselves, the art of decorating
solid walls so as to please the eye with patterns and presentations
of natural objects was borrowed from the precedent of an older
art which works in easier materials, namely, the art of the
weaver. It would be in the perished textile fabrics of the
earliest dwellers in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Nile
that we should find, if anywhere, the origins of the systems of
surface design, whether conventional or imitative, which those
races afterwards applied to the decoration of their solid construc-
tions. Not, therefore, in any one exclusive type of primitive
artistic activity, but in a score of such types equally, varying
according to race, region and circumstances, shall we find so
many germs or nuclei from which whole families of fine arts
have in the course of the world's history differentiated and
unfolded themselves. And more than once during that history,
a cataclysm of political and social forces has not only checked
the process of the evolution of the fine arts, but from an advanced
stage of development has thrown them back again to a primitive
stage. Recent research has shown how the Minoanand Mycenaean
civilizations in the Mediterranean basin, with their developed
fine arts, must have perished and been effaced before the second
growth of art from new rudiments took place in Greece. The
great instance of the downfall of the Roman civilization need
not be requoted. By Spencer's application of the theory of
evolution, not less than by Hegel's theory of the historic periods,
attention is called to the fact that Christian Europe, during
several centuries of the middle age, presents to our study a
civilization analogous to the civilization of the old oriental
empires in this respect, that its ruling and characteristic manual
art is architecture, to which sculpture and painting are, as in
the oriental empires, once more subjugated and attached. It
does not of course follow that such periods of fusion or mutual
dependence among the arts are periods of bad art. On the
contrary, each stage of the evolution of any art has its own
characteristic excellence.' The arts can be employed in combina-
tion, and yet be all severally excellent. When music, dancing,
acting and singing were combined in the performance of the
Greek chorus, the combination no doubt presented a relative
perfection of each of the four elements analogous to the combined
perfection, in the contemporary Doric temple, of pure architec-
tural form, sculptured enrichment of spaces specially contrived
for sculpture in the pediments and frieze, and coloured decoration
over all. The extreme differentiation of any art from every
other art, and of the several branches of one art among themselves,
does not by any means tend to the perfection of that art. The
process of evolution among the fine arts may go, and indeed
in the course of history has gone, much too far for the health
of the arts severally. Thus an artist of our own day is Usually
either a painter only or a sculptor only; but yet it is acknow-
ledged that the painter who can model a statue, or the sculptor
who can paint a picture, is likely to be the more efficient master
of both arts; and in the best days of Florentine art the greatest
men were generally painters, sculptors, architects and goldsmiths
all at once. In like manner a landscape painter who paints
landscape only is apt not to paint it so well as one who paints
the figure too; and in recent times the craft of engraving had
almost ceased to be an art from the habit of allotting one part
of the work, as skies, to one hand, another part, as figures, to a
second, and another part, as landscape, to a third. This kind
of continually progressing subdivision of labour, which seems
to be the necessary law of industrial processes, is fatal to any
skill which demands, as skill in the fine arts, we have seen^
demands, the free exercise and direction of a highly complex
cluster both of faculties and sensibilities.
372
FINE ARTS
[HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
*
In the second half of the ipth century a reaction set in against
such over-differentiation of the several manual arts and crafts.
This reaction is chiefly identified in England with the
name of William Morris, who insisted by precept and
example that one form of artistic activity was as
evolution worthy as another, and himself both practised and
amongst tra ; ne d others in the practiceof glass-painting, weaving,
a rt S *" embroidery, furniture and wall-paper designing, and
book decoration alike. His example has been to some
extent followed in most European countries, and efforts have
been made to reunite the functions of artist and craftsman,
and to set a limit to the process of differentiation among the
various manual arts. In the vocal or time arts also, a reformer
of high genius and force of character, Richard Wagner, rose to
contend that in music the process of evolution and differentiation
had gone much too far. Music, he urged, as separated from
words and actions, independent orchestral and instrumental
music, had reached its utmost development, and its further
advance could only be an advance into the inane; while operatic
music had broken itself up into a number of set and separate
forms, as aria, scena, recitative, which corresponded to no real
varieties of instinctive emotional utterance, and in the aimless
production of which the art was in danger of paralysing and
stultifying itself. This process, he declared, must be checked;
music and words must be brought back again into close connexion
and mutual dependence; the artificial opera forms must be
abolished, and a new and homogeneous music-drama be created,
of which the author must combine in himself the functions of
poet, composer, inventor, and director of scenery and stage
appliances, so that the entire creation should bear the impress
of a single mind; to the creation of such a music-drama he
accordingly devoted- all the energies of his being.
It is thus evident that the evolution theory, though it furnishes
us with some instructive points of view for the history of the fine
arts as for other things, is far from being the whole
key to that history. Another key, employed with
"or natural results perhaps less really luminous than they are
history of certainly showy and attractive, is that supplied by
art/'"" Taine. Taine's philosophy, which might perhaps
be better called a natural history, of fine art consists
in regarding the fine arts as the necessary result of the
general conditions under which they are at any time produced
conditions of race and climate, of religion, civilization and
manners. Acquaint yourself with these conditions as they
existed in any given people at any given period, and you will
be able to account for the characters assumed by the arts of that
people at that period, and to reason from one to the other, as a
botanist can account for the flora of any given locality, and can
reason from its soil, exposure and temperature, to the orders
of vegetation which it will produce. This method of treating
the history of the fine arts, again, is one which can, be pursued
with profit in so far as it makes the student realize the connexion
of fine arts with human culture in general, and teaches him how
the arts of any age and country are not an independent or
arbitrary phenomenon, but are essentially an outcome, or
efflorescence, to use a phrase of Ruskin's, of deep-seated elements
in the civilization which produces them. But it is a method
which, rashly used, is very apt to lead to a hasty and one-sided
handling both of history and of art. It is easy to fasten on
certain obvious relations of fine art to general civilization when
you know a few of the facts of both, and to say, the cloudy skies
and mongrel industrial population of Protestant Amsterdam at
such and such a date had their inevitable reflection in the art of
Rembrandt; the wealth and pomp of the full-fleshed burghers
and burgesses of Catholic Antwerp had theirs in the art of
Rubens. But to do this in the precise and conclusive manner
of Taine's treatises on the philosophy of art always means to
ignore a large range of conditions or causes for which no corre-
sponding effect is on the surface apparent, and generally also
a large number of effects for which appropriate causes cannot
easily be discovered at all.
These considerations have resulted in a reaction against
Taine's theories which goes probably too far. It is no complete
confutation of his philosophy of art-history to contend,
as has been done somewhat contemptuously by md"*
Professor Ernst Grosse and others, that the great counter-
artist, so far from representing the general tendencies criticisms
of his time and environment, is commonly a solitary "meth'ods*
innovator and revolutionist, and has to educate and
create his own public, often through years of obloquy
or neglect. This is sometimes true when the traditions and
ideals of art are undergoing revolution or swift experimental
change, but hardly ever true in times of stable tradition and
accepted ideals; and when true it only shows that the tendencies
the innovating genius represents are tendencies which have till
his time been working underground, and which he is born to
bring into light and evidence. A new and revolutionary impulse
in art, as in thought or politics, is like a yeast or ferment working
at first secretly, affecting for a while only a few spirits, as a new
epidemic may for a while only affect a few constitutions, and
then gradually ripening and strengthening till it communicates
itself to thousands. In its inception such a ferment is not,
indeed, one of the obvious phenomena of the society in which
it takes root, but it is none the less one of the most vital and
significant phenomena. The truth is, that this particular
efflorescence of human culture depends for its character at any
given time upon combinations of causes which are by no means
simple, but generally highly complex, obscure and nicely
balanced. For instance, the student who should try to reason
back from the holy and beatified character which prevails in
much of the devotional painting of the Italian schools down
to the Renaissance would be much mistaken were he to conclude,
" like art, like life, thoughts and manners." He would not
understand the relation of the art to the general civilization of
those days unless he were to remember that one of the chief
functions of the imagination is to make up for the shortcomings
of reality, and to supply to contemplation images of that which
is most lacking in actual life; so that the visions at once peaceful
and ardent embodied by the religious schools of art in the
Italian cities are to be explained, not by the peace, but rather
in great part by the dispeace, of contemporary existence, and
by the longing of the human spirit to escape into happier and
more calm conditions.
Any one of the three modes of generalization to which we have
referred might no doubt yield, however, supposing in the student
the due gifts of patience and of caution, a working
clue to guide him through that immense region of
research, the history of the fine arts. But it is hardly biniag the
possible to pursue to any purpose the history of the study at
two great groups, the shaping group and the speaking ^* oua/
group, together. At some stages of the world's w ith that
history the manual and the monumental arts have of the
flourished, as in Egypt and Assyria, when there was vocal
no fine art of words at all, and the only literature was fl^arts.
that of records cut in hieroglyph or cuneiform on
palace walls and temples, and on tablets, seals and cylinders.
At other times and in other communities there has existed
a great tradition and inheritance of .poetry and song when the
manual arts were only beginning to emerge again from the
wreck of an old civilization, as in the Homeric age of Greece,
or where they had never flourished at all except by imitation
and importation, as in Palestine. In historic Greece all three
divisions of the art of poetry, the epic, lyric and the dramatic,
had been perfected, and two of them had again declined, before
sculpture had reached maturity or painting had passed beyond
the stage of its early severity. The European poetry of the
middle ages, abundant and rich as it was alike in France and
Provence, in Germany and Scandinavia, can yet not take rank,
among the creations of human genius, beside the great master-
pieces of Romanesque and Gothic architecture; it was in Italy
only that Dante, before the end of that age, carried poetry to
a place of equality if not of primacy among the arts. Taking the
England of the Elizabethan age, we find the great outburst of
our national genius in poetry contemporary with nothing more
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT]
FINE ARTS
373
interesting in the manual arts than the gradual and only half-
intelligent transformation of late Gothic architecture by the
adoption of Italian Renaissance forms imported principally
by way of Flanders or France, together with a fine native skill
shown in the art of miniature portrait-painting, and none at
all worth mentioning in other branches of painting or in sculpture.
If the course of poetry and that of the manual arts have thus
run independently throughout almost the whole field of history,
those of music and the manual arts have been more widely
separated still. In ancient Greece music and poetry were, we
know, most intimately connected, but of the true nature of Greek
music we know but little, of that of the earlier middle ages less
still, and throughout the later middle ages and the earlier
Renaissance the art remained undeveloped, whether in the
service of the church or in secular and popular use, and in both
cases in strict subservience to words. The growth of independent
music is entirely the work of the modern world, and will probably
rank in the esteem of posterity as its highest spiritual achievement
and claim to gratitude, when the mechanical inventions and
applications of applied science, which now occupy so dispropor-
tionate a part of the attention of humanity, have become a
normal and unregarded part of its existence.
Moments in history there have no doubt been when literature
and the manual arts, and even music, have been swept simul-
taneously along a single stream of ideas and feelings. Such a
moment was experienced in France in 18.30 and the following
years, when (to choose only a few of the greatest names) Hugo
in poetry, Delacroix in painting, and Berlioz in music were
roused to a high pitch of consentaneous inspiration by the new
ideas and feelings of romanticism. But such moments are rare
and exceptional. On the other hand, it is very possible to take
the whole of the shaping or manual group of fine arts together
and to pursue their history connectedly throughout the course
of civilization. By the history of art what is usually meant is
indeed the history of these three arts with that of some of their
subordinate and connected crafts. Leaving aside the arts of
the races of the farther East, which, profoundly interesting
as they are, have but gradually and late become known to us,
and the relations of which with the arts of the nearer East and
the Mediterranean are still quite obscure leaving these aside,
the history of the manual arts of architecture, painting and
sculpture falls naturally into several great periods or divisions to
some extent overlapping each other but in the main consecutive.
These periods are roughly as follows:
1. The period of the great civilizations of Mesopotamia
and the Nile, beginning approximately about 5000 B.C.
Mala divl- an< ^ ending, roughly speaking (but some of them
sloas at much earlier), with the spread of Greek power and
the history Greek ideas under Alexander. On the main char-
of "* acteristics of the art of these empires we have already
had occasion to touch.
2. The Minoan and Mycenaean period, partly contemporary
with the above and dating probably from about 2500 to about
1000 B.C.; our knowledge of this is due entirely to quite recent
researches, confined at present to certain points in Greece and
Asia Minor, in Crete and other islands in the Mediterranean
basin; enough has already been revealed to prove the existence
of an original and highly developed palace-architecture and of
forms of relief-painting and of al! the minor and decorative
arts more free and animated than anything known to Egypt or
Assyria. (See CRETE and AEGEAN CIVILIZATION.)
3. The Greek and Roman period, from about 700 B.C. to the
final triumph of Christianity, say A.D. 400. During the first
two or three centuries of this period the Hellenic race, beginning
again after the cataclysm which had swallowed up the earlier
Mediterranean civilizations, carried to perfection its most
characteristic art, that of sculpture, in the endeavour to embody
worthily its ideas of the supernatural powers governing the world.
Putting aside the monstrous gods of Egypt and the East, it
found its ideals in varieties of the human form as presented by
the most harmoniously developed specimens of the race under
conditions of the greatest health, activity and grace. In the figures
of Greek sculpture, both decorative and independent, and no
doubt in Greek painting also (but of that we can only judge from
such specimens of the minor handicrafts, chiefly vase-paintings,
as have come down to us) in these were set for the whole
Western world the types and standards of human beauty, and
in their grouping and arrangement the types and standards
of rhythmical composition and design. Gradually human por-
traiture and themes of everyday life took their place beside
representations of the gods and heroes. New schools struck
out new tendencies within certain limits. But in the general
standards of form and design there was in the imitative arts
relatively little change, though towards the end there was much
failure of skill, throughout the whole period. The one great
change was in architecture. Greece had been content with the
constructive system of columns and horizontal entablature,
and under that system had invented and perfected her three
successive modes or orders of architecture the Doric, Ionic and
Corinthian. The genius of Rome invented the round arch,
and by help of that system erected throughout her subject
world a thousand vast constructions temple, palace, bath,
amphitheatre, forum, aqueduct, triumphal gate and the rest
on a scale of monumental grandeur such as Greece had never
known.
4. The Christian period, from about 400 to about 1400.
The decay or petrifaction of the imitative arts which had set
in during the latter days of Rome continued during all the
earlier centuries of the Christian period, while the Western
world was in process of remaking. Free painting and free
sculpture practically ceased to exist. Roman architecture
underwent modifications under the influence of the church and
of the new conditions of life; the Byzantine form, touched at
certain times and places with oriental influences, developed
itself wherever the Eastern Empire still stood erect in decay;
the Romanesque form, as it is called, in the barbarian-conquered
regions of the west and north. Sculpture existed for centuries
only in rudimentary and subordinate forms as applied to archi-
tecture; painting only in forms of rigid though sometimes
impressive hieratic imagery, whether as mosaic in the apses and
vaults of churches, as rude illumination in MSS. and service-
books, or as still ruder altar-painting carried on according to a
frozen mechanical tradition. As time went on and medieval
institutions developed themselves, a gradual vitality dawned
in all these arts. In architecture the introduction of the pointed
or Gothic arch at the beginning of the I3th century led to almost
as great a revolution as that brought about by the use of the
round or vaulted arch among the Romans. The same vital
impulse that informed the new Gothic architecture breathed
into the still quite subordinate arts of sculpture and painting
(the latter now including the craft of glass-painting for church
windows) a new spirit whether of devotional intensity or sweet-
ness, or of human pathos or rugged humour, with a new technical
skill for its embodiment. We have not set down, as is usually
done, a specifically Gothic period in art, for this reason. The
characteristic of the whole Christian period is that its dominant
art is architecture, chiefly employed in the service of the church,
with painting and sculpture only subordinately introduced for
its enrichment. It makes no essential difference that from the
5th to the 1 2th century the forms of this art were derived with
various modifications from the round-arched architecture of the
Empire, and that by the i3th century new forms both of con-
struction and decoration, in which the round arch was replaced
by the pointed, had been invented in France, and from thence
spread abroad to Germany and Scandinavia, Great Britain,
Spain, and last and most superficially to Italy. The essential
difference only begins when the imitative arts, sculpture and
painting, begin to emancipate and detach themselves, to exist
and strive after perfection on their own account. This happened
first and very partially in Italy with the artificers of the I3th
and i4th centuries with the sculptors Nicola, Giovanni, and
Andrea Pisano; the Sienese group of painters, Duccii/, Simone
Martini, and the Lorenzetti; and the Florentine group, Cimabue
(if Cimabue is not a myth), Giotto and the Giotteschi. The
374
FINE ARTS
[HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
development of the rapid and flowing craft of fresco in place of
the laborious and piecemeal craft of mosaic (henceforth for
several centuries almost lost) was a great aid to this movement.
After a period of something like stagnation, the movement
received a vigorous fresh impulse soon after 1400, at about
which date in Italy (not till near a century later in northern
Europe) the beginning of the Renaissance is usually fixed.
5. The Renaissance period, from about 1400 to about 1600.
The passion for classic literature, stimulated by the influence
of Greek scholars into Italy after the fall of Constantinople;
the enthusiastic revival of classic forms of architecture by
architects like Brunelleschi and Alberti; the achievements in
sculpture and painting of masters like Donatello and Masaccio,
based on a new and impassioned study of nature and the antique
together; these are the outstanding and universally known
symptoms of the Italian Renaissance in the second and third
quarters of the i5th century. Promptly and contemptuously
in Italy, much more gradually and incompletely in 'the north,
Gothic principles of construction and decoration were cast
aside for classical principles, as reformulated by eager spirits
from a combined study of Roman remains and of the text of
Vitruvius. To the ideal types of devout and prayer-worn,
ascetic and spiritualized humanity (tempered in certain subjects
with elements of the homely and the grotesque), which the
spirit of the middle ages had dictated to the sculptor and the
painter, succeeded ideals of physical power, beauty and grace
rivalling the Hellenic. The personages of the Christian faith
and story were brought into visible kindred with those of ancient
paganism. In the hands of certain artists a fortunate blending
of the two ideals yielded results of a poignant and unique charm,
which for us, who are the heirs both of antiquity and the middle
ages, is far from being yet exhausted. At the same time, the
love ah'ke of republics, great princes, churchmen, nobles and
merchants for works of art gave employment to sculptors and
painters on themes other than ecclesiastical. The taste for civic
or personal commemoration, for portraiture, for illustrations
of allegory, romance and classic fable, covered with pictures
the walls of council halls, of public and private palaces, and of
villas. The invention of the oil medium by the painters of
Flanders, and its gradual adoption by the Venetians and other
schools of Italy for all purposes except the external decorations
of buildings, added enormously to the resources of the art in
rivalry with nature, and to the splendour of its results as objects
of pride and luxury. The glories of matured Italian art reacted,
not always favourably, on the north. The great days of Flemish
painting had been from about 1430 to 1500, before any appreci-
able influence of the Renaissance had touched the schools of
Brussels, of Bruges or of Antwerp. By about 1520 the artists
of those schools had begun, except in portraiture, to lose their
native vigour and originality by contact with the alien south.
Among the great artists of Germany in the first half of the i6tb
century the work of one or two, like Burgkmair and Holbein,
shows Italian influence reconciled not unsuccessfully with native
instinct; but Diirer, the greatest of them, remained in all
essentials Gothic and German to the end. During the last half
of the century, the Netherlands and Germany alike yielded
little but work of mongrel Teutonized Italian or Italianized
Teutonic type, until towards its close Rubens accomplished, in
the fire of his prodigious temperament, a true fusion of Flemish
and Venetian qualities, at the same time closing gloriously
the Renaissance period properly so called, and handing on an
example which irresistibly affected a great part of modern
painting.
6. Modern period, from about 1600 to the present time.
During this period architecture remained in all European
countries, until the igth century, more or less completely under
the influence of the Italian Renaissance. The principles of the
classical revival had during a century or more of transition been
gradually absorbed, first by France, then by Germany, the Low
Countries, and Spain, and last by England, each country modify-
ing the style according to its degree of knowledge or ignorance,
its needs, instincts and traditions. Sculpture, which in the
hands of the great masters of the earlier and later Renaissance
in Italy had almost equalled its ancient glories, nay, in those of
Michelangelo had actually surpassed them in the qualities at
least of superhuman energy and intellectual expression
sculpture lost the sense of its true limitations, and entered,
with the work of Bernini and even earlier, into an extravagant
or " baroque " period of relaxed and bulging line, of exaggerated
and ostentatious virtuosity. In this it followed the lead given
by Italian architecture, by Jesuit church architecture especially,
at and after the height of the Catholic reaction. From the
monumental and memorial purposes which sculpture principally
serves, it remained still, except in purely iconic uses, attached
to or dependent on architecture. Not so painting, which asserted
its independence more and more. In Protestant countries the
old ecclesiastical patronage of the art had quite died out; in
those that remained Catholic it continued, and even received
a new stimulus from the anti-Protestant reaction. The demand
for reh'gious art was supplied with abundance of traditional
facility, of technical accomplishment and devotional display,
but with a loss of the old sincerity and inspiration. Almost all
painting, even for the most extensive and monumental phases
of decoration in church or palace or civic hall, was on canvas
stretched over or fitted into its allotted space in the architecture,
and the art of fresco, even in Venice, its last stronghold, was
for a time neglected or forgotten. Portable paintings for princely
or private galleries and cabinets became the chief and most
characteristic products of the art. The subjects of painting
multiplied themselves. All manner of new aspects of life and
nature were brought within the technical compass of the painter.
Besides devotional and classical subjects and portraiture, daily
life in all its phases, down to the homeliest and grossest, the
life of the parlour and the tavern, of field and shore and sea,
with landscape in all its varieties, took their place as material
for the painter. The truths of indoor and outdoor atmosphere
were translated on canvas for the first time. The Dutchmen
from about 1620 to 1670 were the most active innovators and
path-breakers of modern art along all these lines. The greatest
of them, Rembrandt, dealt, as has been said, like a master and a
magician with the problems of human individuality as revealed
in a mysterious colour and shadow world of his own invention.
At the same time a painter of no less power in Spain, Velazquez,
viewing the world in the natural light of every day, showed for
the first time how vitally and subtly paint could render the
relief and mutual values of figures and objects in space, the
essential truth of their visible relations and reactions in the
enveloping atmosphere. The achievement of these two victorious
innovators has only come to be fully understood in our own day.
The simultaneous conquest of Claude le Lorrain, on the other
hand, over the atmospheric glow of summer and sunset on the
Roman Campagna and the adjacent hills and coasts, found
acceptance instantly, less perhaps for its own sake than because
of the classical associations of the scenery which he depicted.
The vast widening of the field of the painter's art and multiplica-
tion of its subjects, which thus took place at the dawn of the
modern period, were gains attended by one drawback, the loss,
namely, of the sense of high seriousness and universal appeal
which belonged to the art while its themes had been those of
religion and classic story almost exclusively.
During the three hundred or so years of the modern period,
academical schools attempting, more or less unsuccessfully,
to carry on the great Italian and classical traditions Classical
of the Renaissance have not ceased to exist side by and
side with those which have striven to express new r a "< fc
ways of seeing and feeling. Sometimes, as in France
first under Louis XIV., and again for forty years from the
beginning of the Revolution to the dawn of romanticism, such
schools have succeeded in crushing out and discrediting all
efforts in other directions. Between these two epochs, say
from 1710 to 1780, French iSth-century ideals of social elegance
and brilliant frivolity expressed themselves in forms of great
accomplishment and vivacity both in poetry and sculpture,
from the days of Watteau to those of Fragonard and Clodion.
FINGER FINGER-AND-TOE
375
At the same time England produced one of the finest and at the
same time most national and downright masters of the brush in
Hogarth; two of the greatest aristocratic portrait-painters of the
world in Reynolds and Gainsborough, each of whom modified
according to his own instincts the tradition imported in the
previous century by Van Dyck, the greatest pupil of Rubens
(Reynolds fusing with this influence those of Rembrandt and the
Venetians in almost equal shares). Pastoral landscape in the
hands of Gainsborough, classical, following Claude, in those of
Wilson these together with the humble but wholesome discipline
of topographical illustration led on to the ambitious, wide-ranging
and often inspired experiments of Turner, and to the narrower
but more secure achievements of Constable in the same field,
and made this country the acknowledged pioneer of modern
landscape art. In the meantime the wave of classical enthusiasm
which passed over Europe in the later years of the i8th century
had produced in architecture generally a return to severer
principles and purer lines, in reaction from the baroque and the
rococo Renaissance styles of the preceding century and a half.
In Italian sculpture, the same movement inspired during the
Napoleonic period the over-honeyed accomplishment of Canova
and his school; in northern sculpture, the more truly antique
but almost wholly imitative work of Thorwaldsen, and the pure
and rhythmic grace of the English Flaxman, a true master of
design though scarcely of sculpture strictly so called. The
same movement again was partly responsible in English painting
and illustration from about 1770 to 1820 for much pastoral and
idyllic work of agreeable but shallow elegance. In French
painting the classic movement struck deeper. Along with
much would-be Roman attitudinizing there was much real, if
rigid, power in the work of David, much accomplished purity
and sweetness in that of Prud'hon. The last and truest classic
of France, and at the same time in portraiture the greatest
realist, Ingres, held high the standard of his cause even through
and past the great romantic revival which began with Gericault
and culminated in Delacroix and the school of landscape painters
who had received their inspiration from Constable. The main
instincts embodied in the Romantic movement were the awaken-
ing of the human spirit to an eager retrospective love of the past,
and especially of the medieval past, and simultaneously to a
new passion for the beauties of nature, and especially of wild
nature. Germany and England preceded France in this double
awakening; in both countries the movement inspired a fine
literature, but in neither did it express itself so fully and self-
consciously through literature and the other arts together as
it did in France when the hour struck. The revival of medieval
sentiment in Germany had inspired comparatively early in the
century the learned but somewhat aridly ascetic and essentially
unpainterlike work of the group of artists who styled themselves
Nazarener. In England the same revival expressed itself
during a great part cf the Victorian age in an enthusiastic return
to the early Gothic ecclesiastical styles of architecture, a return
unsuccessful upon the whole, because in pursuit of archaeological
and grammatical detail the root qualities of right proportion
and organic design were too often neglected.
Allied with this Gothic revival, and stimulated like it by the
persuasive conviction and brilliant resource of Ruskin in criticism
was the pre-Raphaelite movement in painting. Among
The pre- tne ar ti s ts identified with this movement there was
ites. * little rea lly m common except in impatience of the
prevailing modes of empty academic convention or
anecdotic frivolity. The name covered for a while the essentially
divergent aims of a vigorous unintellectual craftsman like
Millais, fired for a few years in youth by contact with more
imaginative temperaments, of a strenuous imitator of unharmon-
ized local colours and unsubordinated natural facts like Holman
Hunt, and of born poets and impassioned medievalists like
Rossetti and after him Burne-Jones. Meantime in France,
putting aside the work of the great Delacroix, the impulse of
1830 expressed itself best and most lastingly in the monumental
work of Daumier both in caricature and romance, the impressive
and significant treatment of peasant life and labour by J- F.
Millet, the vitally truthful pastoral and landscape work of
Troyon, Corot, Daubigny and the rest.
Since the exhaustion of the Romantic movement, the other
movements that have been taking place in European art have
been too numerous and too rapid to be touched on Coatem .
here to any purpose. Both in sculpture and painting porary
France has taken and held the lead. Mention has teaden-
already been made of the special tendency in recent cles '
sculpture identified with the name and influence of Rodin. In
painting there has been the fertilizing and transforming influence
of Japan on the decorative ideals of the West; there have
been successively the Realist movement, the movements of
the Impressionists, the Luminists, the Neo-impressionists, the
Independents, movements initiated almost always in Paris,
and in other countries eagerly adopted and absorbed, or angrily
controverted and denounced, or simply neglected and ignored
according to the predilection of this or that group of artists
and critics; there has been a vast amount of heterogeneous,
hurried, confident and clamant innovating activity in this
direction and in that, much of it perhaps doomed to futility in
the eyes of posterity, but at any rate there has not been stag-
nation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. To attempt in this place anything like a full
bibliography covering so vast a field would be idle. Many of the
books necessary to a first-hand study of the subject are cited in the
article AESTHETICS. The following are some of the most important
writings actually referred to in the text, English translations being
mentioned where they exist: Aristotle, Poetics, edited with critical
notes and a translation by S. H. Butcher (1898); S. H. Butcher,
Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, with a critical text and a
translation of the Poetics (1902) ; Plato, Republic, bk. x. 596 ff.,
600 ff. (Grote, iii. 117 ff. ; Jowett, iii. 489 ff.) ; B. Bosanquet,
Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Art (Asthetik), translation
with notes and prefatory essay (1896); The Philosophy of Art, an
Introduction to the Science of Aesthetics, by Hegel and C. L. Michelet,
trans. Hastie (1886); Schiller, Briefe iiber die asthetische Erziehung
des Menschen (trans, by G. I. Weiss, with preface by J. chapman,
1845; also in Bonn's Standard Library, 1846); Herbert Spencer,
First Principles, ch. xxii. ; Gottfried Semper, Der Stil (1860-1863);
Hippolyte Taine, De I'ideal dans I'art (1867), Philosophic de I'art en
Grece (1869), Philosophic de I'art en Italie, Philosophte de I'art dans
les Pays-Bas (translations in 5 vols. by J. Durand, New York, 1889) ;
Karl Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen (1899; trans, by E. L. Baldwin,
1901), and Die Spiele der Tiere <2nd ed., 1907; trans, by E. L.
Baldwin, 1898); Ernst Grosse, Die Anfdnge der Knnst (1894; trans,
in the Anthropological Series, 1894) ; Yrjci Hirn, The Origins of Art
(1900); G. Baldwin Brown, The Fine Arts (2nd ed., 1902); Felix
Clay, The Origins of the Sense of Beauty (1908). Fora general history
of the manual or shaping group of arts, C. J. F. Schnasse, Geschichte
derbildenden Kiinste (2nd ed., 1866-1879), though in parts obsolete,
is still unsuperseded. A very summary general view is given in
Salomon Reinach, The Story of Art through the Ages (trans, by
Florence Simmonds, 1904); a general history of the same group
was undertaken by Giulio Carotti (English translation by Alice Todd,
1909)- (S. C.)
FINGER, one of the five members with which the hand is
terminated, a digit; sometimes the word is restricted to the
four digits other than the thumb. The word is common to
Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vinger and Ger. Finger; probably
the ultimate origin is to be found in the root of the words ap-
pearing in Greek irevrt, Lat. quinque, five. (See SKELETON:
Appendicular.)
FINGER-AND-TOE, CLUB ROOT or ANBURY, a destructive
plant-disease known botanically as Plasmodiophora Brassicae,
which attacks cabbages, turnips, radishes and other cultivated
and wild members of the order Cruciferae. It is one of the
so-called Slime-fungi or Myxogastres. The presence of the
disease is indicated by nodules or warty outgrowths on the
root, which sometimes becomes much swollen and ultimately
rots, emitting an unpleasant smell. The disease is contracted
from spores present in the soil, which enter the root. The
parasite develops within the living cells of the plant, forming
a glairy mass of protoplasm known as the plasmodium, the form
of which alters from time to time. The cells which have been
attacked increase enormously in size and the disease spreads
? rom cell to cell. Ultimately the plasmodium becomes resolved
nto numerous minute round spores which, on the decay of the
root, are set free in the soil. A preventive is quicklime, the
FIN GER-PRINTS FINIGUERRA
application of which destroys the spores in the soil. It is impor-
tant that diseased plants should be burned, also that cruciferous
Finger-and-Toe (Plasmodiophora Brassicae).
1, Turnip attacked by the disease, reduced.
2, A cell of the tissue containing the plasmodium ; the smaller cells
at the sides are unaffected.
3, Infected cell, showing spore formation. 2, 3, highly magnified.
weeds, such as shepherd's purse, charlock, &c., should not be
allowed to grow in places where plants of the same order are in
cultivation.
FINGER-PRINTS. The use of finger-prints as a system of
identification (q.ii.) is of very ancient origin, and was known
from the earliest days in the East when the impression of his
thumb was the monarch's sign-manual. A relic of this practice
is still preserved in the formal confirmation of a legal document
by " delivering " it as one's " act and deed." The permanent
character of the finger-print waS first put forward scientifically
in 1823 byj. E. Purkinje, an eminent professor of physiology,
who read a paper before the university of Breslau, adducing nine
standard types of impressions and advocating a system of classi-
fication which attracted no great attention. Bewick, the
English draughtsman, struck with the delicate qualities of the
lineation, made engravings of the impression of two of his finger-
tips and used them as signatures for his work. Sir Francis
Gallon, who laboured to introduce finger-prints, points out that
they were proposed for the identification of Chinese immigrants
when registering their arrival in the United States. In India,
Sir William Herschel desired to use finger-prints in the courts
of the Hugli district to prevent false personation and fix
the identity upon the executants of documents. The Bengal
police under the wise administration of Sir E. R. Henry, after-
wards chief commissioner of the London metropolitan police,
usefully adopted finger-prints for the detection of crime, an
example followed in many public departments in India. A
transfer of property is attested by the thumb-mark, so are
documents when registered, and advances made to opium-
growers or to labourers on account of wages, or to contracts
signed under the emigration law, or medical certificates to
vouch for the persons examined, all tending to check the frauds
and impostures constantly attempted.
The prints depend upon a peculiarity seen in the human hand
and to some extent in the human foot. The skin is traversed
in all directions by creases and ridges, which are ineradicable
and show no change from childhood to extreme old age. The
persistence of the markings of the finger-tips has been proved
beyond all question, and this universally accepted quality has
been the basis of the present system of identification. The
impressions, when examined, show that the ridges appear in
certain fixed patterns, from which an alphabet of signs or a
system of notation has been arrived at for convenience of record.
As the result of much experiment a fourfold scheme of classifi-
cation has been evolved, and the various types employed
are styled " arches," " loops," " whorls " and " composites."
There are seven subclasses, and all are perfectly distinguishable
by an expert, who can describe each by its particular symbol
in the code arranged, so that the whole " print " can be read
as a distinct and separate expression. Very few, and the simplest,
appliances are required for taking the print a sheet of white
paper, a tin slab, and some printer's ink. Scars or malformations
do not interfere with the result.
The unchanging character of the finger-prints has repeatedly
helped in the detection of crime. We may quote the case of the
thief who broke into a residence and among other things helped
himself to a glass of wine, leaving two finger-prints upon the
tumbler which were subsequently found to be identical with
those of a notorious criminal who was arrested, pleaded guilty
and was convicted. Another burglar effected entrance by re-
moving a pane of glass from a basement window, but, unhappily
for him, left his imprints, which were referred to the registry
and found to agree exactly with those of a convict at large;
his address was known, and when visited some of the stolen
property was found in his possession. In India a murderer was
identified by the brown mark of a blood-stained thumb he had
left when rummaging amongst the papers of the deceased.
This man was convicted of theft but not of the murder.
The keystone to the whole system is the central office where
the register or index of all criminals is kept for ready reference.
The operators need no special gifts or lengthy training; method
ard accuracy suffice, and abundant checks exist to obviate
incorrect classification and reduce the liability to error.
AUTHORITIES. F. Gallon, Finger Prints (1892), Fingerprint
Directories (1895); E. R. Henry, Classification and Uses of Finger
Prints; A. Yvert, L' Identification par les empreintes digitales pal-
maires (1905) ; K. Windl, R. S. Kodicek, Daktyloskopie. Verwertung
von Fingerabdriicken zu Idenlifizierungszwecken (Vienna, 1904); E.
Loeard, La Dactyloscopic. Identification des recidivistes par les
empreintes digitales (1904); H. Faulds, Guide to Finger-Print
Identification (1905); H. Gross, Criminal Investigation (irans. J. and
J. C. Adam, 1907). (A. G.)
FINGO, or FENGU (Ama-Fengu, " wanderers "), a Bantu-
Negro people, allied to the Zulu family, who have given their
name to the districl of Fingoland, the S.W. portion of the
Transkei division of the Cape province. The Fingo tribes were
formed from the nalions broken up by Chaka and his Zulu;
after some years of oppression by the Xosa they appealed to the
Cape government in 1835, and were permitted by Sir Benjamin
D'Urban to setlle on Ihe banks of l^ie Greal Fish river. They
have been always loyal lo Ihe British, and have steadily advanced
in social respects. They have largely adapled Ihemselves to
western cullure, wearing European clothes, supporting their
schools by voluntary conlribulions, editing newspapers, translat-
ing English poetry, and selling their nalional songs to correct
music. The majority call themselves Christians and many of
Ihem have inlermarried wilh Europeans. (See KAPFIRS.)
FINIAL (a varianl of " final "; Lai. finis, end), an archi-
tectural term for the lermination of a pinnacle, gable end,
butlress, or canopy, consisling of a bunch of foliage, which
bears a close affmily lo Ihe crockels (q.v.) running up Ihe gables,
lurrels or spires, and in some cases may be formed by uniling
four or more crockels logelher. Sometimes the term is in-
correctly applied to a small pinnacle of which it is only the
terminalion (see EPI).
FINIGUERRA, MASO [i.e. TOMMASO] (1426-1464), Florenline
goldsmilh, draughlsman, and engraver, whose name is distin-
guished in Ihe hislory of arl and craflsmanship for reasons which
are parlly mylhical. Vasari represenls him as having been Ihe
firsl invenlor of Ihe arl of engraving (using lhal word in its
popular sense of taking impressions on paper from designs
engraved on metal plates), and Vasari 's account was universally
accepted and repeated until recent research proved it erroneous.
What we actually know fiom contemporary documents of
Finiguerra, his origin, his life, and his work, is as follows. He
FINIGUERRA
377
was the son of Antonio, and grandson of Tommaso Finiguerra or
Finiguerri, both goldsmiths of Florence, and was born in Sta
Lucia d'Ognissanti in 1426. He was brought up to the hereditary
profession of goldsmith and was early distinguished for his work
in niello. In his twenty-third year (1449) we find note of a
sulphur cast from a niello of his workmanship being handed
over by the painter Alessio Baldovinetti to a customer in pay-
ment or exchange for a dagger received. In 1452 Maso delivered
and was paid for a niellated silver pax commissioned for the
baptistery of St John by the consuls of the gild of merchants
or Calimara. By this time he seems to have left his father's
workshop: and we know that he was in partnership with Piero
di Bartolommeo di Sail and the great Antonio Pollaiuolo in 1457,
when the firm had an order for a pair of fine silver candlesticks
for the church of San Jacopo at Pistoia. In 1459 we find Fini-
guerra noted in the house-book of Giovanni Rucellai as one of
several distinguished artists with whose works the Casa Rucellai
was adorned. In 1462 he is recorded as having supplied another
wealthy Florentine, Cino di Filippo Rinuccini, with waist-
buckles, and in the years next following with forks and spoons
for christening presents. In 1463 he drew cartoons, the heads
of which were coloured by Alessio Baldovinetti, for five or more
figures for the sacristy of the duomo, which was being decorated
in wood inlay by a group of artists with Giuliano da Maiano at
their head. On the I4th of December 1464 Maso Finiguerra
made his will, and died shortly afterwards.
These documentary facts are supplemented by several writers
of the next generation with statements more or less authoritative.
Thus Baccio Bandinelli says that Maso was among the young
artists who worked under Ghiberti on the famous gates of the
baptistery; Benvenuto Cellini that he was the finest master of
his day in the art of niello engraving, and that his masterpiece
was a pax of the Crucifixion in the baptistery of St John; that
being no great draughtsman, he in most cases, including that of
the above-mentioned pax, worked from drawings by Antonio
Pollaiuolo. Vasari, on the other hand, allowing that Maso was
a much inferior draughtsman to Pollaiuolo, mentions nevertheless
a number of original drawings by him as existing in his own
collection, " with figures both draped and nude, and histories
drawn in water-colour." Vasari's account was confirmed and
amplified in the next century by Baldinucci, who says that he
has seen many drawings by Finiguerra much in the manner of
Masaccio; adding that Maso was beaten by Pollaiuolo in com-
petition for the reliefs of the great silver altar-table commission
by the merchants' gild for the baptistery of St John (this famous
work is now preserved in the Opera del Duomo). But the para-
graph of Vasari which has chiefly held the attention of posterity
is that in which he gives this craftsman the credit of having
been the first to print off impressions from niello plates on sulphur
casts and afterwards on sheets of paper, and of having followed
up this invention by engraving copper-plates for the express
purpose of printing impressions from them, and thus became
the inventor and father of the art of engraving in general.
Finiguerra, adds Vasari, was succeeded in the practice of engrav-
ing at Florence by a goldsmith called Baccio Baldini, who, not
having much invention of his own, borrowed his designs from
other artists and especially from Botticelli. In the last years of
the i8th century Vasari's account of Finiguerra's invention was
held to have received a decisive and startling confirmation under
the following circumstances. There was in the baptistery at
Florence (now in the Bargello) a beautiful i5th-centuiy niello
pax of the Coronation of the Virgin. The Abate Gori, a savant
and connoisseur of the mid-century, had claimed this conjectur-
ally for the work of Finiguerra; a later and still more enthusi-
astic virtuoso, the Abate Zani, discovered first, in the collection
of Count Seratti at Leghorn, a sulphur cast from the very same
niello (this cast is now in the British Museum), and then, in the
National library at Paris, a paper impression corresponding to
both. Here, then, he proclaimed, was the actual material first-
fruit of Finiguerra's invention and proof positive of Vasari's
accuracy.
Zani's famous discovery, though still accepted in popular
art histories and museum guides, is now discredited among
serious students. For one thing, it has been proved that the
art of printing from engraved copper-plates had been known in
Germany, and probably in Italy also, for years before the date
of Finiguerra's alleged invention. For another, Maso's pax for
the baptistery, if Cellini is to be trusted, represented not a
Coronation of the Virgin but a Crucifixion. In the next place, its
recorded weight does not at all agree with that of the pax claimed
by Gori and Zani to be his. Again, and perhaps this is the
strongest argument of any, all authentic records agree in repre-
senting Finiguerra as a close associate in art and business of
Antonio Pollaiuolo. Now nothing is more marked than the
special style of Pollaiuolo and his group; and nothing is more
unlike it than the style of the Coronation pax, the designer of
which must obviously have been trained in quite a different
school, namely that of Filippo Lippi. So this seductive identifica-
tion has to be abandoned, and we have to look elsewheie for
traces of the real work of Finiguerra. The only fully authenti-
cated specimens which exist are the above-mentioned tarsia
figures, over half life-size, executed from his cartoons for the
sacristy of the duomo. But his hand has lately been conjectur-
ally recognized in a number of other things : first in a set of
drawings of the school of Pollaiuolo at the Uffizi, some of which
are actually inscribed " Maso Finiguerra " in a lyth-century
writing, probably that of Baldinucci himself; and secondly
in a very curious and important book of nearly a hundred
drawings by the same hand, acquired in 1888 for the British
Museum. The Florence series depicts for the most part figures
of the studio and the street, to all appearance members of the
artist's own family and workshop, drawn direct from life. The
museum volume, on the other hand, is a picture-chronicle, drawn
from imagination, and representing parallel figures of sacred
and profane history, in a chronological series from the Creation
to Julius Caesar, dressed and accoutred with inordinate richness
according to the quaint pictures which Tuscan popular fancy
in the mid-isth century conjured up to itself of the ancient
world. Except for the differences naturally resulting from the
difference of subject, and that the one series are done from life
and the other from imagination, the technical style and handling
of the two are identical and betray unmistakably a common
origin. Both can be dated with certainty, from their style,
costumes, &c., within a few years of 1460. Both agree strictly
with the accounts of Finiguerra's drawings left us by Vasari and
Baldinucci, and disagree in no respect with the character of the
inlaid figures of the sacristy. That the draughtsman was a
goldsmith is proved on every page of the picture-chronicle by
his skill and extravagant delight in the ornamental parts of
design chased and jewelled cups, helmets, shields, breastplates,
scaLbards and the like, as well as by the symmetrical metallic
forms into which he instinctively conventionalizes plants and
flowers. That he was probably also an engraver in niello appears
from the fact that figures from the Uffizi series of drawings are
repeated among the rare anonymous Florentine niello prints
of the time (the chief collection of which, formerly belonging to
the marquis of Salamanca, is now in the cabinet of M.Edmondde
Rothschild in Paris). That he was furthermore an engraver on
copper seems certain from the fact that the general style and
many particular figures and features of the British Museum
chronicle drawings are exactly repeated in some of those primitive
15th-century Florentine prints which used to be catalogued
loosely under the names of Baldini or Botticelli, but have of
late years been classed more cautiously as anonymous prints in
the " fine manner " (in contradistinction to another contem-
porary group of prints in the "broad manner"). The fine-
manner group of primitive Florentine engravings itself falls
into two divisions, one more archaic, more vigorous and original
than the other, and consisting for the most part of larger and
more important prints. It is this division which the drawings of
the Chronicle series most closely resemble; so closely as almost
to compel the conclusion that drawings and engravings are by
the same hand. The later division of fine-manner prints represent
a certain degree of technical advance from the earlier, and are
378
FINISHING
softer in styJe, with elements of more classic grace and playful-
ness; their motives moreover are seldom original, but are
borrowed from various sources, some from German engravings,
some from Botticelli or a designer closely akin to him, some
from the pages of the British Museum Chronicle-book itself,
with a certain softening and attenuating of their rugged spirit;
as though the book, after the death of the original draughtsman-
engraver, had remained in his workshop and continued to be
used by his successors. We thus find ourselves in presence of a
draughtsman of the school of Pollaiuolo, some of whose drawings
bear an ancient attribution to Finiguerra, while all agree with
what is otherwise known of him, and one or two are exactly
repeated in extant works of niello, the craft which was peculiarly
his own; others being intimately related to the earliest or all
but the earliest works of Florentine engraving, the kindred
craft which tradition avers him to have practised, and which
Vasari erroneously believed him to have invented. Surely,
it has been confidently argued, this draughtsman must be no
other than the true Finiguerra himself. The argument has not
yet been universally accepted, but neither has any competent
criticism appeared to shake it; so that it may be regarded for
the present as holding the field.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See Bandinelli in Bottari, Raccolta di letters
(1754), i. p. 75; Vasari (ed. Milanesi), i. p. 209, iii. p. 206; Ben-
venuto Cellini, / Trattati dell' orificeria, &c. (ed. Lemonnier), pp. 7,
12, 13, 14; Baldinucci, Notizie dei professori di diseeno (1845), i.
PP- 5.i8, 519, 533; Zani, Materiali per seniire, &c. (1802); Duchesne,
Essai sur les nielles (1824) ; Dutuit, Manuel de I' amateur d'estampes,
vol. i. pref. and vol. ii. ; and for a full discussion of the whole ques-
tion, with quotations from earlier authorities and reproductions
of the works discussed, Sidney Colvin, A Florentine Picture Chronicle
(1898). (S. C.)
FINISHING. The term finishing, as specially applied in the
textile industries, embraces the process or prqcesses to which
bleached, dyed or printed fabrics of any description are subjected,
with the object of imparting a characteristic appearance to the
surface of the fabric, or of influencing its handle or feel. Strictly
speaking, certain operations might be classed under this heading
which are conducted previous to bleaching, dyeing, &c.; e.g.
mercerizing (q.v.), stretching and crabbing, singeing (see BLEACH-
ING); but as these are not undertaken by the finisher, only
those will be dealt with here which are not mentioned under
other headings. By the various treatments to which the fabric
is subjected in finishing, it is often so altered in appearance that
it is impossible to recognize in it the same material that came
from the loom or from the bleacher or dyer. On the other hand,
one and the same fabric, subjected to different processes of
finishing, may be made to represent totally different classes of
material. In other cases, however, the appearance of the finished
article differs but slightly from that of the piece on leaving the
loom.
All processes of finishing are purely mechanical in character,
and the most important of them depend upon the fact that in
their ordinary condition (i.e. containing their normal amount of
moisture), or better still in a damp state, the textile fibres are
plastic, and consequently yield to pressure or tension, ultimately
assuming the shape imparted to them. The old-fashioned box
press, formerly largely used for household linen, owed its efficacy
to this principle. At elevated temperatures the damp fibres
become very much more plastic than at the ordinary temperature,
the simplest form of finishing appliance based on this fact being
the ordinary flat iron. Indeed it may safely be stated that most
of the modern finishing processes have been evolved from the
household operations of washing (milling), brushing, starching,
mangling, ironing and pressing.
Cotton Pieces. In the ordinary process of bleaching, cotton
goods are subjected during the various operations to more or
less continual longitudinal tension, and while becoming elongated,
shrink more or less considerably in width. In order to bring
them back to their original width, they are stretched or
" stentered " by means of specially constructed machines. The
most effective of these is the so-called stentering frame, which
consists essentially of two slightly diverging endless chains
carrying clips or pins which hold the piece in position as it
traverses the machine. The length of a frame may vary from
20 to 30 yds. On the upper part of the frame the chains run in
slots, and by means of set screws the distance between the two
chains can be set within the required limits. The pieces are
fed on to one end of the machine in the damp state by hand and
are then naturally slack. But before they have travelled many
yards they become taut, the stretching increasing as they travel
along. Simultaneously with the stretching, the pieces are dried
by a current of hot air which is blown through from below, so
that on arriving at the end of the machine they are not only
stretched to the required degree but are also dry. The machine
used for stentering is more fully described under MERCERIZING
(q.v.). In case the goods come straight from the loom to be
finished, stentering is not necessary.
Pieces intended to receive a " pure " finish pass on without
further treatment to the ordinary finishing processes such as
calendering, hot pressing, raising, &c. But in the majority of
cases they are previously impregnated, according to the finish
desired, with stiffening or softening agents, weighting materials,
&c. Usually, starch constitutes the main stiffening agent, with
additions of china clay, barium compounds, &c., for weighting
purposes, and Turkey red oil, with or without the addition of
some vegetable oil or fat, as the softening agent. Magnesium
sulphate is also largely used in order to give " body " to the cloth,
which it does by virtue of its property of crystallizing in fine
felted needle-shaped crystals throughout the mass of the fabric.
When starch is used in filling, it is advisable to add some anti-
septic, such as zinc chloride, sodium silicofluoride, phenol or
salicylic acid, in order to prevent or retard subsequent develop-
ment of mildew. The impregnation of the pieces with the
filling is effected in two ways, viz. either throughout the thickness
of the cloth or on one surface only (back starching). When the
whole piece is to be impregnated the operation is conducted in a
starching mangle, which is similar in construction to an ordinary
household mangle, though naturally larger and more elaborate
in construction. The pieces run at full width through a trough
situated immediately below the bowls and containing the filling
(starch paste, &c.), then between the bowls, the pressure (" nip ")
of which regulates the amount of filling taken up, and thence
over a range of steam-heated drying cylinders (see BLEACHING).
In case one side only of the goods is to be stiffened and this
is usually necessary in the case of printed goods, a so-called
back-starching mangle is employed.
The construction of the machine varies, but the simplest form
consists essentially of a wooden bowl a (fig. i) which runs in the
starch paste con-
tained in trough t.
The pieces pass
from the batch-
roller B, through
scrimp rails S and
over the bowl
under tension,
touching the sur-
face from which
they gather the
starch paste. By
means of the fixed
doctor " blade d,
FIG. i. Principle of Back-Starching Machine.
_.. , which extends across the piece, the paste is
levelled on the surface of the fabric and excess scraped off, falling
back into the trough. The goods are then dried with the face side
to the cylinders.
Some goods come into the market with no further treatment
after starching other than running through a mangle with a
little softening and then drying, but in the great majority of
cases they are subjected to further operations.
Damping. When deprived of their natural moisture by
drying on the cylinder drying machine, cotton goods are not in a
fit condition to undergo the subsequent operations of calendering,
beetling, &c., since the fibres in the dry state have lost their
plasticity. The pieces are consequently damped to the desired
degree, and this is usually effected in a damping machine in
passing through which they meet with a fine spray of water.
A simple and effective device for this purpose is shown in section
in fig. 2. It consists essentially of a brass roller r running in water
FINISHING
379
contained in a trough or box /. Touching the brass roller is a brush
roller b which revolves at a high speed, thus spraying the water,
which it takes up
continuously from
the wet revolving
brass roller in all
idirections, and
' consequently also
against the piece
which passes in a
stretched condi-
tion over the top
of the box, being
drawn from the
batch roller B,
FIG. 2. Principle of Damping Machine.
over scrimp rails S, and batched again on the other side on roller R.
The level of the water in the trough is kept constant.
f Calendering. The calender may be regarded as an elaboration
of the ordinary mangle, from which, however, it differs essentially
inasmuch as one or more of the rollers or bowls are made of steel
or iron and can be treated either by gas or steam; the other
bowls are made of compressed cotton or paper. Three distinct
forms of calender are in use, viz. the ordinary calender, the
friction calender and the embossing calender.
The number of bowls in an ordinary calender varies between
two and six according to the character of the finish for which
it is intended. In a modern five-bowl calender the bottom bowl
is made of cast iron, the second of compressed cotton or paper,
the third of iron being hollow and fitted with steam heating
apparatus. The fourth bowl is made of compressed cotton, and
the fifth of cast iron. The pieces are simply passed through for
" swissing," i.e. for the production of an ordinary plain finish.
The same calender may also be used for " chasing," in which
two pieces are passed through, face to face, in order to produce
an imitation linen finish. Moire or " watered " effects are
produced in a similar way, but these effects are frequently
imitated in the embossing calender.
The friction calender, the object of which is to produce a high
gloss on the fabric, differs from the ordinary calender inasmuch
as one of the bowls is caused to revolve at a greater speed than
the others. In an ordinary three-bowl friction calender the
bottom bowl is made of cast iron, the middle one of compressed
cotton or paper, and the top one (the friction bowl) of highly
polished chilled iron. The last-named bowl, which has a greater
peripheral speed than the others, is hollow and can be heated
either by steam or gas.
The embossing calender is usually constructed of two bowls,
one of which is of steel and the other of compressed cotton or
paper. The steel roller, which is hollow and can be heated
either by steam or gas, is engraved with the pattern which it is
desired to impart to the piece. If the pattern is deep, as is the
case in the production of book cloths, it is necessary to run the
machine empty under pressure until the pattern of the steel
bowl has impressed itself into the cotton or paper bowls, but if
the effect desired only consists of very fine lines, this is not
necessary; for instance, in the production of the Schreiner
finish, which is intended to give the pieces (especially after
mercerizing) the appearance of silk, the steel roller is engraved
with fine diagonal lines which are so close together (about 250
to the in.) as to be undistinguishable by the naked eye.
Beetling is a process by which a peculiar linen-like appearance
and a leathery feel or handle are imparted to cotton fabrics, the
process being also employed for improving the appearance of
linen goods. For the best class of beetle finish, the pieces are
first impregnated with sago starch and the other necessary
ingredients (softening, &c.) and are dried on cylinders. They
are then damped on a water mangle, and beamed on to the
heavy iron bowl of the beetling machine.
A beetling machine of the kind, with four sets of " fallers," is
shown in fig. 3. The fallers are made of beech wood, are about 8 ft.
long, 5j in. deep and 4 in. wide, and are kept in their vertical position
by two pairs of guide rails. Each faller is provided with a tappet
or wooden peg driven in at one side, which engages with the teeth
or " wipers " of the revolving shaft in the front of the machine.
The effect of this mechanism is to lift the faller a distance of about
13 in. and then let it drop on to the cloth wound on the beam. This
lifting and dropping of the fallers on to the beam takes place in
rhythmical and rapid succession. To ensure even treatment the
beam turns slowly round and also has a to-and-fro movement im-
parted to it. The treatment may last, according to the finish which
it is desired to obtain, from one to sixty hours.
FIG. 3. Beetling Machine (Edmeston & Sons).
Beetling was originally used for linen goods, but to-day is
almost entirely applied to cotton for the production of so-called
linenettes.
Hot-pressing is used to a limited extent in order to obtain a
soft finish on cotton goods, but as this operation is more used for
wool, it will be described below.
Raising. This operation, which was formerly only used for
woollen goods (teasing), has come largely into use for cotton
pieces, partly in consequence of the introduction of the direct
cotton colours by which the cotton is dyed evenly throughout
(see DYEING), and partly in consequence of new and improved
machinery having been devised for the purpose. Starting with
a plain bleached, dyed or printed fabric, the process consists
in principle in raising or drawing out the ends of individual
fibres from the body of the cloth, so as to produce a nap or soft
woolly surface on the face.
This is effected by passing the fabric slowly round a large drum D,
which is surrounded, as shown in the diagram (fig. 4), by a number of
XJ
FIG. 4. Raising.
small cylinders or rollers, r, covered with steel wire brushes or
" carding," such as is used in carding engines (see COTTON-SPINNING
MACHINERY).
The rollers r, which are all driven by one and the same belt
(not shown in the figure), revolve at a high rate of speed, and can be
made to do so either in the same direction as that followed by the
piece as it travels through the machine or in the opposite one. In
addition to their revolving round their own axes, the raising rollers
may be either kept stationary or may be moved round the drum D in
either direction.
In the more modern machines there are two sets of raising rollers,
of which each alternate one is caused to revolve in the direction
followed by the piece, while the other is made to revolve in the
opposite direction. By passing through an arrangement of this
kind several times, or through several such machines in succession,
the ends of the fibres are gradually drawn out to the desired extent.
3 8o
FINISHING
After raising, the pieces are sheared (for better class work)
in order to produce greater regularity in the length of the nap.
The raised style of finishing is used chiefly for the production of
uniformly white or coloured flannelettes but is also used for
such as are dyed in the yarn, and to a limited extent for printed
fabrics.
Woollen and Worsted Pieces. Although both of these classes
of material are made from wool, their treatment in finishing
differs so materially that it is necessary to deal with them
separately. Unions or fabrics consisting of a cotton warp with
a worsted weft are in general treated like worsteds.
In the finishing of woollen pieces the most important operation
is that of milling, which consists in subjecting the pieces to
mechanical friction, usually in an alkaline medium (soap or
soap and soda) but sometimes in an acid (sulphuric acid) medium,
in order to bring about felting and consequent " fulling " of the
fabric. This felting of the wool is due to the peculiar structure
of the fibre, the scales of which all protrude in one direction, so
that the individual fibres can slip past each other in one direction
more readily than in the opposite one and thus become more and
more interlocked as the milling proceeds. If the pieces contain
burrs these are usually removed by a process known as " carbon-
izing," which generally, but not necessarily, precedes the milling.
Their removal depends upon the fact that the burrs, which
consist in the main of cellulose, are disintegrated at elevated
temperatures by dilute mineral acids. The pieces are run
through sulphuric acid of from 4 to 6 Tw., squeezed or hydro-
extracted, and dried over cylinders and then in stoves. The
acid is thus concentrated -and attacks the burrs, which fall to
dust, while leaving the wool intact. For the removal of the acid
the fabric is first washed in water and then in weak soda. Carbon-
izing is also sometimes used for worsteds.
Milling was formerly all done in milling or fulling stocks (see
fig. 5), in which the cloth saturated with a strong solution of soap
FlG. 5. Milling Stocks.
(with or without other additions such as stale urine, potash,
fuller's earth, &c.) is subjected to the action of heavy wooden
hammers, which are raised by the cams attached to the wheel
(E) on the revolving shaft, and fall with their own weight on to
the bundles of cloth. The shape of the hammer-head causes the
cloth to turn slowly in the cavity in which the milling takes place.
Occasionally, the cloth is taken out, straightened, washed if
necessary, and then returned to the stocks to undergo further
treatment, the process being continued until the material is
uniformly shrunk or milled to the desired degree.
In the more modern forms of milling machines the principle
adopted is to draw the pieces in rope form, saturated with soap
solution and sewn together end to end so as to form an endless
band, between two or more rollers, on leaving which they are
forced down a closed trough ending in an aperture the size of
which can be varied, but which in any case is sufficiently small
to cause a certain amount of force to be necessary to push the
pieces through. A machine of this kind is shown in fig. 6. It is
evident that for coloured goods which have to be milled only
such colouring matters must be chosen for dyeing that are
absolutely fast to soap.
After the pieces have been milled down to the desired degree,
they present an uneven and undesirable appearance on the
surface, the ends
of many of the
fibres which pre-
viously projected
having been
turned and thus
become embedded
in the body of the
cloth. In order to
bring these hairs
to the surface
again, the fabric is
subjected to teas-
ing or raising, an
operation iden-
tical in principle
with one which
has already been
From Ganswindt, Technologic dtr A pprctur.
FIG. 6. Roller Milling Machine.
noticed under the finishing of cotton. In place of the steel wire
brushes it is the usual practice to employ teasels for the treat-
ment of woollen goods.
The teasel (see fig. 7) is the dried head (fruit) of a kind of thistle
(Dipsacusfullorum), the horny sharp spikes of which turn downwards
at their extremity, and, while possessing the necessary sharpness
and strength for raising the fibres, are not sufficiently rigid to cause
any material damage to the cloth. For raising, the teasels are fixed
in rows on a large revolving drum, and the piece to be treated is
drawn lengthways underneath the drum, being guided by rollers
or rods so as to just touch the teasels as they sweep past. In the
raising of woollen goods it is necessary that the pieces should be
damp or moist while undergoing this treatment.
After teasing, the pieces are stretched and dried. At this
stage they still have an irregular appearance, for although the
raising has brought all the loose ends of the fibres to the surface,
these vary considerably in length and thus give rise to an uneven
nap.
By the next operation of shearing or cropping, the long hairs
are cut off and a uniform surface is thus obtained. Shearing
was in former times done by
hand, by means of shears,
but is to-day universally
effected by means of a cut-
ting device which works on
the same principle as an
ordinary lawn-mower, in
which a number of spiral
blades set on the surface of
a rapidly revolving roller
pass continuously over a
straight fixed blade under-
neath, the roller being set
so that the spiral blades
just touch the fixed blade.
Before the piece comes to
the shearing device the nap
is raised by means of a
rotary brush. Shearing may
be effected either trans-
versely, in which case the
fixed blade- is parallel to
the warp, or longitudinally
with the fixed blade parallel From Ganswindt Technologie derApprelur .
to the weft. In the first case, FlG -,._ Teasel used for R a i s i ng .
the piece being stretched on
a table, over which the cutter, carried on rails, travels from selv-
edge to selvedge. The length of the piece that can be shorn in
one operation will naturally depend upon the length of the blade,
but in any case the process is necessarily intermittent, many
operations being required before the whole piece is shorn. In
FINISHING
381
the longitudinal shearing machines the process is continuous,
the pieces passing from the beam in the stretched condition
over the rotary brush, under the fixed blade, and then being
again brushed before being beamed on the other side of the
machine. Shearing once is generally insufficient, and for this
reason many of the modern machines are constructed with
duplicate arrangements so as to effect the shearing twice in the
same operation. In the finishing of certain woollen goods the
pieces, after having been milled, raised and sheared, go through
these operations again in the same sequence.
After these operations the goods are pressed either in the
hydraulic press or in the continuous press, and according to the
character of the material and the finish desired may or may
not be steamed under pressure, all of which operations are
described below.
New cloth, as it comes into the hands of the tailor, frequently
shows an undesirable gloss or sheen, which is removed before
making up by a process known as shrinking, in which the material
is simply damped or steamed.
Worsteds and Unions. The pieces are first singed by gas or
hot plate (see BLEACHING), and are then usually subjected to a
process known as " crabbing," the object of which is to " set "
the wool fibres. If this operation is omitted, especially in the
case of unions, the fabric will " cockle," or assume an uneven
surface on being wetted. In crabbing the pieces are drawn
at full breadth and under as much tension as they will stand
through boiling water, and are wound or beamed on to a roller
under the pressure of a superposed heavy iron roller, the operation
being conducted two or three times as required. From the
crabbing machine the pieces are wound on to a perforated
shell or steel cylinder which is closed at one end. The open
end is then attached to a steam pipe, and steam, at a pressure
of 30 to 45 Ib, is allowed to enter until it makes its way through
all the layers of cloth to the outside, when the steam is turned
off and the whole allowed to cool. Since those layers of the cloth
which are nearest the shell are acted upon for a longer period
than those at the outside, it is necessary to re-wind and repeat
the operation, the outside portions coming this time nearest to
the shell. The principle of the process depends upon the fact
that at elevated temperatures moist wool becomes plastic, and
then easily assumes the shape imparted to it by the great tension
under which the pieces are wound. On cooling the shape is
retained, and since the temperature at which the pieces were
steamed under tension exceeds any to which they are submitted
in the subsequent processes, the " setting " of the fibres is
permanent. After crabbing, the pieces are washed or " scoured "
in soap either on the winch or at full width. In some cases the
crabbing precedes the scouring. The goods are then dyed and
finished.
The nature of the finishing process will vary considerably
according to the special character of the goods under treatment.
Thus, for certain classes of goods cold pressing is sufficient,
while in other cases the pieces are steamed under pressure in a
manner analogous to the treatment after crabbing (" decatiz-
ing "). The treatment in most common use for worsteds and
unions is hot pressing, which may be effected either in the
hydraulic press or in the continuous press, but in most cases in
the former.
In pressing in the hydraulic press the pieces are folded down
by hand on a table, a piece of press paper (thin hand-made
cardboard with a glossed and extremely hard surface) being
inserted between each lap. After a certain number of laps, a
steel or iron press plate is inserted, and the folding proceeds
in this way until the pile is sufficiently high, when it is placed
in the press. The press being filled, the hydraulic ram is set
in motion until the reading on the gauge shows that the desired
amount of pressure has been obtained. The heating of the press
plates was formerly done in ovens, previous to their insertion
in the piece, but although this practice is still in vogue in rare
instances, the heating is now effected either by means of steam
which is caused to circulate through the hollow steel plates,
or in the more modern forms of presses by means of an electric
current. After the pieces have thus been subjected to the
combined effects of heat and pressure for the desired length of
time, they are allowed to cool in the press. It is evident that
portions of the pieces, viz. the folds, thus escape the finishing
process, and for this reason it is necessary to repeat the process,
the folds now being made to lie in the middle of the press
papers.
The continuous press, which is used for certain classes of worsteds,
but more especially for woollen goods, consists in principle of a
polished steam-heated steel cylinder against which either one or two
steam-heated chilled iron cheeks are set by mcansof leversand adjust-
ing screws. The pieces to be pressed are drawn slowly between the
From Ganswindt, Technologic da Appretw.
FIG. 8. Continuous Press.
cheeks and the bowl. A machine of the kind is shown in section in
fig. 8. In working, the cheeks C, Ci are pressed against the bowl B.
The course followed by the cloth to be finished is shown by the
dotted line, the finished material being mechanically folded down
on the left-hand side of the machine. The pieces thus acquire a
certain amount of finish which is, however, not comparable with
that produced in the hydraulic press.
Pile Fabrics, such as velvets, velveteens, corduroys, plushes,
sealskins, &c., require a special treatment in finishing, and great
care must be taken in all operations to prevent the pile being
crushed or otherwise damaged. Velveteens and corduroys are
singed before boiling or bleaching. Velveteens dyed in black
or in dark shades are brushed with an oil colour (e.g. Prussian
blue for blacks), and dried over-night in a hot stove in order to
give them a characteristic bloom. Regularity in the pile and
gloss are obtained by shearing and brushing. Corduroys are
stiffened at the back by the application of " bone-size " (practi-
cally an impure form of glue) in a machine similar to that used
for back-starching. The face of the fabric is waxed with beeswax
by passing the piece under a revolving drum, on the surface
of which bars of this material are fixed parallel to the axis.
The bars just touch the surface of the fabric as it passes through
the machine. The gloss is then obtained by brushing with
circular brushes which run partly in the direction of the piece
and partly diagonally. In the finishing of velvets, shearing
and brushing are the most important operations. The same
applies to sealskins and other long pile fabrics, but with these
an additional operation, viz. that of " batting," is employed
after dyeing and before shearing and brushing, which consists
in beating the back of the stretched fabric with sticks in order
to shake out the pile and cause it to stand erect.
For the finishing of silk pieces the operations and machinery
employed are similar in character to some of those used for
cotton and worsteds. Most high-class silks require no further
treatment other than simple damping and pressing after they
leave the loom. Inferior qualities are frequently filled or back-
filled with glue, sugar, gum tragacanth, dextrin, &c., after which
they are dried, damped and given a light calender finish. Moir6
3 82
FINISTERE
or watered effects are produced by running two pieces face to
face through a calender or by means of an embossing calender.
In the latter case the pattern repeats itself. For the production
of silk crape the dyed (generally black) piece is impregnated
with a solution of shellac in methylated spirit and dried. It
is then " goffered," an operation which is practically identical
with embossing (see above), and may either be done on an
embossing calender or by means of heated brass plates in which
the design is engraved to the desired depth and pattern.
The measuring, wrapping, doubling, folding, &c., of piece goods
previous to making up are done in the works by specially con-
structed machinery.
Finishing of Yarn. The finishing of yarn is not nearly so
important as the finishing of textiles in the piece, and it will
suffice to draw attention to the main operations. Cotton yarns
are frequently " gassed," i.e. drawn through a gas flame, in
order to burn or singe off the projecting fibres and thus to produce
a clean thread which is required for the manufacture of certain
classes of fabrics. The most important finishing process for
cotton yarn is " mercerizing " (<?..), by means of which a per-
manent silk-like gloss is obtained. The " polishing " of cotton
yarn, by means of which a highly glazed product, similar in
appearance to horsehair, is obtained, is effected by impregnating
the yarn with a paste consisting essentially of starch, beeswax
or paraffin wax and soap, and then subjecting the damp material
to the action of revolving brushes until dry. Woollen yarn is
not subjected to any treatment, but worsted yarns (especially
twofold) have to be " set " before scouring and dyeing in order
to prevent curling. This is effected by stretching the yarn
tight on a frame, which is immersed in boiling water and then
allowing it to cool in this condition.
A peculiar silk-like gloss and feel is sometimes imparted to
yarns made from lustre wool by a treatment with a weak solution
of chlorine (bleaching powder and hydrochloric acid) followed
by a treatment with soap.
Worsted and mohair yarns intended for the manufacture of
braids are singed by gas, a process technically known as
" Genapping."
Silk yarn is subjected to various mechanical processes before
weaving. The most important of these are stretching, shaking,
lustreing and glossing. Stretching and shaking are simple
operations the nature of which is sufficiently indicated by their
names, and by these means the hanks are stretched to their
original length and straightened out by hand or on a specially
devised machine. In lustreing, the yarn is stretched slightly
beyond its original length between two polished revolving
cylinders (one of which is steam heated) contained in a box or
chest into which steam is admitted. In glossing, the yarn is
twisted tight, first in one direction and then in the other, on a
machine, this alternating action being continued until the
maximum gloss is obtained.
The so-called " scrooping " process, which gives to silk a
peculiar feel and causes it to crackle or crunch when compressed
by the hand, is a very simple operation, and consists in treating
the yarn after dyeing in a bath of dilute acid (acetic, tartaric or
sulphuric) and then drying without washing. Heavily weighted
black silks are passed after dyeing through an emulsion of olive
oil in soap and dried without washing, in order to give additional
lustre to the material or rather to restore some of the lustre
which has been lost in weighting. (E. K.)
FINISTtRE, or FINISTERRE, the most western department of
France, formed from part of the old province of Brittany. Pop.
(1906) 705,103. Area, 2713 sq. m. It is bounded W. and S. by
the Atlantic Ocean, E. by the departments of C6tes-du-Nord
and Morbihan, and N. by the English Channel. Two converging
chains of hills run from the west towards the east of the depart-
ment and divide it into three zones conveying the waters in three
different directions. North of the Arree, or more northern of
the two chains, the waters of the Douron, Penze and Fleche
flow northward to the sea. The Elorn, however, after a short
northerly course, turns westward and empties into the Brest
roads. South of the Montagnes Noires, the Odet, Aven, Isole
and Elle flow southward; while the waters of the Aulne, flowing
through a region enclosed by the two chains with a westward
declination, discharge into the Brest roads. The rivers are all
small, and none of the hills attain a height of 1300 ft. The
coast is generally steep and rocky and at some points dangerous,
notably off Cape Raz and the lie de Sein; it is indented with
numerous bays and inlets, the chief of which the roadstead
of Brest and the Bays of Douarnenez and Audierne are on the
west. The principal harbours are those of Brest, Concarneau,
Morlaix, Landerneau, Quimper and Douarnenez. Off the coast
lie a number of islands and rocks, the principal of which are
Ushant (tf.f.)N.W. of Cape St Mathieu, and Batz off Roscoff.
The climate is temperate and equable, but humid ; the prevailing
winds are the W., S.W. and N.W. Though more than a third
of the department is covered by heath, waste land and forest,
it produces oats, wheat, buckwheat, rye and barley in quantities
more than sufficient for its population. In the extreme north
the neighbourhood of Roscoff, and farther south the borders
of the Brest roadstead, are extremely fertile and yield large
quantities of asparagus, artichokes and onions, besides melons
and other fruits. The cider apple is abundant and furnishes the
chief drink of the inhabitants. Hemp and flax are also grown.
The farm and dairy produce is plentiful, and great attention is
paid to the breeding and feeding of cattle and horses. The pro-
duction of honey and wax is considerable. The fisheries of the
coast, particularly the pilchard fishery, employ a great many
hands and render this department an excellent nursery of seamen
for the French navy. Coal, though found in Finistere, is not
mined; there are quarries of granite, slate, potter's clay, &c.
The lead mines of Poullaouen and Huelgoat, which for several
centuries yielded a considerable quantity of silver, are no longer
worked. The preparation of sardines is carried on on a large
scale at several of the coast-towns. The manufactures include
linens, woollens, sail-cloth, ropes, agricultural implements, paper,
leather, earthenware, soda, soap, candles, and fertilizers and
chemicals derived from seaweed. Brest has important foundries
and engineering works; and shipbuilding is carried on there
and at other seaports. Brest and Morlaix are the most important
commercial ports. Trade is in fish, vegetables and fruit.
Coal is the chief import. The department is served by the
Orleans and Western railways. The canal from Nantes to Brest
has 51 m. of its length in the department. The Aulne is
navigable for 17 m., and many of the smaller rivers for short
distances.
Finistere is divided into the arrondissements of Quimperle,
Brest, Chateaulin, Morlaix and Quimper (43 cantons, 294 com-
munes), the town of Quimper being the capital of the department
and the seat of a bishopric. The department belongs to the
region of the XI. army corps and to the archiepiscopal province
and academic (educational division) of Rennes, where its court
of appeal is also situated.
The more important places are Quimper, Brest, Morlaix,
Quimperle, St Pol-de-Leon, Douarnenez, Concarneau, Roscoff,
Penmarc'h and Pont-1'Abbe. Finistere abounds in menhirs and
other megalithic monuments, of which those of Penmarc'h,
Plouarzal and Crozon are noted. The two religious structures
characteristic of Brittany calvaries and charnel-houses are
frequently met with. The calvaries of Plougastel-Daoulas,
Pleyben, St Thegonnec, Lampaul-Guimiliau, which date from
the I7th century, and that of Guimiliau (i6th century), and the
charnel-houses of Sizun and St Thegonnec (i6th century) and
of Guimiliau (i7th century) may be instanced as the most
remarkable. Daoulas has the remains of a fine church and
cloister in the Romanesque style. The chapel of St Herbot
(i6th century) near Loqueffret, the churches of St Jean-du-Doigt
and Locronan, which belong to the isth and i6th centuries,
those of Ploare, Roscoff, Penmarc'h and Pleyben of the i6th
century, that of Le Folgoet (i4th and i6th centuries), and the
huge chateau of Kerjean (i6th century) are of architectural in-
terest. Religious festivals, and processions known as " pardons,"
are held in many places, notably at Locronan, St Jean-du-Doigt,
St Herbot and Le Faou.
FINLAND
383
FINLAND (Finnish, Suomi or Suomenmaa), a grand-duchy
governed subject to its own constitution by' the emperor of
Russia as grand-duke of Finland. It is situated between the
gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, and includes, moreover, a large
territory in Lapland. It touches at its south-eastern extremity
the government of St Petersburg, includes the northern half
of Lake Ladoga, and is separated from the Russian governments
of Arkhangelsk and Olonets by a sinuous line which follows,
roughly speaking, the water-parting between the rivers flowing
into the Baltic Sea and the White Sea. In the north of the Gulf
of Bothnia it is separated from Sweden and Norway by a broken
line which takes the course of the valley of the Tornea river up
to its sources, thus falling only 21 m. short of reaching the head
of Norwegian Lyngen-fjord; then it runs south-east and
north-east down the Tana and Pasis-joki, but does not reach
the Artie Ocean, and 13 m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns
southwards. Finland includes in the south-west the Aland
archipelago its frontier approaching within 8 m. from the
Swedish coast as well as the islands of the Gulf of Finland,
Hogland, Tytars, &c. Its utmost limits are: 59 48' 70 6' N.,
and 19 2' 32 50' E. The area of Finland, in square miles,
is as follows (Atlas de Finlande, 1899):
Government.
Continent.
Islands
in Lakes.
Islands
in Seas.
Lakes.
Total.
Nyland
Abo-Bjorneborg
4,062
7.594
24
8
2IO
1331
286
400
4,582
9,333
Tavastehus
6,837
97
1,400
8,334
Viborg
11,630
362
130
4-502
16,624
St Michel .
5,652
1018
2,149
8,819
Kuopio
13,160
643
2,696
16,499
Vasa ....
14-527
62
203
1,313
16,105
Uleaborg .
60,348
I?'
94
3,344
63,957
Total .
123,810
2385
1968
16,090
144,253
Orography. -A line drawn from the head of the Gulf of Bothnia
to the eastern coast of Lake Ladoga divides Finland into two distinct
parts, the lake region and the nearly uninhabited hilly tracts belong-
ing to the Kjolen mountains, to the plateau of the Kola peninsula,
and to the slopes of the plateau which separates Finland proper
from the White Sea. At the head-waters of the Tornea, Finland
penetrates as a narrow strip into the heart of the highlands of Kjolen
(the Keel), where the Haldefjall (Lappish, Halditjokko) reaches 41 15
ft. above the sea, and is surrounded by other f jails, or flat-topped
summits, of from 3300 to 3750 ft. of altitude. Extensive plateaus
(1500-1750 ft.), into which Lake Enare, or Inari, and the valleys of
its tributaries are deeply sunk, and which take the character of a
mountain region in the Saariselka (highest summit, 2360 ft.), occupy
the remainder of Lapland. Along the eastern border the dreary
plateaus of Olonets reach on Finnish territory altitudes of from 700
to 1000 ft. Quite different is the character of the pentagonal space
comprised between the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, Lake Ladoga,
and the above-mentioned line traced through the lakes Ulea and
Piellis. The meridional ridges which formerly used to be traced here
along the main water-partings do not exist in reality, and the country
appears on the hypsometrical map in the Atlas de Finlande as a
plateau of 350 ft. of average altitude, covered with countless lakes,
lying at altitudes of from 250 to 300 ft. The three main lake-basins
of Nasi-jarvi, Pajane and Saima are separated by low and flat hills
only; but one sees distinctly appearing on the map a line of flat
elevations running south-west to north-east along the north-west
border of the lake regions from Lauhanvuori to Kajana, and reaching
from 650 to 825 ft. of altitude. A regular gentle slope leads from
these hills to the Gulf of Bothnia (Osterbotten), forming vast prairie
tracts in its lower parts.
A notable feature of Finland are the asar or narrow ridges of
morainic deposits, more or less reassorted on their surfaces. Some
of them are relics of the longitudinal moraines of the ice-sheet, and
they run north-west to south-east, parallel to the striaticn of the
rocks and to the countless parallel troughs excavated^by the ice in
the hard rocks in the same direction; while the Lojo as, which runs
from Hangoudd to Vesi-jarvi, and is continued farther east under
the name of Salpausellia, parallel to the shore of the Gulf of Finland,
are remainders of the frontal moraines, formed at a period when the
ice-sheet remained for some time stationary during its retreat. As
a rule these forest-clothed dsar rise from 30 to 60 and occasionally
120 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, largely adding
to the already great picturesqueness of the lake region; railways
are traced in preference along them.
Lakes and Rivers. A labyrinth of lakes, covering II % of the
aggregate territory, and connected by short and rapid streams
(fjdrden), covers the surface of South Finland, offering great facilities
for internal navigation, while the connecting streams supply an
enormous amount of motive-power. The chief lakes are : Lake
Ladoga, of which the northern half belongs to Finland; Saima
(three and a half times larger than Lake Leman), whose outlet, the
Vuoksen, flows into Lake Ladoga, forming the mighty Imatra rapids,
while the lake itself is connected by means of a sluiced canal with the
Gulf of Finland; the basins of Pyha-selka, Ori-vesi and Piellis-jarvi ;
Pajane, surrounded by hundreds of smaller lakes, and the waters of
which are discharged into the lower gulf through the Kymmene river;
Nasi-jarvi and Pyha-jarvi, whose outflow is the Kumo-elf, flowing
into the Gulf of Bothnia; Ulea-trask, discharged by the Ulea into
the same gulf; and Enare, belonging to the basin of the Arctic
Ocean. Two large rivers, Kemi and Tornea, enter the head of the
Gulf of Bothnia, while the Ulea is now navigable throughout, owing
to improvements in its channel.
Geology. Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous
deposits are found on the coasts of the Gulf of Finland and Lake
Ladoga, and also along the coasts of the Arctic Ocean (probably
Devonian), and in the Kjolen. Eruptive rocks of Palaeozoic age
are met with in the Kola peninsula (nepheline-syenites) and at
Kuusamo (syenite). The remainder of Finland is built up of the
oldest known crystalline rocks belonging to the Archaeozoic or
Algonkian period. The most ancient of these seem to be the granites
of East Finland. The denudation and destruction of the granites
gave rise to the Ladoga schists and various deposits of the same
period, which were subsequently strongly folded. Then the country
came once more under the sea, and the debris of the previous
formations, mixed with fragments from the vol-
canoes then situated in West Finland, formed the
so-called Bothnian series. New masses of granites
protruded next from underneath, and the Bothnian
deposits underwent foldings in their turn, while
denudation was again at work on a grand scale. A
new series of Jalulian deposits was formed and a new
system of foldings followed; but these were the last
in this part of the globe. The Jotnian series, which
were formed next, remain still undisturbed. It is to
this series that the well-known Rapakivi granite of
Aland, Nystad and Viborg belongs. No marine
deposits younger than those just mentioned all
belonging to a pre-Cambrian epoch are found in
the central portion of Finland; and the greater
part of the country has probably been dry land since
Palaeozoic times. The whole of Finland is covered with Glacial and
post-Glacial deposits. The former of these, representing the bottom-
moraine of the ice-sheet, are covered with Glacial and post-Glacial
clays (partly of lacustrine and partly of marine origin) only in
the peripheral coast-region or in separate areas in the interior
depressions. Some Finnish geologists Sederholm for one con-
sider it probable that during the Glacial period an Arctic sea ( Yoldia
sea) covered all southern Finland and also Scania (Skane) in Sweden,
thus connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Baltic and the White
Sea by a broad channel; but no fossils from that sea have been
found anywhere in Finland. Conclusive proofs, however, of a later
submergence under a post-Glacial Littorina sea (containing shells
now living in the Baltic) are found up to 150 ft. along the Gulf of
Finland, and up to 260, or perhaps 330 ft., in Osterbotten. Traces
of a large inner post-Glacial lake, similar to Lake Agassiz of North
America, have been discovered. The country is still continuing
to rise, but at an unequal rate; of nearly 3-3 ft. in a century in the
Gulf of Bothnia (Kvarken), from 1-4 to 2 ft. in the south, and nearly
zero in the Baltic provinces.
Climate. Owing to the prevalence of moist west and south-west
winds the climate of Finland is less severe than it is farther east in
corresponding latitudes. The country lies thus between the annual
isotherms of 41 and 28 Fahr., which run in a W.N.W.-E.S.E.
direction. In January the average monthly temperature varies from
9 Fahr. about Lake Enare to 30 along the south coast ; while in July
the difference between the monthly averages is only eight degrees,
being 53 in the north and 61 in the south-east. Everywhere, and
especially in the interior, the winter lasts very long, and early frosts
(June 12-14 m 1892) often destroy the crops. The amount of rain
and snow is from 25^ in. along the south coast to 13-8 in. in the
interior of southern Finland.
Flora, Forests, Fauna. The flora of Finland has been most
minutely explored, especially in the south, and the Finnish botanists
were_ enabled to divide the country into twenty-eight different
provinces, giving the numbers of phanerogam species for each prov-
ince. These numbers vary from 318 to 400 species in Lapland,
from 508 to 651 in Karelia, and attain 752 species for Finland proper;
while the total for all Finland attains 1132 species. Alpine plants
are not met with in Finland proper, but are represented by from 32
to 64 species in the Kola peninsula. The chief forest trees of Finland
are the Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris, L.), the fir (Picea excelsa, Link.);
two species of birch (B. verrucosa, Ehrh., and B. odorala, Bechst.),
as well as the birch-bush (B. nana) ; two species of Alnus (glutinosa
and inca.no) ; the oak (Q. pedunculata, Ehrh.), which grows only on
the south coast ; the poplar (Populus tremula) ; and the Siberian
larch, introduced in culture in the l8th century. Over 6,000,000
trees are cut every year to be floated to thirty large saw-mills, and
384
FINLAND
about i ,000,000 to be transformed into paper pulp. The total export
of timber was valued in 1897 at 82,160,000 marks. It is estimated,
however, that the domestic use of wood (especially for fuel) represents
nearly five times as many cubic feet as the wood used for export in
different shapes. The total area under forests is estimated at
63,050,000 acres, of which 34,662,000 acres belong to the state.
The fauna has been explored in great detail both as regards the
vertebrates and the invertebrates, and specialists will find the
necessary bibliographical indications in Travaux gcographiques en
Finlande, published for the London Geographical Congress of 1895.
Population. The population of Finland, which was 429,912 in
1751. 83 2 . 6 59 > n I8o . 1,636,915 in 1850, and 2,520,437 in 1895,
was 2,712,562 in 1904, of whom 1,370,480 were women and 1,342,082
men. Of these only 341,602 lived in towns, the remainder in the
country districts. The distribution of population in various prov-
inces was as follows :
1904.
Population.
Density per
sq. kilometre.
Abo-Bjorneborg. . ...
Kuopio
Nyland
St Michel
Tavastehus
Uleaborg
Viborg
Vasa
447,098
313,951
297,813
189,360
301,272
280,899
421,610
460,460
20-3
8-9
29-3
Il-l
17-7
1-9
14-6
12-5
Total
2,712,562
8-6
The number of births in 1904 was 90,253 and the deaths 50,227,
showing an excess of births over deaths of 40,026. Emigration was
estimated at about three thousand every year before 1898, but it
largely increased then owing to Russian encroachments on Finnish
autonomy. In 1899 the emigrants numbered 12,357; 10,642 in
1900; 12,659 m 1901; and 10,952 in 1904.
The bulk of the population are Finns (2,352,990 in 1904) and
Swedes (349,733). Of Russians there were only 5939, chiefly in the
provinces of Viborg and Nyland. Both Finns and Swedes belong
to the Lutheran faith, there being only 46,466 members of the Greek
Orthodox Church and 755 Roman Catholics.
The leading cities of Finland are: Helsingfors, capital of the
grand-duchy and of the province (Ian) of Nyland, principal seaport
(in ,654 inhabitants) ; Abo, capital of the Abo-Bjorneborg province
and ancient capital of Finland (42,639) ; Tammerfors, the leading
manufacturing town of the grand-duchy (40,261); Viborg, chief
town of province of same name, important seaport (34,672); Ulea-
borg, capital of province (17,737) ; Vasa, or Nikolaistad, capital of
Vasa Ian (18,028);- Bjorneborg (16,053); Kuopio, capital of pro-
vince (13,519) ; and Tavastehus, capital of province of the same
name (5545).
Industries. Agriculture gives occupation to the large majority
of the population, but of late the increase of manufactures has
been marked. Dairy-farming is also on the increase, and the foreign
exports of butter rose from 1930 cwt. in 1900 to 3130 cwt. in 1905.
Measures have been taken since 1892 for the improvement of agri-
culture, and the state keeps twenty-six agronomists and instructors
for that purpose. There are two high schools, one experimental
station, twenty-two middle schools and forty-eight lower schools of
agriculture, besides ten horticultural schools. Agricultural societies
exist in each province.
Fishing is an important item of income. The value of exports of
fish, &c., was 140,000 in 1904, but fish was also imported to the
value of 61,300. The manufacturing industries (wood-products,
metallurgy, machinery, textiles, paper and leather) are of modern
development, but the aggregate production approaches one and a
half millions sterling in value.
Some gold is obtained in Lapland on the Ivalajoki, but the output,
which amounted in 1871 to 56,692 grammes, had fallen in 1904 to
1951 grammes. There is also a small output of silver, copper and
iron. The last is obtained partly from mines, but chiefly from the
lakes. In 1904 22,050 tons of cast iron were obtained. The textile
industries are making rapid progress, and their produce, notwith-
standing the high duties, is exported to Russia. The fabrication of
paper out of wood is also rapidly growing. As to the timber trade,
there are upwards of 500 saw-mills, employing 21,000 men, and with
an output valued at over 3,000,000 annually.
Communications. The roads, attaining an aggregate length of
27,500 m.,are kept as a rule in very good order. The first railway
was opened in l862 ; and the next, from Helsingfors to St Petersburg,
in 1870 (cost only 4520 per mile). Railways of a lighter type
began to be built since 1877, and now Finland has about 2100 m. of
railway, mostly belonging to the state. The gross income from the
state railways is 26,607,622, and the net income 4,684,856 marks.
Finland has an extensive and well-kept system of canals, of which
the sluiced canal connecting Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland
is the chief one. It permits ships navigating the Baltic to penetrate
270 m. inland, and is passed every year by from 4980 to 5200 vessels.
Considerable works have also been made to connect the different
lakes and lake-basins for inland navigation, a sum of 1,000,000
having been spent for that purpose.
The telegraphs chiefly belong to Russia. Telephones have an
enormous extension both in the towns and between the different
towns of southern Finland; the cost of the yearly subscription
varies from 40 to 60 marks, 1 and is only 10 marks in the smaller towns.
Commerce. The foreign trade of Finland increases steadily, and
reached in 1904 the following values:
From or to
Russia.
From or to
other Countries.
Totals.
Imports
Exports
4,036,000
2,332,000
6,488,000
6,292,000
10,524,000
8,624,000
The chief trade of Finland is with Russia, and next with Great
Britain, Germany, Denmark, France and Sweden. The main im-
ports are: cereals and flour (to an annual value exceeding 3,000,000),
metals, machinery, textile materials and textile products. The
chief articles of export are: timber and wood articles (5,250,000),
paper and paper pulp, some tissues, metallic goods, leather, &c.
The chief ports are Helsingfors, Abo, Viborg, Hango and Vasa.
Education. Great strides have been made since 1866, when a
new education law was passed. Rudimentary teaching in reading,
occasionally writing, and the first principles of Lutheran faith are
given in the maternal house, or in " maternal schools," or by ambu-
latory schools under the control of the clergy, who make the necessary
examination in the houses of every parish. All education above
that level is in the hands of the educational department and school
boards elected in each parish, each rural parish being bound (since
1898) to be divided into a proper number of school districts and to
have a school in each of them, the state contributing to these ex-
penses 800 marks a year for each male and 600 marks for each
female teacher, or 25 % of the total cost in urban communes.
Secondary education, formerly instituted on two separate lines,
classical and scientific, has been reformed so as to give more prom-
inence to scientific education, even in the classical (linguistic) lyceums
or gymnasia. For higher education there is the university of
Helsingfors (formerly the Abo Academy), which in 1906 had 1921
students (328 women) and 141 professors and docents. Besides the
Helsingfors polytechnic there are a number of higher and lower
technical, commercial and navigation schools. Finland has several
scientific societies enjoying a world-wide reputation, as the Finnish
Scientific Society, the Society for the Flora and Fauna of Finland,
several medical societies, two societies of literature, the Finno-
Ugrian Society, the Historical and Archaeological Societies, one
juridical, one technical and two geographical societies. All of these,
as also the Finnish Geological Survey, the Forestry Administration,
&c., issue publications well known to the scientific world. The
numerous local branches of the Friends of the Folk-School and the
Society for Popular Education display great activity, the former by
aiding the smaller communes in establishing schools, and the latter
in publishing popular works, starting their own schools as well as
free libraries (in nearly every commune), and organizing lectures for
the people. The university students take a lively part in this work.
Government and Administration. From the time of its union
with Russia at the Diet of Borga in 1809 till the events of 1899
(see History) Finland was practically a separate state, the
emperor of Russia as grand-duke governing by means of a nomin-
ated senate and a diet elected on a very narrow franchise, and
meeting at distant and irregular intervals. This diet was on the
old Swedish model, consisting of representatives of the four
estates nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants sitting and
voting in separate " Houses." The government of the country
was practically carried on by the senate, which communicated
with St Petersburg through a Finnish secretary attached to the
Russian government. War and foreign affairs were entirely
in the hands of Russia, and a Russian governor had his residence
in Helsingfors. The senate also controlled the administration
of the law; The constitutional conflict of 1899-1905 brought
about something like a revolution in Finland. For some years
the country was subject to a practically arbitrary form of govern-
ment, but the disasters of the Russo-Japanese War and the
growing anarchy in Russia resulted in 1905 in a complete and
peaceful victory for the defenders of the Finnish constitution.
As a Finnish writer puts it: " just as the calamities which had
befallen Finland came from Russia, so was her deliverance to
come from Russia." The status quo ante was restored, the diet
met in extraordinary session, and proceeded to the entire re-
casting of the Finnish government. Freedom of the press was
voted, and the diet next proceeded to reform its own constitution.
1 The Finnish mark, markka, of 100 penni, equals about 9$d-
FINLAND
385
Far-reaching changes were voted. The new diet, instead of
being composed of four estates sitting separately, consists of a
single chamber of 200 members elected directly by universal
suffrage, women being eligible. By the new constitution the
grand-duchy was to be divided into not less than twelve and not
more than eighteen constituencies, electing members in propor-
tion to population. A scheme of " proportional representation,"
the votes being counted in accordance with the system invented
by G. M. d'Hondt, a Belgian, was also adopted. The executive
was to consist of a minister-secretary of state and of the members
of the senate, who were entitled to attend and address the diet
and who might be the subject of interpellations. The members
of the senate were made responsible to the diet as well as to
the emperor-grand-duke for their acts. The diet has power to
consider and decide upon measures proposed by the government.
After a measure has been approved by the diet it is the duty
of the senate to report upon it to the sovereign. But the senate
is not obliged to accept the decision of the majority of the diet,
nor, apparently, is the sovereign bound to accept the advice of
the senate. The first elections, April 1907, resulted in the
election to the diet of about 40 % representatives of the Social
Democratic party, and nineteen women members. The budget
of Finland in 1905 was 4,273,970 of " ordinary " revenue.
The " ordinary " expenditure was 3,595,300. The public debt
amounted at the end of 1905 to 5,611,170.
History. It was probably at the end of the 7th or the begin-
ning of the 8th century that the Finns took possession of what
is now Finland, though it was only when Christianity was in-
troduced, about 1157, that they were brought into contact with
civilized Europe. They probably found the Lapps in possession
of the country. The early Finlanders do not seem to have had
any governmental organization, but to have lived in separate
communities and villages independent of each other. Their
mythology consisted in the deification of the forces of nature,
as " Ukko," the god of the air, " Tapio," god of the forests,
" Ahti," the god of water, &c. These early Finlanders seem to
have been both brave and troublesome to their neighbours, and
their repeated attacks on the coast of Sweden drew the attention
of the kings of that country. King Eric IX. (St Eric), accom-
panied by the bishop of Upsala, Henry (an Englishman, it is
said), and at the head of a considerable army, invaded the
country in 1157, when the people were conquered and baptized.
King Eric left Bishop Henry with his priests and some soldiers
behind to confirm the conquest and complete the conversion.
After a time he was killed, canonized, and as St Henry became
the patron saint of Finland. As Sweden had to attend to her
own affairs, Finland was gradually reverting to independence
and paganism, when in 1209 another bishop and missionary,
Thomas (also an Englishman), arrived and recommenced the
work of St Henry. Bishop Thomas nearly succeeded in detaching
Finland from Sweden, and forming it into a province subject
only to the pope. The famous Birger Jarl undertook a crusade
in Finland in 1249, compelling the Tavastians, one of the sub-
divisions of the Finlanders proper, to accept Christianity, and
building a castle at Tavestehus. It was Torkel Knutson who
conquered and connected the Karelian Finlanders in 1293, and
built the strong castle of Viborg. Almost continuous wars
between Russia and Sweden were the result of the conquest
of Finland by the latter. In 1323 it was settled that the river
Rajajoki should be the boundary between Russia and the
Swedish province. After the final conquest of the country by
the Swedes, they spread among the Finlanders their civilization,
gave them laws, accorded them the same civil rights as belonged
to themselves, and introduced agriculture and other beneficial
arts. The Reformed religion was introduced into Finland by
Gustavus Vasa about 1528, and King John III. raised the
country to the dignity of a grand-duchy. It continued to
suffer, sometimes deplorably, in most of the wars waged by
Sweden, especially with Russia and Denmark. His predecessor
having created an order of nobility, counts, barons and
nobles, Gustavus Adolphus in the beginning of the i7th century
established the diet of Finland, composed of the four orders of
X. 13
the nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants. Gustavus and
his successor did much for Finland by founding schools and
gymnasia, building churches, encouraging learning and intro-
ducing printing. During the reign of Charles XI. (1692-1696)
the country suffered terribly from famine and pestilence; in the
diocese of Abo alone 60,000 persons died in less than nine months.
Finland has been visited at different periods since by these
scourges; so late as 1848 whole villages were starved during
a dreadful famine. Peter the Great cast an envious eye on
Finland and tried to wrest it from Sweden; in 1710 he managed
to obtain possession of the towns of Kexholm and Villmanstrand;
and by 1716 all the country was in his power. Meantime the
sufferings of the people had been great; thousands perished
in the wars of Charles XII. By the peace of Nystad in 1721
the province of Viborg, the eastern division of Finland, was
finally ceded to Russia. But the country had been laid very
low by war, pestilence and famine, though it recovered itself
with wonderful rapidity. In 1741 the Swedes made an effort
to recover the ceded province, but through wretched management
suffered disaster, and were compelled to capitulate in August
1 742, ceding by the peace of Abo, next year, the towns of Villman-
strand and Fredrikshamn. Nothing remarkable seems to have
occurred till 1788, under Gustavus III., who began to reign
in 1771, and who confirmed to Finland those "fundamental
laws " which they have succeeded in maintaining against kings
and tsars for over two centuries. The country was divided into
six governments, a second superior court of justice was founded
at Vasa, many new towns were built, commerce flourished, and
science and art were encouraged. Latin disappeared as the
academic language, and Swedish was adopted. In 1788 war
again broke out between Sweden and Russia, and was carried
on for two years without much glory or gain to either party,
the main aim of Gustavus being to recover the lost Finnish
province. In 1808, under Gustavus IV., peace was again
broken between the two countries, and the war ended by the
cession in 1809 of the whole of Finland and the Aland Islands to
Russia. Finland, however, did not enter Russia as a conquered
province, but, thanks to the bravery of her people after they had
been abandoned by an incompetent monarch and treacherous
generals, and not less to the wisdom and generosity of the
emperor Alexander I. of Russia, she maintained her free constitu-
tion and fundamental laws, and became a semi-independent
grand-duchy with the emperor as grand-duke. The estates
were summoned to a free diet at Borga and accepted Alexander
as grand-duke of Finland, he on his part solemnly recognizing
the Finnish constitution and undertaking to preserve the religion,
laws and liberties of the country. A senate was created and a
governor-general named. The province of Viborg was reunited
to Finland in 1811, and Abo remained the capital of the country
till 1821, when the civil and military authorities were removed
to Helsingfors, and the university in 1827. The diet, which had
not met for 56 years, was convoked by Alexander II. at Helsingfors
in 1863. Under Alexander II. Finland was on the whole pros-
perous and progressive, and his statue in the great square in
front of the cathedral and the senate house in Helsingfors
testifies to the regard in which his memory is cherished by his
Finnish subjects. Unfortunately his successor soon fell under
the influence of the reactionary party which had begun to assert
itself in Russia even before the assassination of Alexander II.
One of Alexander III.'s first acts was to confirm " the constitu-
tion which was granted to the grand-duchy of Finland by His
Majesty the emperor Alexander Pavlovich of most glorious
memory, and developed with the consent of the estates of Finland
by our dearly beloved father of blessed memory the emperor
Alexander Nicolaievich." But the Slavophil movement, with
its motto, " one law, one church, one tongue," acquired great
influence in official circles, and its aim was, in defiance of the
pledges of successive tsars, to subject Finland to Orthodoxy
and autocracy. It is unnecessary to follow in detail the seven
years' struggle between the Russian bureaucracy and the
defenders of the Finnish constitution. Politics in Finland were
complicated by the rivalry between the Swedish party, which
3 86
FINLAND
[LITERATURE
had hitherto been dominant in Finland, and the Finnish " nation-
alist " party which, during the latter half of the igth century,
had been determinedly asserting itself linguistically and politi-
cally. With some exceptions, however, the whole country united
in defence of its constitution; " Fennoman " and " Svecoman,"
recognizing that their common liberties were at stake, suspended
their feud for a season. With the accession of Nicholas II.
(see RUSSIA) the constitutional conflict became acute, and the
" February manifesto " (February isth, 1899) virtually abro-
gated the legislative power of the Finnish diet. A new military
law, practically amalgamating the Finnish with the Russian
forces, followed in July 1901; Russian officials and the Russian
language were forced on Finland wherever possible, and in
April 1903 the Russian governor, General Bobrikov, was invested
with practically dictatorial powers. The country was flooded
with spies, and a special Russian police force was created, the
expenses being charged to the Finnish treasury. The Russian
system was now in full swing; domiciliary visits, illegal arrests
and banishments, and the suppression of newspapers, were the
order of the day. To all this the people of Finland opposed
a dogged and determined resistance, which culminated in
November 1905 in a " national strike." The strike was universal,
all classes joining in the movement, and it spread to all the
industrial centres and even to the rural districts. The railway,
steamship, telephone and postal services were practically
suspended. Helsingfors was without tramcars, cabs, gas and
electricity; no shops except provision shops were open; public
departments, schools and restaurants were closed. After six
days the unconstitutional government already much shaken
by events in Russia and Manchuria capitulated. In an imperial
manifesto dated the 7th of November 1905 the demands of
Finland were granted, and the status quo ante 1899 was restored.
But the reform did not rest here. The old Finnish constitution,
although precious to those whose only protection it was, was an
antiquated and not very efficient instrument of government.
Popular feeling had been excited by the political conflict, ad-
vanced tendencies had declared themselves, and when the new
diet met it proceeded as explained above to remodel the con-
stitution, on the basis of universal suffrage, with freedom of
the press, speech, meeting and association.
In 1908-10 friction with Russia was again renewed. The
Imperial government insisted that the decision in all Finnish
questions affecting the Empire must rest with them; and a re-
newed attempt was made to curtail the powers of the Finnish Diet.
Ethnology. The term Finn has a wider application than
Finland, being, with its adjective Finnic or Finno-Ugric (q.v.)
or Ugro-Finnic, the collective name of the westernmost branch
of the Ural- Altaic family, dispersed throughout Finland, Lapland,
the Baltic provinces (Esthonia, Livonia, Curland), parts cf
Russia proper (south of Lake Onega), both banks of middle
Volga, Perm, Vologda, West Siberia (between the Ural Mountains
and the Yenissei) and Hungary.
Originally nomads (hunters and fishers), all the Finnic people
except the Lapps and Ostyaks have long yielded to the influence
of civilization, and now everywhere lead settled lives as herdsmen,
agriculturists, traders, &c. Physically the Finns (here to be
distinguished from the Swedish-speaking population, who
retain their Scandinavian qualities) are a strong, hardy race,
of low stature, with almost round head, low forehead, flat
features, prominent cheek bones, eyes mostly grey and oblique
(inclining inwards), short and flat nose, protruding mouth,
thick lips, neck very full and strong, so that the occiput seems
flat and almost in a straight line with the nape; beard weak
and sparse, hair no doubt originally black, but, owing to mixture
with other races, now brown, red and even fair; complexion
also somewhat brown. The Finns are morally upright, hospitable,
faithful and submissive, with a keen sense of personal freedom
and independence, but also somewhat stolid, revengeful and
indolent. Many of these physical and moral characteristics
they have in common with the so-called " Mongolian " race,
to which they are no doubt ethnically, if not also linguistically,
related.
Considerable researches have been accomplished since about
1850 in the ethnology and archaeology of Finland, on a scale
which has no parallel in any other country. The study of the
prehistoric population of Finland Neolithic (no Palaeolithic
finds have yet been made) of the Age of Bronze and the Iron
Age has been carried on with great zeal. At the same time the
folklore, Finnish and partly Swedish, has been worked out with
wonderful completeness (see L'CEuvre demi-seculaire de la Societe
de LiMrature finnoise et le mouvement national finnois, by Dr
E. G. Palmen, Helsingfors, 1882, and K. Krohn's report to the
London Folklore Congress of 1891). The work that was begun
by Porthan, Z. Topelius, and especially E. Lonnrot (1802-1884),
for collecting the popular poetry of the Finns, was continued
by Castren (1813-1852), Europaeus (1820-1884), and V. Porkka
(1854-1889), who extended their researches to the Finns settled
in other parts of the Russian empire, and collected a considerable
number of variants of the Kalewala and other popular poetry
and songs. In order to study the different eastern kinsfolk
of the Finns, Sjogren (1792-1855) extended his journeys to
North Russia, and Castren to West and East Siberia (Nordische
Reisen und Forschungen) : and collected the materials which
permitted himself and Schiefner to publish grammatical works
relative to the Finnish, Lappish, Zyrian, Tcheremiss, Ostiak,
Samoyede, Tungus, Buryat, Karagas, Yenisei-Ostiak and Kott
languages. Ahlqvist (1826-1889), an( i a phalanx of linguists,
continued their work among the Vogules, the Mordves and the
Obi-Ugrians. And finally, the researches of Aspelin (Foundations
of Finno-U grian Archaeology, in Finnish, and Atlas of Antiquities)
led the Finnish ethnologists to direct more and more their
attention to the basin of the Yenisei and the Upper Selenga.
A series of expeditions (of Aspelin, Snellman and Heikel) were
consequently directed to those regions, especially since the
discovery by Yadrintseff of the remarkable Orkhon inscriptions
(see TURKS, p. 473), which finally enabled the Danish linguist,
V. Thomsen, to decipher these inscriptions, and to discover
that they belonged to the Turkish Iron Age. (See Inscriptions
de Vlenissei recueillies et publi&es par la Societe Finl. d' A rcheologie ,
1889, and Inscriptions de I'Orkhon, 1892.)
AUTHORITIES. The general history of Finland is fully treated by
Yrjo Koskinen (1869-1873) and M. G. Schybergson (1887-1889).
Both works have been translated into German. The constitutional
conflict gave rise to a host of books and pamphlets in various
languages. Mechelin, Danielson and Hermanson were the leading
writers on the Finnish side, and M. Ordin on the Russian. Most of the
political documents have been published and translated. A finely
illustrated book, Finland in the Nineteenth Century, by various Finnish
writers, gives an excellent account of the country; also Reuter's
Finlandia, a very complete work with an exhaustive bibliography.
The constitutional question was fully discussed in English in Fin-
land and the Tsars, by J. R. Fisher (2nd ed., 1900). The Atlas de
Finlande, published in 1899 by the Geographical Society of Fin-
land, is a remarkably well executed and complete work. The
Statistical Annual for Finland Statistisk Arsbok for Finland- pub-
lished annually by the Central Statistical Bureau in Helsingfors,
gives the necessary figures. (P. A. K. ; J. S. K. ; J. R. F.*)
Finnish Literature.
The earliest writer in the Finnish vernacular was Michael
Agricola (1506-1552), who published an A B C Book in 1544,
and, as bishop of Abo, a number of religious and educational
works. A version of the New Testament in Finnish was printed
by Agricola in 1548, and some books of the Old Testament in
1552. A complete Finnish Bible was published at Stockholm
in 1642. The dominion of the Swedes was very unfavourable
to the development of anything like a Finnish literature, the
poets of Finland preferring to write in Swedish and so secure a
wider audience. It was not until, in 1835, the national epos of
Finland, the Kalewala (q.v.), was introduced to readers by the
exertions of Elias Lonnrot (q.v.), that the Finnish language was
used for literary composition. Lonnrot also collected and edited
the works of the peasant-poets P. Korhonen (1775-1840) and
Pentti Lyytinen, with an anthology containing the improvisa-
tions of eighteen other rustic bards. During the last quarter of
the igth century there was an ever-increasing literary activity
in Finland, and it took the form less and less of the publication
FINLAY FINN MAC COOL
of Swedish works, but more and more that of examples of the
aboriginal vernacular. At the present time, in spite of the
political troubles, books in almost every branch of research are
found in the language, mainly translations or adaptations. We
meet with, during the present century, a considerable number
of names of poets and dramatists, no doubt very minor, as also
painters, sculptors and musical composers. At the Paris
International Exhibition of 1878 several native Finnish painters
and sculptors exhibited works which would do credit to any
country; and both in the fine and applied arts Finland occupied
a position thoroughly creditable. An important contribution
to a history of Finnish literature is Krohn's Suomenkielinen
runollisuns ruotsimiallan aikana (1862). Finland is wonderfully
rich in periodicals of all kinds, the publications of the Finnish
Societies of Literature and of Sciences and other learned bodies
being specially valuable. A great work in the revival of an
interest in the Finnish language was done by the Suomalaisen
Kirjallisuuden Seura (the Finnish Literary Society) , which from
the year 1841 has published a valuable annual, Suomi. The
Finnish Literary Society has also published a new edition of the
works of the father of Finnish history, Henry Gabriel Porthan
(died 1804). A valuable handbook of Finnish history was pub-
lished at Helsingfors in 1869-1873, by Yrjo Koskinen, and has
been translated into both Swedish and German. The author
was a Swede, Georg Forsman, the above form being a Finnish
translation. Other works on Finnish history and some inportant
works in Finnish geography have also appeared. In language
we have Lonnrot's great Finnish-Swedish dictionary, published
by the Finnish Literary Society. Dr Otto Donner's Comparative
Dictionary of the Finno-Ugric Languages (Helsingfors and
Leipzig) is in German. In imaginative literature Finland has
produced several important writers of the vernacular. Alexis
Stenwall (" Kiwi ") (1834-1872), the son of a village tailor,
was the best poet of his time; he wrote popular dramas and an
historical romance, The Seven Brothers (1870). Among recent
playwrights Mrs Minna Canth (1844-1897) has been the most
successful. Other dramatists are E. F. Johnsson (1844-1895),
P. Cajander (b. 1846), who translated Shakespeare into Finnish,
and Karl Bergbom (b. 1843). Among lyric poets are J. H.
Erkko (b. 1849), Arwi Jannes (b. 1848) and Yrjo Weijola
(b. 1875). The earliest novelist of Finland, Pietari Paivarinta
(b. 1827), was the son of a labourer; he is the author of a grimly
realistic story, His Life. Many of the popular Finnish authors
of our day are peasants. Kauppis Heikki was a wagoner; Alkio
Filander a farmer; Heikki Mavilainen a smith; Juhana Kokko
(Kyosti) a gamekeeper. The most gifted of the writers of
Finland, however, is certainly Juhani Aho (b. 1861), the son of
a country clergyman. His earliest writings were studies of
modern life, very realistically treated. Aho then went to
reside in France, where he made a close study of the methods
of the leading French novelists of the newer school. About the
year 1893 he began to publish short stories, some of which, such
as Enris, The Fortress of Matthias, The Old Man of Korpela and
Finland's Flag, are delicate works of art, while they reveal to a
very interesting degree the temper and ambitions of the contem-
porary Finnish population. It has been well said that in the
writings of Juhani Aho can be traced all the idiosyncrasies
which have formed the curious and pathetic history of Finland
in recent years. A village priest, Juho Reijonen (b. 1857), in
tales of somewhat artless form, has depicted the hardships
which poverty too often entails upon the Finn in his country
life. Tolstoy has found an imitator in Arwid Jarnefelt (b. 1861).
Santeri Ingman (b. 1866) somewhat naively, but not without
skill, has followed in the steps of Aho. It would be an error to
exaggerate either the force or the originality of these early
developments of a national Finnish literature, which, moreover,
are mostly brief and unambitious in character. But they are
eminently sincere, and they have the great merit of illustrating
the local aspects of landscape and temperament and manners.
AUTHORITIES. E. G. Palmen, L'CEuvre demi-seculaire de la
Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1831-81 (Helsingfors, 1882);
J. Krohn, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden waiheet (Helsingfors, 1897) >
F. W. Pipping, Forteckning ofver backer pdfinska sprdket (Helsingfors,
1856-1857); E. Brausewetter, Finland im Bilde seiner Dichtung und
seiner Dichter (Berlin, 1899); C. J. Billson, Popular Poetry of the
Finns (London, 1900) ; V. Vasenius, Ofversigt af Finlands Litteratur-
historiafor skolor (Helsingfors, 1893). For writers using the Swedish
language, see SWEDEN : Literature. (E. G.)
FINLAY, GEORGE (1799-1875), British historian, was born
of Scottish parents at Faversham, Kent, on the 2ist of December
1799. He studied for the law in Glasgow, and about 1821 went
to Gottingen. He had already begun to feel a deep interest in
the Greek struggle for independence, and in 1823 he resolved to
visit the country. In November he arrived in Cephalonia, where
he was kindly received by Lord Byron. Shortly afterwards he
landed at Pyrgos, and during the next fourteen months he
improved his knowledge of the language, history and antiquities
of the country. Though he formed an unfavourable opinion
of the Greek leaders, both civil and military, he by no means
lost his enthusiasm for their cause. A severe attack of fever,
however, combined with other circumstances, induced him to
spend the winter of 1824-1825 and the spring of 1825 in Rome,
Naples and Sicily. He then returned to Scotland, and, after
spending a summer at Castle Toward, Argyllshire, went to
Edinburgh, where he passed his examination in civil law at the
university, with a view to being called to the Scottish bar. His
enthusiasm, however, carried him back to Greece, where he
resided almost uninterruptedly till his death. He took part in
the unsuccessful operations of Lord Cochrane and Sir Richard
Church for the relief of Athens in 1827. When independence
had been secured in 1829 he bought a landed estate in Attica,
but all his efforts for the introduction of a better system of
agriculture ended in failure, and he devoted himself to the
literary work which occupied the rest of his life. His first
publications were The Hellenic Kingdom and the Greek Nation
(1836); Essai sur les principes de banque appliques a I' flat actuel
de la Grece (Athens, 1836); and Remarks on the Topography
of Oropia and Diacria, with a map (Athens, 1838). The first
instalment of his great historical work appeared in 1844 (2nd ed.,
1857) under the title Greece under the Romans; a Historical
View of the Condition of the Greek Nation from the time of its
Conquest by the Romans until the Extinction of the Roman Empire
in the East. Meanwhile he had been qualifying himself still
further by travel as well as by reading; he undertook several
tours to various quarters of the Levant; and as the result of
one of them he published a volume On the Site of the Holy
Sepulchre; with a plan of Jerusalem (1847). The History of the
Byzantine and Greek Empires from 716-1453 was completed
in 1854. It was speedily followed by the History of Greece under
the Ottoman and Venetian Domination (1856), and by the History
of the Greek Revolution (1861). In weak health, and conscious
of failing energy, he spent his last years in revising his history.
From 1864 to 1870 he was also correspondent of The Times
newspaper, his letters to which attracted considerable attention,
and, appearing in the Greek newspapers, exercised a distinct
influence on Greek politics. He was a member of several learned
societies; and in 1854 he received from the university of Edin-
burgh the honorary degree of LL.D. He died at Athens on the
26th of January 1875. A new edition of his History, edited by
the Rev. H. F. Tozer, was issued by the Oxford Clarendon press in
1877. It includes a brief but extremely interesting fragment of an
autobiography of the author, almost the only authority for his life.
As an historian, Finlay had the merit of entering upon a field
of research that had been neglected by English writers, Gibbon
alone being a partial exception. As a student, he was laborious;
as a scholar he was accurate; as a thinker, he was both acute
and profound; and in all that he wrote he was unswerving in
his loyalty to the principles of constitutional government and to
the cause of liberty and justice.
FINN MAC COOL (in Irish FIND MAC CUMAILL), the central
figure of the later heroic cycle of Ireland, commonly called
Ossianic or Fenian. In Scotland Find usually goes by the name
of Fingal. This appears to be due to a misunderstanding of the
title assumed by the Lord of the Isles, RJ Fionnghall, i.e. king of
the Norse. Find's father, Cumall macTrenmoir, was uncle to Conn
3 88
FINNO-UGRIAN
C6tchathach, High King of Ireland, who died in A.D. 157. Cumall
carried off Murna Munchaem, the daughter of a Druid named
Tadg mac Nuadat, and this led to the battle of Cnucha, in which
Cumall was slain by Goll mac Morna (A.D. 174). Find was born
after his father's death and was at first called Demni. He is
leader of the fiann or feinne (English " Fenians "), a kind of
militia or standing army which was drawn from all quarters of
Ireland. His father had held the same office before him, but
after his death it passed to his enemy Goll mac Morna, who
retained it until Find came to man's estate. Find usually
resided at Almu (Allen) in Co. Kildare, where he was surrounded
by some of the contingents of the fiann, the rest being scattered
throughout Ireland to ward off enemies, particularly those
coming from over the sea. In times of invasion Find collected
his forces, overcame the foe, and pursued him to Scotland or
Lochlann (Scandinavia) as the case might be. When not
engaged in war the fiann gave themselves up to the chase or
love-adventures. We are informed in great detail as to the
conditions of admission to this privileged band, which were
at once singular and exacting. The foremost heroes in Find's
train were his son Ossian, his grandson Oscar, Cailte mac Ronain,
and Diarmait O'Duibne, whose elopement with Find's destined
bride Grainne, daughter of the High-King Cormac mac Airt
(A.D. 227-266), forms the subject of a celebrated story. These,
like Find, were all of the Ua Baisgne branch, with which was
allied the Ua Morna, with whom they were generally at variance.
The latter hailed from Connaught, chief among them being
Goll and Conan. By the annalists Find is represented as having
met with death by treachery either in 252 or 283. Under
Coirpre Lifeochair, successor to Cormac mac Airt, the power
of the fiann became intolerable. The monarch accordingly
took up arms against them and utterly crushed them at the
battle of Gabra (A.D. 283). Very few survived the defeat, but
the story makes Ossian and Cailte live on until after the arrival
of St Patrick in 432.
It is incredible that such a band as the fiann should have
existed in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. A number of sagas older
in date than the Ossianic stories have been preserved, which deal
with events happening in the reigns of Art son of Conn (166-196),
Lugaid mac Con (196-227), and Cormac mac Airt (227-266),
but none of these in their oldest shape contain any allusion
whatsoever to Find and his warriors. In the history of the
Boroma, contained in the book of Leinster, Find is merely a
Leinster chieftain who assists Bressal the king of Leinster
against Coirpre Lifeochair. It can be shown that Find was
originally a figure in Leinster-Munster tradition previous to the
Viking age, but we have no documentary evidence concerning
him at this time. He seems primarily to have been regarded as
a poet and magician. Later he appears to have been trans-
formed into a petty chief, and Zimmer even tried to show that
his personality was developed in Leinster and Munster local
tradition out of stories clustering round the figure of the Viking
leader Ketill Hviti (Caittil Find), who was slain in 857. By the
year 1000 Find was certainly connected in the minds of the people
with the reign of Cormac mac Airt, but the process is obscure.
Recently John MacNeill has pointed out that in the oldest
genealogies Find is always connected with the Ui Tairrsigh of
Failge (Offaley, a district comprising the present county of
Kildare and parts of King's and Queen's counties). The Ui
Tairrsigh were undoubtedly of Firbolg origin, and MacNeill
would account in this manner for the slow acceptance of the
stories by the conquering Milesians. Whilst the Ulster epic was
fashionable at court, the subject races clung to the Fenian cycle.
For the last 800 years Find has been the national hero of the
Gaelic-speaking populations of Ireland, the Scottish Highlands
and the Isle of Man. See also CELT (subsection Irish Literature).
AUTHORITIES. A. Nutt, Ossian and the Ossiar.ic Literature
(London, 1899); H. Zimmer, " Keltische Beitrage iii.," Zeitschriftfur
deutsches Alterlum (1891), vol. xxxv. pp. 1-172; L. C. Stern, " Die
Ossianischen Heldenlieder," Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Litteralur-
geschichte (1895; trans, by J. L. Robertson in Transactions of the
Gaelic Society of Inverness, 1897-1898, vc'
MacNeill, Duanaire Finn (London, 1908).
Gaelic Society of Inverness, 1897-1898, vol. xxii. pp. 257-325); J.
(li. (_. y.
FINNO-UGRIAN, or FINNO-UGRIC, the designation of a
division of the Ural-Altaic family of languages and their speakers.
The first part is the name given by their neighbours, though
not used by themselves, to the inhabitants of the eastern shores
of the Baltic. It is probably the same word as the Fenni of
Tacitus and Qlvvoi of Ptolemy, though it is not certain that those
races were Finns in the modern sense. It possibly means people
of the fens or marshes, and corresponds to the native word Suomi,
which appears to be derived from suo, a marsh. Finn and
Finnish are used not only of the inhabitants of Finland but
also in a more extended sense of similar tribes found in Russia
and sometimes called Baltic Finns and Volga Finns. In this
sense the Esthonian tribes (Baltic), the Laps, the Cheremis and
Mordvins (Volga), and the Permian tribes are all Finns. The
name is not, however, extended to the Ostiaks, Voguls and
Magyars, who, though allied, form a separate subdivision called
Ugrian, a name derived from Yura or Ugra, the country on
either side of the Ural Mountains, and first used by Castren in
a scientific sense.
The name Finno-Ugric is primarily linguistic and must not
be pressed as indicating a community of physical features
and customs. But making allowance for the change of language
by some tribes, the Finno-Ugrians form, with the striking ex-
ception of the Hungarians, a moderately homogeneous whole.
They are nomads, but, unlike the Turks, Mongols and Manchus,
have hardly ever shown themselves warlike and have no power
of political organization. Those of them who have not come
under European influence live under the simplest form of
patriarchal government, and states, kings or even great chiefs
are almost unknown among them.
Their headquarters are in Russia. From the Baltic to south
Siberia extends a vast plain broken only by the Urals. Large
parts of it are still wooded, and the proportion of forest land and
marsh was no doubt much greater formerly. The Finno-Ugric
tribes seem to shun the open steppes but are widely spread in
the wooded country, especially on the banks of lakes and rivers.
Their want of political influence renders them obscure, but they
form a considerable element in the population of the northern,
middle and eastern provinces of Russia, but are not found much
to the south of Moscow (except in the east) or in the west (except
in the Baltic provinces) . The difference of temperament between
the Great Russians and the purer Slavs such as the Little
Russians is partly due to an infusion of Finnish blood.
Physically the Finno-Ugric races are as a rule solidly built
and, though there is considerable variation in height and the
cephalic index, are mostly of small or medium stature, somewhat
squat, and brachy- or mesocephalic. As a rule the skin is greyish
or olive coloured, the eyes grey or blue, the hair light, the
beard scanty. Most of them seem deficient in energy and
liveliness, both mental and physical; they are slow, heavy,
conservative, somewhat suspicious and vindictive, inclined to
be taciturn and melancholy. On- the other hand they are
patient, persevering, industrious, faithful and honest. When
their natural mistrust of strangers is overcome they are kindly
and hospitable.
I. Tribes and Nations. The Ugrian subdivision, which seems
to be in many respects the more primitive, consists of three
peoples standing on very different levels of civilization, the
Ostiaks and Voguls and the Hungarians.
The Ostiaks (Ostyaks or Ostjaks) are a tribe of nomadic
fishermen and hunters inhabiting at present the government
of Tobolsk and the banks of the Obi. They formerly Ostiaks
extended into the government of Perm on the European
side of the Ural Mountains. The so-called Ostiaks of the Yenisei
appear to be a different race and not to belong to the Finno-
Ugrian group. The Ostiaks are still partially pagan and worship
the River Obi. Allied to them are the Voguls, a. similar nomadic
tribe found on both sides of the Urals, and formerly vogul*
extending at least as far as the government of Vologda.
The languages of the Ostiaks and Voguls are allied, though not
mere dialects of one another, and form a small group separated
from the languages of the Finns both Western and Eastern.
FINNO-UGRIAN
389
For further details of these and other tribes see under the separate
headings.
According to the legend, Nirnrod had two sons, Hunyor and
Magyor. They married daughters of the prince of the Alans
and became the ancestors of the two kindred nations,
Huns and Magyars or Hungarians. This story corre-
gartaas. spends with what can be ascertained scientifically about
the origin of these peoples. It is probable that the
Huns and Magyars were allied tribes of mixed descent comprising
both Turkish and Finno-Ugrian elements. The language is
indisputably Finno-Ugrian, but the name Hungarian seems to
lead back to the form Un-ugur, and to suggest Turkish connexions
which are confirmed by the warlike habits of the Huns and
Magyars. The same name possibly occurs in the form Hiung-nu
as far east as the frontiers of China, but recent authorities are
of opinion that the tribes from whom the present Hungarians
are descended were formed originally in the Terek-Kuban
country to the north of the Caucasus, where a mixture of Turkish
and Ugrian blood took place, a Ugrian language but Turkish
mode of life predominating. They were also influenced by
Iranians and the various tribes of the Caucasus. Both Huns
and Magyars moved westwards, but the Huns invaded Europe
in the 5th century and made no permanent settlement in spite
of the devastation they caused, whereas the Magyars remained
for some centuries near the banks of the Don. According to
tradition they were compelled to leave a country called Lebedia
under the pressure of nomadic tribes, and moved westward
under the leadership of seven dukes. They conquered Hungary
in the years 884-895, and the first king of their new dominions
was called Arpad. For the chequered and often tragic history
of the country see HUNGARY. The Magyars were converted to
Christianity in the nth century and adhered to the Roman
not the Eastern Church. They have in all probability entirely
lost their ancient physique, but have retained their language,
and traces of their older life may be seen in their fondness for
horses and flocks.
The following are the principal Finnish peoples. The Permians
and Syryenians may be treated as one tribe. The latter name
is very variously spelt asSyrjenian,Sirianian,Zyrjenian,
Permians zirian, &c. They both call themselves Komi and
yeaiaos' speak a mutually intelligible language, allied to
Votiak. The name Bjarmisch is sometimes applied
to this sub-group. Both Permians and Syryenians are found
chiefly in the governments of Perm, Vologda and Archangel,
but there are a few Syryenians on the Siberian side of the Urals.
The Syryenian headquarters are at the town of Ishma on the
Pechora, whereas the name Permian is more correctly restricted
to the inhabitants of the right bank of the upper Kama. Both
probably extended much farther to the west in former times.
The Syryenians are said to be more intelligent and active than
most Finnish tribes and to make considerable journeys for
trading purposes. They are possibly a mixed race.
The Votiaks are a tribe of about a quarter of a million persons
dwelling chiefly in the south-eastern part of the government
of Viatka. Their language indicates that they have
borrowed a good deal from the Tatars and Chuvashes,
and they seem to have little individuality, being described as
weak both mentally and physically. They call themselves
Ud-murt or Urt-murt. About the i6th century some of them
migrated, doubtless under the pressure of Russian advance, into
the government of Ufa and, the country being more fertile, are
said to have improved in physique.
The Chcremissians, or Tcheremissians or Cheremis, who call
themselves Mari, inhabit the banks of the Volga, chiefly in the
neighbourhood of Kazan. Those inhabiting the right
C m!s7ians. bank of the Vol S a are physically stronger and are
known as Hill Cheremiss. The evidence of place
names makes it probable that their present position is the result
of their being driven northwards by the Mordvins and then
southwards by the Russians. There is some discrepancy between
their language and their physical characteristics. The former
shows affinities to both Mordvinian and the Permian group, but
Votiaks.
their crania are said to be mainly dolichocephalic, and it has
been suggested that they are connected with the neolithic
dolichocephalic population of Lake Ladoga. They are gentle
and honest, but neither active nor intelligent.
The Mordmnians, also called Mordva, Mordvins and Mordvs,
are scattered over the provinces near the middle Volga, especially
Nizhniy Novgorod, Kazan, Penza, Tambov, Simbirsk, '
Ufa and even Orenburg. Though not continuous, ^ia^ os
their settlements are considerable both in extent and
population. They are the most important of the Eastern Finns,
and their traditions speak of a capital and of a king who fought
with the Tatars. They are mentioned as Mordens as early as the
6th century, but do not now use the name, calling themselves
after one of their two divisions, Moksha or Erza. Their country
is still covered with forest to a large extent. Their language
is on the one side allied to Cheremissian. On the other it shows
a nearer approach to Finnish (Suomi) than the other Eastern
languages of the family, but it has also constructions peculiar
to itself.
The Lapps are found in Norway, Sweden and Finland. They
call themselves Sabme, but are called Finns by the Norwegians.
They are the shortest and most brachycephalic race
in Europe. The majority are nomads who live by
pasturing reindeer, and are known as Mountain Lapps, but
others have become more or less settled and live by hunting or
fishing. From ancient times the Lapps have had a great reputa-
tion among the Finns and other neighbouring nations for skill
in sorcery.
The Esthonians are the peasantry of the Russian province
Esthonia and the neighbouring districts. They were serfs
until 1817 when they were liberated, but their condition
remained unsatisfactory and led to a serious rebellion in
1859. They are practically a branch of the Finns, and
are hardly separable from the other Finnish tribes inhabiting
the Baltic provinces. The name Est or Ehst, by which they
are known to foreigners, appears to be the same as the Aestii
of Tacitus, and to have properly belonged to quite a different
tribe. They call themselves Ma mes, or country people, and
their land Rahwama or Wiroma (cf. Finnish, Virolaiset, Esthon-
ians.) Though not superior to other tribes in general intelligence,
they have become more civilized owing to their more intimate
connexion with the Russian and German population around them.
Livs, Livlanders or Liwnians is the name given to the old
Finnish-speaking population of west Livland or Livonia and
north Kurland. We hear of them as a warlike and
predatory pagan tribe in the middle ages, and it is
possible that they were a mixed Letto-Finnish race
from the beginning. In modern times they have become almost
completely absorbed by Letts, and their language is only spoken
in a few places on the coast of Kurland. It has indeed been
disputed if it still exists. It is known as Livish or Livonian and
is allied to Esthonian.
The Votes (not to be confounded with the Votiaks), also
called southern Chudes and Vatjalaiset, apparently represent
the original inhabitants of Ingria, the district round
St Petersburg, but have decreased before the advance
of the Russians and also of Karelians from the north. They are
heard of in the nth century, but now occupy only about thirty
parishes in north-west Ingria.
The Vepsas or Vepses, also called Northern Chudes, are another
tribe allied to the Esthonians, but are more numerous than the
Votes. They are found in the district of Tikhvinsk
and other parts of the government of Old Novgorod,
and apparently extended farther east into the government of
Vologda in former times. Linguistically both the Votes and
Vepsas are closely related to the Esthonians.
The Finns proper or Suomi, as they call themselves, are the
most important and civilized division of the group. They
inhabit at present the grand duchy of Finland and the Fi aas .
adjacent governments, especially Olonetz, Tver and
St Petersburg. Formerly a tribe of them called Kainulaiset
was also found in Sweden, whence the Swedes call the Finns
Votes.
Vepsas.
39
FINNO-UGRIAN
Qven. At present there are two principal subdivisions of Finns,
the Tavastlanders or Hamalaiset, who occupy the southern and
western parts of the grand duchy, and the Karelians orKarjalaiset
found in the east and north, as far as Lake Onega and towards
the White Sea.
The former, and generally speaking, all the inhabitants of the
grand duchy have undergone a strong Swedish influence. There
is a considerable admixture of Swedish blood; the language is
full of Swedish words; Christianity is universal; and the upper
classes and townspeople are mainly Swedish in their habits and
speech, though of late a persistent attempt has been made to
Russify the country. The Finns have much the same mental
and moral characteristics as the other allied tribes, but have
reached a far higher intellectual and literary stage. Several
collections of their popular and mythological poetry have been
made, the most celebrated of which is the Kalewala, compiled
by Lonnrot about 1835, and there is a copious modern literature.
The study of the national languages and antiquities is prosecuted
in Helsingfors and other towns with much energy: several
learned societies have been formed and considerable results
published, partly in Finnish. It is clear that this scientific
activity, though animated by a patriotic Finnish spirit, owes
much to Swedish training in the past. Besides the literary
language there are several dialects, the most important of which
is that of Savolaks.
The Karelians are not usually regarded as separate from the
Finns, though they are a distinct tribe as much as the Vepsas
Karelians an< ^ Votes. Living farther east they have come less
under Swedish and more under Russian influence than
the inhabitants of West Finland; but, since many of the districts
which they inhabit are out of the way and neglected, this influence
has not been strong, so that they have adopted less of European
civilization, and in places preserved their own customs more
than the Westerners. They are of a slighter and better pro-
portioned build than the Finns, more enterprising, lively and
friendly, but less persevering and tenacious. They number
about 260,000, of whom about 63,000 live in Olonetz and 195,000
in Tver and Novgorod, but in the southern districts are less
distinguished from the Russian population. They belong to
the Russian Church, whereas the Finns of the grand duchy are
Protestants. There also appear to be authentic traces of a
Karelian population in Kaluga, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Vologda
and Tambov. It was among them that the Kalewala was
collected, chiefly in East Finland and Olonetz.
There is some difference of opinion as to whether the Samoyedes
should be included among the Finno-Ugrian tribes or be given
the rank of a separate division equivalent to Finno-
Ugrian and Turkish. The linguistic question is
discussed below. The Samoyedes are a nomad tribe
who wander with their reindeer over the treeless plains which
border on the White and Kara seas on either side of the Urals.
In culture and habits they resemble the Finno-Ugrian tribes,
and there seems to be no adequate reason for separating them.
Various other peoples have been referred to the Finno-Ugrian
group, but some doubt must remain as to the propriety
inclusions. ^ the classification, either because they are now
extinct, or because they are suspected of having
changed their language.
The original Bulgarians, who had their home on the Volga
before they invaded the country which now bears their name,
were probably a tribe similar to the Magyars, though all record
of their language is lost. It has been disputed whether the
Khazars, who in the middle ages occupied parts of south Russia
and the shores of the Caspian, were Finno-Ugrians or Turks, and
there is the. same doubt about the Avars and Pechenegs, which
without linguistic evidence remains insoluble. Nor is the differ-
ence ethnographically important. The formation of hordes
of warlike bodies, half tribes, half armies, composed of different
races, was a characteristic of Central Asia,, and it was probably
of ten ^ a matter of chance what language was adopted as the
common speech.
At the present day the Bashkirs, Meshchers and Tepters, who
speak Tatar languages, are thought to be Finnish in origin, as are
also the Chuvashes, whose language is Tatar strongly modified
by Finnish influence. The little known Soyots of the headwaters
of the Yenisei are also said to be Finno-Ugrians.
The name Chude appears to be properly applied to the Vepsas
and Votes but is extended by popular usage in Russia to all
Finno-Ugrian tribes, and to all extinct tribes of whatever race
who have left tombs, monuments or relics of mining operations
in European Russia or Siberia. Some Russian archaeologists use
it specifically of the Permian group. But its extension is so
vague that it is better to discard it as a scientific term.
II. Languages. The Finno-Ugric languages are generally
considered as a division of the Ural-Altaic group, which consists
of four families: Turkish, Mongol, Manchu and Finno-Ugric,
including Samoyede unless it is reckoned separately as a fifth.
The chief character of the group is that agglutination, or the
addition of suffixes, is the only method of word-formation,
prefixes and significant change of vowels being unknown, as is
also gender. This suggests an affinity with many other languages,
such as the ancient Accadian or Sumerian, and Japanese. A
connexion between the Finno-Ugric and Dravidian languages has
also been suggested. On the other hand, the more highly
developed agglutinative languages, such as Finnish, approach
the inflected Aryan type, so that the Aryan languages may have
been developed from an ancestor not unlike the Ural-Altaic
group.
The Finno-Ugrian languages are distinguished from the other
divisions of the Ural-Altaic group both in grammar and vocabu-
lary. Compared with Mongol and Manchu they have a much
greater wealth of forms, both in declension and conjugation;
the suffixes form one word with the root and are not wholly cr
partially detachable postpositions; the pronominal element
is freely represented in the suffixes added to both verbs and
nouns. These features are also found in the Turkish languages,
but Finno-Ugrian has a much greater variety of cases denoting
position or motion, and the union of the case termination with
the noun is more complete; in some languages the object can
be incorporated in the verb, which does not occur in Turkish,
but the negative is rarely (Cheremissian) thus incorporated
after the Turkish fashion (e.g. yazmak, " to write "; yazmamak,
" not to write "), and in some languages takes pronominal
suffixes (Finnish en tule, et luTe, eivat Me, " I, you, they do not
come"). Vowel-harmony is completely observed in Finnish
and Magyar, but in the other languages is imperfectly developed,
or has been lost under Russian influence. Relative pronouns
and particles exist and are fully developed in some languages.
The tendency to form compounds, which is not characteristic
of Turkish, is very marked in Finnish and Hungarian, and is
said also to be found in Samoyede, Cheremissian and Syryenian.
The original order in the sentence seems to be that the governing
word follows the word governed, but there are many exceptions
to this, particularly in Hungarian where the arrangement is
very free.
In vocabulary the pronouns agree fairly well with those of
Turkish, Mongol and Manchu, but there is little resemblance
between the numbers. Many of the languages contain numerous
Tatar and Turkish loan-words, but with this exception the
resemblance of vocabulary is not striking and indicates an
ancient separation. But the similarity in the process of word-
building and of the elements used, even if they have not the
same sense, as well as analogies in the general construction of
sentences and. in some details (e.g. the use of the infinitive or
verbal substantive), seem to justify the hypothesis of an original
relationship with the Turkish languages, which in their turn
have connexions with the other groups.
Samoyede is classed by some as a separate group and by
some among the Finno-Ugrian languages, but it at any rate
displays a far closer resemblance to them in both grammar
and vocabulary than do any of the Turkish languages. The
numerals are different, but the personal and interrogative
pronouns and many common words (e.g. joha, " river," Finn.
joki; sava, " good," Finn, hywii; hole, " fish," Finn, kala)
FINNO-UGRIAN
39 1
show a considerable resemblance. The inflection of nouns is
very like that found in Finno-Ugrian but that of the verb
differs, verb and noun being imperfectly differentiated. In
detail, however, the verbal suffixes show analogies to those of
Finno-Ugrian. Vowel - harmony and weakening of consonants
occur as in Finnish.
Excluding Samoyede, the Finno-Ugrian languages may be
divided into two sections: (i) Ugrian, comprising Ostiak,
Vogul and Magyar; and (2) Finnish. The Permian languages
(Syryenian, Permian and Votiak) form a distinct group within
this latter section, and the remainder may be divided into the
Volga group (Cheremissian and Mordvinian) and the West
Finnish (Lappish, Esthonian and Finnish proper).
The Ugrian languages appear to have separated from the
Finnish branch before the systems of declension or conjugation
were developed. Their case suffixes seem to be later formations,
though we find, t, tl or k for the plural and traces of I as a local
suffix. Ostiak and Vogul, like Samoyede, have a dual. Moods
and tenses are less numerous but the number of verbal forms is
increased by those in which the pronominal object is incorporated.
Hungarian has naturally advanced enormously beyond the
stage reached by Ostiak and Vogul, and shows marks of strong
European influence, but also retains primitive features. Vowel-
harmony is observed (vdrok, " I await," but verek, " I strike ").
The verb has two sets of terminations, according as it is transitive
or intransitive, and the pronominal object is sometimes in-
corporated. Alone among Finno-Ugrian languages it has
developed an article, and 'the adjective is inflected when used
as a predicate though not as an attribute (J6 emberek, " good
men," but Az emberek j6k, " the men are good "). There is
great freedom in the order of words and, as in Finnish, a tendency
to form long compounds.
The Finnish languages are not divided from the Ugrian by
any striking differences, but show greater resemblances to one
another in details. None of them have a dual and only Mord-
vinian an objective conjugation. The case system is elaborate
and generally comprises twelve or fifteen forms. The negative
conjugation is peculiar; there are negative adjectives ending
in tern or torn and abessive cases (e.g. Finnish syytia, without a
cause, tiedotta, without knowledge).
Permian, Syryenian and Votiak exhibit this common develop-
ment less fully than the more western languages. They are
less completely inflected than the Finnish languages and more
thoroughly agglutinative in the strict sense. In vocabulary,
e.g. the numerals, they show resemblances to the Ugrian division.
Syryenian has older literary remains than any Finno-Ugrian
language except Hungarian. In the latter part of the I4th
century Russian missionaries composed in it various manuals
and translations, using a special alphabet for the purpose.
Unlike the Finnish and Esthonian branch, the languages of
the Volga Finns (Mordvinian and Cheremissian) have been
influenced by Russian and Tatar rather than by Scandinavian,
and hence show apparent differences. But Mordvinian has
points of detailed resemblance to Finnish which seem to point
to a comparatively late separation, e.g. the use of kemen for ten,
-nza as the possessive suffix of the third personal pronoun, the
regular formation of the imperfect with *', the infinitive with
ma, and the participle with/ (Finnish va). On the other hand
it has many peculiarities. It retains an objective conjugation
like the Ugrian languages, and has developed two forms of
declension, the definite and indefinite.
Cheremissian has affinities to both the Permian languages
and Mordvinian. It resembles Syryenian in its case terminations
and also in marking the plural by interposing a distinct syllable
(Syry. yas, Cher, vlya) between the singular and the case suffixes.
Most of the numerals are like Syryenian but kandekhsye,indekhsye,
for eight and nine, recall Finnish forms (kahdeksan, yhdeksdn),
as do also the pronouns.
The connexion between the various West Finnish languages
is more obvious than between those already discussed. Lappish
(or Lapponic) forms a link between them and Mordvinian. Its
pronouns are remarkably like the Mordvinian equivalents, but
the general system of declension and conjugation, both positive
and negative, is much as in Finnish. Superficially, however,
the resemblance is somewhat obscured by the difference in
phonetics, for Lappish has an extraordinary fondness for diph-
thongs and also an unusually ample provision of consonants.
The affinity of Esthonian (together with Votish, Vepsish and
Livish) to Finnish is obvious not only to the philologist but
to the casual learner. In a few cases it shows older forms than
Finnish, but on the whole is less primitive and has assumed
under foreign influence the features of a European language
even more thoroughly. The vowel-harmony is found only in the
Dorpat dialect and there imperfectly, the pronominal affixes
are not used, and the negative has become an unvarying particle,
though in Vepsish and Votish it takes suffixes as in Finnish.
On the other hand, the laws for the change of consonants, the
general system of phonetics, the declension, the pronouns and
the positive conjugation of the verb all closely resemble Finnish.
Esthonian has two chief dialects, those of Reval and Dorpat, and
a certain amount of literary culture, the best-known work being
the national epic or Kalewi-poeg.
Finnish proper is divided into two chief dialects, the Karelian
or Eastern, and the Tavastland or Western. The spoken
language of the Karelians is corrupt and mixed with Russian,
but the Kalewala and their other old songs are written in a pure
Finnish dialect, which has come to be accepted as the ordinary
language of poetry throughout modern Finland, just as the
Homeric dialect was used by the Greeks for epic poetry. It is
more archaic than the Tavastland dialect and preserves many
old forms which have been lost elsewhere, but its utterance is
softer and it sometimes rejects consonants which are retained in
ordinary speech, e.g. saa'a, kosen for saada, kosken.
The affinity of Finnish to the more eastern languages of the
group is clear, but it has been profoundly influenced by Scandi-
navian and in its present form consists of non-Aryan material
recast in an Aryan and European mould. Not only are some
of the simplest words borrowed from Scandinavian, but the
grammar has been radically modified. Un-Aryan peculiarities
have been rejected, though perhaps less than in Esthonian.
The various forms of nouns and verbs are not merely roots with
a string of obvious suffixes attached, but the termination forms
a whole with the root as in Greek and Latin inflections; the
adjective is declined and compared and agrees with its sub-
stantive; compound tenses are formed with the aid of the
auxiliary verb, and there is a full supply of relative pronouns
and particles.
Finnish and Hungarian together with Turkish are interesting
examples of non-Aryan languages trying to participate, by both
translation and imitation, in the literary life of Europe, but it
may be doubted if the experiment is successful. The sense of
effort is felt less in Hungarian than in the other languages;
though they are admirable instruments for terse conversation or
popular poetry, there appears to be some deep-seated difference
in the force of the verb and the structure of phrases which
renders them clumsy and complicated when they attempt to
express sentences of the type common in European literature.
III. Civilization and Religion. The Finno-Ugric tribes have
not been equally progressive; some, such as the Finns and
Magyars, have adopted, at least in towns, the ordinary civiliza-
tion of Europe; others are agriculturists; others still nomadic.
The wilder tribes, such as the Ostiaks, Voguls and Lapps, mostly
consist of one section which is nomadic and another which is
settling down. The following notes apply to traces of ancient
conditions which survive sporadically but are nowhere universal.
Few except the Hungarians have shown themselves warlike,
though we read of conflicts with the Russians in the middle ages
as they advanced among this older population. But most
Finno-Ugrians are astute and persevering hunters, and the
Ostiaks still shoot game with a bow. The tribes are divided
into numerous small clans which are exogamous. Marriage by
capture is said to survive among the Cheremiss, who are still
polygamous in some districts, but purchase of the bride is the
more general form. Women are treated as servants and often
392
FINNO-UGRIAN
excluded from pagan religious ceremonies. The most primitive
form of house consists of poles inclined towards one another
and covered with skins or sods, so as to form a circular screen
round a fire; winter houses are partly underground. Long
snow-shoes are used in winter and boats are largely employed in
summer. The Finns in particular are very good seamen. The
Ostiaks 'and Samoyedes still cast tin ornaments in wooden
moulds. The variation of the higher numerals in the different
languages, which are sometimes obvious loan words, shows that
the original system did not extend beyond seven, and the aptitude
for calculating and trading is not great. Several thousands of
the Ostiaks, Voguls and Cheremiss are still unbaptized, and much
paganism lingers among the nominal Christians, and in poetry
such as the Kalewala. The deities are chiefly nature spirits and
the importance of the several gods varies as the tribes are hunters,
fishermen, &c. Sun or sky worship is found among the Samoyedes
and Jumala, the Finnish word for god, seems originally to mean
sky. The Ostiaks worship a water-spirit of the river Obi and
also a thunder-god. We hear of a forest-god among the Finns,
Lapps and Cheremiss. There are also clan gods worshipped by
each clan with special ceremonies. Traces of ancestor-worship
are also found. The Samoyedes and Ostiaks are said to sacrifice
to ghosts, and the Ostiaks to make images of the more important
dead, which are tended and honoured, as if alive, for some years.
Images are found in the tombs and barrows of most tribes, and
the Samoyedes, Ostiaks and Voguls still use idols, generally
of wood. Animal sacrifices are offered, and the lips of the
idol sometimes smeared with blood. Quaint combinations
of Christianity and paganism occur; thus the Cheremiss are
said to sacrifice to the Virgin Mary. The idea that disease is
due to possession by an evil spirit, and can be both caused and
cured by spells, seems to prevail among all tribes, and in general
extraordinary power is supposed to reside in incantations and
magical formulae. This belief is conspicuous in the Kalewala,
and almost every tribe has its own collection of prayers, healing
charms and spells to be used on the most varied occasions.
A knowledge of these formulae is possessed by wizards (Finnish
noita) corresponding to the Shamans of the Altaic peoples.
They are exorcists and also mediums who can ascertain the
will of the gods; a magic drum plays a great part in their
invocations, and their office is generally hereditary. The non-
Buddhist elements of Chinese and Japanese religion present
the same features as are found among the Finno-Ugrians nature-
worship, ancestor-worship and exorcism but in a much more
elaborate and developed form.
IV. History. Most of the Finno-Ugrian tribes have no history
or written records, and little in the way of traditions of their
past. In their later period the Hungarians and Finns enter
to some extent the course of ordinary European history. For
the earlier period we have no positive information, but the labours
of investigators, especially in Finland, have collected a great
number of archaeological and philological data from which an
account of the ancient wanderings of these tribes may be con-
structed. Barrows containing skulls and ornaments may mark
the advance of a special form of culture, and language may be
of assistance; if we find, for instance, a language with loan
words of an archaic type, we may conclude that it was in contact
with the other language from which it borrowed at the time when
such forms were current. But clearly all such deductions
contain a large element of theory, and the following sketch is
given with all reserve.
The Finno-Ugrian tribes originally lived together east of the
Urals and spoke a common language. It is not certain if they
were all of the same physical type, for the association of different
races speaking one language is common in central Asia. They
were hunters and fishermen, not agriculturists. At an unknown
period the Finns, still undivided, moved into Europe and perhaps
settled on the Volga and Oka. They had perhaps arrived there
before 1500 B.C., learned some rudiments of agriculture, and
developed their system of numbers up to ten. They were still
in the neolithic stage. About 600 B.C. they came in contact
with an Iranian people, from whom they learned the use of
metals, and borrowed numerals for a hundred (Finnish sata,
Ostiak sat, Magyar szaz; cf. Zend sata) and a thousand (Magyar
ezer; cf. hazanra and hazar). Magyar and some other languages
also borrowed a word for ten (tiz, cf. das). This Iranian race
may perhaps have been the Scythians, who are believed by many
authorities to have been Iranians and to be represented by the
Osetians of the Caucasus. There was probably a trade route
up the Volga in the 4th century B.C. About that time the
Western Finns must have broken away from the Mordvinians
and wandered north-westwards. At a period not much later
than the Christian era, they must have come in contact with
Letto-Lithuanian peoples in the Baltic provinces, and also with
Scandinavians. Whether they came in contact with the latter
first in the Baltic provinces or in Finland itself is disputed, as
there may have been Scandinavians in the Baltic provinces.
But the distribution of tombs and barrows seems to indicate
that they entered Finland not from the east through Karelia
but from the Baltic provinces by sea to Satakunta and the
south-east coast, whence they extended eastwards. From both
Lithuanians and Scandinavians they borrowed an enormous
quantity of culture-words and probably the ideas and materials
they indicate. Thus the Finnish words for gold, king and
everything concerned with government are of Scandinavian
origin. Their migration to Finland was probably complete about
A.D. 800. Meanwhile the Slav tribes known later as Russians
were coming up from the south and pressed the Finns northwards,
overwhelming but not annihilating them in the country between
St Petersburg and Moscow. The same movement tended to
drive the Eastern Finns and Ugrians backwards towards the east.
The Finns knew the Russians by the name of Veniija, or Wends,
and as this name is not used by Slavs themselves but by Scandi-
navians and Teutons, it seems clear that they arrived among
the Finns as greater strangers than the Scandinavians and
known by a foreign name. Christianity was perhaps first
preached to the Finns as early as A.D. 1000, but there was a long
political and religious struggle with the Swedes. At the end of
the I3th century Finland was definitely converted and annexed
to Sweden, remaining a dependency of that country until 1809,
when it was ceded to Russia.
The Ugrians and Eastern Finns took no part in the westward
movement and did not fall under western influences but came
into contact with Tatar tribes and were more or less Tatarized.
In some cases this took the form of the adoption of a Tatar
language, in others (Mordvin, Cheremis and Votiak) a large
number of Tatar words were borrowed. We also know that there
were considerable settlements of these tribes, perhaps amounting
to states, on the Volga and in south-eastern Russia. Such
was Great Bulgaria, which continued until destroyed by the
Mongols in 1238. The pressure of tribes farther east acting on
these settlements dislodged sections of them from time to time
and created the series of invasions which devastated the East
Roman empire from the sth century onwards. But we do not
know what were the languages spoken by the Huns, Bulgarians,
Pechenegs and Avars, so that we cannot say whether they were
Turks, Finns or Ugrians, nor does it follow that a horde speaking
a Ugrian language were necessarily Ugrians by race. An inspec-
tion of the performances of the various tribes, as far as we can
distinguish them, suggests that the Turks or Tatars were the
warlike element. The names Hun and Hungarian may possibly
be the same as Hiung-nu, but we cannot assume that this tribe
passed across Asia unchanged in language and physique. The
Hungarians entered on their present phase at the end of the gth
century of this era, when they crossed the Carpathians and
conquered the old Pannonia and Dacia. For half a century or
so before this invasion they are said to have inhabited Atelkuzu,
probably a district between the Dnieper and the Danube. The
isolated groups of Hungarians now found in Transylvania and
called Szeklers are considered the purest descendants of the
invading Magyars. Those who settled in the plains of Hungary
probably mingled there with remnants of Huns, Avars and
earlier invaders, and also with subsequent invaders, such as
Pechenegs and Kumans.
FINSBURY FIORENZO DI LORENZO
393
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Among the older writers may be mentioned
Strahlenberg (Das nord- und ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia,
^730), Johann Gottlieb Georgi (Description de toutes les nations de
V empire de la Russie, French tr., St Petersburg, 1777), but especially
the various works of Matthias A. Castren (1852-1853) and W. Schott
(1858). Modern scientific knowledge of the Finno-Ugrians and their
languages was founded by these two authors. Among newer works
some of the most important separate publications are: J. R. Aspelin,
Antiquites du nord finno-ougrien (1877-1884); J. Abercromby,
Pre- and Proto-historic Finns (1898); and A. Hackmann, Die altere
Eisenzeit in Finnland (1905).
The recent literature on the origin, customs, antiquities and
languages of these races is voluminous, but is contained chiefly not
in separate books but in special learned periodicals. Of these there
are several: Journal de la Societe Finno-ougrienne (Helsinefors)
(Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja) ; Finnisch-Ugrische
Forschungen (Helsingfors and Leipzig) ; Mitteilungen der archdo-
logischen, historischen und ethnographischen Gesellschaft der Kais.
Universitdt zu Kasan; Keleti Szemle or Revue orientale pour les
etudes ouralo-altaiques (Budapest). In all of these will be found
numerous valuable articles by such authors as Ahlqvist, Halevy,
Heikel, Krohn, Muncacsi, Paasonen, Setala, Smurnow, Thomsen
and Vambery.
The titles of grammars and dictionaries will be found under the
headings of the different languages. For general linguistic questions
may be consulted the works of Castren, Schott and Otto Donner,
also such parts of the following as treat of Finno-Ugric languages:
Byrne, Principles of the Structure of Language, vol. i. (1892) ; Friedrich
Miiller, Grundriss der Sprachivissenschaft II., Band ii., Abth. 1882 ;
Steinthal and Misleli, Abriss der Sprachwissenschaft (1893). (C. EL.)
FINSBURY, a central metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N. by Islington, E. by Shoreditch, S. by the
city of London and W. by Holborn and St Pancras. Pop.
(1901) 101,463. The principal thoroughfares are Pentonville
Road, from King's Cross east to the Angel, Islington, continuing
E. and S. in City Road and S. again to the City in Moorgate
Street; Clerkenwell Road and Old Street, crossing the centre
from W. to E.; King's Cross Road running S.E. into Farringdon
Road, and so to the City; St John Street and Road and Goswell
Road (the residence of Dickens' Pickwick) running S. from the
Angel towards the City; and Rosebery Avenue running S.W.
from St John Street into Holborn. The commercial character
of the City extends into the southern part of the borough; the
residential houses are mostly those of artisans. Local industries
include working in precious metals, watch-making, printing
and paper-making.
An early form of the name is Vynesbury, but the derivation
is not known. The place was supposed by some to take name
from an extensive fen, a part of which, commonly known as
Moorfields (cf. Moorgate Street), was drained in the i6th century
and subsequently laid out as public grounds. It was a frequent
resort of Pepys, who mentions its houses of entertainment and
the wrestling and other pastimes carried on, also that it furnished
a refuge for many of those whose houses were destroyed in the fire
of London in 1666. Bookstalls and other booths were numerous
at a somewhat later date. The borough includes the parish of
Clerkenwell (q.v.), a locality of considerable historic interest,
including the former priory of St John, Clerkenwell, of which
the gateway and other traces remain. Among several other
sites and buildings of historical interest the Charterhouse (q.v.)
west of Aldersgate Street, stands first, originally a Carthusian
monastery, subsequently a hospital and a school out of which
grew the famous public school at Godalming. Bunhill Fields,
City Road, was used by the Dissenters as a burial-place from the
middle of the i7th century until 1832. Among eminent persons
interred here are John Bunyan, Daniel Defoe, Susanna, mother
of John and Charles Wesley, and George Fox, founder of the
Society of Friends. A neighbouring chapel is intimately associ-
ated with the Wesleys, and the house of John Wesley is opened
as a museum bearing his name. Many victims of the plague
were buried in a pit neighbouring to these fields, near the junction
of Goswell Road and Old Street. To the south of the fields
lies the Artillery Ground, the training ground of the Honourable
Artillery Company, so occupied since 1641, with barracks and
armoury, Sadler's Wells theatre, Rosebery Avenue, dating as
a place of entertainment from 1683, preserves the name of a
fashionable medicinal spring, music room and theatre, the last
most notable in its connexion with the names of Joseph Grimaldi
the clown and Samuel Phelps. Other institutions are the tech-
nical college, Leonard Street, and St Mark's, St Luke's and
the Royal chest hospitals. At Mount Pleasant is the parcels
department of the general post office, and at Clerkenwell Green
the sessions house for the county of London (north side of the
Thames). Adjacent to Rosebery Avenue are reservoirs of the
New River Head. The municipal borough coincides with the
east and. central divisions of the parliamentary borough of
Finsbury, each returning one member. The borough council
consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54 councillors. Area,
589-1 acres.
FINSTERWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Prussia, on the Schackebach. a tributary of the Little Elster,
28 m. W.S.W. of Cottbus by rail. Pop. (1905) 10,726. The
town has a Gothic church (1581), a chateau, schools, cloth and
cigar factories, iron-foundries, flour and saw mills and factories
for machine building. The town, which is first mentioned in
1288, came into the possession of electoral Saxony in 1635 and
of Prussia in 1815.
FIORENZO DI LORENZO (c. 1440-1522), Italian painter, of
the Umbrian school, lived and worked at Perugia, where most
of his authentic works are still preserved in the Pinacoteca. There
is probably no other Italian master of importance of whose
life and work so little is known. In fact the whole edifice that
modern scientific criticism has built around his name is based
on a single signed and dated picture (1487) in the Pinacoteca
of Perugia a niche with lunette, two wings and predella and
on the documentary evidence that he was decemvir of that city
in 1472, in which year he entered into a contract to paint
an altarpiece for Santa Maria Nuova the pentatych of the
" Madonna and Saints " now in the Pinacoteca. Of his birth
and death and pupilage nothing is known, and Vasari does not
even mention Fiorenzo's name, though he probably refers to him
when he says that Cristofano, Perugino's father, sent his son
to be the shop drudge of a painter in Perugia, " who was not
particularly distinguished in his calling, but held the art in great
veneration and highly honoured the men who excelled therein."
Certain it is that the early works both of Perugino and of Pintu-
ricchio show certain mannerisms which point towards Fiorenzo's
influence, if not to his direct teaching. The list of some fifty
pictures which modern critics have ascribed to Fiorenzo includes
works of such widely varied character that one can hardly be
surprised to find great divergence of opinion as regards the
masters under whom Fiorenzo is supposed to have studied.
Pisanello, Verrocchio, Benozzo Gozzoli, Antonio Pollaiuolo,
Benedetto Bonfigli, Mantegna, Squarcione, Filippo Lippi,
Signorelli and Ghirlandajo have all been credited with this
distinguished pupil, who was the most typical Umbrian painter
that stands between the primitives and Perugino; but the
probability is that he studied under Bonfigli and was indirectly
influenced by Gozzoli. Fiorenzo's authentic works are remarkable
for their sense of space and for the expression of that peculiar
clear, soft atmosphere which is so marked a feature in the work
of Perugino. But Fiorenzo has an intensity of feeling and a
power of expressing character which are far removed from the
somewhat affected grace of Perugino. Of the forty-five pictures
bearing Fiorenzo's name in the Pinacoteca of Perugia, the eight
charming St Bernardino panels are so different from his well-
authenticated works, so Florentine in conception and movement,
that the Perugian's authorship is very questionable. On the
other hand the beautiful " Nativity," the " Adoration of the
Magi," and the " Adoration of the Shepherds " in the same
gallery, may be accepted as the work of his hand, as also the
fresco of SS. Romano and Rocco at the church of S. Francesco
at Deruta. The London National Gallery, the Berlin and the
Frankfort museums contain each a " Madonna and Child "
ascribed to the master, but the attribution is in each case open
to doubt.
See Jean Carlyle Graham, The Problem of Fiorenzo di Lorenzo
(Perugia, 1903) ; Edward Hutton, The Cities of Umbria (London).
(P. G. K.)
394
FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA FIR
FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the
province of Piacenza, from which it is 14 m. S.E. by rail, 270 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7792. It is traversed by the Via
Aemilia, and has a picturesque piazza, with an old tower in the
centre. The Palazzo Grossi also is a fine building. Alseno
lies 4 m. to the S.E., and near it is the Cistercian abbey of Chiara-
valle della Colomba, with a fine Gothic church and a large and
beautiful cloister (in brick and Verona marble), of the I2th-i4th
century.
FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS (1748-1821), German
painter and historian of art, was born at Hamburg on the i3th
of October 1748. He received his first instructions in art at an
academy of painting at Bayreuth; and in 1761, to continue
his studies, he went first to Rome, and next to Bologna, where
he distinguished himself sufficiently to attain in 1769 admission
to the academy. Returning soon after to Germany, he obtained
the appointment of historical painter to the court of Brunswick.
In 1781 he removed to Gottingen, occupied himself as a drawing-
master, and was named in 1784 keeper of the collection of prints
at the university library. He was appointed professor extra-
ordinary in the philosophical faculty in 1799, and ordinary
professor in 1813. During this period he had made himself
known as a writer by the publication of his Geschichte der zeich-
nenden Kiinste, in 5 vols. (1798-1808). This was followed in
1815 to 1820 by the Geschichte der zeichnenden Kiinste in Deutsch-
land und den wreinigten Niederlanden, in 4 vols. These works,
though not attaining to any high mark of literary excellence,
are esteemed for the information collected in them, especially
on the subject of art in the later middle ages. Fiorillo practised
his art almost till his death, but has left no memorable master-
piece. The most noticeable of his painting is perhaps the
" Surrender of Briseis." He died at Gottingen on the loth of
September 1821.
FIR, the Scandinavian name originally given to the Scotch
pine (Pinus sylveslris), but at present not infrequently employed
as a general term for the whole of the true conifers (Abietineae);
in a more exact sense, it has been transferred to the " spruce "
and " silver firs," the genera Picea and Abies of most modern
botanists.
The firs are distinguished from the pines and larches by having
their needle-like leaves placed singly on the shoots, instead of
growing in clusters from a sheath on a dwarf branch. Their
cones are composed of thin, rounded, closely imbricated scales,
each with a more or less conspicuous bract springing from the
base. The trees have usually a straight trunk, and a tendency
to a conical or pyramidal growth, throwing out each year a more
or less regular whorl of branches from the foot of the leading
shoot, while the buds of the lateral boughs extend horizontally.
In the spruce firs (Picea), the cones are pendent when mature
and their scales persistent ; the leaves are arranged all round the
shoots, though the lower ones are sometimes directed laterally.
In the genus Abies, the silver firs, the cones are erect, and their
scales drop off when the seed ripens; the leaves spread in distinct
rows on each side of the shoot.
The most important of the firs, in an 'economic sense, is the
Norway spruce (Picea excelsa), so well known in British planta-
tions, though rarely attaining there the gigantic height and
grandeur of form it often displays in its native woods. Under
favourable conditions of growth it is a lofty tree, with a nearly
Straight, tapering trunk, throwing out in somewhat irregular
whorls its widespreading branches, densely clothed with dark,
clear green foliage. The boughs and their side-branches, as they
increase in length, have a tendency to droop, the lower tier, even
in large trees, often sweeping the ground a habit that, with
the jagged sprays, and broad, shadowy, wave-like foliage-masses,
gives a peculiarly graceful and picturesque aspect to the Norway
spruce. The slender, sharp, slightly curved leaves are scattered
thickly around the shoots; the upper one pressed towards the
stem, and the lower directed sideways, so as to give a somewhat
flattened appearance to the individual sprays. The elongated
cylindrical cones grow chiefly at the ends of the upper branches
they are purplish at first, but become afterwards green, and
eventually light brown; their scales are slightly toothed at the
extremity; they ripen in the autumn, but seldom discharge
:heir seeds until the following spring.
The tree is very widely distributed, growing abundantly on
most of the mountain ranges of northern and central Europe;
while in Asia it occurs at least as far east as the Lena, and in
atitude extends from the Altaic ranges to beyond the Arctic circle.
On the Swiss Alps it is one of the most prevalent and striking
of the forest trees, its dark evergreen foliage often standing out
in strong contrast to the snowy ridges and glaciers beyond,
[n the lower districts of Sweden it is the predominant tree in
most of the great forests that spread over so large a portion of
that country. In Norway it constitutes a considerable part of
the dense woods of the southern dales, flourishing, according
to Franz Christian Schubeler, on the mountain slopes up to an
altitude of from 280010310x3 ft., and clothing the shores of some
of the fjords to the water's edge; in the higher regions it is
generally mingled with the pine. Less abundant on the western
side of the fjelds, it again forms woods in Nordland, extending
Mt. sue
FIG. i. Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa). Male Flowers. A, branch
bearing male cones, reduced ; B, single male cone, enlarged; C, single
stamen, enlarged.
in the neighbourhood of the coast nearly to the 67th parallel;
but it is, in that arctic climate, rarely met with at a greater
elevation than 800 ft. above the sea, though in Swedish Lapland
it is found on the slope of the Sulitelma as high as 1200 ft., its
upper limit being everywhere lower than that of the pine. In
all the Scandinavian countries it is known as the Gran or Grann.
Great tracts of low country along the southern shores of the
Baltic and in northern Russia are covered with forests of spruce.
It everywhere shows a preference for a moist but well-drained
soil, and never attains its full stature or luxuriance of growth
upon arid ground, whether on plain or mountain a peculiarity
that should be remembered by the planter. In a favourable
soil and open situation it becomes the tallest and one of the
stateliest of European trees, rising sometimes to a height of
from 150 to 170 ft., the trunk attaining a diameter of from 5
to 6 ft. at the base. But when'it grows in dense woods, where
the lower branches decay and drop off early, only a small head
of foliage remaining at the tapering summit, its stem, though
frequently of great height, is rarely more than 13 or 2 ft. in
thickness. Its growth is rapid, the straight leading shoot, in the
vigorous period of the tree, often extending 2 5 or even 3 ft. in
a single season. In its native habitats it is said to endure for
several centuries; but in those countries from which the com-
mercial supply of its timber is chiefly drawn, it attains perfection
in from 70 to 90 years, according to soil and situation.
FIR
PLATE I,
SILVER FIR (Abies pectinata).
A, Cone and foliage.
SPRUCE FIR (Picea excelsa)
B. Cone and foliage.
HEMLOCK SPRUCE (Tsuga canadensis).
C, Cone, seed and foliage.
X.394-
DOUGLAS FIR (Pseudotsuga Douglasii}.
D, Cone, seed and foliage.
Photos by Henry Irving.
PLATE II.
FIR
CYPRESS (Cupressus sempervirens).
A, Cone and branchlets.
JUNIPER (Juniperus communis).
2>, Fruit and foliage.
c
ARAUCARIA (A. imbricata, Chile pine or monkey-puzzle).
C, Seed-bearing cone and a single scale with seed.
YEW (Taxus baccata).
D, Seed and foliage.
Photos by Henry Irving.
FIR
395
In the most prevalent variety of the Norway spruce the wood
is white, apt to be very knotty when the tree has grown in an
open place, but, as produced in the close northern forests, often
of fine and even grain. Immense quantities are imported into
Britain from Norway, Sweden and Prussia, under the names
of " white Norway," " Christiania " and " Danzig deal." The
larger trees are sawn up into planks and battens, much used for
the purposes of the builder, especially for flooring, joists and
rafters. Where not exposed to the weather the wood is probably
as lasting as that of the pine, but, not being so resinous, appears
less adapted for out-door uses. Great quantities are sent from
Sweden in a manufactured state, in the form of door and window-
frames and ready-prepared flooring, and much of the cheap
" white deal " furniture is made of this wood. The younger and
smaller trees are remarkably durable, especially when the bark
is allowed to remain on them; and most of the poles imported
into Britain for scaffolding, ladders, mining-timber and similar
uses are furnished by this fir. Small masts and spars are often
made of it, and are
said to be lighter
than those of pine.
The best poles are
obtained in Norway
from small, slender,
drawn-up trees,
growing under the
shade of the larger
ones in the thick
woods, these being
freer from knots,
and tougher from
their slower growth.
A variety of the
spruce, abounding in
some parts of Nor-
way, produces a red
heartwood, not easy
to distinguish from
that of the Norway
pine (Scotch fir), and
imported with it into
England as " red
deal " or " pine."
This kind is some-
FIG. 2. Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa). times seen j n p l an ta-
Cones; scale with seeds. A, Branch bear- .. w u prp ,-,. ,
ing (a) young female cones, (6) ripe cones, ^ lons ' * may
reduced. B, Ripe cone scale with seeds, be recognized by its
enlarged. shorter, darker
leaves and longer
cones. The smaller branches and the waste portion of the
trunks, left in cutting up the timber, are exported as fire-wood,
or used for splitting into matches. The wood of the spruce is
also employed in the manufacture of wood-pulp for paper.
The resinous products of the Norway spruce, though yielded
by the tree in less abundance than those furnished by the pine,
are of considerable economic value. In Scandinavia a thick
turpentine oozes from cracks or fissures in the bark, forming
by its congelation a fine yellow resin, known commercially as
" spruce rosin," or " frankincense "; it is also procured artifici-
ally by cutting off the ends of the lower branches, when it
slowly exudes from the extremities. In Switzerland and parts of
Germany, where it is collected in some quantity for commerce,
a long strip of bark is cut out of the tree near the root ; the resin
that slowly accumulates during the summer is scraped out in
the latter part of the season, and the slit enlarged slightly the
following spring to ensure a continuance of the supply. The
process is repeated every alternate year, until the tree no longer
yields the resin in abundance, which under favourable circum-
stances it will do for twenty years or more. The quantity
obtained from each fir is very variable, depending on the vigour
of the tree, and greatly lessens after it has been subjected to the
operation for some years. Eventually the tree is destroyed,
B
and the wood rendered worthless for timber, and of little value
even for fuel. From the product so obtained most of the better
sort of " Burgundy pitch " of the druggists is prepared. By
the peasantry of its native countries the Norway spruce is
applied to innumerable purposes of daily life. The bark and
young cones afford a tanning material, inferior indeed to oak-
bark, and hardly equal to that of the larch, but of value in countries
where substances more rich in tannin are not abundant. In
Norway the sprays, like those of the juniper, are scattered over
the floors of churches and the sitting-rooms of dwelling-houses,
as a fragrant and healthful substitute for carpet or matting.
The young shoots are also given to oxen in the long winters of
those northern latitudes, when other green fodder is hard to
obtain. In times of scarcity the Norse peasant-farmer uses the
sweetish inner bark, beaten in a mortar and ground in his
primitive mill with oats or barley, to eke out a scanty supply of
meal, the mixture yielding a tolerably palatable though some-
what resinous substitute for his ordinary flad-brod. A decoction
of the buds in milk or whey is a common household remedy
for scurvy; and the young shoots or green cones form an essential
ingredient in the spruce-beer drank with a similar object, or as
an occasional beverage. The well-known " Danzig-spruce "
is prepared by adding a decoction of the buds or cones to the
wort or saccharine liquor before fermentation. Similar prepara-
tions are in use wherever the spruce fir abounds. The wood is
burned for fuel, its heat-giving power being reckoned in Germany
about one-fourth less than that of beech. From the wide-
spreading roots string and ropes are manufactured in Lapland
and Bothnia: the longer ones which run near the surface are
selected, split through, and then boiled for some hours in a ley
of wood-ashes and salt, which, dissolving out the resin, loosens
the fibres and renders them easily separable, and ready for twist-
ing into cordage. Light portable boats are sometimes made of
very thin boards of fir, sewn together with cord thus manufac-
tured from the roots of the tree.
The Norway spruce seems to have been the " Picea " of
Pliny, but is evidently often confused by the Latin writers
with their " Abies," the Abies pectinata of modern botanists.
From an equally loose application of the word " fir " by our
older herbalists, it is difficult to decide upon the date of intro-
duction of this tree into Britain; but it was commonly planted
for ornamental purposes in the beginning of the i7th century.
In places suited to its growth it seems to flourish nearly as well
as in the woods of Norway or Switzerland; but as it needs for
its successful cultivation as a timber tree soils that might be
turned to agricultural account, it is not so well adapted for
economic planting in Britain as the Scotch fir or larch, which
come to perfection in more bleak and elevated regions, and on
comparatively barren ground, though it may perhaps be grown
to advantage on some moist hill-sides and mountain hollows.
Its great value to the English forester is as a " nurse " for other
trees, for which its dense leafage and tapering form render it
admirably fitted, as it protects, without overshading, the young
saplings, and yields saleable stakes and small poles when cut out.
For hop-poles it is not so well adapted as the larch. As a pictur-
esque tree, for park and ornamental plantation, it is among
the best of the conifers, its colour and form contrasting yet
harmonizing with the olive green and rounded outline of oaks
and beeches, or with the red trunk and glaucous foliage of the
pine. When young its spreading boughs form good cover for
game. The fresh branches, with their thick mat of foliage, are
useful to the gardener for sheltering wall-fruit in the spring.
In a good soil and position the tree sometimes attains an enormous
size: one in Studley Park, Yorkshire, attained nearly 140 ft.
in height, and the trunk more than 6 ft. in thickness near the
ground. The spruce bears the smoke of great cities better than
most of the Abielineae; but in suburban localities after a
certain age it soon loses its healthy appearance, and is apt to
be affected with blight (Eriosoma), though not so much as
the Scotch fir and most of the pines.
The black spruce (Picea nigra) is a tree of more formal growth
than the preceding. The branches grow at a more acute angle
39 6
FIR
and in more regular whorls than those of the Norway spruce;
and, though the lower ones become bent to a horizontal position,
they do not droop, so that the tree has a much less elegant
appearance. The leaves, which grow very thickly all round the
stem, are short, nearly quadrangular, and of a dark greyish-
green. The cones, produced in great abundance, are short and
oval in shape, the scales with rugged indented edges; they are
deep purple when young, but become brown as they ripen.
The tree also occurs in the New England states and extends over
nearly the whole of British North America, its northern limit
occurring at about 67 N. lat., often forming a large part of the
dense forests, mostly in the swampy districts. A variety with
lighter foliage and reddish bark is common in Newfoundland and
some districts on the mainland adjacent. The trees usually
grow very close together, the slender trunks rising to a great
height bare of branches; but they do not attain the size of the
Norway spruce, being seldom taller than 60 or 70 ft., with a
diameter of 15 or 2 ft. at the base. This species prefers a peaty
soil, and often grows luxuriantly in very moist situations. The
wood is strong, light and very elastic, forming an excellent
material for small masts and spars, for which purpose the trunks
are used in America, and exported largely to England. The
sawn timber is inferior to that of P. excelsa, besides being of a
smaller size. In the countries in which it abounds, the log-houses
of the settlers are often built of the long straight trunks. The
Spruce-beer of America is generally made from the young shoots
of this tree. The small twigs, tied in bundles, are boiled for
some time in water with broken biscuit or roasted grain; the
resulting decoction is then poured into a cask with molasses or
maple sugar and a little yeast, and left to ferment. It is often
made by the settlers and fishermen of the St Lawrence region,
being esteemed as a preventive of scurvy. The American
" essence of spruce," occasionally used in England for making
spruce-beer, is obtained by boiling the shoots and buds and
concentrating the decoction. The resinous products of the tree
are of no great value. It was introduced into Britain at the
end of the i7th century.
The white spruce (Picea alba), sometimes met with in English
plantations, is a tree of lighter growth than the black spruce,
the branches being more widely apart; the foliage is of a light
glaucous green; the small light-brown cones are more slender
and tapering than in P. nigra, and the scales have even edges.
It is of comparatively small size, but is of some importance in the
wilds of the Canadian dominion, where it is found to the northern
limit of tree- vegetation growing up to at least 69; the slender
trunks yield the only useful timber of some of the more desolate
northern regions. In the woods of Canada it occurs frequently
mingled with the black spruce and other trees. The fibrous
tough roots, softened by soaking in water, and split, are used
by the Indians and voyageurs to sew together the birch-bark
covering of their canoes; and a resin that exudes from the bark
is employed to varnish over the seams. It was introduced to
Great Britain at the end of the I7th century and was formerly
more extensively planted than at present.
The hemlock spruce ( Tsuga canadensis) is a large tree, abound-
ing in most of the north-eastern parts of America up to Labrador;
in lower Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia it is often
the prevailing tree. The short leaves are flat, those above
pressed close to the stem, and the others forming two rows
they are of a rather light green tint above, whitish beneath
The cones are very small, ovate and pointed. The large branches
droop, like those of the Norway spruce, but the sprays are much
lighter and more slender, rendering the tree one of the most
elegant of the conifers, especially when young. When old
the branches, broken and bent down by the winter snows, give
it a ragged but very picturesque aspect. The trunk is frequently
3 ft. thick near the base. The hemlock prefers rather dry
and elevated situations, often forming woods on the declivities
of mountains. The timber is very much twisted in grain, anc
liable to warp and split, but is used for making plasterers' lath
and for fencing; " shingles " for roofing are sometimes made o
it. The bark, split off in May or June, forms one of the mos
aluable tanning substances in Canada. The sprays are some-
imes used for making spruce-beer and essence of spruce. It
was introduced into Great Britain in about the year 1736.
The Douglas spruce (Pseudo-tsuga Douglasii), one of the
finest conifers, often rises to a height of 200 ft. and sometimes
.onsiderably more, while the gigantic trunk frequently measures
5 or 10 ft. across. The yew-like leaves spread laterally, and are
>f a deep green tint; the cones are furnished with tridentate
>racts that project far beyond the scales. It forms extensive
orests in Vancouver Island, British Columbia and Oregon,
whence the timber is exported, being highly prized for its strength,
durability and even grain, though very heavy; it is of a deep
ellow colour, abounding in resin, which oozes from the thick
jark. It was introduced into Britain soon after its rediscovery
>y David Douglas in 1827, and has been widely planted, but
does not flourish well where exposed to high winds or in too
>hallow soil.
Of the Abies group, the silver fir (A. pectinata), may be taken
as the type, a lofty tree, rivalling the Norway spruce in size,
with large spreading horizontal boughs curving upward toward
the extremities. The flat leaves are arranged in two regular,
distinct rows; they are deep green above, but beneath have two
>road white lines, which, as the foliage in large trees has a
tendency to curl upwards, give it a silvery appearance from below.
The large cones stand erect on the branches, are cylindrical
n shape, and have long bracts, the curved points of which
>roject beyond the scales. When the tree is young the bark is
of a silvery grey, but gets rough with age. This tree appears to
lave been the true " Abies " of the Latin writers the " pul-
cherrima abies " of Virgil. From early historic times it has been
leld in high estimation in the south of Europe, being used by
the Romans for masts and all purposes for which timber of great
ength was required. It is abundant in most of the mountain
ranges of southern and central Europe, but is not found in the
northern parts of that continent. In Asia it occurs on the
!aucasus and Ural, and in some parts of the Altaic chain. Exten-
sive woods of this fir exist on the southern Alps, where the tree
*rows up to nearly 4000 ft.; in the Rhine countries it forms
ijreat part of the extensive forest of the Hochwald, and occurs
in the Black Forest and in the Vosges; it is plentiful likewise on
the Pyrenees and Apennines. The wood is inferior to that of
Picea excelsa, but, being soft and easily worked, is largely
employed in the countries to which it is indigenous for all
the purposes of carpentry. Articles of furniture are frequently
made of it, and it is in great esteem for carving and for the
construction of stringed instruments. Deficient in resin, the
wood is more perishable than that of the spruce fir when exposed
to the air, though it is said to stand well under water. The bark
contains a large amount of a fine, highly-resinous turpentine,
which collects in tumours on the trunk during the heat of summer.
In the Alps and Vosges this resinous semi-fluid is collected by
climbing the trees and pressing out the contents of the natural
receptacles of the bark into horn or tin vessels held beneath
them. After purification by straining, it is sold as " Strasburg
turpentine," much used in the preparation of some of the finer
varnishes. Burgundy pitch is also prepared from it by a similar
process as that from Picea excelsa. A fine oil of turpentine is
distilled from the crude material; the residue forms a coarse
resin. Introduced into Britain at the beginning of the I7th
century, the silver fir has become common there as a planted tree,
though, like the Norway spruce, it rarely comes up from seed
scattered naturally. There are many fine trees in Scotland;
one near Roseneath, figured by Strutt in his Syltia Britannica,
then measured more than 22 ft. round the trunk. In the more
southern parts of the island it often reaches a height of 90 ft.,
and specimens exist considerably above that size; but the young
shoots are apt to be injured in severe winters, and the tree on
light soils is also hurt by long droughts, so that it usually presents
a ragged appearance; though, in the distance, the lofty top
and horizontal boughs sometimes stand out in most picturesque
relief above the rounded summits of the neighbouring trees.
The silver fir flourishes in a deep loamy soil, and will grow even
FIRDOUSl
397
upon stiff clay, when well drained a situation in which few
conifers will succeed. On such lands, where otherwise desirable,
it may sometimes be planted with profit. The cones do not ripen
till the second year.
The silver fir of Canada (A. balsamea), a small tree resembling
the last species in foliage, furnishes the " Canada balsam ";
it abounds in Quebec and the adjacent provinces.
Numerous other firs are common in gardens and shrubberies,
and some furnish valuable products in their native countries;
but they are not yet of sufficient economic or general interest to
demand mention here.
For further information see Veitch's Manual of Coniferae (and ed.,
1900).
FIRDOUSl, FIRDAUSI or FIRDUSI, Persian poet. Abu '1
Kasim Mansur (or Hasan) , who took the nom de plume of FirdousI,
author of the epic poem the Shahnama, or " Book of Kings,"
a complete history of Persia in nearly 60,000 verses, was born
at Shadab, a suburb of Tus, about the year 329 of the Hegira
(941 A.D.), or earlier. His father belonged to the class of Dihkans
(the old native country families and landed proprietors of Persia,
who had preserved their influence and status under the Arab
rule), and possessed an estate in the neighbourhood of Tus
(in Khorasan). Firdousl's own education eminently qualified
him for the gigantic task which he subsequently undertook,
for he was profoundly versed in the Arabic language and literature
and had also studied deeply the Pahlavi or Old Persian, and was
conversant with the ancient historical records which existed
in that tongue.
The Shahnama of FirdousI (see also PERSIA: Literature) is
perhaps the only example of a poem produced by a single
author which at once took its place as the national epic of the
people. The nature of the work, the materials from which
it was composed, and the circumstances under which it was
written are, however, in themselves exceptional, and necessarily
tended to this result. The grandeur and antiquity of the empire
and the vicissitudes through which it passed, their long series
of wars and the magnificent monuments erected by their ancient
sovereigns, could not fail to leave numerous traces in the memory
of so imaginative a people as the Persians. As early as the 5th
century of the Christian era we find mention made of these
historical traditions in the work of an Armenian author, Moses
of Chorene (according to others, he lived in the 7th or 8th
century). During the reign of Chosroes I. (Anushirvan) the
contemporary of Mahomet, and by order of that monarch, an
attempt had been made to collect, from various parts of the
kingdom, all the popular tales and legends relating to the ancient
kings, and the results were deposited in the royal library. During
the last years of the Sassanid dynasty the work was resumed,
the former collection being revised and greatly added to by the
Dihkan Danishwer, assisted by several learned mobeds. His
work was entitled the Khoda'inama, which in the old dialect
also meant the " Book of Kings." On the Arab invasion this
work was in great danger of perishing at the hands of the icono-
clastic caliph Omar and his generals, but it was fortunately
preserved; and we find it in the 2nd century of the Hegira
being paraphrased in Arabic by Abdallah ibn el Mokaffa, a
learned Persian who had embraced Islam. Other Guebres
occupied themselves privately with the collection of these tradi-
tions; and, when a prince of Persian origin, Yakub ibn Laith,
founder of the Saffarid dynasty, succeeded in throwing off his
allegiance to the caliphate, he at once set about continuing the
work of his illustrious predecessors. His " Book of Kings "
was completed in the year 260 of the Hegira, and was freely
circulated in Khorasan and Irak. Yakub's family did not
continue long in power; but the Samanid princes who succeeded
applied themselves zealously to the same work, and Prince
Nuh II., who came to the throne in 365 A.H. (A.D. 976), entrusted
it to the court poet Dakiki, a Guebre by religion. Dakiki's
labours were brought to a sudden stop by his own assassination,
and the fall of the Samanian house happened not long after, and
their kingdom passed into the hands of the Ghaznevids. Mahmud
ibn Sabuktagin, the second of the dynasty (998-1030), continued
to make himself still more independent of the caliphate than his
predecessors, and, though a warrior and a fanatical Moslem,
extended a generous patronage to Persian literature and learning,
and even developed it at the expense of the Arabic institutions.
The task of continuing and completing the collection of the
ancient historical traditions of the empire especially attracted
him. With the assistance of neighbouring princes and of many
of the influential Dihkans, Mahmud collected a vast amount
of materials for the work, and after having searched in vain
for a man of sufficient learning and ability to edit them faithfully,
and having entrusted various episodes for versification to the
numerous poets whom he had gathered round him, he at length
made choice of FirdousI. FirdousI had been always strongly
attracted by the ancient Pahlavi records, and had begun at an
early age to turn them into Persian epic verse. On hearing of
the death of the poet Dakiki, he conceived the ambitious design
of himself carrying out the work which the latter had only just
commenced; and, although he had not then any introduction
to the court, he contrived, thanks to one of his friends, Mahommed
Lashkari, to procure a copy of the Dihkan Danishwer's collection,
and at the age of thirty-six commenced his great undertaking.
Abu Mansur, the governor of Tus, patronized him and encour-
aged him by substantial pecuniary support. When Mahmud
succeeded to the throne, and evinced such active interest in the
work, FirdousI was naturally attracted to the court of Ghazni.
At first court jealousies and intrigues prevented FirdousI from
being noticed by the sultan; but at length one of his friends,
Mahek, undertook to present to Mahmud his poetic version of
one of the well-known episodes of the legendary history. Hearing
that the poet was born at Tus, the sultan made him explain the
origin of his native town, and was much struck with the intimate
knowledge of ancient history which he displayed. Being pre-
sented to the seven poets who were then engaged on the projected
epic, Abu '1 Kasim was admitted to their meetings, and on one
occasion improvised a verse, at Mahmud's request, in praise of
his favourite Ayaz, with such success that the sultan bestowed
upon him the name of FirdousI, saying that he had converted
his assemblies into paradise (Firdous). During the early days
of his sojourn at court an incident happened which contributed
in no small measure to the realization of his ambition. Three of
the seven poets were drinking in a garden when FirdousI ap-
proached, and wishing to get rid of him without rudeness, they
informed him who they were, and told him that it was their
custom to admit none to their society but such as could give
proof of poetical talent. To test his acquirements they proposed
that each should furnish an extemporary line of verse, his own
to be the last, and all four ending in the same rhyme. FirdousI
accepted the challenge, and the three poets having previously
agreed upon three rhyming words to which a fourth could not
be found in the Persian language, 'Ansari began
" Thy beauty eclipses the light of the sun " ;
Farrakhi added
" The rose with thy cheek would comparison shun " ;
'Asjadi continued
" Thy glances pierce through the mailed warrior's johsun " ; *
and FirdousI, without a moment's hesitation, completed the
quatrain
" Like the lance of fierce Giv in his fight with Poshun."
The poets asked for an explanation of this allusion, and Firdousi
recited to them the battle as described in the Shahnama, and
delighted and astonished them with his learning and eloquence.
Mahmud now definitely selected him for the work of compiling
and versifying the ancient legends, and bestowed upon him such
marks of his favour and munificence as to elicit from the poet
an enthusiastic panegyric, which is inserted in the preface of
the Shahnama, and forms a curious contrast to the bitter satire
which he subsequently prefixed to the book. The sultan ordered
his treasurer, Khojah Hasan Maimandi, to pay to FirdousI a
thousand gold pieces for every thousand verses; but the poet
preferred allowing the sum to accumulate till the whole was
1 A sort of cuirass.
FIRDOUSI
finished, with the object of amassing sufficient capital to construct
a dike for his native town of Tus, which suffered greatly from
defective irrigation, a project which had been the chief dream
of his childhood. Owing to this resolution, and to the jealousy
of Hasan Maimandi, who often refused to advance him sufficient
for the necessaries of life, FirdousI passed the later portion of
his life in great privation, though enjoying the royal favour
and widely extended fame. Amongst other princes whose
liberal presents enabled him to combat his pecuniary difficulties,
was one Rustam, son of Fakhr Addaula, the Dailamite, who
sent him a thousand gold pieces in acknowledgment of a copy
of the episode of Rustam and Isfendiar which FirdousI had sent
him, and promised him a gracious reception if he should ever
come to his court. As this prince belonged, like FirdousI, to the
Shiah sect, while Mahmud and Maimandi were Sunnites, and
as he was also politically opposed to the sultan, Hasan Maimandi
did not fail to make the most of this incident, and accused the
poet of disloyalty to his sovereign and patron, as well as of
heresy. Other enemies and rivals also joined in the attack, and
for some time Firdousl's position was very precarious, though
his pre-eminent talents and obvious fitness for the work prevented
him from losing his post. To add to his troubles he had the
misfortune to lose his only son at the age of 37.
At length, after thirty-five years' work, the book was completed
(ion), and FirdousI entrusted it to Ayaz, the sultan's favourite,
for presentation to him. Mahmud ordered Hasan Maimandi
to take the poet as much gold as an elephant could carry, but the
jealous treasurer persuaded the monarch that it was too generous
a reward, and that an elephant's load of silver would be sufficient.
60,000 silver dirhems were accordingly placed in sacks, and
taken to FirdousI by Ayaz at the sultan's command, instead of
the 60,000 gold pieces, one for each verse, which had been
promised. The poet was at that moment in the bath, and seeing
the sacks, and believing that they contained the expected gold,
received them with great satisfaction, but finding only silver he
complained to Ayaz that he had not executed the sultan's order.
Ayaz related what had taken place between Mahmud and Hasan
Maimandi, and FirdousI in a rage gave 20 thousand pieces to
Ayaz himself, the same amount to the bath-keeper, and paid the
rest to a beer seller for a glass of beer (fouka), sending word
back to the sultan that it was not to gain money that he had
taken so much trouble. On hearing this message, Mahmud at
first reproached Hasan with having caused him to break his word,
but the wily treasurer succeeded in turning his master's anger
upon FirdousI to such an extent that he threatened that on the
morrow he would " cast that Carmathian (heretic) under the
feet of his elephants." Being apprised by one of the nobles of
the court of what had taken place, FirdousI passed the night
in great anxiety; but passing in the morning by the gate that
led from his own apartments into the palace, he met the sultan
in his private garden, and succeeded by humble apologies in
appeasing his wrath. He was, however, far from being appeased
himself, and determined at once upon quitting Ghazni. Return-
ing home he tore up the draughts of some thousands of verses
which he had composed and threw them in the fire, and repairing
to the grand mosque of Ghazni he wrote upon the walls, at the
place where the sultan was in the habit of praying, the following
lines:
" Theauspicious court of Mahmud, king of Zabulistan, is like a sea.
What a sea! One cannot see its shore. If I have dived therein
without finding any pearls it is the fault of my star and not of the
sea."
He then gave a sealed paper to Ayaz, begging him to hand it
to the sultan in a leisure moment after 20 days had elapsed,
and set off on his travels with no better equipment than his
staff and a dervish's cloak. At the expiration of the 20 days
Ayaz gave the paper to the sultan, who on opening it found the
celebrated satire which is now always prefixed to copies of the
Shahnama, and which is perhaps one of the bitterest and severest
pieces of reproach ever penned. Mahmud, in a violent rage,
sent after the poet and promised a large reward for his capture,
but he was already in comparative safety. FirdousI directed his
steps to Mazandaran, and took refuge with Kabus, prince of
Jorjan, who at first received him with great favour, and promised
him his continued protection and patronage; learning, however,
the circumstances under which he had left Ghazni, he feared the
resentment of so powerful a sovereign as Mahmud, who he knew
already coveted his kingdom, and dismissed the poet with a
magnificent present. FirdousI next repaired to Bagdad, where
he made the acquaintance of a merchant, who introduced him
to the vizier of the caliph, al-Qadir, by presenting an Arabic
poem which the poet had composed in his honour. The vizier
gave FirdousI an apartment near himself, and related to the
caliph the manner in which he had been treated at Ghazni.
The caliph summoned him into his presence, and was so much
pleased with a poem of a thousand couplets, which FirdousI
composed in his honour, that he at once received him into
favour. The fact of his having devoted his life and talents to
chronicling the renown of fire-worshipping Persians was, however,
somewhat of a crime in the orthodox caliph's eyes; in order
therefore to recover his prestige, FirdousI composed another
poem of 9000 couplets on the theme borrowed from the Koran
of the loves of Joseph and Potiphar's wife Yiisuf and Zuleikha
(edited by H. Ethe, Oxford, 1902; complete metrical transla-
tion by Schlechta-Wssehrd, Vienna, 1889). This poem, though
rare and little known, is still in existence the Royal Asiatic
Society possessing a copy. But Mahmud had by this time
heard of his asylum at the court of the caliph, and wrote a letter
menacing his liege lord, and demanding the surrender of the
poet. FirdousI, to avoid further troubles, departed for Ahwaz,
a province of the Persian Irak, and dedicated his Yiisuf and
Zuleikha to the governor of that district. Thence he went to
Kohistan, where the governor, Nasir Lek, was his intimate and
devoted friend, and received him with great ceremony upon the
frontier. FirdousI confided to him that he contemplated writing
a bitter exposition of his shameful treatment at the hands of the
sultan of Ghazni; but Nasir Lek, who was a personal friend of
the latter, dissuaded him from his purpose, but himself wrote and
remonstrated with Mahmud. Nasir Lek's message and the
urgent representations of Firdousl's friends had the desired
effect ; and Mahmud not only expressed his intention of offering
full reparation to the poet, but put his enemy Maimandi to death.
The change, however, came too late; FirdousI, now a broken
and decrepit old man, had in the meanwhile returned to Tus,
and, while wandering through the streets of his native town,
heard a child lisping a verse from his own satire in which he
taunts Mahmud with his slavish birth:
" Had Mahmud's father been what he is now
A crown of gold had decked this aged brow ;
Had Mahmud's mother been of gentle blood,
In heaps of silver knee-deep had I stood."
He was so affected by this proof of universal sympathy with his
misfortunes that he went home, fell sick and died. He was
buried in a garden, but Abu'l Kasim Jurjani, chief sheikh of
Tus, refused to read the usual prayers over his tomb, alleging
that he was an infidel,"and had devoted his life to the glorification
of fire-worshippers and misbelievers. The next night, however,
having dreamt that he beheld FirdousI in paradise dressed in the
sacred colour, green, and wearing an emerald crown, he recon-
sidered his determination; and the poet was henceforth held to
be perfectly orthodox. He died in the year 411 of the Hegira
(1020 A.D.), aged about eighty, eleven years after the completion
of his great work. The legend goes that Mahmud had in the
meanwhile despatched the promised hundred thousand pieces of
gold to FirdousI, with a robe of honour and ample apologies
for the past. But as the camels bearing the treasure reached
one of the gates of the city, Firdousl's funeral was leaving it by
another. His daughter, to whom they brought the sultan's
present, refused to receive it; but his aged sister remembering
his anxiety for the construction of the stone embankment for
the river of Tus, this work was completed in honour of the poet's
memory, and a large caravanserai built with the surplus.
Much of the traditional life, as gjiven above, which is based upon
that prefixed to the revised edition of the poem, undertaken by
FIRE
399
order of Baisingar Khan, grandson of Timur-i-Leng (Timur), is
rejected by modern scholars (see T. Noldeke, " Das iranische
Nationalepos," in W. Geiger s Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii.
pp. 150-158).
The Shahnama is based, as we have seen, upon the ancient legends
current among the populace of Persia, and collected by the Dihkans,
a class of men who had the greatest facilities for this purpose. There
is every reason therefore to believe that Firdousi adhered faithfully
to these records of antiquity, and that the poem is a perfect store-
house of the genuine traditions of the country.
The entire poem (which only existed in MS. up to the beginning of
the ipth century) was published (1831-1868) with a French transla-
tion in a magnificent folio edition, at the expense of the French
government, by the learned and indefatigable Julius von Mohl.
The size and number of the volumes, however, and their great
expense, made them difficult of access, and Frau von Mohl published
the French translation (1876-1878) with her illustrious husband's
critical notes and introduction in a more convenient and cheaper
form. Other editions are by Turner Macan (Calcutta, 1829), T. A.
Vullers and S. Landauer (unfinished; Leiden, 1877-1883). There
is an English abridgment by J. Atkinson (London, 1832; reprinted
1886, 1892); there is a verse-translation, partly rhymed and partly
unrhymed, by A. G. and E. Warner (1905 foil. ),_ with an introduction
containing an account of Firdousi and the Shahnama; the version
by A. Rogers (1907) contains the greater part of the work. The
episode of Sohrab and Rustam is well known to English readers
from Matthew Arnold's poem. The only complete translation is //
Libra dei Rei, by I. Pizzi (8 vols., Turin, 1886-1888), also the author
of a history of Persian poetry.
See also E. G. Browne's Literary History of Persia, i., ii. (1902-
1906) ; T. Noldeke (as above) for a full account of the Shahnama,
editions, &c. ; and H. Ethe, " Neupersische Litteratur," in the same
work. (E. H. P.; X.)
FIRE (in O. Eng. fyr; the word is common to West German
languages, cf. Dutch tiuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre- Teutonic form
is seen in Sanskrit pit, pavaka, and Gr. TrOp; the ultimate origin
is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus),
the term commonly used for the visible effect of combustion
(see FLAME), operating as a heating or lighting agency.
So general is the knowledge of fire and its uses that it is a
question whether we have any authentic instance on record of a
tribe altogether ignorant of them. A few notices indeed are to
be found in the voluminous literature of travel which would
decide the question in the affirmative; but when they are
carefully investigated, their evidence is found to be far from
conclusive. The missionary Krapf was told by a slave of a tribe
in the southern part of Shoa who lived like monkeys in the
bamboo jungles, and were totally ignorant of fire; but no
better authority has been found for the statement, and the
story, which seems to be current in eastern Africa, may be
nothing else than the propagation of fables about the Pygmies
whom the ancients located around the sources of the Nile.
Lieut. Charles Wilkes, commander of the United States exploring
expedition of 1838-42, says that in Fakaafo or Bowditch Island
" there was no sign of places for cooking nor any appearance of
fire," and that the natives felt evident alarm at the sparks pro-
duced by flint and steel and the smoke emitted by those with
cigars in their mouths. The presence of the word afi, fire, in the
Fakaafo vocabulary supplied by Hale the ethnographer of the
expedition, though it might perhaps be explained as equivalent
only to solar light and heat, undoubtedly invalidates the supposi-
tion of Wilkes; and the Rev. George Turner, in an account of a
missionary voyage in 1859, not only repeats the word afi in his
list for Fakaafo, but relates the native legend about the origin
of fire, and describes some peculiar customs connected with its
use. Alvaro de Saavedra, an old Spanish traveller, informs us
that the inhabitants of Los Jardines, an island of the Pacific,
showed great fear when they saw fire which they did not know
before. But that island has not been identified with certainty
by modern explorers. It belongs, perhaps, to the Ladrones or
Marianas Archipelago, where fire was unknown, says Padre
Gobien, " till Magellan, wroth at the pilferings of the inhabitants,
burnt one of their villages. When they saw their wooden huts
ablaze, their first thought was that fire was a beast which eats
up wood. Some of them having approached the fire too near
were burnt, and the others kept aloof, fearing to be torn or
poisoned by the powerful breath of that terrible animal." To
this Freycinet objects that these Ladrone islanders made pottery
before the arrival of Europeans, that they had words expressing
the ideas of flame, fire, oven, coals, roasting and cooking. Let
us add that in their country numerous graves and ruins have been
found, which seem to be remnants of a former culture. Thus
the question remains in uncertainty: though there is nothing
impossible in the supposition of the existence of a fireless tribe,
it cannot be said that such a tribe has been_discovered.
It is useless to inquire in what way man first discovered that
fire was subject to his control, and could even be called into
being by appropriate means. With the natural phenomenon
and its various aspects he must soon have become familiar.
The volcano lit up the darkness of night and sent its ashes or its
lava down into the plains; the lightning or the meteor struck
the tree, and the forest was ablaze; or some less obvious cause
produced some less extensive ignition. For a time it is possible
that the grand manifestations of nature aroused no feelings save
awe and terror; but man is quite as much endowed with curiosity
as with reverence or caution, and familiarity must ere long have
bred confidence if not contempt. It is by no means necessary
to suppose that the practical discovery of fire was made only
at one given spot and in one given way; it is much more probable
indeed that different tribes and races obtained the knowledge
in a variety of ways.
It has been asserted of many tribes that they would be unable
to rekindle their fires if they were allowed to die out. Travellers
in Australia and Tasmania depict the typical native woman
bearing always about with her a burning brand, which it is one
of her principal duties to protect and foster; and it has been
supposed that it was only ignorance which imposed on her the
endless task. This is absurd. The Australian methods of
producing fire by the friction of two pieces of wood are perfectly
well known, and are illustrated in Hewitt's Native Tribes of
South-East Australia, pp. 771-773. To carry a brand saves a
little trouble to the men.
The methods employed for producing fire vary considerably
in detail, but are for the most part merely modified applications
of concussion or friction. Lord Avebury has remarked that the
working up of stone into implements must have been followed
sooner or later by the discovery of fire; for in the process of
chipping sparks were elicited, and in the process of polishing
heat was generated. The first or concussion method is still
familiar in the flint and steel, which has hardly passed out of
use even in the most civilized countries. Its modifications are
comparatively few and unimportant. The Alaskans and Aleutians
take two pieces of quartz, rub them well with native sulphur,
strike them together till the sulphur catches fire, and then
transfer the flame to a heap of dry grass over which a few feathers
have been scattered. Instead of two pieces of quartz the
Eskimos use a piece of quartz and a piece of iron pyrites. Mr
Frederick Boyle saw fire produced by striking broken china
violently against a bamboo, and Bastian observed the same
process in Burma, and Wallace in Ternate. In Cochin China
two pieces of bamboo are considered sufficient, the silicious
character of the outside layer rendering it as good as native
flint. The friction methods are more various. One of the
simplest is what E. B. Tylor calls the stick and groove " a
blunt pointed stick being run along a groove of its own making
in a piece of wood lying on the ground." Much, of course,
depends on the quality of the woods and the expertness of the
manipulator. In Tahiti Charles Darwin saw a native produce
fire in a few seconds, but only succeeded himself after much
labour. The same device was employed in New Zealand, the
Sandwich Islands, Tonga, Samoa and the Radak Islands.
Instead of rubbing the movable stick backwards and forwards
other tribes make it rotate rapidly in a round hole in the station-
ary piece of wood thus making what Tylor has happily desig-
nated a fire-drill. This device has been observed in Australia,
Kamchatka, Sumatra and the Carolines, among the Veddahs
of Ceylon, throughout a great part of southern Africa, among
:he Eskimo and Indian tribes of North America, in the West
[ndies, in Central America, and as far south as the Straits of
Magellan. It was also employed by the ancient Mexicans, and
400
FIRE
Tylor gives a quaint picture of the operation from a Mexican
MS. a man half kneeling on the ground is causing the stick
to rotate between the palms of his hands. This simple method
of rotation seems to be very generally in use; but various
devices have been resorted to for the purpose of diminishing
the labour and hastening the result. The Gaucho of the Pampas
takes " an elastic stick about 18 in. long, presses one end to his
breast and the other in a hole in a piece of wood, and then
rapidly turns the curved part like a carpenter's centre-bit."
In other cases the rotation is effected by means of a cord or
thong wound round the drill and pulled alternately by this end
and that. In order to steady the drill the Eskimo and others
put the upper end in a socket of ivory or bone which they hold
firmly in their mouth. A further advance was made by the
Eskimo and neighbouring tribes, who applied the principle of
the bow-drill; and the still more ingenious pump-drill was
used by the Onondaga Indians. For full descriptions of these
instruments and a rich variety of details connected with
fire-making we must refer the reader to Tylor's valuable
chapter in his Researches. These methods of producing fire are
but rarely used in Europe, and only in connexion with super-
stitious observances. We read in Wuttke that some time ago the
authorities of a Mecklenburg village ordered a " wild fire " to be
lit against a murrain amongst the cattle. For two hours the
men strove vainly to obtain a spark, but the fault was not to be
ascribed to the quality of the wood, or to the dampness of the
atmosphere, but to the stubbornness of an old lady, who, object-
ing to the superstition, would not put out her night lamp; such
a fire, to be efficient, must burn alone. At last the strong-minded
female was compelled to give in; fire was obtained but of
bad quality, for it did not stop the murrain.
It has long been known that the rays of the sun might be
concentrated by a lens or concave mirror. Aristophanes men-
tions the burning-lens in The Clouds, and the story of Archimedes
using a mirror to fire the ships at Syracuse is familiar to every
schoolboy. If Garcilasso de la Vega can be trusted as an authority
the Virgins of the Sun in Peru kindled the sacred fire with a
concave cup set in a great bracelet. In China the burning-glass
is in common use.
To the inquiry how mankind became possessed of fire, the
cosmogonies, those records of pristine speculative thought,
do not give any reply which would not be found in the relations
of travellers and historians.
They say in the Tonga Islands that the god of the earthquakes
is likewise the god of fire. At Manga'ia it is told that the great
Maui went down to hell, where he surprised the secret of making
fire by rubbing two pieces of wood together. The Maoris tell the
tale differently, Maui had the fire given to him by his old blind
grandmother, Mahuika, who drew it from the nails of her hands.
Wishing to have a stronger one, he pretended that it had gone out,
and so he obtained fire from her great toe. It was so fierce that every
thing melted before the glow; even Maui and the grandmother
herself were already burning when a deluge, sent from heaven,
saved the hero and the perishing world; but before the waters
extinguished all the blaze, Mahuika shut a few sparks into some
trees, and thence men draw it now. The Maoris have also the
legend that thunder is the noise of Tawhaki's footsteps, and that
lightnings flash from his armpits. At Western Point, Victoria, the
Australians say the good old man Pundyil opened the door of the
sun, whose light poured then on earth, and that Karakorok, the
good man's good daughter, seeing the earth to be full of serpents,
went everywhere destroying serpents; but before she had killed
them all, her staff snapped in two, and while it broke, a flame burst
out of it. Here the serpent-killer is a fire-bringer. In the Persian
Shahnama also fire was discovered by a dragon-fighter. Hushenk,
the powerful hero, hurled at the monster a prodigious stone, which,
evaded by the snake, struck a rock and was splintered by it. " Light
shone from the dark pebble, the heart of the rock flashed out in
glory, and fire was seen for the first time in the world." The snake
escaped, but the mystery of fire had been revealed.
North American legends narrate how the great buffalo, careering
through the plains, makes sparks flit in the night, and sets the
prairie ablaze by his hoofs hitting the rocks. We meet the same
idea in the Hindu mythology, which conceives thunder to have
been, among many other things, the clatter of the solar horses on
the Akmon or hard pavement of the sky. The Dakotas claim that
their ancestor obtained fire from the sparks which a friendly panther
struck with its claws, as it scampered upon a stony hill.
Tohil, who gave the Quiches fire by shaking his sandals, was,
like the Mexican Quetzelcoatl, represented by a flint stone. Gua-
mansuri, the father of the Peruvians, produced the thunder and the
lightning by hurling stones with his sling. The thunderbolts are
his children. Kudai, the great god of the Altaian Tartars, disclosed
" the secret of the stone's edge and the iron's hardness." The
Slavonian god of thunder was depicted with a silex in his hand, or
even protruding from his head. The Lapp Tiermes struck with his
hammer upon his own head; the Scandinavian Thor held a mallet
in one hand, a flint in the other. Taranis, the Gaul, had upon his head
a huge mace surrounded by six little ones. Finnish poems describe
how " fire, the child of the sun, came down from heaven, where it
was rocked in a tub of yellow copper, in a large pail of gold." Ukko,
theEsthonian god, sends forth lightnings, as he strikes his stone with
his steel. According to the Kalewala, the same mighty Ukko struck
his sword against his nail, and from the nail issued the " fiery babe."
He gave it to the Wind's daughter to rock it, but the unwary maiden
let it fall in the sea, where it was swallowed by the great pike, and
fire would have been lost for ever if the child of the sun had not
come to the rescue. He dragged the great pike from the water,
drew out his entrails, and found there the heavenly spark still alive.
Prometheus brought to earth the torch he had lighted at the sun's
chariot.
Human culture may be said to have begun with fire, of which
the uses increased in the same ratio as culture itself. To save
the labour expended on the initial process of procuring light,
or on carrying it about constantly, primitive men hit on the
expedient of a fire, which should burn night and day in a public
building. The Egyptians had one in every temple, the Greeks,
Latins and Persians in all towns and villages. The Natchez,
the Aztecs, the Mayas, the Peruvians had their " national
fires " burning upon large pyramids. Of these fires the " eternal
lamps" in the synagogues, in the Byzantine and Catholic
churches, may be a survival. The " Regia," Rome's sacred
centre, supposed to be the abode of Vesta, stood close to a
fountain; it was convenient to draw from the same spot the
two great requisites, fire and water. All civil and political
interests grouped themselves around the prytaneum which was
at once a temple, a tribunal, a town-hall, and a gossiping resort :
all public business and most private affairs were transacted by
the light and in the warmth of the common fire. No wonder
that its flagstones should become sacred. Primitive communities
consider as holy everything that ensures their existence and
promotes their welfare, material things such as fire and water
not less than others. Thus the prytaneum grew into a religious
institution. And if we hear a little more of fire worship than of
water worship, it is because fire, being on the whole more difficult
to obtain, was esteemed more precious. The prytaneum and
the state were convertible terms. If by chance the fire in the
Roman temple of Vesta was extinguished, all tribunals, all
authority, all public or private business had to stop immediately.
The connexion between heaven and earth had been broken,
and it had to be restored in some way or other either by Jove
sending down divine lightning on his altars, or by the priests
making a new fire by the old sacred method of rubbing two
pieces of wood together, or by catching the rays of the sun in a
concave mirror. No Greek o* Roman army crossed the frontier
without carrying an altar where the fire taken from the prytaneum
burned night and day. When the Greeks sent out colonies the
emigrants took with them living coals from the altar of Hestia,
and had in their new country a fire lit as a representative of that
burning in the mother country. 1 Not before the three curiae
united their fires into one could Rome become powerful; and
1 Curiously enough we see the same institution obtaining among
the Damaras of South Africa, where the chiefs, who sway their people
with a sort of priestly authority, commit to their daughters the care
of a so-called eternal fire. From its hearth younger scions separating
from the parent stock take away a burning brand to their new home.
The use of a common prytaneum, of circular form, like the Roman
temple of Vesta, testified to the common origin of the North American
Assinais and Maichas. The Mobiles, the Chippewas, the Natchez,
had each a corporation of Vestals. If the Natchez let their fire die
out, they were bound to renew it from the Mobiles. The Moquis,
Pueblos and Comanches had also their perpetual fires. The Red-
skins discussed important affairs of state at the " council fires,
around which each sachem marched three times, turning to it all the
sides of his person. " It was a saying among our ancestors," said an
Iroquois chief in 1753, " that when the fire goes out at Onondaga -
the Delphi of the league " we shall no longer be a people."
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
401
Athens became a shining light to the world only, we are told,
when the twelve tribes of Attica, led by Theseus, brought each
its brand to the altar of Athene Polias. All Greece confederated,
making Delphi its central hearth; and the islands congregated
around Delos, whence the new fire was fetched every year.
Periodic Fires. Because the sun loses its force after noon,
and after midsummer daily shortens the length of its circuit, the
ancients inferred, and primitive populations still believe, that,
as time goes on, the energies of fire must necessarily decline.
Therefore men set about renewing the fires in the temples and
on the hearth on the longest day of summer or at the beginning
of the agricultural year. The ceremony was attended with
much rejoicing, banqueting and many religious rites. Houses
were thoroughly cleansed; people bathed, and underwent
lustrations and purifications; new clothes were put on; quarrels
were made up; debts were paid by the debtor or remitted by
the creditor; criminals were released by the civil authorities
in imitation of the heavenly judges, who were believed to grant
on the same day. a general remission of sins. All things were
made new; each man turned over a new page in the book of
his existence. Some nations, like the Etruscans in the Old
World and the Peruvians and Mexicans in the New, carried
these ideas to a high degree of development, and celebrated
with magnificent ceremonies the renewal of the saecula, or
astronomic periods, which might be shorter or longer than a
century. Some details of the festival among the Aztecs have
been preserved. On the last night of every period (52 years)
every fire was extinguished, and men proceeded in solemn
procession to some sacred spot, where, with awe and trembling,
the priests strove to kindle a new fire by friction. It was as if
they had a vague idea that the cosmos, with its sun, moon and
stars, had been wound up like a clock for a definite period of
time. And had they failed to raise the vital spark, they would
have believed that it was because the great fire was being extin-
guished at the central hearth of the world. The Stoics and many
other ancient philosophers thought that the world was doomed
to final extinction by fire. The Scandinavian bards sung the
end of the world, how at last the wolf Fenrir would get loose,
how the cruel fire of Loki would destroy itself by destroying
everything. The Essenes enlarged upon this doctrine, which is
also found in the Sibylline books and appears in the Apocrypha
(2 Esdras xvi. 15).
See Dupuis, Origine de tons les cultes (1794); Burnouf, Science
des religions; Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, cap. xx. (1835); Adal-
bert Kuhn. Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Gottertranks (1859);
Steinthal, fiber die urspriingliche Form der Sage von Prometheus
(1861) ; Albert Reville, Le Mythe de Promethee," in Revue des deux
mondes (August 1862); Michel B real, Hercule et Cacus (1863); Tylor,
Researches into the Early History of Mankind, ch. ix. (1865) ; Bachofen,
Die Sage von Tanaquil (1870) ; Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times (6th
ed., 1900) ; Haug, Religion of the Parsis (1878). (E. RE.)
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION. Fire is considered in this
article, primarily, from the point of view of the protection against
fire that can be accorded by preventive measures and by the
organization of fire extinguishing establishments.
History is full of accounts of devastation caused by fires in
towns and cities of nearly every country in the civilized world.
The following is a list of notable fires of early days :
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
798. London, nearly destroyed.
,, greater part of the city burned.
all houses and churches from the east to the west
gate burned.
,, greater part of the city burned.
" The Great Fire," September 2-6.
It began in a wooden house in Pudding Lane, and burned
for three days, consuming the buildings on 436 acres, 400
streets, lanes, &c., 13,200 houses, with St Paul's church, 86
parish churches, 6 chapels, the guild-hall, the royal ex-
change, the custom-house, many hospitals and libraries, 52
companies' halls, and a vast number of other stately
edifices, together with three of the city gates, four stone
bridges, and the prisons of Newgate, the Fleet, and the
Poultry and Wood Street Compters. The fire swept from
the Tower to Temple church, and from the N.E. gate to
Holborn bridge. Six persons were killed. The total loss of
property was estimated at the time to be 10,730,500.
982.
1086.
1212.
1666.
1794. London, 630 houses destroyed at Wapping. Loss above
1,000,000.
1834. Houses of Parliament burned.
1861. Tooley Street wharves, &c., burned. Loss estimated
at 2,000,000.
1873. Alexandra palace destroyed.
1137. York, totally destroyed.
1184. Glastpnbury, town and abbey burned.
1292. Carlisle, destroyed.
1507. Norwich, nearly destroyed; 718 houses burned.
1544. Leith, burned.
1598. Tiverton, 400 houses and a large number of horses burned;
33 persons killed. Loss, 150,000.
1612. 600 houses burned. Loss over 200,000.
1731. ,, 300 houses burned.
1700. Edinburgh, " the Great Fire."
1612. Cork, greater part burned, and again in 1622.
1613. Dorchester, nearly destroyed. Loss, 200,000.
1614. Stratford-on-Avon, burned.
1644. Beaminster, burned. Again in 1684 and 1781.
1675. Northampton, almost totally destroyed.
1683. Newmarket, large part of the town burned.
1694. Warwick, more than half burned; rebuilt by national con-
tribution.
1707. Lisburn, burned.
1727. Gravesend, destroyed.
1738. Wellingborough, 800 houses burned.
1743. Crediton, 450 houses destroyed.
1760. Portsmouth, dockyard burned. Loss, 400,000.
1770. Loss, 100,000.
1802. Liverpool, destructive fire. Loss, 1,000,000.
1827. Sheerness, 50 houses and much property destroyed.
1854. Gateshead, 50 persons killed. Loss, 1,000,000.
1875. Glasgow. Great fire. Loss, 300,000.
FRANCE
59. Lyons, burned to ashes. Nero offers to rebuild it.
1118. Nantes, greater part of the city destroyed.
1137. Dijon, burned.
1524. Troyes, nearly destroyed.
1720. Rennes, on fire from December 22 to 29. 850 houses burned.
1784. Brest. Fire and explosion in dockyard. Loss, l, 000,000.
1862. Marseilles, destructive fire.
1871. Paris. Communist devastations. Property destroyed,
32,000,000.
CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE
64. Rome burned during 8 days. 10 of the 14 wards of the city
were destroyed.
1106. Venice, greater part of the city was burned.
1577. fire at the arsenal, greater part of the city ruined by
an explosion.
1299. Weimar, destructive fire; also in 1424 and 1618.
1379. Memel was in large part destroyed, and again in 1457, 1540,
1678, 1854.
1405. Bern was destroyed.
1420. Leipzig lost 400 houses.
1457. Dart, cathedral and large part of the town burned.
1491. Dresden was destroyed.
1521. Oviedo, large part of the city destroyed.
1543. Komorn was burned.
1634. Furth was burned by Austrian Croats.
1680. Furth was again destroyed.
1686. Landau was almost destroyed.
1758. Pirna was burned by Prussians. 260 houses destroyed.
1762. Munich lost 200 houses.
1764. Konigsberg, public buildings, &c., burned. Loss, 600,000.
1769. ,, almost destroyed.
1784. Rokitzan (Bohemia) was totally destroyed. Loss, 300,000.
1801. Brody, 1500 houses destroyed.
'859. ,, 1000 houses destroyed.
1803. Posen, large part of older portion of city burned.
1811. Forest fires in Tyrol destroyed 64 villages and hamlets.
^818. Salzburg was partly destroyed.
1842. Hamburg. A fire raged for loo hours, May 5-7.
During the fire the city was in a state of anarchy.
buildings, including 2000 dwellings, were destroyed.
fifth of the population was made homeless, and 100 persons
lost their lives. The total loss amounted to 7,000,000.
After the fire, contributions from all Germany came in to
help to rebuild the city.
1861. Glarus (Switzerland) ,500 houses burned.
NORTHERN EUROPE
1530. Aalborg, almost entirely destroyed.
1541. Aarhuus, almost entirely destroyed, and again in 1556.
1624. Opslo, nearly destroyed. Christiania was built on the site.
1702. Bergen, greater part of the town destroyed.
1728. Copenhagen, nearly destroyed. 1650 houses burned, 77 streets.
1794. royal palace with contents burned.
1795. 50 streets, 1563 houses burned.
4219
One-
402
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
[STATISTICS
1751. Stockholm, 1000 houses destroyed.
1759. 250 houses burned. Loss, 2,000,000 crowns.
1775. A bo, 200 houses and 15 mills burned.
1827. ,, 780 houses burned, with the university.
1790. Carlscrona, 1087 houses, churches, warehouses, &c., destroyed.
1802. Gothenburg, 178 houses burned.
1858. Christiania. Loss estimated at 250,000.
1865. Carlstadt (Sweden), everything burned except the bishop's
residence, hospital and jail. 10 lives lost.
RUSSIA
1736. St Petersburg, 2000 houses burned.
1862. ,, great fire. Loss, 1,000,000.
1752. Moscow, 18,000 houses burned.
1812. The Russians fired the city on September 14 to
drive out the army of Napoleon. The fire con-
tinued five days. Nine-tenths of the city was
destroyed. Number of houses burned, 30,800.
Loss, 30,000,000.
1753. Archangel, 900 houses burned.
1793. 3000 buildings and the cathedral burned.
1786. Tobolsk, nearly destroyed.
1788. Mitau, nearly destroyed.
1812. Riga, partly destroyed.
1834. Tula, destructive fire.
1848. Orel, large part of the town destroyed.
1850. Cracow, large part of the town burned.
1864. Novgorod, large amount of property destroyed.
TURKEY
The following fires have occurred at Constantinople:
1729. A great fire destroyed 12,000 houses and 7000 people.
1745. A fire lasted five days.
1750. In January, 10,000 houses burned; in April, property destroyed
estimated from 1,000,000 to 3,000,000. Later in the
year 10,000 houses were destroyed.
1751. 4000 houses were burned.
1756. 15,000 houses and ioo people destroyed. During the years
1761, 1765 and 1767 great havoc was made by fire.
1769. July 17. A fire raged for twelve hours, extending nearly I m.
in length. Many of the palaces, some small mosques and
nearly 650 houses were destroyed.
1771. A fire lasting 15 hours consumed 2500 houses and shops.
1778. 2000 houses were burned.
1782. August 12. A fire burned three days: 10,000 houses, 50
mosques and ioo corn mills destroyed; ioo lives lost.
In February, 600 houses burned; in June, 7000 more.
1784. August 5. A fire burned for 26 hours and destroyed 10,000
houses, most of which had been rebuilt sjnce the fires of
1782. In the same year, March 13, a fire in the suburb of
Pera destroyed two-thirds of that quarter. Loss estimated
at 2,000,000 florins.
1791. Between March and July 32,000 houses are said to have been
burned, and as many in 1795.
1799. In the suburb of Pera 13,000 houses were burned and many
magnificent buildings.
1816. August 1 6. 1 2,000 houses and 3000 shops in the finest quarter
were destroyed.
1818. August 13. A fire destroyed several thousand houses.
1826. A fire destroyed 6000 houses.
1848. 500 houses and 2000 shops destroyed. Loss estimated at
3,000,000.
1865. A great fire destroyed 2800 houses, public buildings, &c.
Over 22,000 people were left homeless.
1870. June 5. The suburb of Pera, occupied by the foreign popula-
tion and native Christians, was swept by a fire which
destroyed over 7000 buildings, many of them among the
best in the city, including the residence of the foreign
legations. Loss estimated at nearly 5,000,000.
1797. Scutari, the town of 3000 houses totally destroyed.
1763. Smyrna, 2600 houses consumed. Loss, 200,000.
I77 2 - > 3000 dwellings burned. 3000 to 4000 shops, &c.
consumed. Loss, 4,000,000.
1796. 4000 shops, mosques, magazines, &c., burned.
1841. ,, 12,000 houses were burned.
INDIA
1631. Rajmahal. Palace and great part of the town burned.
1799. Manilla, vast storehouses were burned.
1833. 10,000 huts were burned, March 26. 30,000 people
rendered homeless, and 50 lives lost.
1803. Madras, more than 1000 houses burned.
1803. Bombay. Loss by fire of 600,000.
CHINA AND JAPAN
1822. Canton was nearly destroyed by fire.
1866. Yokohama, two-thirds of the native town and one-sixth of the
foreign settlement destroyed.
1872. Yeddo. A fire occurred in April during a gale of wind, destroy-
ing buildings covering a space of 6 sq. m. 20,000
persons were made homeless.
1873. A fire destroyed 10,000 houses.
1679. Boston.
1760.
1787-
1794-
1872.
1862.
1866.
1871.
1815.
1845.
1866.
1825.
1837.
UNITED STATES
All the warehouses, 80 dwellings, and the vessels
in the dockyards were consumed. Loss, 200,000.
A fire caused a loss estimated at 100,000.
,, A fire consumed ioo buildings, February 2O.
96 buildings were burned. Loss, 42,000.
,, Great fire, November 9-10. By this fire the richest
quarter of Boston was destroyed.
The fire commenced at the corner of Summer and
Kingston streets. The area burned over was 65 acres.
776 buildings, comprising the largest granite and brick
warehouses of the city, filled with merchandise, were burned.
The loss was about 15,000,000. Before the end of the year
1876 the burned district had been rebuilt more substantially
than ever.
Charleston (S.C.). A fire caused the loss of 100,000.
,, 300 houses were burned.
One-half the city was burned on April 27. 1158
buildings destroyed. Loss, 600,000.
Portsmouth (N.H.), 102 buildings destroyed.
,, 397 buildings destroyed.
Savannah, 463 buildings were burned. Loss, 800,000.
New York. The great fire of New York began in Merchant
Street, December 16, and burned 530 buildings
in the business part of the city. 1000 mercantile
firms lost their places of business. The area
burned over was 52 acres. The loss was
3,000,000.
A fire in the business part of the city, July 20,
destroyed 300 buildings. The loss was
1,500,000. 35 persons were killed.
A large part of the city burned, April n. 20
squares, noo buildings destroyed. Loss, 2,000,000.
Nantucket was almost destroyed.
Albany. 600 houses burned, August 17. Area burned over
37 acres, one-third of the city. Loss, 600,000.
St Louis. 23 steamboats at the wharves, and the whole or
part of 15 blocks of the city burned, May 17.
Loss, 600,000.
More than three-quarters of the city was burned,
May 4. 2500 buildings. Loss, 2,200,000.
500 buildings burned. Loss, 600,000.
Philadelphia. 400 buildings burned, July 9. 30 lives lost.
Loss, 200,000.
50 buildings burned, February 8. 20 persons
killed. Loss, 100,000.
Washington. Part of the Capitol and the whole of the Con-
gressional Library were burned.
San Francisco. On May 4-5 a fire destroyed 2500 buildings.
A number of lives lost. More than three-fourths of the city
destroyed. Loss, upwards of 2,000,000. In June another
fire burned 500 buildings. Loss estimated at 600,000.
Chicago. A fire destroyed over 100,000. 14 lives lost.
Property destroyed worth 100,000, Sept. 15.
Two fires on August 10 and November 18. Loss,
100,000 each.
The greatest fire of modern times.
It began in a barn on the night of the 8th of October and
raged until the loth. The area burned over was 2 124 acres,
or 3^ sq. m., of the very heart of the city. 250 lives were
lost, 98,500 persons were made homeless, and 17,430
buildings were consumed. The buildings were one-third in
number and one-half in value of the buildings of the city.
Before the end of 1875 the whole burned district had been
rebuilt. The loss was estimated at 39,000,000.
Troy (N.Y.) was nearly destroyed by fire.
Portland (Maine). Great fire on July 4. One-half of the city
was burned; 200 acres were ravaged; 50 buildings were
blown up to stop the progress of the fire. Loss, 2,000,000
to 2,250,000.
October. Forest and prairie fires in Wisconsin and Michigan.
15,000 persons were made homeless; 1000 lives lost. Loss
estimated at 600,000.
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA
Quebec was injured to the extent of 260,000.
1650 houses were burned, May 28. One-third of the
population made homeless. Loss from 400,000 to
750,000. Another fire, on June 28, consumed 1300
dwellings. 6000 persons were made homeless. 30
streets destroyed. Insurance losses, 60,770.
,, 2500 houses and 17 churches in French quarter burned.
New Brunswick. A tract of 4,000,000 acres, more than
ioo m. in length, was burned over; it included many
towns. 160 persons killed, and 875 head of cattle. 590
buildings burned. Loss, about 60,000. Towns of New-
castle, Chatham and Douglastown destroyed.
St John (New Brunswick). 115 houses burned, January 13,
and nearly all the business part of the city. Loss,
1,000,000.
1778.
1796.
1838.
1802.
1813.
1820.
1835-
1845.
1845. Pittsburg.
1846.
1848.
1849.
1851.
1851.
1850.
1865.
1851.
1851.
I857-
1859.
1866.
1871.
FIRE PROTECTION]
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
403
1877. St. John. Great fire on June 21. The area burned over was
200 acres. 37 streets and squares totally or in part de-
stroyed; 10 m. of streets; 1650 dwellings. 18 lives
lost. Total loss, 2,500,000. Two-fifths of the city
burned.
1846. St John's (Newfoundland) was nearly destroyed, June 9.
Two whole streets burned upwards of I m. long. Loss
estimated at 1,000,000.
1850. Montreal. A fire destroyed the finest part of the city on
June 7. 200 houses were burned.
1852. A fire on July 9 rendered 10,000 people destitute.
The space burned was I m. in length by J m. in
width, including 1200 houses. Loss, 1,000,000.
SOUTH AMERICA
1536. Cuzco was nearly consumed.
1 86 1. Mendoza. A great fire followed an earthquake which had
destroyed 10,000 people.
1862. Valparaiso was devastated by fire.
1863. Santiago. Fire in the Jesuit church; 2000 persons, mostly
women and children, perished.
WEST INDIES
1752. Pierre (Martinique) had 700 houses burned.
1782. Kingston (Jamaica) had 80 houses burned. Loss, 500,000.
1795. Montego Bay (Jamaica). Loss by fire of 400,000.
1805. St Thomas. 900 warehouses consumed. Loss, 6,000,000.
1808. Spanish Town (Trinidad) was totally destroyed. Loss esti-
mated at 1,500,000.
1828. Havana lost 350 houses; 2000 persons reduced to poverty.
1843. Port Republicain (Haiti). Nearly one-third of the town was
burned.
Since this list was compiled, there have been further notable
fires, more particularly in North America, the great conflagra-
tions at Chicago, Baltimore and San Francisco being terrible
examples. But speaking generally, these conflagrations, exten-
sive as they were, only repeated the earlier lessons as to the
necessity of combating the general negligence of the public by
attaching far greater importance to the development of fire-
preventive measures even than to the better organization of the
fire-fighting establishments.
It may be of interest to mention notable fires in the British
empire, and London in particular, during the decade 1890 to
1899:
Port of Spain (Trinidad) .
New Westminster (British Columbia)
Toronto (Ontario) ....
Windsor (Nova Scotia)
St John's (Newfoundland)
London Charterhouse Square
St Mary Axe
Old Bailey and Fleet Street
Tabernacle Street, Finsbury
Bermondsey Leather Market
Minories
South-West India Docks
Charlotte and Leonard Streets
Cripplegate
Nottingham
Sheffield
Bradford
Sunderland .
Dublin
Glasgow Anderston Quay
Dunlop Street
Finsbury
March 4, 1895
Sept. 10, 1898
Jan. 6, 10, and
March 3, 1895
Oct. 17, 1897
July 8, 1892
Dec. 25, 1889
Vily 18, 1893
ov. 15, 1893
June 21, 1894
Sept. 13, 1894
May 17, 1895
Nov. 10, 1894
Feb. 8, 1895
June 10, 1896
19, 1897
17, 1894
21, 1893
J
to
Nov.
Nov.
Dec.
Nov. 30, 1896
July 18, 1898
4, 1894
16, 1897
May
Jan.
April 25, i
As to fires in any one specific class of building, the extra-
ordinary number of fires that occurred in theatres and similar
places of public entertainment up to the close of the igth century
calls for mention. Since that time, however, there has been a
considerable abatement in this respect, owing to the adoption
of successful measures of fire prevention. A list of some noo
fires was published by Edwin O. Sachs in 1897 (Fires at Public
Entertainments}, and the results of these fires analysed. They
involved a recorded loss of life to the extent of 93 50 souls. About
half of them (584) occurred in Europe, and the remainder in
other parts of the world. Since the publication of that list
extraordinary efforts have been made in all countries to reduce
the risk of fires in public entertainments. The only notable
disaster that has occurred since was that at the Iroquois Theatre
at Chicago.
The annual drain in loss of life and in property through fires
is far greater than is generally realized, and although the loss
of life and property is being materially reduced from year to year,
mainly by the fire-preventive measures that are now making
themselves felt, the annual fire wastage of the world still averages
quite 50,000,000 sterling. It is extremely difficult to obtain
precise data as to the fire loss, insured and uninsured, but it
may be assumed that in Great Britain the annual average loss
by fire, towards the end of the I9th century (say 1897), was about
17,000,000 sterling, and that this had been materially reduced
by 1909 to probably somewhere about 12,000,000 sterling.
This extraordinary diminution in the fire waste of Great Britain,
in spite of the daily increasing number of houses, and the
increasing amount of property in buildings is in the main owing
to the fire-preventive measures, which have led to a better class
of new building and a great improvement in existing structures,
and further, to a greater display of intelligence and interest in
general fire precautionary measures by the public.
Notable improvements in the fire service have been effected,
more particularly in London and in the country towns of the
south of England since 1903. The International Fire Exhibition
held in 1903 at Earl's Court, and the Fire Prevention Congress
of the same year, may be said to have revolutionized thought
on the subject of fire brigade organization and equipment in the
British empire; but, for all that, the advance made by the fire
service has not been so rapid as the development of the fire-
preventive side of fire protection.
Fire Protection. The term " Fire Protection " is often mis-
understood. Fire-extinguishing in other words, fire brigade
work is what the majority understand by it, and many towns
consider themselves well protected if they can boast of an
efficiently manned fire-engine establishment. The fire brigade
as such, however, has but a minor role in a rational system of
protection. Really well-protected towns owe their condition
in the first place to properly applied preventive legislation, based
on the practical experience and research of architects, engineers,
fire experts and insurance and municipal officials. Fire protec-
tion is a combination of fire prevention, fire combating and fire
research.
Under the heading of " Fire Prevention" should be classed
all preventive measures, including the education of the public;
and under the heading " Fire Combating " should be classed
both self-help and outside help.
Preventive measures may be the result of private initiative,
but as a rule they are defined by the local authority, and con-
tained partly in Building Acts, and partly in separate codes of
fire-survey regulations supplemented, if necessary, by special
rules as to the treatment of extraordinary risks, such as the
storage of petroleum, the manufacture of explosives, and theatri-
cal performances. The education of the public may be simply
such as can be begun informally at school and continued by
official or semi-official warnings, and a judicious arrangement
with the newspapers as to the tendency of their fire reports.
Such forms of training have already been successfully introduced.
There are English towns where the authorities have, for instance,
had some of the meaningless fables of the old elementary school
Standard Reader replacea by more instructive ones, which warn
children not to play with matches, and teach them to run for help
in case of an emergency. Instructive copy-book headings have been
arranged in place of the meaningless sentences so often used in
elementary schools. There are a number of municipalities where
regular warnings are issued every December as to the dangerous
Christmas-tree. In such places every inhabitant has at least an
opportunity of learning how to throw a bucket of water properly,
and how to trip up a burning woman and roll her up without fanning
the flames. The householder is officially informed where the nearest
fire-call point is, and how long he must expect to wait till the first
engine can reach his house. If he is a newspaper reader, he will
also have ample opportunity of knowing the resources of his town,
and the local reporter's fire report will give him much useful infor-
mation based on facts or hints supplied by the authorities.
Both self-help and outside help must be classed under the
heading of " Fire Combating." Self-help mainly deals with
the protection of large risks, such as factories, stores and public
places of amusement, which lend themselves to regulation.
44
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
[FIRE PROTECTION
The requirements of the fire survey code may allow for hydrants
or sprinklers in certain risks, and also for their regular inspection,
and the means for self-help may thus be given. These means
will, however, probably not be properly employed unless some
of the employes engaged on the risk are instructed as to their
purpose, and have confidence in the apparatus at their disposal.
The possibility of proper self-help in dangerous risks may be
encouraged by enforcing regular drills for the employes, and
regular inspections to test their efficiency. There are towns
where great reliance is placed on the efforts of such amateur
firemen. In some cities they even receive extra pay and are
formed into units, properly uniformed and equipped, and
retained by the fire brigade as a reserve force for emergencies.
Self-help for the shopkeeper, the lodger or the householder
can scarcely be regulated. The opportunities already mentioned
for the education of the public, if properly utilized, would assure
intelligent behaviour on the part of a large percentage of the
community. There are places where, without any regulation
being attempted, and thanks entirely to the influence referred
to, most residences can boast of a hand-pump, a bucket, and a
crowbar, the proper use of which is known to most of the house-
hold. Self-help in small risks may, however, be distinctly
encouraged by the authorities, without any irksome interference
with personal liberty, simply by the provision of street pillar-
boxes, with the necessaries of first aid, including perhaps a couple
of scaling ladders, and, further, by opportunities being given
to householders to learn how to handle them. If a street pillar-
box of this kind be put in a fire-station, and certain afternoons
in the year be reserved on which this elementary instruction will
be given, and the students afterwards shown over the fire-station
or treated to a " turn-out," a considerable number will be found
to take advantage of the opportunity. No matter whether
curiosity or real interest brings them, the object in view will
be attained.
Under " outside " help should be understood what is organized,
and not simply such as is tendered by the casual passer-by or
by a neighbour. The link between self-help and outside help is
the fire-call.
The Fire-Call. The efficiency of the fire-call depends not
only on the instrument employed and its position, but also
on its conspicuous appearance, and the indications by which
its situation may be discovered. These indications are quite
as important as the instruments themselves. The conspicuous-
ness of the instrument alone does not suffice. Of the official
notifications given in the press, those in regard to the position
of the call-points are among the most useful. An indication at
every street corner as to the direction to take to reach the point
or perhaps better, the conspicuous advertisement of the nearest
call-point over every post pillar-box and inside every front door
may enable the veriest stranger to call assistance, and minimize
the chances of time being lost in search of the instrument. It
is immaterial for the moment whether the helpers are called by
bell outside a fire-station, by a messenger from some special
messenger service, by a call through a telephone, or by an
electric or automatic appliance. Any instrument will do that
ensures the call being transmitted with maximum speed and
certainty and in full accord with the requirements of the locality.
Outside Help. Organized outside help may not be limited
simply to the attendance of the fire brigade. Special arrange-
ments can be made for the attendance of the local police force,
a public or private salvage corps, an ambulance, or, in some
cases, a military guard. Then in some instances arrangements
are made for the attendance of the water and gas companies'
servants, and even officials from the public works office, insur-
ance surveyors, and the Press. There are places where the salvage
corps arrives on the scene almost simultaneously with the fire
brigade, and others where the police are generally on the spot
in good force five minutes after the arrival of the first engines.
There are several cities where the ambulance wagon and the
steamers arrive together, and another city where the military
authorities always send a fire piquet which can be turned out
in a few minutes.
If all these helpers come together, no matter how high the rank
of the individual commanders, the senior officer of the fire
brigade, even if he holds only non-commissioned officer's rank,
should have control, and his authority be fully recognized.
Unfortunately, there are not many countries where this is the
case. The efficiency of outside help depends in the first instance
on the clear definition of the duties and powers of all concerned
on the legal foundation, in fact; then on the organization, the
theoretically as well as practically correct executive; and, last,
but by no means least, on the prestige, the social standing, the
education of commanders and their ability to handle men.
Among the rank and file of the brigade, clear-headedness, pluck,
smartness and agility will be as invaluable as reckless dare-
devilry; showy acrobatism, or an unhealthy ambition for
public applause, will be dangerous.
Research. Under the heading " Fire Research " should be
included theoretical and experimental investigation as to
materials and construction, combined with the chronicling of
practical experience in fires, then the careful investigation and
chronicling of the causes of fires, assisted where necessary by a
power for holding fire inquests in interesting, suspicious or fatal
cases. Experimental investigation as to natural and accidental
causes as distinct from criminal causes can be included. Re-
search in criminal cases may be assisted not only by a fire
inquest, but also by immediate formal inquiries held on the spot,
by the senior fire brigade and police officers present, or by
immediate government investigations held on the same lines as
inquiries into explosions and railway accidents. 1 As to general
research work, there are several cities which contribute sub-
stantially towards the costs of fire tests at independent testing
stations. Some towns also have special commissions of experts
who visit all big fires occurring within easy travelling distance,
take photographs and sketches, and issue reports as to how the
materials were affected. Then there are the usual statistics
as to outbreaks, their recurrence and causes, and in some places
such tables are supplemented by reports on experiments with
oil lamps, their burners and wicks, electric wiring, and the like.
The British Fire Prevention Committee. The British Fire Preven-
tion Committee is an organization founded a few days after the great
Cripplegate (London) fire in 1897, and incorporated in February
1899. It comprises some 500 members and subscribers. The
members include civil engineers, public officials holding government
appointments, fire chiefs, insurance surveyors and architects, whilst
the subscribers in the main include the great public departments,
such as the admiralty and war office, and municipalities, such as the
important corporations of Glasgow, Liverpool and the like. Colonial
government departments and municipalities are also on the roll,
together with a certain number of colonial members. New Zealand
has formed a special section having its own local honorary secretary.
The ordinary work of the committee is carried out by a council
and an executive, and the necessary funds are provided by the sub-
scription of members and subscribers. The services of the members
of council and executive are given gratuitously, no out-of-pocket
expenses of any kind being refunded. Whilst the routine work deals
mainly with questions of regulations, rules and publications of
general technical interest, the tests are probably what have brought
the committee into prominence and given it an international re-
putation. They are not only the recognized fire tests of Great
Britain, but they rank as universal standard tests for the whole of
the civilized world, and Americans, just as much as Danes, Germans
or Austrians, pride themselves when some product of their country
has passed the official procedure of a test by the committee. The
reports of the tests, which state facts only without giving criticisms
or recommendations, are much appreciated by all who have the
control of public works or the specification of appliances. The
committee does not limit itself solely to testing proprietary forms
of construction or appliances, but has a number of tests quite equal
to the proprietary tests of articles in general use. The ordinary
concrete floor or the ordinary wooden joist floor protected by asbestos
boards or slag wool receives as much attention as a patent floor;
1 In the United States a special officer called a " fire-marshal "
has for some time been allocated to this work in many cities, and in
1894 state fire-marshals were authorized in Massachusetts and in
Maryland, this example being followed by Ohio (1900), Connecticut
(1901), and Washington (1902) ; and in other states laws have been
passed making official inquiry compulsory. In England the question
has been mooted whether coroners, even where no death has occurred,
should hold similar inquiries, but though this has been done in recent
years in the City of London no regular system exists.
COST]
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
405
and similarly the ordinary everyday hydrant receives equal attention
with the patent hydrant, or ordinary bucket of water with the special
fire extinguisher. The door tests of the committee, which cover
some thirty different types of doors, deal with no less than twenty
ordinary wooden doors that can be made by any ordinary builder
or cabinet-maker. These so-called non-proprietary tests are made
at the expense of the general funds of the committee, whilst for the
proprietary tests the owners have to pay about two-thirds of the
expenses incurred in the form of a testing fee. The expenses incurred
in a test, of course, not only comprise the actual testing operation of
testing, but also the expense of producing the report, which is always
a very highly finished publication with excellent blocks. The ex-
pense incurred also includes the establishment expenses of the testing
station at Regent's Park.
The British Fire Prevention Committee organized the great Fire
Exhibition and International Fire Congress of London in 1903, in
both of which it enjoyed the support and assistance of the National
Fire Brigades Union and the Association of Professional Fire Chiefs.
It from time to time despatches special commissions to the continent
of Europe, and these visits are followed by the issue of official reports,
well illustrated, presenting the appliances, rules and methods of the
countries visited, and serving as most useful reference publications.
Taken generally, the whole of the work of the committee, both
in respect of scientific investigations and propagandism, has been
most beneficial. Fire waste has been materially reduced, regardless
of the fact of the greater fire hazards and the ever-growing amount
of property. In Great Britain alone the sum saved in fire wastage
annually is about 5,000,000. This great annual saving has been
obtained at an expenditure in research work, as far as the British
Fire Prevention Committee is concerned, of about 23,000, of which
more than half was provided by the membership in voluntary
contributions or subscriptions.
There is no similar institution anywhere in the world, although
several government laboratories occasionally undertake fire tests,
notably the Gross Lichterfelde laboratory near Berlin, and several
insurance corporations have testing plants, notably the American
Underwriters at Chicago. The efforts at research work outside
Great Britain have, however, been spasmodic and in no way compare
with the systematic series of inquiries conducted without any
substantial state aid in London.
Distribution of Losses. Property destroyed by fire is practi-
cally an absolute loss. This loss may actually only affect the
owner, or it may be distributed among a number of people, who
are taxed for it in the form of a contribution to their national
or local fire fund, a share in some mutual insurance " ring,"
or the more usual insurance companies' premium. In the first
two oases some expenses have also to be met in connexion with
the management of the fund, " tariff " organization, or " ring."
In the last case, not only the expenses of management have to
be covered, but also the costs incurred in running the insurance
enterprise as such, and then a further amount for division amongst
those who share the risk of the venture namely, the insurance
company's shareholders.
It is well to distinguish between loss and mere expenditure.
The sinking fund of the large property owner should cover a loss
with a minimum extra expense; insurance in an extravagantly
managed company paying large dividends will cover a loss, but
with an unnecessarily large extra outlay. In every case the loss
remains; and as property may always be considered part of the
community, the province or nation, as the case may be, suffers.
It is always in the interest of a nation to minimize its national losses,
no matter whether they fall on one individual's shoulders or on many,
and whether such losses are good for certain trades or not. With a
suitable system of fire protection it is possible to bring these losses
to a minimum, but this minimum would probably only be reached by
an extra expense, which would fall heavier on the insurers' pockets
in the form of municipal rates than the higher premium for the
greater risk. A practical minimum is all that can be attempted,
and that practical minimum varies according to circumstances.
Practical protection must mean smaller annual insurance dues,
and the actual extra cost of this protection should be something less
than the saving off these dues. Then not only has the nation a
smaller dead loss, but the owner also has a smaller annual ex-
penditure for his combined contributions toward the losses, the
management of his insurance, and the protective measures. _ Where
there is mutual insurance or municipal insurance in its best
sense, the losses by fire and the costs of the protection are often
booked in one account, and the better protection up to a certain
point should mean a smaller individual annual share. Where there
is company insurance the municipal rates are increased to cover the
. cost of extra protection, while a proportionate decrease is expected
in the insurance premiums. Competition and public opinion
generally impose this decrease of the insurance rates as soon as there
is a greater immunity from fire. Where the insurance companies
are well managed and the shareholders are satisfied with reasonable
dividends, practical protection can be said to find favour with all
concerned, but if the protection is arranged for and the companies
do not moderate their charges accordingly, the reverse is the case.
The position of insurance companies subscribing towards the
maintenance of a fire brigade should here be referred to, as there is
considerable misunderstanding on the subject. The argument which
municipalities or fire brigade organizations often use is to the effect
that the insurance companies derive all the profit from a good fire
service, and should contribute towards its cost. Where properly
managed companies have the business, a better fire service, however,
means a smaller premium to the ratepayer. If the ratepayer has
to pay for extra protection in the form of an increased municipal
rate, or in the form of an increased premium raised to meet the
contribution levied, this is simply juggling with figures.
Cost. As to the cost of a practical system of fire protection,
better and safer building from the fire point of view means
better and more valuable structures of longer life from the
economic aspect. Such better and safer constructional work
pays for itself and cannot be considered in the light of an extra
tax on the building owner. The compilation and administration
of the fire protective clauses in a Building Act would be attended
to by the same executive authorities as would in any case
superintend general structural matters, and the additional
work would at the most require some increased clerical aid.
If the execution of the fire survey regulations were delegated
to the same authority there would again simply be some extra
clerical aid to pay for, and the salaries of perhaps a few extra
surveyors. To make the inspections thoroughly efficient, it has
been found advisable in several instances to form parties of three
for the rounds. The second man would, in this case, be a fire
brigade officer, and the third probably a master chimney-sweep,
who would have to receive a special retaining fee.
The cost of the public training referred to would be small,
as the elementary part would simply be included in the school-
master's work, and the Press matters could be easily managed
in the fire brigade office. Payments would have only to be made
for advertisements, such as the official warnings, lists for fire-
call points, &c., and perhaps for the publication of semi-official
hints. Self-help, as far as inspection and drills for amateurs
are concerned would be under the control of the fire brigade.
There would, however, be an extra expense for the purchase
and maintenance of the street first-aid appliances referred to.
The most expensive items in the system of fire protection
undoubtedly come under the headings " Fire-Call " and " Fire
Brigade." As to the former, there are a number of cities where
the cost is modified by having the whole of the electrical service
for the police force, the ambulance and fire brigade, managed by
a separate department. The same wires call up each of these
services, and, as the same staff attend to their maintenance,
the fire protection of a city need only be debited with perhaps
a third of the outlay it would occasion if managed independently.
The combined system has also the great advantage of facilitating
the mutual working of the different services in case of an emer-
gency. The indicators which have been referred to involve an
outlay; but here again, if the three services work together,
the expenses on the count of fire protection can be lessened.
The money rewards given in some cities to the individuals who
first call the fire-engines may become a heavy item. Their
utility is doubtful, and they have formed an inducement for
arson.
As to the outlay on fire brigade establishment, a strong
active force should be provided, supported by efficient reserves.
The latter should be as inexpensive as possible, but should at
least constitute a part-paid and disciplined body which could
be easily called in for emergencies. Fire brigade budgets cannot
allow for an active force being ready for such coincidences as an
unusual number of large fires starting simultaneously, but they
must allow for an ample strength always being forthcoming
for the ordinary emergencies, and this with all due consideration
for men's rest and possible sickness. An undermanned fire
brigade is an anomaly which is generally fatal, not only to the
property owner, but also to the whole efficiency and esprit of
the force. The budget must also allow for an attractive rate of
pay, as the profession is one which requires men who have a
maximum of the sterling qualities which we look for in the pick
406
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION (SAFETY OF PROPERTY
of a nation. It must also not be forgotten that the fire service
is one of the few where a system of pensions is the only fair way
of recognizing the risks of limb and health, and at the same time
securing that stability in which practical experience from long
service is so essential a factor. The budget must allow for an
ample reserve of appliances.
Whether or not a fire brigade should be so strong as to permit
of its having a separate section for salvage corps purposes
depends on circumstances. Economically a salvage corps is
required, and should be part and parcel of the municipal brigade
and organized on the same lines with a reserve, no matter
whether the insurance of the locality be managed by the authori-
ties or by companies. If a corps is necessary, it matters little
whether it be paid for out of premiums or out of rates.
Of further expenses which have to be considered, there are
items for fire research and fire inquest. If managed economically,
due confidence being placed in the opinions of the fire officers
and surveyors, there is no reason why the outlay should be great.
The statistical work would only require some clerical aid. Where
special coroners are retained for criminal cases some extra money
will of course be required; but even here the costs need not be
excessive, as there are many retired fire brigade officers and fire
surveyors who are well suited for the work, and would be satisfied
with a small emolument.
As to the cost of the water supply, there are but few places
where special fire high-pressure mains are laid on in the interests
of fire protection. As a rule the costs which are debited to the
heading " Fire Protection " have simply to cover the maintenance
of hydrants and tablets, or at the most the cost of the water
actually used for fire-extinguishing purposes. Sometimes the
cost of hydrants is shared with the scavenging department or
the commission of sewers, which also have the use of them.
Where the provision of water and hydrants falls to a private
water company, the property owners will be paying their share
for them, indirectly, in the form of water rates.
The protective measures referred to will serve both for life-
saving and for the protection of property. It should be re-
membered that a good staircase and a ladder are often as useful
for the manoeuvring of the firemen as for life-saving purposes,
and that they are practically as essential for the saving of pro-
perty as for saving life. No distinction need be made between
the two risks when speaking of fire protection in general; but as
the safety of the most valueless life is generally classed higher
than that of the most valuable property, it may be well to give
life-saving the first place when alluding to the two separately.
Criminal fire-raising only prevails where the fire-protective
system is defective. With good construction and a fire survey,
the quick arrival of the firemen, and careful inquests, the risks
of detection are as a rule far too great to encourage its growth.
Saving of Life. Under " Fire Prevention " special require-
ments in the -Building Act can greatly influence the safety of life
by requiring practical exits and sufficient staircase accommoda-
tion. The risks in theatres and assembly halls require separate
legislation. In ordinary structures no inmate of a building
should be more than sixty feet away from a staircase, and
preferably there should be two staircases at his disposal in the
event of one being blocked. Generally, attention is only given
to the construction of staircases; but it must be pointed out that
their ventilation is equally important. Smoke is even a greater
danger than fire, and may hamper the helpers terribly. The
possibility of opening a window has saved many a life.
Safety of Property. As far as the protection of property
is concerned, the prevention of outbreaks can be influenced by
the careful construction of flues, hearths, stoves, and in certain
classes of buildings by the construction of floors and ceilings,
the arrangement of skylights, shutters and lightning conductors.
Then comes the prevention of the fire spreading, first, by the
division of risks, and secondly, by the materials used in con-
struction.
The legislator's first ambition must be to prevent a fire in one
house from spreading to another, and a stranger's property,
so to say, from being endangered. This is quite possible, given
good party walls carried well over the roof to a height regulated
by the nature of the risk, the provision of the shutters to windows
where necessary, and the use of fire-resisting glass. Again, a
thoroughly good roof or still better, a fire-resisting attic floor
can do much. If the locality has a fire brigade and the force
is efficiently handled, " spreads " from one house to another
should never occur. Narrow thoroughfares and courts are,
however, a source of danger which may baffle all efforts to
localize a fire. This should be remembered by those responsible
for street improvements.
The division of a building or large " risk " into a number
of minor ones is only possible to a certain extent. There is no
need to spend enormous sums to make each of the minor " risks "
impregnable. The desire should be simply to try to retard the
spread for a certain limited time after the flames have really
taken hold of the contents. In those minutes most fires will
have been discovered, and, where there is an efficient fire-
extinguishing establishment, a sufficient number of firemen can
be on the spot to localize the outbreak and prevent the con-
flagration from becoming a big one. In the drawing-room of an
ordinary well-built house, for example, if the joists are strong
and the boards grooved, if some light pugging be used and the
plastering properly done, if the doors are made well-fitting and
fairly strong, a very considerable amount of furniture and fittings
can remain well alight for half an hour before there is a spread.
In a warehouse or factory " risk " the same holds good. With
well-built wooden floors, thickly pugged, and the ceilings perhaps
run on wire netting or on metal instead of on laths, with ordinary
double ledged doors safely hung, at the most perhaps lined with
sheet iron or asbestos cloth, a very stiff blaze can be imprisoned
for a considerable time. Many of the recent forms of "patent "
flooring are exceedingly useful for the division of "risks," and
with their aid a fire can be limited to an individual storey of a
building, but it should not be forgotten that even the best of
flooring is useless if carried by unprotected iron girders supported,
say, by some light framing or weak partition. The general
mistake made in using expensive iron and concrete construction
is the tendency to allow some breach to be made (for lifts,
shafting, &c.), through which the fire spreads, or to forget that
the protection of the supports and girder-work requires most
careful attention.
Of the various systems of " patent " flooring, as a rule the
simpler forms are the more satisfactory. It should, however,
always be remembered that any specific form of flooring alone
does not prevent a fire breaking from one " risk " to another.
They should go hand in hand with general good construction,
and naked ironwork must be non-existent. Some of the modern
fire-resisting floors are too expensive to permit their introduction
for fire protection alone. In considering their introduction, the
general advantages which they afford as to spans, thickness,
general stability, &c., should be taken into account. A practical
installation of floors, partitions, doors, &c., should, first, not
increase the cost of a building more than 5%, and secondly
should add to the general value of the structure by giving it a
more substantial character.
The danger of lift wells, skylights and shaft openings should
not be forgotten. The last should be as small as possible, well
armed with shutters, the skylights should have fire-resisting
glass, and the lifts not only vertical doors, but also horizontal
flaps, cutting up the well into sections. The question of light
partitions must also not be neglected.
Division of " risks," common-sense construction, and proper
staircase accommodation are really all that fire protection
requires, and where the special Building Act clauses have been
kept within the lines indicated, there has been little friction and
discontent. It is only as a rule when the authorities are eccentric
in their demands that the building owner considers himself
harassed by protective measures.
Fire survey regulations should mainly aim at preventing the
actual outbreak of fire. In certain classes of risks fire survey
can also increase the personal safety of the inmates and lessen
the possibility of a fire spreading. The provision of fire-escapes
FIRE COMBATING]
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
407
or ladders, and a regular inspection of their efficiency, will do
much. The examination of a rusty door-catch may save a
building. The actual preventive work of the surveyor will,
however, mostly consist in warning property owners against
temporary stoves standing on ordinary floor boards, sooty
chimneys, badly hung lamps, dangerous burners and gas
brackets fixed in risky positions. Self-help will be greatly
facilitated by the judicious arrangement of fire-extinguishing
gear, and a like inspection of its efficiency. Hydrants and
cocks must not rust, nor must the hose get so stiff that the water
cannot pass through it, or sprinklers choked. Hand pumps and
pails must always stand ready filled. One of the greatest errors
generally made in distributing such apparatus is disregard of
the fact that the amateur likes to have an easy retreat if his
efforts are unsuccessful, and if this is not the case, he may not,
perhaps, use the gear at all.
With regard to regulations governing " special risks," so far
as the safety of the public in theatres and public assembly halls
is concerned, attention should be chiefly given to the exits.
Spread of fire, and even its outbreak, are secondary considera-
tions. A panic caused by the suspicion of a fire can be quite
as fatal as that caused by the actual start of a conflagration.
In the storage of petroleum in shops, direct communication
should be prevented between the shop or cellar and the main
staircase or the living rooms. The sale of dangerous lamps and
burners should be prohibited.
Fire - resisting Materials. One of the greatest misnomers
in connexion with fire prevention was originally the description
of certain materials and systems of construction as being " fire-
proof." This has seriously affected the development of the
movement towards fire prevention, for, having regard to the fact
that nothing described as " fire-proof " could be fire-proof in
the true sense, confidence was lost in everything so described,
and in fact everything described as " fire-proof " came to be
looked on with suspicion. In order to decrease this suspicion
and obtain a better understanding on the subject, the Inter-
national Fire Prevention Congress of London in 1903, at which
some 800 representatives of government departments and
municipalities were present, discussed this matter at considerable
length, and they arrived at conclusions which, in consideration
of their importance in affecting the whole development of fire-
resisting construction, are published below. It is the classifica-
tion of fire resistance adopted by this congress in 1903 that has
been utilized by all concerned throughout the British empire,
and in numerous other countries, since that date.
The resolutions adopted by the congress embodied the re-
commendations contained in the following statement issued by
the British Fire Prevention Committee:
The executive of the British Fire Prevention Committee having
given their careful consideration to the common misuse of the term
" fire-proof," now indiscriminately and often most unsuitably
applied to many building materials and systems of building con-
struction in use in Great Britain, have come to the conclusion that
the avoidance of this term in general business, technical, and legis-
lative vocabulary is essential.
The executive consider the term " fire-resisting " more applicable
for general use, and that it more correctly describes the varying
qualities of different materials and systems of construction intended
to resist the effect of fire for shorter or longer periods, at high or low
temperatures, as the case may be, and they advocate the general
adoption of this term in place of " fire-proof."
Further, the executive, fully realizing the great variations in the
fire-resisting qualities of materials and systems of construction,
consider that the public, the professions concerned, and likewise
the authorities controlling building operations, should clearly dis-
criminate between the amount of protection obtainable or, in fact,
requisite for different classes of property. For instance, the city
warehouse filled with highly inflammable goods of great weight
requires very different protection from the tenement house of the
suburbs.
The executive are desirous of discriminating between fire-resisting
materials and systems of construction affording temporary protection,
partial protection, and full protection against fire, and to classify all
building materials and systems of construction under these three
headings. The exact and definite limit of these three classes is based
on the experience obtained from numerous investigations and tests,
combined with the experience obtained from actual fires, and after
due consideration of the limitations of building practice and the
question of cost.
The executive's minimum requirements of fire-resistance for
building materials or systems of construction will be seen from the
standard tables appended for
I. Fire-resisting floors and ceilings,
II. Fire-resisting partitions,
III. Fire-resisting doors,
but they could be popularly summarized as follows:
(a) That temporary protection implies resistance against fire
for at least three-quarters of an hour.
(6) That partial protection implies resistance against a fierce fire
for at least one hour and a half.
(c) That full protection implies resistance against a fierce fire
for at least two hours and a half.
The conditions under this resistance should be obtainable, the
actual minimum temperatures, thickness, questions of load, and
the application of water can be appreciated from the annexed tables
by all technically interested, but for the popular discrimination
which the executive are desirous of encouraging the time standard
alone should suffice.
It is desirable that these standards become the universal standards
in this country, on the continent and in the United States, so that
the same standardization may in future be common to all countries,
and the preliminary arrangements for this universal standardization
are already in hand.
Fire Combating. As to self-help, complication must always
be avoided. The amateur fireman must be drilled on the simplest
lines. One thing which must be instilled into him is not to
waste water a sure sign of lack of training. Of course the drills
must be on the same lines as those of the local brigade, and on
no account should other gear be used for self-help than is generally
Standard Table for Fire-resisting Floors and Ceilings.
Classification.
Sub-Class.
Duration
of Test.
At Least
Minimum
Temperature.
Load per
Superficial
Foot
Distributed
(per Sq. Metre).
Minimum
Superficial
Area
under Test.
Minimum
Time for
Application
of Water
under Press.
Temporary Protection . . . J
Class A
45 mins.
1500 F.
(815-5 C.)
Optional
100 sq. ft.
(9-290 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
60 mins.
1500 F.
(815-5 C.)
Optional
200 sq. ft.
(18-580 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Partial Protection -|
Class A
90 mins.
1800 F.
(982-2 C.)
112 ft
(546-852 kg.)
100 sq. ft.
(9-290 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
1 20 mins.
1800 F.
(982-2 C.)
168 ft
(820-278 kg.)
200 sq. ft.
(18-580 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Full Protection J
Class A
150 mins.
1800 F.
(982-2 C.)
224 ft
(1093-706 kg.)
100 sq. ft.
(9-290 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
240 mins.
1800 F.
(982-2 C.)
280 ft
(1367-130 kg.)
2OO sq. ft.
(18-580 sq. m.)
5 mins.
g. = kilogramme.
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
Standard Table for Fire-resisting Partitions.
[FIRE-CALLS
Classification.
Sub-class.
Duration
of Test.
At Least
Minimum
Temperature.
Thickness of
Material.
Minimum
Superficial
Area
under Test.
Minimum
Time for
Application
of Water
under Press.
Temporary Protection ... . -<
Class A
45 mins.
1500 F.
(815-5 C.)
2 in. and under
(-051 m.)
80 sq. ft.
(7-432 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
60 mins.
1500 F.
(815-5 C.)
Optional
80 sq. ft.
(7-432 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Partial Protection -j
Class A
90 mins.
1800 F.
(982-2 C.)
2j in. and under
(-063 m.)
80 sq. ft.
(7-432 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
120 mins.
1800 F.
(982-2 C.)
Optional
80 sq. ft.
(7-432 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Full Protection -j
Class A
150 mins.
1800 F.
(982-2 C.)
2j in. and under
(-063 m.)
80 sq. ft.
(7-432 sq. m.)
/
2 mins.
Class B
240 mins.
1800 F.
(982 -2 C.)
Optional
80 sq. ft.
(7-432 sq. m.)
5 mins.
Standard Table for Fire-resisting Single Doors, with or without Frames.
Classification.
Sub-class.
Duration
of Test.
At Least
Minimum
Temperature.
Thickness of
Material.
Minimum
Superficial
Area
under Test.
Minimum
Time for
Application
of Water
under Press.
Temporary Protection . . . . -|
Class A
45 mins.
1500 F.
(815-5 C.)
2 in. and under
(-051 m.)
20 sq. ft.
(1-858 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
60 mins.
1500 F.
(815-5 C.)
Optional
2O sq. ft.
(1-858 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Partial Protection -<
Class A
90 mins.
1800 F.
(982-2 C.)
2j in. and under
(-063 m.)
20 sq. ft.
(1-858 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
1 20 mins.
1800 F.
(982-2 C.)
Optional
20 sq. ft.
(i-8s8sq. m.)
2 mins.
Full Protection . . . . . -|
Class A
150 mins.
i8ooF.
(982-2 C.)
i in. and under
(-018 m.)
25 sq. ft.
(2-322 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
240 mins.
1800 F.
(982-2 C.)
Optional
25 sq. ft.
(2-322 sq. m.)
5 mins.
customary in that force. When volunteers and regulars work
together, the former should always remember that the paid
force are experts, though the regulars must never have that
contempt for volunteer work so often noticeable. Volunteers
are often men who are probably experts in some other vocation
outside fire-fighting, and have not had the opportunities which
a professional fire-fighter has had.
Transmission of Fire-Calls. There are several methods of
transmitting the message of a fire-call. The simplest is, of
course, to run direct to the nearest fire-station; but this is only
possible where the distance is short. In one or two cities, how-
ever, the number of fire-stations is so great that they are very
dose to one another, and hence " direct " calls are generally
recorded.
Then comes the system of special messengers. The fire is
reported at some, public office, police-station or guard-room,
where there are always runners ready to start off to the nearest
'fire-station. The special runner is here practically a makeshift
for the more modern telegraph or telephone line, and it is believed
that the only city in which this system is employed is one where
the unsettled political atmosphere has compelled the authorities
to prohibit the construction of any telegraph lines other than
those for the use of the general postal service. Similar messenger
services have, however, also been introduced in connexion with
the telegraphic signalling system. Private enterprises known
as " general messenger " or " call-boy " services, which are
organized for business purposes, have the advantage of including
the fire-call and the police-call. In the same way that a cab can
be signalled, a call may come for a fire-engine, and the ever-ready
runner makes off to the fire-station instead of to the cab rank.
As a rule, these messenger offices are near the fire-station. The
combination is rather a curious one, as it embraces the most
advanced notions of giving every " risk " its own fire-call, and
the somewhat ancient one of the special runner.
Another system for facilitating the fire-call relies entirely
on the public telephone system, the terms of subscription to
which may compel holders to forward fire messages if required
to do so. This system allows for such development as the
payment of retaining fees to porters in public and other buildings
which have a night service, on condition that the fire-call shall
be promptly despatched. The telephones are, perhaps, even
provided free, if they are not forthcoming; but it should be
remembered that the service always goes through a general
telephone exchange, which is, of course, open day and night.
In the special telephone line system special wires are laid
from buildings which are practically open all the year round
direct to their nearest fire-stations, and some payment is again
made for prompt attention. Sometimes the telegraph takes
the place of the telephone, but this requires the porter or attend-
ant to be specially trained to the work. To simplify matters,
the buildings are sometimes provided with automatic fire-calls
instead of telephones; but the principle of the system remains
the same. In districts where there are few public offices, the
list of buildings at which messages can be handed in has been
frequently augmented by a set of bakeries or apothecaries' shops,
where night service is not unusual.
What may be termed semi-public street alarms come next.
Automatic fire-calls are put up in the street, but their handles
FIRE-CALLS]
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
409
are under lock and key, and the keys are distributed only among
policemen, watchmen or householders, and the messages can,
therefore, only be given by persons known to the authorities.
The public automatic street-call is the simplest system next
to the direct message. Private automatic fire-calls or telephones
can be laid on from dangerous risks, and there has even been an
instance where an attempt was made to give every householder
a private fire-call. This system is, however, unfortunately
too extreme for the municipal purse. If in connexion with
some other paying enterprise, as in the case of the messenger
services referred to, it would be a different matter, though it
should also not be forgotten that too great a number of call
points means a probable repetition of signals of the same fire,
and a risk of too many sections of the fire brigade being on the
road to it.
Besides these forms of " call," there is also the private alarm.
Dangerous buildings are frequently provided with telephones,
alarm-posts, or even automatic temperature indicators, by which
a call can be given direct from the " risk " involved.
Call points should be not only conspicuous, but also in most
frequented positions. Possibly, in some towns, a point in front
of a church would be the best; in others, the front of a public-
house. It should always be remembered that every facility
should be given to enable as many people as possible to know
the whereabouts of the call points without any distinct effort
on their part. Red paint may make a call pillar conspicuous
by day, and a coloured lamp by night.
As to the indication of call points, a plate on every. letter-box
stating the position of the nearest call-point is perhaps one of the
best methods. The letter-box is one of the instruments most
in use in a modern city, and hence the plate is read by many.
In an oriental town the public fountain would, however, take
the place of the letter-box. Plates put up inside every front
door are somewhat extreme measures. In one city red darts
are painted on the glass of every street lamp, indicating the
direction to be taken to find a street alarm. This sign, however,
has the disadvantage of requiring a previous knowledge of its
meaning, and is generally useless to a stranger in the town.
Rewards paid to messengers vary from one shilling to half a
sovereign. In some places every call is rewarded even those
to chimney fires and this often results in an abuse of the
privilege. Rogues light fires on the top of a chimney and then
run to call the engines. If a reward be given, a limitation
should be made. In one town no relation or employe of the
owner receives a reward. In other cities no rewards are given
for calls to a fire in a dust-bin or a chimney.
No true fireman would be annoyed at a false alarm given by
mistake. The possibility of a fire, or the suspicion of one, is
a bona fide reason for a call which should not be discouraged.
Malicious alarms should, however, be treated with the utmost
rigour, as the absence of firemen from their stations always means
an extra risk to life and property. Combined "lynch law"
and imprisonment has generally been adopted with good effect.
The rascal should first be put when caught over the pole of the
engine and thrashed with a broad fireman's belt, and after that
handed to the police.
The fire-call should, if possible, also be so constructed as to
facilitate intercommunication between the scene of a fire and the
headquarters of the fire brigade. Where the runner is employed
or the telephone is used no special arrangements are required,
but where the telegraph or automatic call point has been intro-
duced, the apparatus must be adapted for this contingency.
At some automatic fire-call points a few signals can be given, at
others a telegraphic or telephonic transmitter can be applied.
Much valuable time may be saved in this way when more assist-
ance is required.
Fire Brigades. The organization of fire brigades varies
greatly. There are brigades where officers and men are practi-
cally constantly ready to attend a fire, and others where they
are ready on alternate days, two days out of every three, or three
days out of every four, and the off day is entirely their own,
or at the most, only partially used by the authorities for some
light work. The men off duty are only expected to attend a fire
if there is a great emergency, the brigade being strong enough
without them for ordinary eventualities. Both systems can be
worked with or without part-paid or volunteer service, which
would be only called out for great calamities. They could be
organized as a practically independent reserve force, or the
reserve men might be attached to sections of the regulars and
mixed with them when the occasion arises. The reserves can
consist either of retired firemen who have a few regular drills,
or of amateurs who go through a special course of training, and
have some series of drills at intervals, with preferably a short
spell of service every year with the regulars. For the regulars,
forty-eight hours on duty to every twenty-four off has given the
most satisfactory results.
The division of the active force may be on a system of a number
of small parties of twos and threes backed by one or more strong
bodies. Another system allows for subdivision into sections of
equal strength, ranging from parties of, say, five men with a
non-commissioned officer to thirty non-commissioned officers
and men with an officer. The force can, of course, also simply
be divided up into parties or sections of different strengths not
governed by a system of military units. The sections either can
work independently, as units, simply governed by one central
authority, or there can be a grouping of the units into minor
or major bodies or districts, each duly officered, and as a whole
individually responsible to headquarters.
The officers may be all taken from the ranks, or they may
be " officers and gentlemen " in- the military sense, or have only
temporarily done work with the rank and file when in training.
There could also be a combination of these two systems. Only
the captain and deputy-captain might be officers in the military
sense, the sections or divisions being officered by " non-coms."
Some cities have an officer to every thirty " non-coms " and men,
whilst others put a division of as many as two hundred under
a fireman who has risen from the ranks. Where protection is
treated as a science, and where those in charge of a brigade have
really to act as advisers to their employers, officers in the military
sense have been found essential. They have also been found
advantageous where their scope is limited to fire extinguishing.
The prestige of the fire service has been raised everywhere where
the officers, besides being fire experts, are educated men of
social standing. There are cities where the officers of the fire
brigade are in every way recognized as equal to army or navy
men, their social position is the same, and their mess fulfils the
same functions as a regimental mess. The fire brigade officer
is recognized at court, and there is no ceremonial without him.
On the other hand, there are also cities with brigades several
hundred strong where the captain's social standing is beneath
that of a petty officer or colour-sergeant. As to the primary
training of a fire brigade officer, the best men have generally
had some experience in another profession, such as the army, the
navy, or the architectural and engineering professions, previous
to their entering the fire service. Some brigades recruit from
army officers only, and preferably from the engineers or artillery
regiments; others recruit from among architects and engineers,
subject to their having at least had some military experience
in the reserve forces or the volunteers. Some cities only take
engineers or architects, and make a point of it that they should
have no previous military experience. Some previous experience
in the handling of men is essential.
As to the men, there are cities where only trained soldiers are
taken as firemen; others where the engines are manned by
sailors. In some towns the building trades supply the recruits;
in others, all trades are either discriminately or indiscriminately
represented. A combination from the army or navy on the one
side and the building trades on the other is most satisfactory.
The knowledge of building construction in the ranks stands the
force in good stead, and has often saved both lives and property.
Where a brigade can boast of a few men of each important trade,
much money has been saved the ratepayers by the men doing
their own repairs and refitting, but the number of men from
sedentary trades should not be excessive. Where there are only
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
[FIRE-CALLS
men of one trade or calling, there is often too great a tendency
to one-sidedness, and a great amount of prejudice.
Physical strength and perfect constitution are requisite for
both officers and men. As to the height of the men, small, wiry
men are very useful. First-class eyes, ears and nose are neces-
sary, also a good memory. Fat men are entirely out of place in
a brigade, and should be transferred to some other service if
the fatness be developed during their engagement with a brigade.
Many brigades take only single men, " non-coms " and officers
only being allowed to marry. There are many brigades where
twenty-two and forty are the limits of age for the privates, fifty
for the " non-coms," and sixty for the officers.
As to the equipment, there are brigades which have all their
sections or units provided with practically the same gear;
others where each unit has a double or treble set, one of which
is used according to circumstances. The section may have a
manual engine, a steamer and a ladder truck at its disposal,
and may turn out with either. There are towns where the units
are differently equipped, and steamer or manual sections called
out, as the case may be. In a few extreme cases, where the
sections are very strong, they may be equipped with a set of
engines and trucks, and the unit, in every case, turns out complete
with (say) a chemical engine, a steamer and a horsed escape.
The contrast to this will be found in the small parties of twos
or threes, whose turn-out would only consist of a small hose
trolley or an escape. Of course, there are all kinds of combina-
tions, the most important of which allows a section to have
one or more independent subsections. Though practically
belonging to the " unit," the subsections work independently
in charge of a certain gear. This may be a hose-reel, a long
ladder, or a smoke helmet, according to circumstances. The
subsections may act as outposts or simply as specialist parties,
which are only called out for particular work.
As for the housing of the units or sections, simple street
stations are provided for the small parties referred to. In a few
cases two small parties are housed under the same roof. The
large bodies that back them are generally quartered together
in extensive barracks, from which any number of engines and
men can be turned out according to the nature of the call. Then
there are cities where every section has its own well-built station;
others where one or two sections are housed together, according
to circumstances, and perhaps as many as half a dozen located
at headquarters. If groups are formed, the headquarters of the
group or district has, perhaps, two sections, while each of the
other stations has only one. The general headquarters may be
the central station of a district at the same time. The actual
working of the district headquarters would, however, then be
kept separate from the working of the headquarters staff. The
latter would, perhaps, have some sections ready to send any-
where besides the trucks, &c., necessary for the officers, the
general extra gear, &c., that might be required. It is usual to
combine workshops, stores, hose-drying towers, &c., with the
headquarters station, and, in some cases, also with the district
centres.
In the distribution of the stations, the formation of districts,
&c., various systems have been adopted. The most satisfactory
results have been obtained where a fully-equipped section (not
simply a hose-car or escape-party) can reach any building in the
city within six minutes from the time of the call reaching the
station, the six minutes including both turn-out and run. Where
there are exceptionally large or dangerous risks, this time has had
to be shortened to four minutes, and the possibility of an attend-
ance from a second station assured within six minutes. In
dividing up districts, the most satisfactory results have been
obtained where every house can be reached from the district
centre within fifteen minutes from the call. Headquarters
would naturally have a central position in the city. In one or
two instances the headquarters offices are located in a separate
building, which in no way serves as a fire-station, but simply as
a centre through which all orders and business pass.
The different stations must be in connexion with each other.
The special runner or rider is practically disappearing. The
telegraph and telephone have taken his place. Some cities
favour Morse telegraphy, which certainly had great advantages
over the telephone at one time, as messages could be easily
transmitted to several stations with the same effort, but telephone
distributors have now been successfully introduced. Errors
are less frequent by telegraph than by telephone, and there is
always a record of every message. The most modern forms of
telephone communication are, however, more suitable for the
fire service than the telegraph. Headquarters should be in
direct communication with every station, but every station
should be able to communicate with its neighbour directly, as
well as through the headquarters office, and there should be a
direct wire to its district station if it has one. There should be
three routes of communication, so that two should be always
ready for use in case of one breaking down. Either headquarters
or the district centres would be in touch with the various
auxiliaries referred to, as well as the general telegraph office and
the telephone exchange.
As to the attendance at fires, some cities turn out but one
unit to answer the first call if they have no particulars, others
always turn out two or three sections, and there are several
cities where the district centre would at least send an officer
and a few men as well. In one brigade, headquarters is always
represented by either the chief or the second officer in the case
of a call of this kind. The idea is that it is always better to have
too strong a force quickly in attendance than too small a number
of men, and that it is most important that the first arrival should
be well handled. Further, if two sections answer a call and one
breaks down on the road, there is no chance of there being too
great a delay in the arrival of organized help. It should, however,
not be forgotten that further calls in the same district to other
fires are not unusual, and that the absence of too many engines,
on account of a first call, is dangerous. In some cities, when a
call reaches the firemen one or two of the nearest stations turn
out, and if more help is required other sections will be called
up individually. In others the reinforcements are not called
up separately, but the fires are divided into three classes small,
medium and large; and on the message arriving of a more
extensive conflagration at a certain point, the section already
know beforehand whether they must attend or not. First calls
to certain classes of risks, e.g. to theatres or public offices, may
always be considered to be for medium or large fires; and the
same message will then simultaneously turn out the stronger
body without any further detailed instructions being necessary.
In some towns the fire-call automata are so arranged that the
messenger can at once call for the different classes of fire. This,
however, is not to be recommended, as a messenger will probably
consider the smallest fire to be a gigantic blaze, and will bring out
too many engines. .
Equipment. The following are characteristic features in the
equipment of brigades. First, where there is a high-pressure
water supply, some brigades simply attend with hose-cars,
life-saving gear and ladders; or, instead of the hose-cars, take
their manuals, which they practically never use and which serve
only as vehicles to carry men and hose. Others take, and make
a point of using, the manuals, and have a barrel with them
ready to supply the first gallons of water necessary. No time
is thus lost in connecting with the nearest hydrant or plug;
and in case of a hydrant being out of order, there is always
sufficient water at hand until the second hydrant has been found.
Many cities have introduced chemical engines to take the place
of this combination of water barrel and manual engine. A
supply of water is carried on the chemical engine. Some cities
always have an attendance of steamers, which are, however,
only used in urgent cases. In other instances the Steamer is at
once used in the same way as the manual, and this quite inde-
pendently of the pressure there is in the water service. Where
there is no good water service, manuals or steamers have, of
course, to be sent out, and are supplied either from the low-
pressure service or from the natural waterways or wells. There
are still a large number of cities where the suburbs have no
proper water service, and the water barrel is then very handy
FIRE BRIGADES]
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
411
for water porterage. Attempts have also been made at the
chemical treatment of water which is to be thrown on to a fire,
with the view of increasing its effect, or at the use of chemicals
instead of water. In certain localities fire appliances are still
run out to fires by hand, especially where there is a high pressure
water system and hose carts only are required. Generally the
appliances are horsed. Motor traction is, however, now rapidly
superseding horse traction for reasons of economy and the
wider and more rapid range of efficiency.
As to life saving and manoeuvring gear, some brigades rely
almost entirely on hook ladders, others almost entirely depend
on scaling ladders or telescopic escapes. In some great con-
fidence is placed in the jumping-sheet; in another, chutes are
much used; and there are a few where wonderful work is done
with life-lines. To indicate the diversity with which any one
appliance can be treated, made or handled, in the fire service,
it may be mentioned that there are quite ten different ways in
which a jumping-sheet can be held. Then there is the material
of the jumping-sheet to be considered; the size and the shape
whether round, oblong, square or rectangular; then the means
of holding it, the way to fold it, how and where to stow it, and at
what distance from the endangered building the sheet is to be
held. Last, but not least, come the words of command.
Working of Brigades. In some forces all possible attention
is given to the rapidity of the actual turn out, while in others
the speed at which engines run to the fire is considered to be
of primary importance. Other brigades, again, give equal
attention to both. There are brigades which work entirely on
military lines, each man having certain duties marked out for
him beforehand for every possible occasion, and there are others
where happy-go-lucky working is preferred. Of course there
are combinations in the same way as regards command. Some
chief officers arrive at a fire with a staff of adjutants and orderlies,
and control the working of the brigade from a position of vantage
at a distance. Other chiefs delight to be in the thick of a fire,
perhaps at the branch itself, or on some gallant life-saving
exploit where they no doubt do good work as a fireman, but in
no way fulfil the office of commanders. Officers must remember
that they are officers, and not rank and file; and this is generally
very difficult to those who have advanced from the ranks.
Superintendents, however smart, must leave acts of bravery to
their men, and chief officers, without going to extremes, must
always be in a good position where they can superintend every-
thing pertaining to the outbreak in question. Some brigades
seem to make a point of working quietly, and shouting is
absolutely forbidden, all commands being given by shrill whistles.
In some brigades all commands are given by word of mouth, and
there is much bawling. In others commands, besides being
bawled, are even repeated on horns, and the noise becomes
trying. As a rule, quiet working is a sign of efficiency.
Some brigades work as close as possible to the fire, others
are satisfied with putting water on or about the fire from a
distance. Some attack the fire direct, others only try to protect
what surrounds the seat of the flames. Several brigades are
ordered always to try to attack by the natural routes of the
front door and the staircases. In others, the men always have
to attempt some more unnatural entrance, with the aid of
ladders through windows, for instance. Some brigades care-
fully extinguish a fire, some simply swamp it. Some brigades
boast of never having damaged property unnecessarily. They
have, for instance, had the patience to suffocate a cellar fire,
instead of putting the whole cellar under water. In certain
classes of property the bucket, the mop, and the hand-pump
have been far more effective in minimizing actual destruction
than the branch and hose. It is one of the easiest signs by which
to judge the training and handling of a fire brigade to see what
damage they do. Even an inconsiderate smashing of doors and
windows, when there is absolutely no need for it, can be avoided,
where every man in the force feels that his first duty is to prevent
damage and loss and his second to extinguish the fire.
Where the brigade includes a salvage division, it is generally
stationed at headquarters; where this division is split up into
sections, there would also be a distribution among the district
centres; the salvage men are simply part of the force, told off
on special duty. Where there are private salvage corps, their
stations are generally near the headquarters or district centres
of the brigade, from which they receive notice of the fire. In
some cities the salvage corps work quite independently; in
others, they work under the chief of the brigade directly they
arrive at the fire.
As to the working of allied civilian forces in conjunction with
the fire service, the advantages of firemen having plenty of room
to work in is now fully recognized, and the police are at once
called out and often brought on to the scene in an incredibly
short time. The value of these measures should not be under-
rated, especially in cities where rowdyism exists. In many
cities the ambulance service is also turned out to fires. Where
no independent ambulance corps exists, some of the firemen
should be trained to work as ambulance men. Turncocks and
gasmen are also frequently brought to all fires. Lastly, in many
garrison towns the military turn out to assist the fire brigade.
National Fire Brigades' Union. The National Fire Brigades'
Union, which is the representative Fire Service Society for Great
Britain, originated in a national demonstration of volunteer fire
brigades held at Oxford in celebration of Queen Victoria's jubilee
on the 3Oth of May 1887, when 82 fire brigades with 916 firemen were
present. Next day a meeting of the officers was held at the Guildhall,
Oxford, and it was then resolved to form the National Fire Brigades
Union. Alderman Green, the chief officer of the Oxford fire brigade,
was appointed the first chairman. Sir Eyre Massey Shaw was ap-
pointed first president in 1888, and on his retirement in 1896 through
ill-health he was succeeded by the duke of Marlborough. When the
union offered to provide ambulance firemen and stretcher bearers
for his regiment the duke accepted the offer, and two fully equipped
corps were sent out to the Imperial Yeomanry hospital at Deel-
fontein, South Africa, under Colonel Sloggett, who specially men-
tioned the services rendered by the firemen in his despatches.
The union is divided into seventeen districts, each having its own
council, and sending one delegate for every ten brigades to the
central council. The districts are: Eastern, Midlands, South Coast,
South-Eastern, West Midland, North-Eastern, North-Western, South
Western, Surrey, South Midlands, Southern, South Wales, North
Wales, Cornish, Yorkshire, Central and South Africa (formed in
1902). There are also seventy-five foreign members and corre-
spondents in America, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark,
France, Germany, Holland, Italy, New Zealand, Russia, South
Africa, India and the Federated Malay Straits. The total strength
of the union is 667 fire brigades and members with nearly 12,000
firemen. Every member of the union gives his time and services
for the benefit of the country ; all appointments are honorary, with
the exception that a small allowance is made for clerical assistance.
A drill book is issued by the union, and the fourth edition was
published in 1902. Over 60,000 of these books have been issued to
brigades all over the world.
The ambulance department is under the charge of medical officers.
All members have to come up for re-examination every three years,
else they are not entitled to wear the red cross, and the examination
is more stringent than that held by the St John Ambulance Associa-
tion. This department has proved to be a great benefit to provincial
fire brigades, who are often called upon to undertake ambulance
work. A very useful and instructive manual has been issued by the
union entitled First Aid in the Fire Service, by Chief Officer William
Ettles, M.D.
The union organized and took part in the International Fire
Exhibitions, at the Royal Agricultural Hall, London, in 1893 and
1896, and it was represented at the International Fire Congresses
at Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Paris, Lyons, Havre and Berlin. It
has also held a review before the German emperor at the Crystal
Palace, and before Queen Victoria in Windsor Park.
Fire Brigade Organization.
Below are given examples of the organization of different fire
brigades. The brigades so described have been selected not so
much on account of their intrinsic importance, as because they
represent classes or types of brigades and fire brigade organization
which it may be useful to refer to. In respect of the London
fire brigade, however, historical data are also presented, as it
is only with the aid of these that the extraordinary development
of that force can be properly realized.
With regard to modern views as to the functions of the fire
brigade, the resolutions of the Fire Prevention Congress of 1903
are reprinted below. As they indicate, the general feeling
amongst all interested in fire protection from an economic point
412
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
[LONDON
of view is that fire brigades should not be merely fire extinguish-
ing organizations but should utilize their influence in a much
wider sense.
The Congress considered:
1. That public authorities should encourage fire brigade officers
to take an active interest in the preventive aspect of fire protection,
inasmuch as the result of the fire brigade officers' experience in actual
fire practice, if suitably applied in conjunction with the work of
architects, engineers and public officials, would be most useful for
the organization and development of precautionary measures.
2. That fire brigade societies, associations and unions should
encourage amongst the brigades affiliated to these bodies the study
of questions of fire prevention.
3. That fire brigades should be placed on a sound legal basis, and
that it is advisable that their efficiency be supervised by a govern-
ment department.
4. That an official investigation should be made of all fires. That
on the occurrence of every fire an investigation should be immedi-
ately made by au official, duly qualified and empowered to ascertain
the cause and circumstances connected therewith, reporting the
result of such investigation to a public department for tabulation
and publication.
5. That the whole or part of the cost of such inquiry should be
charged to the occupier of the premises where the fire occurred,
as may appear desirable in the circumstances of each case.
6. That the press should from time to time publish technical
reports on fires so that the public may benefit from the knowledge
and experience gained.
London. In the early part of the igth century the methods
in vogue for the suppression of outbreaks of fire in the metropolis
were of the most crude and disjointed character, in striking
contrast with the highly elaborated system now put into practice
by the London County Council through its fire brigade; and it
was not until the second half of the ipth century was well
advanced that anything approaching an adequate and satis-
factory organization was brought into existence. Until the
passing of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act 1865, the only
acts relating to the suppression of outbreaks of fire in London
were the Lighting and Watching Act (3 & 4 William IV., c. 90),
and " an act (14 Geo. III., c. 78) for the further and better
Regulation of Buildings and Party Walls, and for the more
effectually preventing Mischiefs by Fire within the Cities of
London and Westminster, and the Liberties thereof, and other
the Parishes, Precincts and Places within the Weekly Bills of
Mortality, the Parishes of Marylebone, Paddington, St Pancras,
and St Luke's at Chelsea, in the County of Middlesex." The
clauses in the latter act relating to protection against fire re-
mained in force till the passing of the act of 1865. They provided
that every parish should keep " one large engine and one small,
called a hand engine, a leathern pipe, and a certain number of
ladders." The Lighting and Watching Act contained a clause
which extended to England and Wales and so covered the area
"without -the bills of mortality," enabling the inspectors ap-
pointed under that act to provide and keep up two fire-engines;
and certain of the parishes in the metropolitan district, without
the bills of mortality, availed themselves of this provision.
The select committee of fires in the metropolis, which sat in
1862, reported that it was difficult to ascertain how far the act
of George III. was attended to, or when it ceased to be considered
practically of importance, but that, at the time of the report,
the arrangements generally made by the parishes under the act
were not only entirely useless, but in many cases produced
injurious results, as the system under the act frequently con-
ferred a reward for the first useless parochial engine, whereas
the efficient engine which might be on the spot a few minutes
later derived no pecuniary advantages. There were, however,
exceptions to the general rule. At Hackney, for example, a
" very efficient " fire brigade was maintained at an expense of
about 500 a year, or about one halfpenny in the pound on the
rating of the parish. The select committee were unable to
ascertain with any accuracy the total amount paid by the
metropolitan parishes for the maintenance, " however in-
efficient," of their fire-engines, but it was estimated to be
about 10,000.
For many years previous to 1832, the principal fire insurance
offices in London kept fire brigades at their individual expense;
to these brigades were attached a considerable number of men
usually occupied as Thames watermen, retained in the service
of the different Fire Offices, who received payment only on the
occurrence of fires, and who wore the livery and badge of the
respective companies. These fire brigades were, to quote the
report of the select committee of 1862, considered as giving
notoriety to the different insurance companies, and a considerable
rivalry was maintained, which was productive naturally of good
as well as of some considerable evil on occasions of fires.
The large expenses thus incurred by the companies induced
an attempt to be made, which was effectually carried out in
the year 1832, by R. Bell Forde, a leading director of the Sun
Fire Office, to form one brigade for the purpose of promoting
economy as well as greater efficiency. Thus the first organized
fire brigade' for London began its operations under the united
sanction of, and from funds contributed by, most of the leading
insurance offices in London. The force thus formed was known
as the London Fire Engine Establishment. The annual expense
was at first 8000, the number of stations 19, the number of
men employed 80. By 1862 the annual cost had grown to
25,000, the number of stations had become 20, and the number
of men 127.
It is interesting to note that the chief station of the Fire
Engine Establishment was the Watling-Street station, in sub-
stitution for which the new Cannon-Street station has been
built . The following is a list of the other stations of the establish-
ment:
School House-lane, Shadwell Crown Street, Soho
Wellclose Square Wells Street
Jeffrey's Square Baker Street
Whitecross Street King Street, Golden Square
Farringdon Street Horseferry Road
Holborn Waterloo Road
Chandos Street Southwark Bridge Road
Tooley Street Southwark Bridge (floating)
Lucas Street, Rotherhithe Rotherhithe (floating)
The work of this force was carried out in an efficient manner
as far as its limited equipment and strength would permit, but
it was universally admitted that the staff, engines and stations
were totally inadequate for the general protection of London
from fire. The directors of the insurance offices themselves
admitted this, but they considered their brigade sufficient for
the protection of that part of London in which the largest amount
of insured property was located, and contended that it was not
their business to provide fire stations in the more outlying
districts where, if a fire occurred, it was not likely to involve
their offices in serious loss.
From 1836 the work of the brigade maintained by the fire
offices was supplemented by the " Society for the Protection of
Life from Fire." This society was managed by a committee of
which the lord mayor was president. It was supported entirely
by voluntary contributions, and, at a cost of about 7000 a
year, maintained fire-escapes at from 80 to 90 stations in different
parts of the most central districts in London. Its most outlying
station was only 4 m. from the Royal Exchange, and it main-
tained no stations in such localities as Greenwich, Peckham,
Deptford and New Cross. It did much useful work, though its
equipment was quite inadequate to cope with the needs of the
metropolis.
In 1834, two years after the institution of the London Fire
Engine Establishment, the Houses of Parliament were destroyed
by fire, and the attention of the government was consequently
directed to the inadequacy of the existing conditions for fire
extinction. It was suggested, at the time, that the parochial
engines should be placed under the inspection of the commis-
sioners of police, but this proposal was not adopted, and the
existing state of matters was allowed to continue for another
thirty years. The select committee of 1862 recommended that a
fire brigade should be created under the superintendence of the
commissioners of police, and should form part of the general
establishment of the metropolitan police. In 1865, however,
the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act was passed, under which the
responsibility for the provision and maintenance of an efficient
COLOGNE]
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
fire brigade was laid upon the Metropolitan Board of Works.
Under the provisions of the act, the board took over the staff,
stations and equipment of the Fire Engine Establishment;
the engines maintained by the various parochial authorities,
and the men in charge of them were also absorbed by the new
organization, as were the fire-escapes and staff of the Society
for the Protection of Life from Fire.
The funds provided by the Fire Brigade Act for the main-
tenance of the brigade were: (i) the produce of a halfpenny
rate on all the rateable property in London; (2) contributions
by the fire insurance companies at the rate of 35 per million
of the gross amount insured by them in respect of property in
London; and (3) a contribution of 10,000 a year by the govern-
ment. Although the revenue allotted increased year by year,
its increase was far from keeping pace with the constant calls
from all parts of London for protection from fire. Some tem-
porary financial relief was afforded by the Metropolitan Board
of Works (Loans) Act 1869, which (i) authorized the interest
on borrowed money to be paid, and the principal to be redeemed
out of the proceeds of the Metropolitan Consolidated rate, apart
from the halfpenny allocated for fire brigade purposes; and (2)
provided that the amount to be raised for the annual working
expenditure on the brigade should be equal to what would be
produced by a halfpenny in the pound on the gross annual value
of property, instead of, as before, on the rateable value. One
result of the passing of the Local Government Act 1888 (by
which the London County Council was constituted), under which
a county rate for all purposes is levied, was virtually to repeal
the limitation of the amount which might be raised from the
ratepayers for fire brigade purposes. Since that time the
expenditure on the brigade has therefore, like that of other
departments of the council's service, been determined solely
by what the council has judged to be the requirements of the
case.
When the council came into existence early in 1889 the fire
brigade was admittedly not large enough properly to protect
the whole of London, the provision in various suburban districts
being notoriously inadequate to the requirements. A plan for
enlarging .and improving old stations, and for carrying out a
scheme of additional protection laid down after careful considera-
tion of the needs of London as a whole, was approved on the 8th
of February 1898 (and somewhat enlarged in 1901); it provided
for the placing of horsed escapes at existing fire stations, for
the establishment of some 22 additional stations provided with
horsed escapes, and for the discontinuance of nearly all the fire-
escape and hose-cart stations in the public thoroughfares.
Since it came into existence the London County Council has estab-
lished additional fire stations at Dulwich. New Cross, Kingsland,
Whitefriars, Lewisham, Shepherd's Bush, West Hampstead, East
Greenwich, Perivale, Homerton, Highbury, Vauxhall, Pageant's
Wharf (Rotherhithe), Streatham, Kilburn, Bayswater, Eltham,
Burdett Road (Mile End), Wapping, Northcote Road (Battersea),
Herne Hill, Lee Green and North End (Fulham). Of these, Vaux-
hall, Kilburn, Bayswater, Eltham, Burdett Road, Herne Hill and
North End stations are sub-stations. New stations have been
erected, in substitution for small and inconvenient buildings, at
Wandsworth, Shoreditch, Fulham, Brompton, Islington, Padding-
ton, Redcross Street (City), Euston Road, Clapham, Mile End,
Deptford, Old Kent Road, Millwall, Kensington, Westminster,
Brixton and Cannon Street (City), and the existing stations at
Kennington, Rotherhithe, Clerkenwell, Hampstead, Battersea,
Whitechapel, Greenwich and Stoke Newington have been consider-
ably enlarged. Two small stations without horses have been estab-
lished in Battersea Park Road and North Woolwich respectively.
A building has been erected at Rotherhithe for the accommodation
of the staff of the Cherry-garden river station ; and another building
has been erected at Battersea for the accommodation of the staff
of a river station which has been established there.
In 1909 new stations in substitution for existing stations were in
course of erection at Knightsbridge and Tooting, and additional
sub-stations were being erected at Plumstead and Hornsey Rise.
The Bethnal Green station was being considerably altered and en-
larged. The council had also determined to erect new stations in
substitution for existing inconvenient buildings at Holloway,
Waterloo Road, Shooter's Hill and North End, Fulham; and to
build additional sub-stations at Charlton, Caledonian Road, Brixton
Hill, Camberwell New Road, Roehampton, Balham, Brockley and
Earlsfield.
Budapest. There is a combination of a professional force
and a volunteer force at Budapest, and in addition an auxiliary
service of factory fire brigades. The professional fire brigade
possesses a central station and eight sub-stations, two minor
stations, and permanent theatre-watchrooms at the royal
theatres. The staff (in 1901) of the professional brigade con-
sisted of a chief officer, an inspector, a senior adjutant and two
junior adjutants, a clerk, and further 23 warrant officers, 3
engineers, 15 foremen, 154 firemen and 30 coachmen with 62
horses. There have been some slight increases since. The
apparatus at their disposal consists of 6 steam fire-engines, 22
manual engines, 27 small manual engines, u water carts, 13
traps, 4 tenders, 26 hose reels and hose carts, 5 long ladders,
9 ordinary extension ladders, 34 hook ladders, 1 2 smoke helmets
and 22,000 metres of hose. The various stations are connected
with the central station by private telephone lines. There are
149 telephonic fire alarms distributed throughout the city.
They are on radial lines connected up with their respective
nearest stations, and on a single radial line there are from three
to seventeen call-points.
The volunteer brigade has an independent constitution and
comprises some eighty members. Its equipment is housed with
that of the professional brigade, and is bought and maintained
by the municipality. This volunteer brigade is a comparatively
wealthy institution, having a capital of 100,000 crowns, whilst
receiving a special subsfdy annually from the municipality.
Though legally an entirely independent institution, the brigade
voluntarily puts itself under the command of the chief officer
of the professional brigade. It further puts daily at the disposal
of the professional fire chief ten men who do duty every night
and " turn out " when called upon to render service. This
volunteer brigade stands as a kind of model to the other volunteer
brigades, and it is in connexion with this volunteer brigade that
the educational classes referred to above are held and facilities
accorded to the officers undergoing instruction to gain experience
at the Budapest fires.
The Budapest professional fire brigade, even if assisted by the
volunteer force, would scarcely be of adequate strength to deal with
the great factory risks of that city were it not that the Budapest
factories and mills have a splendidly organized service of factory fire
brigades. These brigades forty-four in number are essentially
private institutions, intended to render self-help in the factories to
which they belong, but they are well organized, and have a mutual
understanding whereby the neighbouring brigades of any one factory
immediately turn out and assist in case of need. These factory
brigades have a total staff of 1600 men. They are equipped with
1 steam fire-engine, 57 large manuals, 136 small manuals, and have
a very considerable amount of small gear, including 15 smoke
helmets.
Cologne. The Cologne professional fire brigade is 153 strong
(1906), with a chief officer, a second officer, and two divisional
officers, a warrant officer, a telegraph superintendent and 16
foremen. The brigade has 26 horses, of which 2, however, are
used for ambulance purposes. The brigade has three large
stations and a minor station, and has a permanent fire-watch
at the two municipal theatres. Men are told off for duty as
coachmen among the firemen. The staff do forty-eight hours of
duty to twenty-four hours of rest.
A peculiarity of the Cologne organization is its auxiliary
retained fire brigade in two sections, comprising a superintendent,
2 deputy superintendents, 5 foremen, and 51 men, with 2 horses,
who are retained men housed in municipal buildings (tenements),
and available as an immediate reserve force. The first section
of the reserve force are housed centrally.
There is a further system of suburban volunteer fire brigades
manned by volunteers but equipped by the municipality, and
horsed from 'the municipal stables or municipal tramways.
Three of these volunteer brigades, which have large suburban
districts, comprise each a superintendent, 2 senior foremen and
3 junior foremen, with 50 firemen and 3 coachmen. The minor
outlying suburbs have several such brigades, each having one
senior foreman, 3 junior foremen, 20 firemen and 2 coachmen.
The combined force of the suburban volunteer brigades is 295,
all ranks.
414
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
The Cologne fire service thus comprises a combination of pro-
fessional brigade with a retained auxiliary brigade and a system of
suburban volunteer brigades. Of the three stations, the central one is
still an old building, and the other two are in modern buildings; the
extra sub-station (near the river stores) is also a modern building.
The brigade has about 150 fires to attend per annum. Its printed
matter, in the form of an annual detailed report, is exceptionally
well prepared. The brigade does permanent " fire-watch ' duty at
the municipal theatres which are strengthened of an evening. It
provides additional watches during performances at all other
theatres and public entertainments. Such duties are provided in
part by an auxiliary brigade and partly by the professional brigade.
A number of the professional brigade are always utilized for doing
general work in the workshops of the brigade. The first or central
section of the auxiliary brigade drills eleven times per annum, and
is additionally turned out eleven times per annum (without drill).
Men newly attached to the auxiliary force have to go through a
four weeks' recruit drill.
Nuremberg. The Nuremberg fire service stands as the most
economically organized efficient fire service in Central Europe,
and its form of organization is peculiar and exceptional. In
1902 the entire fire-service cost the city 126,000 marks (63*00).
The total of inhabitants in 1900 was 261,000. For this small
amount of money the city gets a highly-trained retained fire
brigade of 156 men (1907), and two volunteer fire brigades of
130 and 224 men respectively. Further, it has an auxiliary of
eighteen suburban volunteer fire brigades (1080 men) and two
private factory fire brigades (71 men). The whole service stands
under a professional chief officer and professional second officer.
There are 8 telegraph clerks, 6 watchmen and 17 coachmen
attached to the retained brigade. The service has been in
existence for fifty years. It has gradually developed and has
worked remarkably well, and may, in fact, be taken as a model
institution for municipal economy, with due regard to up-to-
dateness and efficiency. The retained fire brigade comprises
entirely municipal employes, regularly engaged in the municipal
workshops, scavenging and works department. The municipal
workshops are located alongside the fire-brigade stations. There
is a headquarters station for the retained brigade and volunteer
brigade in the centre of the town, a modern district station in the
western district, and a third district station is in course of erection
for the eastern district, which is at present only served by a
small branch station.
At headquarters station there are on immediate duty by day 14
firemen (chiefly smiths and carpenters) of the retained brigade.
Nine men of the retained brigade are on duty at headquarters at
night, together with 8 men of the volunteer fire brigade. At the west
district station, 14 men of the retained brigade are on duty by day,
and the same number at night.
The headquarters can turn out in succession four complete units
of the following strength, namely :
First unit, a large chemical engine, and a mechanical long ladder.
Second unit, a trap with hose reel, a special gear-cart and a long
ladder.
Third unit, a trap with hose-cart and manual, and a long ladder.
Fourth unit, a steam fire-engine, and hose-and coal-tender trap.
From the west district station three units can be turned out in
rotation, namely:
First unit, large chemical engine, large trap and a long ladder.
Second unit, a trap with hose-reel and manual engine.
Third unit, a steam fire-engine and a hose-tender and coal-tender
trap.
The equipment of the eastern sub-station at present comprises
a turn-out of a trap and a long ladder.
The brigade can thus turn out immediately, in rapid succession,
these horsed appliances, well organized and fully manned. It further
has a reserve of 4 manual engines and 2 long ladders.
The suburban volunteer brigades have besides at their disposal
25 manual engines, 9 fire-escapes and 18 hose-reels. The whole of
the hose for all brigades is of uniform pattern and make, with bayonet
pattern standard couplings. The brigade posts an evening " fire
watch " at the theatres. The men of the retained brigade get
modest extra pay for fire brigade duty, but this pay is intended rather
to cover disbursements or expenses than to be considered as wages.
The brigade uses the municipal horses, all of which are stabled in
proximity to the fire stations, and a number of which are kept on
duty for fire brigade purposes in the actual stations. For all practical
purposes the retained brigade is the professional brigade in which
the men do municipal work in the municipal workshops, and else-
where, i.e. in training, drill and general efficiency they are quite up
to the best professional standard. The volunteer brigade is well
drilled and includes the best of the younger townsmen, who do
duty at night by rotation. The brigade's responsibilities are clearly
[VIENNA
defined, and the position of the professional chief and second officer
clearly laid down by by-laws. There are 1 29 fire-call points. During
the fifty years' existence of the service, 85 firemen received the
twenty-five years' long-service medal, of whom 32 belonged to the
suburban volunteer brigades.
Venice. The Venice fire brigade is a section of the force
of " Vigili " or municipal watchmen, which body does general
duty in preserving order and rendering assistance to the com-
munity. In other words, this force performs the duties of the
civil police (rather than governmental or criminal police), fire,
patrol watch service, and public control in a general sense.
The force, which in all its sections made a most excellent impres-
sion, has a commandant, under whom the two primary sections
work, namely (a) the civil police section and the (b) fire brigade
section; each section in turn having its own principal officers.
The police section comprises some 108 of all ranks, and the fire
brigade section some 73 of all ranks (1908). The commandant
of the whole force is a retired military officer, and the chief of the
fire service section is a civil engineer, and these two officers,
together with the chief of the civil police section, are the three
superior officers of the force. The police section serve as auxili-
aries to the fire brigade section in case of any great fire, and,
of course, generally work very much hand in hand on all occa-
sions. The fire brigade section has 3 superintendents, 6 foremen,
6 sub-foremen, 6 corporals and 40 file. The section is well
equipped with appliances, both hand and steam, having a large
modern petrol-propelled float, constructed in London, a large old
type steam-float, two 35-ft. old steam-floats, and several small
petrol motor-floats or first turnout appliances. The manual-
engines, ladders, &c., which are in considerable number, are
carried in a large fleet of swift gondolas. Fire-escape work is
done with Roman ladders, which are usually planted on two
gondolas flung 'together barge-form, or, if the depth of the canal
permits, the lower length is buried in the canal bottom. Hook
ladders are also used.
Men are distributed in six companies of varying strength, the
headquarters company being stationed at the town hall, with a
strength of 22, and most of the steam and petrol floats lie opposite
the station. The fire brigade does theatre watch duty. As a fire
station of considerable interest, should be mentioned the one at the
Doge's palace; the large vaults occupying a portion of the ground
floor facing St Mark's Square have been adapted for fire station
purposes in a very simple yet artistic manner, and the old gear of
the brigade has been used to form emblems, &c.
Vienna. In 1892 the Vienna fire service was reconstituted
on modern lines owing to the area of the Vienna municipality
having been greatly extended. The professional brigade was
somewhat strengthened and entirely re-equipped, and the
various existing volunteer brigades of the outlying districts
were transformed into suburban volunteer fire brigades, equipped
and controlled by the municipality and standing under the
general command of the fire brigade headquarters. The principle
involved was the utilization of the splendid volunteer force
around Vienna for the purpose of strengthening the municipal
brigade, a principle of great economic advantage, as the pro-
fessional brigade would otherwise have had to be materially
strengthened, probably trebled. These suburban volunteer fire
brigades number no fewer than 34, and have 1200 firemen of
all ranks. They are practically independent institutions as far
as the election of officers and administration is concerned, but
their equipment and uniforms and their fire stations are provided
by the municipality, and in certain districts a staff of professional
firemen detached from headquarters are attached to their
stations as telegraph clerks and drill-instructors.
The suburban volunteer brigades turn out to fires in their
own districts, and further, assist in other districts when so
ordered by headquarters. They form a strong reserve for great
fires in the city proper. Headquarters, of course, renders
assistance at large suburban fires. These suburban volunteer
fire brigades are very perfectly equipped with appliances, gener-
ally of the same type as those used in the central professional
brigade. Some of these brigades are equipped with combined
chemical engines with i5-metres long ladders attached. They
have smoke helmets, and everything that may be termed modern.
UNITED STATES]
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
The men are volunteers in the truest sense of the word, i.e. do
not take pay of any description or make any charges for attend-
ance at fires or refreshments at fires.
The Vienna "professional brigade," as it is generally called,
has a personnel (1906) consisting of 8 officers, 5 officials and 475
men. Of stations there is the headquarters, a district station,
4 branch stations with steam fire engines, 9 small branch stations,
and 2 " watches " in public buildings. The officers of the brigade
consist of the commandant, chief inspector and six inspectors.
The officers, of whom four are on duty daily, are all quartered
at headquarters. There are three telegraph superintendents.
The rank and file is composed of 8 drill-sergeants, 40 telegraph
clerks (three classes), 53 foremen (two classes), 22 engineers
and stokers, 248 men (three classes). Twenty-four telegraph
clerks and engineers are detailed for duty with the suburban
volunteer brigades. There are 78 coachmen.
The following are the fire-extinguishing and life-saving apparatus
and service vehicles of all kinds standing ready to " turn out " :
2 open and 2 officers' service carriages (at headquarters), 6 " traps "
for the first turn-out " (5 at headquarters and I at the district
fire station), each manned by one officer in charge and nine men,
and equipped with 3 hook-ladders, a portable extension ladder
and jumping sheet, a life-saving chute, an ambulance chest, 3 tool-
boxes, a jack, tools, torches, 2 smoke-helmets, with hand-pump
and a hose-reel attached; five special gear-carts (4 at headquarters
and I at the district station), each manned by seven firemen and
equipped like the " traps " with the exception that, instead of the
life-saving chute, the carts carry with them a sliding-sheet, two
petroleum torches each, an extension ladder (15 metres long) and
some spare coal for the steam fire-engines; 4 pneumatic extension
ladders each 25 metres long, and 3 extension turn-table ladders
each 25 metres long (at headquarters and at two of the substations) ;
each of the pneumatic ladders has three men, and each turn-table
ladder five men; 18 chemical engines (3 at headquarters and I each
in the other stations), each having five men with 3 hook-ladders, a
jointed ladder (in four sections), a hose-reel, a hand-engine, a smoke
helmet, a jumping sheet, an ambulance chest, a tool box, torches,
&c. ; 8 steam fire-engines (3 at headquarters and one each in the
district fire station and the 4 steam-engine stations), each with an
engineer and stoker.
The reserve of appliances includes 12 manual engines, 15 large
chemical engines, 17 steel water-carts (with 1000 litre reservoirs).
The total number of oxygen smoke helmets in the brigade is 68,
and there are 15 ordinary smoke helmets with hand-pumps. The
total number of horses is 132. One electrically-driven trap and two
electrically-driven chemical engines are being tried. The fire tele-
graphic and telephonic installation, including the lines in the volun-
teer brigades' districts kept up by the professional brigade, comprises
47 telegraph stations, 249 telephone stations, with altogether 161
Morse instruments and 536 semi-public fire-call points.
Zilrlch. Zurich covers about 12,000 English acres, 1500 of
which are built over with some 15,000 houses, the whole of the
buildings being subject to the local building regulations and the
State Insurance Association's rules, in which they are com-
pulsorily insured. The brigade is a compulsory militia brigade,
placed under the control of the head of the department of police
under a law of 1898. The same municipal officer is head of a
special municipal committee of nine, entrusted with the safety
of the town from fire. The executive officer of the committee is
known as the inspector, and acts as captain of the fire brigade.
His office is at the fire-brigade headquarters, where he has a
small permanent staff both for brigade work and correspondence.
Every male inhabitant of Zurich is compelled to do some service
for the prevention of, or protection against, fire, from the age of
twenty to fifty years. The duty may be fulfilled (i) by active
service, or (2) in the case of an able-bodied citizen, who for some
reason is not found suited to be a member of the brigade, or has
been dismissed from the brigade, by the payment of a tax,
which tax is fixed on the basis of his income. Certain citizens,
however, are ipso facto exempt from active service, namely
members of parliament, members of council of the Polytechnic
school, of the Cantonal gcvernment, of the High Court of Justice,
and of the Town Council; also clergymen and schoolmasters,
the officials of railways, tramway and steamboat companies, of
the post-office and telephone department, students of the Poly-
technic school and other educational institutions and municipal
officials, with whose duties fire brigade service is incompatible.
Exemption from active service can also be accorded on a testi-
415
monial of a medical board. Exemption from active service,
however, in no case exempts from the tax, the total of which
amounts to between 4000 and 5000. In making the selection
of men for active service only, men particularly fitted for the
work are taken, namely, men who are personally keen, who
have a good physique, and who are preferably of the building or
allied trades. The officers of the brigade are appointed by the
municipal committee. The men's drills are by the chief officer,
and the men are liable to fines and to imprisonment (up to four
days) for not attending their drills. The whole of the brigade
is insured against accidents and illness with the Swiss Fire
Brigade Union at the expense of the city, and the city in addition
provides a fund for families in cases of death of firemen on duty.
There is also a sick fund provided for the brigade by the munici-
pality, which also accords a scale of compensation.
The fire brigade comprises the very large complement of fifteen
companies with 120 men each. Each company has three sections,
namely, a fire service section, a life-saving section, and a police
section, the last being utilized for keeping the ground and attending
to salvage. Each company is supposed to be able, as a rule, to deal
with the fire in its own district without calling upon the company
of an adjoining district, and it is only in the case of a very serious
fire that additional companies are turned out. There is thus a
system of decentralization and independence of companies in this
brigade not often met with elsewhere. Firemen are paid one franc
for each drill of two hours. For fires, two francs for two hours,
and fifty centimes per hour afterwards. Refreshments are provided.
Any telephone can be used free by law for an alarm. The brigade has
at its disposal an extension telephone service, but the men are not
all connected up with the telephone of their respective districts,
and thus the alarm is given mainly with horns sounded by men who
are on the telephone. No section of the brigade has less than ten
men on the telephone.
The water-supply is of a most excellent character. The appliances
in the main comprise hydrants and hose-reels with ladder trucks,
and each section has not less than 3000 ft. of hose. They are mainly
housed in small temporary corrugated iron sheds with roller shutter
doors, to which all the firemen have keys. There are some sixty
of these hydrant houses distributed round the city, the larger appli-
ances being at headquarters and at some depots.
Apart from the fact of there being the inspector or chief officer for
the whole district, with a certain permanent staff, each company
might be considered as a separate brigade, having its own chief
officer and staff, and independent organization, the organization of
the companies, however, being identical. A company comprises I
chief officer, I second officer, i doctor, 2 ambulance men and 6
orderlies, a staff in charge, and the three sections have respectively
i lieutenant, i deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the fire service
section; i lieutenant, i deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the life-
saving section, and I lieutenant, I deputy-lieutenant and 20 men
for the police section. Only in the case of sections I and 2 is there
some slight variation in the organization, namely, i and 2 sections
have been combined as a joint section, with an additional senior
officer. At Zurich, as in all Swiss fire brigades, there is an extra-
ordinary uniformity of drills, rules, regulations and instructions in
all its sections. In 1908 the brigade comprised 2268 in all ranks.
There were about 70 fires in that year. (E. O. S.)
United States. _
Fire service in the United States has developed on so large a
scale that in 1902 it was estimated by P. G. Hubert (" Fire
Fighting To-Day and To-Morrow," Scribner's Magazine, 1902,
32, pp. 448 sqq.) that in proportion to population the fire force
of America was nearly four times that of Germany or France and
about three times that of England. The many fires consequent
on wooden construction even in the large cities; the bad effect
of sudden climatic changes drying, parching heat being followed
by weather so cold as to require artificial heating; the less safe
character of heating appliances; and, especially in tenements,
the more inflammable character of furniture, are some of the
reasons assigned for greater fire frequency in America. Fire-
fighting service in the United States is in no way connected with
the military as it is on the continent of Europe; the association
of volunteer with paid firemen is uncommon except in the
suburban parts of the large cities, and in the smaller cities and
towns, where volunteers serving for a certain term are, during
that term and thereafter, exempt from jury duty.
New York. The fire department of New York City is the
result of gradual development. The first record of municipal
action in regard to fire prevention dates from 1659, when 250
416
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
[FIRE APPLIANCES
leather buckets and a supply of fire-ladders and hooks were
purchased, and a tax of one guilder for fire apparatus was imposed
on every chimney; in 1676 fire-wells were ordered to be dug; in
1686 every dwelling-house with two chimneys was required to
provide one bucket (if with more than two hearths, two), and
bakers and brewers had to provide three and six buckets re-
spectively; in 1689 " brent-masters " or fire-marshals were
appointed; in 1695 every dwelling-house had to provide one
fire-bucket at least; in 1730 two Richard Newsham hand-
engines were ordered from England, and soon afterwards a
superintendent of fire-engines was appointed on a small salary;
in 1736 an engine-house was built near the watch-house in Broad
Street, and an act of the provincial legislature authorized the
appointment of twenty-four firemen exempt from constable
or militia duty. Early in the igth century volunteer fire com-
panies increased rapidly in numbers and in importance, especially
political; and success in a fire company was a sure path to
success in politics, the best-known case being that of Richard
Croker, a member of " Americus 6," commonly called " Big
Six," of which William M. Tweed was organizer and foreman.
Parades of fire companies, chowder parties and picnics (pre-
decessors of the present " ward leader's outing ") under the
auspices of the volunteer organizations, annual balls after 1829,
water-throwing contests, often over liberty poles, and bitter
fights between different companies (sometimes settled by fist
duels between selected champions), improved the organization
of these companies as political factors if not as fire-fighters.
So devoted were the volunteers to their leaders that in 1836,
when James Gulick, chief engineer since 1831, was removed from
office for political reasons, the news of his removal coming when
the volunteers were fighting a fire caused them all to stop their
work, and they began again only when Gulick assured them that
the news was false; almost all the firemen resigned until Gulick
was reinstated. The type of the noisy , rowdy New York volunteer
fire hero was made famous in 1848-1849 by Frank S. Chanfrau's
playing of the part Mose in Benjamin Baker's play, A Glance at
New York. The Ellsworth Zouaves of New York were raised
entirely from volunteer firemen of the city.
In 1865, when the volunteer service was abolished, it consisted
of 163 companies (52 engines, 54 hose; 57 hook and ladder)
manned by 3521 men (engines averaging 40 to 60 men, hose-carts
about 25, and hook and ladder companies about 40); the chief
engineer, 'elected with assistants for terms of five or three years
by ballots of the firemen, received a salary of $3000 a year; and
three bell-ringers in each of eight district watch-towers, who
watched for smoke and gave alarms, received $600 a year.
The legislature in March 1865 created a Metropolitan Fire
District and established therein a Fire Department, headed by
four commissioners, who with the mayor and comptroller con-
stituted a board of estimate.
This organization was practically unchanged until 1898, when
the Greater New York was chartered and the present system
was introduced. At its head is a commissioner who receives
$7500 a year. The more immediate head of the firemen is a
chief (annual salary $10,000), the only member of the force not
appointed on the basis of a civil service examination; the chief
has a deputy in Manhattan (for Manhattan, Bronx and Rich-
mond boroughs) and another for Brooklyn and Queens, each
receiving an annual salary of $5000.
In December 1908 there were: 14 deputy chiefs (eight in Man-
hattan, Bronx and Richmond, and six in Brooklyn and Queens) ;
59 chiefs of battalion (31 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond,
and 28 in Brooklyn and Queens); 248 foremen or captains (137 in
Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 1 1 1 in Brooklyn and Queens),
365 assistant foremen (221 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond;
and 144 in Brooklyn and Queens) ; 431 engineers of steamers (247
in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 184 in Brooklyn and
Queens) and 2933 firemen (1772 in Manhattan, Bronx and Rich-
mond, and 1161 in Brooklyn and Queens) ; and the total uniformed
force was 4107. At the close of 1908 there were 88 engine com-
panies in Manhattan and the Bronx, including 6 fire-boat companies
at East 99th St., Battery Park, Grand St. (East River), West
35th St., Gansevoort St. and West I32nd St. ; and in Manhattan
and the Bronx there were 38 hook and ladder companies; in
Brooklyn nd Queens there were 70 engine companies, including
two fire-boat companies at 42nd St. and at North 8th St. The
appropriations for the year 1906 were $4,777,687 for Manhattan,
Bronx and Richmond, and $3,147,033 for Brooklyn and Queens;
and the department expenses were $3,980,535 for Manhattan, Bronx
and Richmond, and $2,565,849 for Brooklyn and Queens.
The first high-pressure mam system in the city was installed at
Coney Island in 1905, gas-engines working the 'pumps. Electrically
driven centrifugal pumps are used in Brooklyn (protected area,
1360 acres) and in Manhattan, where the system was introduced in
1908, and where the protected district (1454 acres) reaches from the
City Hall to 25th St. and from the Hudson east to Second Avenue
and East Broadway, being the " Dry Goods District " ; water is
pumped either from city mains or from the river, and the change may
be made instantaneously. The fire watch-tower system was abolished
in 1869; the present system is that of red box electric telegraph
alarms, which register at headquarters (East 67th St.), where an
operator sends out the alarm to that engine-house nearest to the
fire which is ready to respond, and a chart informing him of the
absence from the engine-house of apparatus. There are volunteer
forces (about 2700 men) in Queens and Richmond boroughs and in
other outlying districts.
Boston. The Boston fire department (reorganized after the great
fire of 1872) is officered by a commissioner (annual salary, $5000),
a chief (annual salary, $4000), a senior deputy ($2400), and a junior
deputy ($2200), twelve district chiefs ($2000 each), a superintendent
and an assistant superintendent of fire-alarms, and a superintendent
and an assistant superintendent of the repair shop. In 1909 the
force numbered 877 regulars and 8 call men. There were 53 steam
fire-engines, 14 chemical engines, 3 water-towers, 3 combination
chemical engines and hose-wagons (one being motor-driven), 3 fire-
boats (built in 1889, 1895 and 1909 respectively), 29 ladder-trucks
and 49 hose-wagons. The auxiliary salt-water main service was
established in 1893. The earliest suggestion of the application of
the electric telegraph to a fire-alarm system was made in Boston in
1845 by Dr Wm. F. Channing; in 1847-1848 Moses G. Farmer, then
a telegraph operator at Framingham, made a practicable electric
telegraph alarm; and in 1851-1855 Farmer became superintendent
of the Boston fire-alarm system, a plant being installed in 1852.*
Chicago. The Chicago organization practically dates from the
fire of 1871, though there was a paid department as early as 1858.
Its principal officers are a fire-marshal and chief of brigade (salary
$8000), four assistant fire-marshals, a department inspector, eighteen
battalion chiefs, a superintendent of machinery, a veterinary and
assistant, and about one hundred each of captains, lieutenants,
engineers and assistant engineers; the total regular force in 1908
was 1799 men with an auxiliary volunteer force of 71 in Riverdale,
Norwood Park, Hansen Park and Ash'burn Park. In the business
part of the city there is a patrol of seven companies employed by
the Board of Fire Underwriters. Since 1895 all men in the uniformed
force (except the chief of brigade) are under civil service rules. In
1908 the equipment incjuded 117 engine companies, 34 hook and
ladder companies, including one water-tower, 1 5 chemical engines and
one hose company; and there were 5 fire-boats (4 active and I
reserve). The first fire-boat was built in 1883. The initial installa-
tion of high-pressure mains was completed in 1902, and was greatly
enlarged in 1908.
Fire Appliances.
Fire-Alarms. Most large cities possess a system of electrical
fire-alarms, consisting of call boxes placed at frequent intervals
along the streets. Any one wishing to give notice of a fire either
opens the door of one of these boxes or breaks the glass window
with which it is fitted, and then pulls the handle inside, thus
causing the particular number allocated to the box, which of
course indicates its position, to be electrically telegraphed to
the nearest fire station, or elsewhere as thought advisable.
Sometimes a telephone is fixed in each call-box. Automatic
fire-alarms consist of arrangements whereby an electric circuit
is closed when the surrounding air reaches a certain temperature.
The electric circuit may be used to start an alarm bell or to give
warning to a watchman or central office, and the devices for
closing it are of the most varied kinds the expansion of mercury
in a thermometer tube, the sagging of a long wire suspended
between horizontal supports, the unequal expansion of the brass
in a curved strip of brass and steel welded together, &c.
Fire- Engines. The earliest method of applying water to the
extinction of fires was by means of buckets, and 'these long
remained the chief instruments employed for the purpose,
though Hero of Alexandria about 150 B.C. described a fire-
1 See Thomas C. Martin, Municipal Electric Fire Alarm and Police
Patrol Systems (Washington, 1904), Bulletin II of the Bureau of the
Census, Department of Commerce and Labour. The next plant was
installed in Philadelphia in 1855; one in St Louis was completed in
1858; and work was begun in New Orleans and Baltimore in 1860.
FIRE APPLIANCES]
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
engine with two cylinders and pistons worked by a reciprocating
lever, and Pliny refers to the use of fire-engines in Rome. In
the 1 6th century (as at Augsburg in 1518) we hear of fire squirts
or syringes worked by hand, and towards the end of the same
century Cyprien Lucar described a very large one operated by
a screw handle. The fire squirts used in London about the time
of the Great Fire were 3 or 4 ft. long by 2^ or 3 in. in diameter,
and three men were required to manipulate them. The next
stage of development was to mount a cistern or reservoir on
wheels so that it was portable, and to provide it with pumps
which forced out the water contained in it through a fixed
delivery pipe in the middle of the machine. An important
advance was made in 1672 when two Dutchmen, Jan van der
Heyde, senior and junior, made flexible hose by sewing together
the edges of a strip of leather, and applied it for both suction and
delivery, so that the engines could be continuously supplied with
water and the stream could be more readily directed on the seat
of the fire. For many years manual engines were the only ones
employed, and they came to be made of great size, requiring as
many as 40 or 50 men to work them; but now they are super-
seded by power-driven engines, at least for all important services.
The first practical steam fire-engine was made by John Braith-
waite about 1829, but though it proved useful in various fires
in London for several years after that date, it was objected to
by the men of the fire brigade and its use was abandoned. A
generation later, however, steam fire-engines began to come into
vogue. At first they were usually drawn by horses to the scene
of the fire, though exceptionally their engines could be geared
to the wheels so that they became self-propelled; and it was not
till the beginning of the 2oth century that motor fire-engines
were employed to any extent. Steam, petrol and electricity
have all been used. Such engines have the advantage that they
can reach a fire much more rapidly than a horse-drawn vehicle,
especially in hilly districts, and they can if necessary be made
of greater power, since their size need not be limited by considera-
tions of the weight that can be drawn by horses. Petrol-propelled
engines can be started off from a station within a few seconds
of the receipt of an alarm, and their pumps are ready to work
immediately the fire is reached; steam-propelled engines possess
the same advantage, if they are kept always standing under
steam, though this involves expense that is avoided with petrol
engines, which cost nothing for maintenance except while they
are actually working. Motor engines are made with a capacity
to deliver 1000 gallons of water a minute or even more, but the
sizes than can deal with 400 or 500 gallons a minute are probably
those most commonly used.
In towns standing on a navigable water-way fire-boats are
often provided for extinguishing fires in buildings, in docks
and along the waterside. The capacity of these may rise to 6000
gallons a minute. Steam is the power most commonly used in
them, both for propulsion and for pumping, but in one built
for Spezia by Messrs Merryweather & Sons of London in 1909,
an 80 H. P. petrol engine was fitted for propulsion, while a steam
engine was employed for pumping. The boiler was fired with
oil-fuel, and steam could be raised in a few minutes while the
boat was on its way to a fire. The pumps could throw a ij-in.
jet to a height of nearly 200 ft. In some places, as at Boston,
Mass., the fire-boats are utilized for service at some distance from
the water. Fire-mains laid through the streets terminate in deep
water at points accessible to the boats, the pumps of which can
be connected to them and made to fill them with water at high
pressure. In cities where a high-pressure hydraulic supply
system is available, a relatively small quantity of the pressure
water can be used, by means of Greathead hydrants or similar
devices, to draw a much larger quantity from the ordinary
mains and force it in jets to considerable heights and distances,
without the intervention of any engine.
The water is conducted from the engines or hydrants in hose-
pipes, which are made either of leather fastened with brass or
copper rivets, or of canvas (woven from flax) which has the
merit of lightness but is liable to rot, or of rubber jacketed with
canvas (or in America with cotton). For directing the water on
X. 14
the fire, nozzles of various forms are employed, some throwing
a plain solid jet, others producing spray, and others again com-
bining jet and spray, the spray being useful to drive away smoke
and protect the firemen. Various devices are employed to
enable the upper storeys of buildings to be effectively reached.
A line of hose may be attached to a telescopic ladder, the exten-
sions of which are pulled out by a wire rope until the top rests
on the wall of the building at the required height. Water-towers
enable the jet to be delivered at a considerable height inde-
pendently of any support from the building. A light, stiff, lattice
steel frame is .mounted on a truck, on which it lies horizontally
while being drawn to a fire, but when it has to be used it is
turned to an upright position, often by the aid of compressed
gas, and then an extensible tube is drawn out to a still greater
height. The direction of the stream delivered at the top may be
controlled from below by means of gearing which enables the
nozzle to be moved both horizontally and vertically. The pipe
up the tower may be of large diameter, so that it can carry a
huge volume of water, and at the bottom it may terminate in a
reservoir into which several fire-engines may pump simultane-
ously.
Another class of fire-engines, known in the smaller portable
sizes as fire-extinguishers or " extincteurs," and in the larger
ones as " chemical engines," throw a jet of water charged with
gas, commonly carbon dioxide, which does not support com-
bustion. Essentially they consist of a closed metal tank, filled
with a solution of some carbonate and also containing a small
vessel of sulphuric acid. Under normal conditions the acid is
kept separate from the solution, but when the machine has to
be used they are mixed together; in some cases there is a plunger
projecting externally, which when struck a sharp blow breaks the
bottle of acid, while in others the act of inverting the apparatus
breaks the bottle or causes it to fall against a sharp pricker
which pierces the metallic capsule that closes it. As soon as the
acid comes into contact with the carbonate solution carbon
dioxide is formed, and a stream of gas and liquid mixed issues
under considerable pressure from the attached nozzle or hose-
pipe. Hand apph'ances of this kind, holding a few gallons,
are often placed in the corridors of hotels, public buildings, &c.,
and if they are well-constructed, so that they do not fail to act
when they are wanted, they are useful in the early stages of a fire,
because they enable a powerful jet to be quickly brought to bear:
but it is doubtful whether the stream of mixed gas and liquid
they emit is much more efficacious than plain water, and too
much importance can easily be attached to spectacular displays
of their power to extinguish artificial blazes of wood soused with
petrol, which have been burning only a few seconds. Chemical
engines, up to 60 or 70 gallons capacity, are used by fire brigades
as first-aid appliances, being mounted on a horsed or motor
vehicle and often combined with a fire-escape, a reel of hose,
and other appliances needed by the firemen, and even with
pumps for throwing powerful jets of ordinary water. Large
buildings, such as hotels and warehouses, where a competent
watchman is assumed to be always on diity, may be protected
by a large chemical engine placed in the basement and connected
by pipes to hydrants placed at convenient points on the various
floors. At each hose-station a handle is provided which when
pulled actuates a device that effects the mixing of the acid and
carbonate solution in the machine, so that in a minute or so a
stream is available at the hydrants.
Automatic Sprinklers. Factories, warehouses and other
buildings in which the fire risks are great, are sometimes fitted
with automatic sprinklers which discharge water from the
ceiling of a room as soon as the temperature rises to a certain
point. Lines of pipes containing water under pressure are carried
through the building near the ceilings at distances of 8 cr 10 ft.
apart, and to these pipes are attached sprinkler heads at intervals
such that the water from them is distributed all over the room.
The valves of the sprinklers are normally kept closed by a device
the essential feature of which is a piece of fusible metal; this
as soon as it is softened (at a temperature of about 160 F.) by
the heat from an incipient fire, gives way and releases the water,
FIREBACK FIREBRICK
which striking against a deflecting plate is spread in a shower.
In situations where the water is liable to freeze, the ceiling pipes
are filled only with air at a pressure of say 10 Ib per sq. in. When
the sprinkler head opens under the influence of the heat from a
fire, the compressed air escapes, and the consequent loss of
pressure in the pipes is arranged to operate a system of levers
that opens the water-valve of the main-feed pipe. The idea of
automatic sprinklers is an old one, and a system was patented
by Sir William Congreve in 1812; but in their present develop-
ment they are specially associated with the name of Frederick
Grinnell, of Providence, Rhode Island.
Fire-Escapes. The best kind of fire-escape, because it is
always in place, and always ready for use, is an external iron
staircase, reaching from the top of a building to the ground,
and connected with balconies accessible from the windows on
each floor. In many towns the building by-laws require such
staircases to be provided on buildings exceeding a certain height
and containing more than a certain number of persons. Of
non-fixed escapes, designed to enable the inmates of an upper
room to reach the ground through the window, numberless
forms have been invented, from simple knotted ropes and
folding ladders to slings and baskets suspended by a rope over
sheaves fixed permanently outside the windows, and provided
with brakes by which the occupant can regulate the speed of
his descent, and to " chutes " or canvas tubes down which
he slides. Fire brigades are provided with telescopic ladders,
mounted on a wheeled carriage, up which the firemen climb;
sometimes the persons rescued are sent down a chute attached
to the apparatus, but many fire brigades think it preferable to
rely on carrying down those who are unable to descend the
ladder unaided. Jumping sheets or nets, held by a number of
men, are provided to catch those whose only chance of escape
is by jumping-from an upper window. (X.)
FIREBACK, the name given to the ornamented slab of cast
iron protecting the back of a fireplace. The date at which
firebacks became common probably synchronizes with the
removal of the fire from the centre to the side or end of a room.
They never became universal, since the proximity of deposits
of iron ore was essential to their use. In England they were
confined chiefly to the iron districts of Sussex and Surrey, and
appear to have ceased being made when the ore in those counties
was exhausted. They are, however, occasionally found in other
parts of the country, and it is reasonable to suppose that there
was a certain commerce in an appliance which gradually assumed
an interesting and even artistic form. The earlier examples
were commonly rectangular, but a shaped or gabled top eventu-
ally became common. English firebacks may roughly be separ-
ated into four chronological divisions those moulded from more
than one movable stamp; armorial backs; allegorical, mytho-
logical and biblical slabs with an occasional portrait; and copies
of 1 7th and i8th century continental designs, chiefly Nether-
landish. The fleur-de-lys, the rosette, and other motives of
detached ornament were much used before attempts were made
to elaborate a homogeneous design, but by the middle of the I7th
century firebacks of a very elaborate type were being produced.
Thus we have representations of the Crucifixion, the death of
f acob, Hercules slaying the hydra, and the plague of serpents.
Coats of arms were very frequent, the royal achievement being
used extensively many existing firebacks bear the arms of
the Stuarts. About the time of Elizabeth the coats of private
families began to be used, the earliest instances remaining
bearing those of the Sackvilles, who were lords of a large portion
of the forest of Anderida, which furnished the charcoal for the
smelting operations in our ancient iron-fields. To the armorial
shields the date was often added, together with the initials
of the owner. The method of casting firebacks was to cut the
design upon a thick slab of oak which was impressed face down-
wards upon a bed of sand, the molten metal being ladled into
the impression. Firebacks were also common in the Netherlands
and in parts of France, notably in Alsace. At Strassburg and
Metz there are several private collections, and there are also
many examples in public museums. The museum of the Porte de
Hal at Brussels contains one of the finest examples in existence
with an equestrian portrait of the emperor Charles V., accom-
panied by his arms and motto. When monarchy was first
destroyed in France the possession of a plaque de cheminee
bearing heraldic insignia was regarded as a mark of disaffection
to the republic, and on the I3th of October 1793 the National
Convention issued a decree giving the owners and tenants of
houses a month in which to turn such firebacks with their face
to the wall, pending the manufacture by the iron foundries of a
sufficient number of backs less offensive to the instinct of equality.
Very few of the old plaques were however removed, and to this
day the old chateaux of France contain many with their backs
outward. Reproductions of ancient chimney backs are now not
infrequently made, and the old examples are much prized and
collected.
FIRE BRAT, a small insect (Thermobia or Thermophila
furnorum) related to the silverfish, and found in bakehouses,
where it feeds upon bread and flour.
FIREBRICK. Under this term are included all bricks, blocks
and slabs used for lining furnaces, fire-mouths, flues, &c., where
the brickwork has to withstand high temperature (see BRICK).
The conditions to which firebricks are subjected in use vary
very greatly as regards changes of temperature, crushing strain,
corrosive action of gases, scouring action of fuel or furnace
charge, chemical action of furnace charge and products of com-
bustion, &c., and in order to meet these different conditions
many varieties of firebricks are manufactured.
Ordinary firebricks are made from fireclays, i.e. from clays
which withstand a high temperature without fusion, excessive
shrinkage or warping. Many clays fulfil these conditions although
the term " fireclay " is generally restricted in use to certain
shales from the Coal Measures, which contain only a small
percentage of soda, potash and lime, and are consequently
highly refractory. There is no fixed standard of refractoriness
for these clays, but no clay should be classed as a fireclay which
has a fusion point below 1600 C.
Fireclays vary considerably in chemical composition, but gener-
ally the percentage of alumina and silica (taken together) is high,
and the percentage of oxide of iron, magnesia, lime, soda and potash
(taken together) is low. Other materials, such as lime, bauxite, &c.,
are also used for the manufacture of firebricks where special chemical
or other properties are necessary.
The suitability of a fireclay for the manufacture of the various
fireclay goods depends upon its physical character as well as upon
its refractoriness, and it is often necessary to mix with the clay a
certain proportion of ground firebrick, gamster, sand or some similar
refractory material in order to obtain a suitable brick. Speaking
generally, fireclay goods used for lining furnaces where the firing
is continuous, or where the lining is in contact with molten metal or
other flux, are best made from fine-grained plastic clays; whereas
firebricks used in fire-mouths and other places which are subjected
to rapid changes of temperature must be made from coarser-grained
and consequently less plastic clays. In all cases care should be taken
to obtain a texture and also, as far as possible, by selection and
mixing, to obtain a chemical composition suitable for the purpose
to which the goods are to be applied. The Coal Measure clays often
contain nodules of siderite in addition to the carbonate of iron
disseminated in fine particles throughout the mass, and these nodules
are carefully picked out as far as practicable before the clay is used.
A firebrick suitable for ordinary purposes should be even and rather
open in texture, fairly coarse in grain, free from cracks or warping,
strong enough to withstand the pressure to which it may be sub-
jected when in use, and sufficiently fired to ensure practically the
full contraction of the material. Very few fireclays meet all these re-
quirements, and it is usual to mix a certain proportion of ground
firebrick, ganister, sand or clay with the fireclay before making up.
The fireclay or shale or other materials are ground either between
rollers or on perforated pans, and then passed through sieves to
ensure a certain size and evenness of grain, after which the clay
and other materials are mixed in suitable proportion in the dry
state, water being generally added in the mixing mill, and the bricks
made up from plastic or semi-plastic clay in the ordinary way.
The proportion of ground firebrick, &c., used depends on the nature
of the clay and the purpose for which the material is required, but
generally speaking the more plastic clays require a higher percentage
of a plastic material than the less plastic clays, the object being to
produce a clay mixture which shall dry and fire without cracking,
warping or excessive shrinkage, and which shall retain after firing
a sufficiently open and even texture to withstand alternate heatings
and coolings without cracking or flaking. For special purposes
FIREFLY FIRESHIP
419
special mixtures are required and many expedients are used to obtain
fireclay goods having certain specific qualities. In preparing clay
for the manufacture of ordinary fire-grate backs, &c., where the
temperature is very variable but never very high, a certain per-
centage of sawdust is often mixed with the fireclay, which burns out
on firing and ensures a very open or porous texture. Such material
is much less liable to splitting or flaking in use than one having a
closer texture, but it is useless for furnace lining and similar work,
where strength and resistance to wear and tear are essential. For
the construction of furnaces, fire-mouths, &c., the firebrick used
must be sufficiently strong and rigid to withstand the crushing
strain of the superimposed brickwork, &c., at the highest temperature
to which they are subjected.
The wearing out of a firebrick used in the construction of furnaces,
&c., takes place in various ways according to the character of the
brick and the particular conditions to which it is subjected. The
firebrick may waste by crumbling due to excessive porosity or
openness of texture; it may waste by shattering, due to the presence
of large pebbles, pieces of limestone, &c. ; it may gradually wear
away by the friction of the descending charge in the furnace, of the
solid particles carried by the flue gases and of the flue gases them-
selves; it may waste by the gradual vitrification of the surface
through contact with fluxing materials: in cases where it is sub-
jected to very high temperature it will gradually vitrify and contract
and so split and fall away from the setting. It is a well-recognized
fact that successive firings to a temperature approaching the fusion
point, or long continued heating near that temperature, will gradually
produce vitrification, which brings about a very dense mass and close
texture, and entirely alters the properties of the brick.
Where firebricks are in contact with the furnace charge it is
necessary that the texture shall be fairly close, and that the chemical
composition of the brick shall be such as to retard the formation of
fusible double silicates as much as possible. Where the furnace
charge is basic the firebrick should, generally speaking, be basic or
aluminous and not siliceous, i.e. it should be made from a fireclay
containing little free silica, or from such a fireclay to which a high
percentage of alumina, "rime, magnesia, or iron oxide has been added.
For such purposes firebricks are often made from materials con-
taining little or no clay, as for example mixtures of calcined and
uncalcined magnesite; mixtures of lime and magnesia and their
carbonates; mixtures of bauxite and clay; mixtures of bauxite,
clay and plumbago; bauxite and oxide of iron, &c.
In certain cases it is necessary to use an acid brick, and for the
manufacture of these a highly siliceous mineral, such as chert or
ganister, is used, mixed if necessary with sufficient clay to bind the
material together. Dinas fireclay, so-called, and the ganisters of
the south" Yorkshire coal-fields are largely used for making these
siliceous firebricks, which may be also used where the brickwork
does not come in contact with basic material, as in the arches, &c.,
of many furnaces. It is evident that no particular kind of firebrick
can be suitable for all purposes, and the manufacturer should en-
deavour to make his bricks of a definite composition, texture, &c.,
to meet certain definite requirements, recognizing that the materials
at his disposal may be ill-adapted or entirely unsuitable for making
firebricks for other purposes. In setting firebricks in position, a
thin paste of fireclay and water or of material similar to that of
which the brick is composed, must be used in place of ordinary
mortar, and the joints should be as close as possible, only just
sufficient of the paste being used to enable the bricks to " bed on
one another.
It has long been the practice on certain works to wash the face of
firebrick work with a thin paste of some very refractory material
such as kaolin in order to protect the firebricks from the direct
action of the flue gases, &c., and quite recently a thin paste of
carborundum and clay, or carborundum and silicate of soda has
been more extensively used for the same purpose. So-called carbor-
undum bricks have been put on the market, which have a coating of
carborundum and clay fired on to the firebrick, and which are said to
have a greatly extended life for certain purposes. It is probable that
the carborundum gradually decomposes in the firing, leaving a thin
coating of practically pure silica which forms a smooth, impervious
and highly-refractory facing. (J. B.*; W. B.*)
FIREFLY, a term popularly used for certain tropical American
click-beetles (Pyrophorus) , on account of their power of emitting
light. The insects belong to the family Elateridae, whose char-
acters are described under Coleoptera (g.v.). The genus Pyro-
phorus contains about ninety species, and is entirely confined to
America and the West Indies, ranging from the southern United
States to Argentina and Chile. Its species are locally known as
cucujos. Except for a few species in the New Hebrides, New
Caledonia and Fiji, the luminous Elateridae are unknown in the
eastern hemisphere. The light proceeds from a pair of con-
spicuous smooth ovoid spots on the pronotum and from an area
beneath the base of the abdomen. Beneath the cuticle of these
regions are situated the luminous organs, consisting of layers of
cells which may be regarded as a specialized portion of the
fat-body. Both the male and female fireflies emit light, as well
as their larvae and eggs, the egg being luminous even while
still in the ovary. The inhabitants of tropical America some-
times keep fireflies in small cages for purposes of illumination,
or make use of the insects for personal adornment.
The name " firefly " is often applied also to luminous beetles
of the family Lampyridae, to which the well-known glow-worm
belongs.
FIRE-IRONS, the implements for tending a fire. Usually
they consist of poker, tongs and shovel, and they are most
frequently of iron, steel, or brass, or partly of one and partly
of another. The more elegant brass examples of the early part
of the ipth century are much sought after for use with the brass
fenders of that date. They were sometimes hung from an
ornamental brass stand. The fire-irons of our own times are
smaller in size and lighter in make than those of the best period.
FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO (i4Q3-c. 1545), Italian poet and
litterateur, was born at Florence on the z8th of September 1493.
The family name was taken from the town of Firenzuola, situated
at the foot of the Apennines, its original home. The grandfather
of Agnolo had obtained the citizenship of Florence and trans-
mitted it to his family. Agnolo was destined for the profession
of the law, and pursued his studies first at Siena and afterwards
at Perugia. There he became the associate of the notorious
Pietro Aretino, whose foul life he was not ashamed to make the
model of his own. They met again at Rome, where Firenzuola
practised for a time the profession of an advocate, but with
little success. It is asserted by all his biographers that while
still a young man he assumed the monastic dress at Vallombrosa,
and that he afterwards held successively two abbacies. Tira-
boschi alone ventures to doubt this account, partly on the
ground of Firenzuola's licentiousness, and partly on the ground
of absence of evidence; but his arguments are not held to be
conclusive. Firenzuola left Rome after the death of Pope
Clement VII., and after spending some time at Florence, settled
at Prato as abbot of San Salvatore. His writings, of which a
collected edition was published in 1548, are partly in prose and
partly in verse, and belong to the lighter classes of literature.
Among the prose works are Discorsi degli animali, imitations
of Oriental and Aesopian fables, of which there are two French
translations; Dialogo delle bellezze delle donne, also translated
into French; Ragionamenli amorosi, a series of short tales in
the manner of Boccaccio, rivalling him in. elegance and in licen-
tiousness; Discacciamento delle nuove letlere, a controversial piece
against Trissino's proposal to introduce new letters into the
Italian alphabet; a free version or adaptation of The Golden
Ass of Apuleius, which became a favourite book and passed
through many editions; and two comedies, / Lucidi, an imitation
of the Menaechmi of Plautus, and La Trinuzia, which in some
points resembles the Calandria of Cardinal Bibbiena. His
poems are chiefly satirical and burlesque. All his works are
esteemed as models of literary excellence, and are cited as authori-
ties in the vocabulary of the Accademia della Crusca. The date
of Firenzuola's death is only approximately ascertained. He
had been dead several years when the first edition of his writings
appeared (1548).
His works have been very frequently republished, separately and
in collected editions. A convenient reprint of the whole was issued
at Florence in 2 vols. in 1848.
FIRESHIP, a vessel laden with combustibles, floated down
on an enemy to set him on fire. Fireships were used in antiquity,
and in the middle ages. The highly successful employment
of one by the defenders of Antwerp when besieged by the prince
of Parma in 1585 brought them into prominent notice, and they
were used to drive the Armada from its anchorage at Gravelines
in 1588. They continued to be used, sometimes with great
effect, as late as the first quarter of the igth century. Thus
in 1809 fireships designed by Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald)
were employed against the French ships at anchor in the Basque
Roads; and in the War of Greek Independence the successes of
the Greek fireships against the Ottoman navy, and the conse-
quent demoralization of the ill-disciplined Turkish crews, largely
420
FIRE-WALKINGFIREWORKS
contributed to secure for the insurgents the command of the sea.
In general, however, it was found that fireships hampered the
movements of a fleet, were easily sunk by an enemy's fire, or
towed aside by his boats, while a premature explosion was
frequently fatal to the men who had to place them in position.
They were made by building " a fire chamber " between the decks
from the forecastle to a bulkhead constructed abaft the main-
mast. This space was filled with resin, pitch, tallow and tar,
together with gunpowder in iron vessels. The gunpowder and
combustibles were connected by trains of powder, and by
bundles of brushwood called " bavins." When a fireship was
to be used, a body of picked men steered her down on the enemy,
and when close enough set her alight, and escaped in a boat
which was towed astern. As the service was peculiarly dangerous
a reward of 100, or in lieu of it a gold chain with a medal to be
worn as a mark of honour, was granted in the British navy to the
successful captain of a fireship. A rank of capitaine de brulot
existed in the French navy of Louis XIV., and was next to the
full captain or capitaine de iiaisseau.
FIRE-WALKING, a religious ceremony common to many
races. The origin and meaning of the custom is very obscure,
but it is shown to have been widespread in all ages. It still
survives in Bulgaria, Trinidad, Fiji Islands, Tahiti, India, the
Straits Settlements, Mauritius, and it is said Japan. The details
of its ritual and its objects vary in different lands, but the
essential feature of the rite, the passing of priests, fakirs, and
devotees barefoot over heated stones or smouldering ashes is
always the same. Fire-walking was usually associated with
the spring festivals and was believed to ensure a bountiful
harvest. Such was the Chinese vernal festival of fire. In the
time of Kublai Khan the Taoist Buddhists held great festivals
to the " High Emperor of the Sombre Heavens " and walked
through a great fire barefoot, preceded by their priests bearing
images of their gods in their arms. Though they were severely
burned, these devotees held that they would pass unscathed
if they had faith. J. G. Frazer (Golden Bough, vol. iii. p. 307)
describes the ceremony in the Chinese province of Fo-kien.
The chief performers are labourers who must fast for three days
and observe chastity for a week. During this time they are
taught in the temple how they are to perform their task. On
the eve of the festival a huge brazier of charcoal, often twenty
feet wide, is prepared in front of the temple of the great god. At
sunrise the next morning the brazier is lighted. A Taoist priest
throws a mixture of salt and rice into the flames. The two
exorcists, barefooted and followed by two peasants, traverse
the fire again and again till it is somewhat beaten down. The
trained performers then pass through with the image of the god.
Frazer suggests that, as the essential feature of the rite is the
carrying of the deity through the flames, the whole thing is
sympathetic magic designed to give to the coming spring sun-
shine (the supposed divine emanation), that degree of heat
which the image experiences. Frazer quotes Indian fire-walks,
notably that of the Dosadhs, a low Indian caste in Behar and
Chota Nagpur. On the fifth, tenth, and full moon days of three
months in the year, the priest walks over a narrow trench
filled with smouldering wood ashes. The Bhuiyas, a Dravidian
tribe of Mirzapur, worship their tribal hero Bir by a like per-
formance, and they declare that the walker who is really " pos-
sessed " by the hero feels no pain. For fire-walking as observed
in the Madras presidency see Indian Antiquary, vii. (1878)
p. 126; iii. (1874) pp. 6-8; ii. (1873) p. 190 seq. In Fiji the
ceremony is called vilavilarevo, and according to an eyewitness
a number of natives walk unharmed across and among white-
hot stones which form the pavement of a huge native oven.
In Tahiti priests perform the rite. In April 1899 an Englishman
saw a fire-walk in Tokio (see The Field, May 2oth, 1899). The
fire was six yards long by six wide. The rite was in honour of a
mountain god. The fire-walkers in Bulgaria are called Nistinares
and the faculty is regarded as hereditary. They dance in the
fire on the zist of May, the feast of SS. Helena and Constantine.
Huge fires of faggots are made, and when these burn down the
Nistinares (who turn blue in the face) dance on the red-hot
embers and utter prophecies, afterwards placing their feet in the
muddy ground where libations of water have been poured.
The interesting part of fire-walking is the alleged immunity
of the performers from burns. On this point authorities and
eyewitnesses differ 'greatly. In a case in Fiji a handkerchief
was thrown on to the stones when the first man leapt into the
oven, and what remained of it snatched up as the last left the
stones. Every fold that touched the stone was charred! In
some countries a thick ointment is rubbed on the feet, but this
is not usual, and the bulk of the reports certainly leave an im-
pression that there is something still to be explained in the
escape of the performers from shocking injuries. S. P. Langley,
who witnessed a fire-walk in Tahiti, declares, however, that the
whole rite as there practised is a mere symbolic farce (Nature
for August 22nd, 1901).
For a full discussion of the subject with many eyewitnesses' reports
in extenso, see A. Lang, Magic and Religion (1901). See also Dr
Gustav Oppert, Original Inhabitants of India, p. 480; W. Crooke,
Introd. to Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, p. 10
(1896); Folklore Journal tor September 1895 and for 1903, vol. xiv.
P- 87.
FIREWORKS. In modern times this term is principally
associated with the art of " pyrotechny " (Gr. irvp, fire, and
Tt\vri, art), and confined to the production of pleasing scenic
effects by means of fire and inflammable and explosive substances.
But the history of the evolution of such displays is bound up
with that of the use of such substances not only for scenic
display but for exciting fear and for military purposes; and it is
consequently complicated by our lack of exact knowledge as
to the materials at the disposal of the ancients prior to the
invention of gunpowder (see also the article GREEK FIRE). For
the following historical account the term " fireworks " is therefore
used in a rather general sense.
History. It is usually stated that from very ancient times
fireworks were known in China; it is, however, difficult to
assign dates or quote trustworthy authorities. Pyrotechnic
displays were certainly given in the Roman circus. While a
passage in Manilius, 1 who lived in the days of Augustus, seems
to bear this interpretation, there is the definite evidence of
Vopiscus 2 that fireworks were performed for the empercr
Carinus and later for the emperor Diocletian; and Claudian, 3
writing in the 4th century, gives a poetical description of a set
piece, where .whirling wheels and dropping fountains of fire
were displayed upon the pegma, a species of movable framework
employed in the various spectacles presented in the circus.
After the fall of the Western empire no mention of fireworks
can be traced until the Crusaders carried back with them to
Europe a knowledge of the incendiary compounds of the East,
and gunpowder had made its appearance. Biringuccio, 4 writing
in 1540, says that at an anterior period it had been customary
at Florence and Siena to represent a fable or story at the Feast
of St John or at the Assumption, and that on these occasions
stage properties, including effigies with wooden bodies and
plaster limbs, were grouped upon lofty pedestals, and that these
figures gave forth flames, whilst round about tubes or pipes were
erected for projecting fire-balls into the air: but he adds that
these shows were never heard of in his time except at Rome
when a pope was elected or crowned. But if relinquished in Italy,
fire festivals on the eve of St John were observed both in England
and France; the custom was a very old one in the days of Queen
Elizabeth, 5 while De Frezier, 6 writing in 1707, says it was com-
monly adhered to in his time, and that on one occasion the king
of France himself set a light to the great Paris bonfire. Survivals
of these curious rites have been noted quite recently in Scotland
and Ireland. 7 Early use also of fireworks was made in plays
and pageants. Hell or hell's mouth was represented by a
1 Manilius, Astronomica, lib. v., 438-443.
2 Vopiscus, Carus, Numerianus el Carinus, ch. xix.
1 Claudianus, De consulatu Manlii Theodori, 325-330.
4 Vanuzzio Biringuccio, Pyrotechnia.
6 Strutts, Sports and Pastimes of the English People.
6 De Frezier, Traitt des feux a' artifice (1707 and 1747).
7 Notes and Queries, series 5, vol. ix. p. 140, and series 8, vol. ii.
pp. 145 and 254.
FIREWORKS
421
gigantic head out of which flames were made to issue: 1 in the
river procession on the occasion of the marriage of Henry VII.
and Elizabeth (1487) the " Bachelors' Barge " carried a dragon
spouting flames, and Hall relates that at the marriage of Anne
Boleyn (1538) " there went before the lord mayor's barge a
foyst or wafter full of ordnance, which foyst also carried a great
red dragon that spouted out wild fyre and round about were
terrible monstrous and wild men casting fire and making a hideous
noise." 2 These individuals were known as " green men."
Their clothing was green, they wore fantastic masks, and carried
" fire clubs." They were sometimes employed to clear the way
at processions. 3
Soon after the introduction of gunpowder the gunner and
fireworker came into existence; at first they were not soldiers,
but civilians who sometimes exercised military functions, and
part of their duties was intimately connected with the preparation
of fireworks both for peace and war. The emperor Charles V.
brought his fireworks under definite regulations in IS3S, 4 and
eventually other countries did the same. The ignes triumphales
were an early form of public fireworks. Scaffold poles were
erected with trophies at their summits, while fixed around them
were tiers of casks filled with combustibles, so that they presented
the appearance of huge flaming trees; at their bases crouched
dragons or other mythical beasts. With such a display Antwerp
welcomed the archduke of Austria in 1550.* Then the " fire
combat " came into fashion. Helmets from which flames would
issue were provided for the performers; there were also swords
and clubs that would give out sparks at every stroke, lances
with fiery points, and bucklers that when struck gave forth a
detonation and a flame. A picture of a combat with weapons
s^ch as these will be found in Hanzelet's Recueil de machines
militaires (1620). In addition, the fireworker grew to be some-
what of a scenic artist who could devise a romantic background
and fill it with shapes bizarre, beautiful or terrific; he had to
make his castle, his cave or his rocky ravine, and people his
stage with distressed damsel, errant knight or devouring dragon.
Furthermore he had to give motion to the inanimate persons of
the drama; thus his dragon would run down an incline on
hidden wheels, be actuated by a rope, or be propelled by a rocket. 9
In 1613 at the marriage of the prince palatine to the daughter
of James, the pyrotechnic display was confided to four of the
king's gunners, who provided a fiery drama which included a
giant, a dragon, a lady, St George, a conjurer, and an enchanted
castle, jumbled up together after the approved fashion of the
Spenserian legends. 7 As time went on a more refined taste
rejected the bizarre features of the old displays, artistic merit
began to creep into the designs, and an effort was made to
introduce something appropriate to the occasion. Thus Clarmer
of Nuremberg, a well-known fire-worker, celebrated the capture
of Rochelle (1613) by an adaptation of the Andromeda legend,
where Rochelle was the rock, Andromeda the Catholic religion,
the monster Heresy, and Perseus on his Pegasus the all-conquer-
ing Louis XIII. 8 In the first half of the 1 7th century many books 9
on fireworks appeared, which avoided the old grotesque ideas
and advocated skill and finesse. " It is a rare thing," says Nye
1 J. B. Nichols & Sons, London Pageants.
1 Hall's Ch
Chronicles.
'J. Bate. Mysteries of Nature and Art (1635). This contains a
picture of a green man.
i Geschichte des Feuerwerkswesen (Berlin, 1887). The Jubilee
pamphlet of the Brandenburg Artillery.
6 See " Fairholts' Collection " bequeathed to the Royal Society of
Antiquaries.
8 Journal of the Royal Artillery, vol. xxxii. No. II.
7 Somers' Tracts, vol. iii. " De Frezier.
'Diego Ufano, Artillery, in Spanish (1614); Master Gunner
Norton, The Gunner and The Gunner's Dialogue (1628); F. de
Malthe (Malthus), Artificial Fireworks, in French and English
(1628); " Hanzelet," Recueil de plusieurs machines militaires etfeux
artificiels pour la guerre et recreation (1620 and 1630) ; Furttenback,
master gunner of Bavaria, HalinitroPyrobolio,in German (1627) ;(John
Babington Matross, Pyrotechnia, 1635) ; Nye, master gunner_ of
Worcester, Art of Gunnery (Worcester, 1648) ; Casimir Siemienowitz,
lieut.-general of the Ordnance to the king of Poland, The Great Art of
Artillery, in French (1650).
(1648), " to represent a tree or fountain in the air." The most
celebrated work of them all was the Great Art of Artillery by
Siemienowitz, which was considered important enough to be
translated into English by order of the Board of Ordnance, nearly
eighty years after it had appeared. 10 The classic facade now
came into fashion; on it and about it were placed emblematic
figures, and disposed around were groups of rockets, Roman
candles, &c., musket barrels for projecting stars, and mortars
from which were fired shells called balloons, which were full of
combustibles. The figures were carved out of wood which was
soaped or waxed over and covered with papier mache so that
a skin was formed: this was cut vertically into two parts,
removed from the wood, formed into a hollow figure, and filled
with fireworks.
National fireworks now assumed a stately and dignified appear-
ance, and for two centuries played a conspicuous part all over
Europe in the public expression of thanksgiving or of triumph.
Representations and sometimes accounts will be found in the
British Museum " of the more important English displays,
from the coronation of James II. down to the peace rejoicings
of 1856, during which period national fireworks were provided
by the officials of the Ordnance. But since the days of Ranelagh
and Vauxhall fireworks have become a subject of private enter-
prise, and the triumphs of such firms as Messrs Brock or Messrs
Pain at the Crystal Palace and elsewhere have been without
an official rival. (J. R. J. J.)
Modern Fireworks. In modern times the art of pyrotechny
has been gradually improved by the work of specialists, who
have had the advantage of being guided by the progress of
scientificchemistryandmechanics. As in all such cases, however,
science is useless without the aid of practical experience and
acquired manual dexterity.
Many substances have a strong tendency to combine with
oxygen, and will do so, in certain circumstances, so energetically
as to render the products of the combination (which may be
solid matter or gas) intensely hot and luminous. This is the
general cause of the phenomenon known as fire. Its special
character depends chiefly on the nature of the substances burned
and on the manner in which the oxygen is supplied to them.
As is well known, our atmosphere contains oxygen gas diluted
with about four times its volume of nitrogen; and it is this
oxygen which supports the combustion of our coal and candles.
But it is not often that the pyrotechnist depends wholly upon
atmospheric oxygen for his purposes; for the phenomena of
combustion in it are too familiar, and too little capable of varia-
tion, to strike with wonder. Two cases, however, where he does
so may be instanced, viz. the burning of magnesium powder
and of lycopodium, both of which are used for the imitation of
lightning in theatres. Nor does the pyrotechnist resort much
to the use of pure oxygen, although very brilliant effects may
be produced by burning various substances in glass jars filled
with the gas. Indeed, the art could never have existed in any-
thing like its present form had- not certain solid substances
become known which, containing oxygen in combination with
other elements, are capable of being made to evolve large volumes
of it at the moment it is required. The best examples of these
solid oxidizing agents are potassium nitrate (nitre or saltpetre)
and chlorate; and these are of the first importance in the
manufacture of fireworks. If a portion of one of these salts
be thoroughly powdered and mixed with the correct quantity
of some suitable combustible body, r also reduced to powder,
the resulting mixture is capable of burning with more or less
energy without any aid from atmospheric oxygen, since each
small piece of fuel is in close juxtaposition to an available and
sufficient store of the gas. All that is required is that the libera-
tion of the oxygen from the solid particles which contain it shall
be started by the application of heat from without, and the
10 Translated by George Shelvocke, 1727, by order of the surveyor-
general of the Ordnance.
11 " Grace Collection " in the print-room; the King's Prints and
Drawings in the library. See also " The Connection ofthe Ordnance
Department with National and Royal Fireworks," R. A. Journal,
vol. xxii. No. ii.
422
FIREWORKS
action then goes on unaided. This, then, is the fundamental
fact of pyrotechny that, with proper attention to the chemical
nature of the substances employed, solid mixtures (compositions
or fuses} may be prepared which contain within themselves
all that is essential for the production of fire.
If nitre and potassium chlorate, with other salts of nitric
and chloric acids and a few similar compounds, be grouped
together as oxidizing agents, most of the other materials used
in making firework compositions may be classed as oxidizable
substances. Every composition must contain at least one
sample of each class: usually there are present more than one
oxidizable substance, and very often more than one oxidizing
agent. In all cases the proportions by weight which the in-
gredients of a mixture bear to one another is a matter of much
importance, for it greatly affects the manner and rate of com-
bustion. The most important oxidizable substances employed
are charcoal and sulphur. These two, it is well known, when
properly mixed in certain proportions with the oxidizing agent
nitre, constitute gunpowder; and gunpowder plays an important
part in the construction of most fireworks. It is sometimes
employed alone, when a strong explosion is required; but more
commonly it is mixed with one or more of its own ingredients
and with other matters. In addition to charcoal and sulphur,
the following oxidizable substances are more or less employed:
many compounds of carbon, such as sugar, starch, resins, &c. ;
certain metallic compounds of sulphur, such as the sulphides of
arsenic and antimony; a few of the metals themselves, such as
iron, zinc, magnesium, antimony, copper. Of these metals
iron (cast-iron and steel) is more used than any of the others.
They are all employed in the form of powder or small filings.
They do not contribute much to the burning power of the
composition; but when it is ignited they become intensely
heated and are discharged into the air, where they oxidize
more or less completely and cause brilliant sparks and
scintillations.
Sand, potassium sulphate, calomel and some other substances,
which neither combine with oxygen nor supply it, are sometimes
employed as ingredients of the compositions in order to influence
the character of the fire. This may be modified in many ways.
Thus the rate of combustion may be altered so as to give anything
from an instantaneous explosion to a slow fire lasting many
minutes. The flame may be clear, smoky, or charged with glow-
ing sparks. But the most important characteristic of a fire
one to which great attention is paid by pyrotechnists is its
colour, which may be varied through the different shades and
combinations of yellow, red, green and blue. These colours
are imparted to the flame by the presence in it of the heated
vapours of certain metals, of which the following are the most
important: sodium, which gives a yellow colour; calcium,
red; strontium, crimson; barium, green; copper, green or
blue, according to circumstances. Suitable salts of these metals
are much used as ingredients of fire mixtures; and they are
decomposed and volatilized during the process of combustion.
Very often the chlorates and nitrates are employed, as they
serve the double purpose of supplying oxygen and of imparting
colour to the flame.
The number of fire mixtures actually employed is very great,
for the requirements of each variety of firework, and of almost
each size of each variety, are different. Moreover, every pyro-
technist has his own taste in the matter of compositions. They
are capable, however, of being classified according to the nature
of the work to which they are suited. Thus there are rocket-
fuses, gerbe-fuses, squib-fuses, star-compositions, &c.; and, in
addition, there are a few which are essential in the construction
of most fireworks, whatever the main composition may be.
Such are the starting-powder, which first catches the fire, the
bursting-powder, which causes the final explosion, and the quick-
match (cotton-wick, dried after being saturated with a paste of
gunpowder and starch), employed for connecting parts of the more
complicated works and carrying the fire from one to another.
Of the general nature of fuses an idea may be had from the
following two examples, which are selected at hazard from
among the numerous recipes for making, respectively, tourbillion
fire and green stars:
Tourbillion. _ Green Stars.
Meal gunpowder . . 24 parts.
Nitre .
Sulphur
Charcoal
10
7
4
8'
Potassium chlorate
16 parts.
48
12
I
Barium nitrate
Sulphur
Charcoal .
Steel filings . . . 8 Shellac . .
Calomel .
Copper sulphide
Although the making of compositions is of the first importance,
it is not the only operation with which the pyrotechnist has to do ;
for the construction of the cases in which they are to be packed,
and the actual processes of packing and finishing, require much
care and dexterity. These cases are made of paper or pasteboard,
and are generally of a cylindrical shape. In size they vary
greatly, according to the effect which it is desired to produce.
The relations of length to thickness, of internal to external
diameter, and of these to the size of the openings for discharge,
are matters of extreme importance, and must always be attended
to with almost mathematical exactness and considered in
connexion with the nature of the composition which is to be
used.
There is one very important property of fireworks that is
due more to the mechanical structure of the cases and the manner
in which they are filled than to the precise chemical character
of the composition, i.e. their power of motion. Some are so
constructed that the piece is kept at rest and the only motion
possible is that of the flame and sparks which escape during
combustion from the mouth of the case. Others, also fixed,
contain, alternately with layers of some more ordinary com-
positions, balls or blocks of a special mixture cemente'd by some
kind of varnish; and these stars, as they are called, shot into the
air, one by one, like bullets from a gun, blaze and burst there
with striking effect. But in many instances motion is imparted
to the firework as a whole to the case as well as to its contents.
This motion, various as it is in detail, is almost entirely one of two
kinds rotatory motion round a fixed point, which may be in the
centre of gravity of a single piece or that of a whole system of
pieces, and free ascending motion through the air. In all cases the
cause of motion is the same, viz. that large quantities of gaseous
matter are formed by the combustion, that these can escape
only at certain apertures, and that a backward pressure is neces-
sarily exerted at the point opposite to them. When a large
gun is discharged, it recoils a few feet. Movable fireworks may
be regarded as very light guns loaded with heavy charges; and
in them the recoil is therefore so much greater as to be the
most noticeable feature of the discharge; and it only requires
proper contrivances to make the piece fly through the air like
a sky-rocket or revolve round a central axis like a Catherine
wheel. Beauty of motion is hardly less important in pyro-
techny than brilliancy of fire and variety of colour.
The following is a brief description of some of the forms of fire-
work most employed :
Fixed Fires. Theatre fires consist of a slow composition which
may be heaped in a conical pile on a tile or a flagstone and lit at
the apex. They require no cases. Usually the fire is coloured
green, red or blue ; and beautiful effects are obtained by illuminating
buildings wjth it. It is also used on the stage; but, in that case,
the composition must be such as to give no suffocating or poisonous
fumes. Bengal lights are very similar, but are piled in saucers,
covered with gummed paper, and lit by means of pieces of match.
Marroons are small boxes wrapped round several times with lind
cord and filled with a strong composition which explodes with a loud
report. They are generally used in batteries, or in combination with
some other form of firework. Squibs are straight cylindrical cases
about 6 in. long, firmly closed at one end, tightly packed with a
strong composition, and capped with touch-paper. Usually a little
bursting-powder is put in before the ordinary composition, so that
the fire is finished by an explosion. The character of the fire is, of
course, susceptible of great variation in colour, &c. Crackers are
characterized by the cases being doubled backwards and forwards
several times, the folds being pressed close and secured by twine.
One end is primed; and when this is lit the cracker burns with a
hissing noise, and a loud report occurs every time the fire reaches a
bend. If the cracker is placed on the ground, it will give a jump at
each report ; so that it cannot quite fairly be classed among the
fixed fireworks. Roman candles are straight cylindrical cases filled
FIRM FIRMICUS
423
with layers of composition and stars alternately. These stars are
simply balls of some special composition, usually containing metallic
filings, made up with gum and spirits of wine, cut to the required
size and shape, dusted with gunpowder and dried. They are dis-
charged like blazing bullets several feet into the air, and produce a
beautiful effect, which may be enhanced by packing stars of differ-
ently coloured fire in one case. Gerbes are choked cases, not unlike
Roman candles, but often of much larger size. Their fire spreads
like a sheaf of wheat. They may be packed with variously coloured
stars, which will rise 30 ft. or more. Lances are small straight cases
charged with compositions like those used for making stars. They
are mostly used in complex devices, for which purpose they are fixed
with wires on suitable wooden frames. They are connected by
leaders, i.e. by quick-match enclosed in paper tubes, so that they
can be regulated to take fire all at the same time, singly, or in detach-
ments, as may be desired. The devices and " set pieces " constructed
jn this way are often of an extremely elaborate character; and they
include all the varieties of lettered designs, of fixed suns, fountains,
palm-trees, waterfalls, mosaic work. Highland tartan, portraits, ships, &c.
Rotating Fireworks. Pin or Catherine wheels are long paper
cases filled with a composition by means of a funnel and packing-
wire and afterwards wound round a disk of wood. This is fixed by
a pin, sometimes vertically and sometimes horizontally; and the
outer primed end of the spiral is lit. As the fire escapes the recoil
causes the wheel to revolve in an opposite direction and often with
considerable velocity. Pastiles are very similar in principle and
construction. Instead of the case being wound in a spiral and
made to revolve round its own centre point, it may be used as the
engine to drive a wheel or other form of framework round in a
circle. Many varied effects are thus produced, of which the fire-
wheel is the simplest. Straight cases, filled with some fire-com-
position, are attached to the end of the spokes of a wheel or other
mechanism capable of being rotated. They are all pointed in the
same direction at an angle to the spokes, and they are connected
together by leaders, so that each, as'it burns out, fires the one next
it. The pieces may be so chosen that brilliant effects of changing
colour are produced ; or various fire-wheels of different colours may
be combined, revolving in different planes and different directions
some fast and some slowly. Bisecting wheels, plural wheels, caprice
wheels, spiral wheels, are all more or less complicated forms; and
it is possible to produce, by mechanism of this nature, a model in
fire of the solar system.
Ascending Fireworks. Tourbillions are fireworks so constructed
as to ascend in the air and rotate at the same time, forming beautiful
spiral curves of fire. The straight cylindrical case is closed at the
centre and at the two ends with plugs of plaster of Paris, the com-
position occupying the intermediate parts. The fire finds vent by
six holes pierced in the case. Two of these are placed close to the
ends, but at opposite sides, so that one end discharges to the right
and the other to the left; and it is this which imparts the rotatory
motion. The other holes are placed along the middle line of what is
the under-surface of the case when it is laid horizontally on the
ground; and these, discharging downwards, impart an upward
motion to the whole. A cross piece of wood balances the tourbillion ;
and the quick-match and touch-paper are so arranged that com-
bustion begins at the two ends simultaneously and does not reach
the holes of ascension till after the rotation is fairly begun. The
sky-rocket is generally considered the most beautiful of all fireworks ;
and it certainly is the one that requires most skill and science in its
construction. It consists essentially of two parts, the body and the
head. The body is a straight cylinder of strong pasted paper and
is choked at the lower end, so as to present only a narrow opening
for the escape of the fire. The composition does not fill up the case
entirely, for a central hollow conical bore extends from the choked
mouth up the body for three-quarters of its length. This is an
essential feature of the rocket. It allows of nearly the whole com-
position being fired at once ; the result of which is that an enormous
quantity of heated gases collects in the hollow bore, and the gases,
forcing their way downwards through the narrow opening, urge the
rocket up through the air. The top of the case is closed by a plaster-
of-Paris plug. A hole passes through this and is filled with a fuse,
which serves to communicate the fire to the head after the body is
burned out. This head, which is made separately and fastened on
after the body is packed, consists of a short cylindrical paper chamber
with a conical top. It serves the double purpose of cutting a way
through the air and of holding the garniture of stars, sparks, crackers,
serpents, gold and silver rain, &c., which are scattered by bursting
fire as soon as the rocket reaches the highest point of its path. A
great variety of beautiful effects may be obtained by the exercise of
ingenuity in the choice and construction of this garniture. Many of
the best results have been obtained by unpublished methods which
must be regarded as the secrets of the trade. The stick of the sky-
rocket serves the purpose of guiding and balancing it in its flight;
and its size must be accurately adapted to the dimensions of the case.
In winged rockets the stick is replaced by cardboard wings, which act
like the feathers of an arrow. A girandole is the simultaneous dis-
charge of a large number of rockets (often from one hundred to two
hundred), which either spread like a peacock's tail or pierce the
sky in all directions with rushing lines of fire. This is usually the
final feat of a great pyrotechnic display.
See Chertier, Sur les feux d'arlifice (Paris, 1841 ; 2nd ed., 1854) >
Mortimer, Manual of Pyrotechny (London, 1856) ; Tessier, Chimie
pyrotechnique, ou traite pratique des feux colores (Paris, 1858) ;
Richardson and Watts, Chemical Technology, s.v. " Pyrotechny "
(London, 1863-1867); Thomas Kentish, The Pyrotechnist's Treasury
(London, 1878); Websky, Luftfeuerwerkkunst (Leipzig, 1878).
(O. M.)
FIRM, an adjective originally indicating a dense or close
consistency, hence steady, unshaken, unchanging or fixed. This
word, in M. Eng. ferme, is derived through the French, from Lat.
firntus. The medieval Latin substantive firma meant a fixed
payment, either in the way of rent, composition for periodic
payments, &c.; and this word, often represented by "firm"
in translations of medieval documents, has produced the English
" farm " (<?..). From a late Latin use of firmare, to confirm
by signature, firma occurs in many Romanic languages for a
signature, and the English " firm " was thus used till the i8th
century. From a transferred use came the meaning of a business
house. In the Partnership Act 1890, persons who have entered
into partnership with one another are called collectively a firm,
and the name under which their business is carried on is called
the firm-name.
FIRMAMENT, the sky, the heavens. In the Vulgate the
word firmamentum, which means in classical Latin a strengthen-
ing or support (firmare, to make firm or strong) was used as the
equivalent of orepewjua (o-repeoeiv, to make firm or solid) in
the LXX., which translates the Heb. rdqiya'. The Hebrew
probably signifies literally " expanse," and is thus used of the
expanse or vault of the sky, the verb from which it is derived
meaning " to beat out." In Syriac the verb means " to make
firm," and is the direct source of the Gr. artpka^a and the Lat.
firmamentum. In ancient astronomy the firmament was the
eighth sphere containing the fixed stars surrounding the seven
spheres of the planets.
FIRMAN (an adaptation of the Per. ferman, a mandate or
patent, cognate with the Sanskrit pramdna, a measure, authority),
an edict of an oriental sovereign, used specially to designate
decrees, grants, passports, &c., issued by the sultan of Turkey
and signed by one of his ministers. A decree bearing the sultan's
sign-manual and drawn up with special formalities is termed a
hatli-sherif, Arabic words meaning a line, writing or command,
and lofty, noble. A written decree of an Ottoman sultan is also
termed an irade, the word being taken from the Arab, irada,
will, volition, order.
FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS, a Latin writer, who lived in
the reign of Constantine and his successors. About the year
346 he composed a work entitled De erroribus profanarum
religionum, which he inscribed to 1 Constantius and Constans,
the sons of Constantine, and which is still extant. In the first
part (chs. 1-17) he attacks the false objects of worship among the
Oriental cults; in the second (chs. 18-29) he discusses a number
of formulae and rites connected with the mysteries. The whole
tone of the work is fanatical and declamatory rather than
argumentative, and is thus in such sharp contrast with the
eight books on astronomy (Libri VIII. Malheseos) bearing the
same author's name, that the two works have usually been
attributed to different writers. Mommsen (Hermes vol. 29,
pp. 468-472) has, however, shown that the astronomy a work
interfused with an urbane Neoplatonic spirit was composed
about 336 and not in 354 as was formerly held. When we add
to this the similarity of style, and the fact that each betrays a
connexion with Sicily, there is the strongest reason for claiming
the same author for the two books, though it shows that in the
4th century acceptance of Christianity did not always mean an
advance in ethical standpoint.
The Christian work is preserved in a Palatine MS. in the Vatican
library. It was first printed at Strassburg in 1562, and has been
reprinted several times, both separately and along with the writings
of Minucius Felix, Cyprian or Arnobius. The most correct editions
are those by Conr. Bursian (Leipzig, 1856), and by C. Halm, in his
Minucius Felix (Corp. Scr. Eccl. Lat. ii.), (Vienna, 1867). The Neo-
platonist work was first printed by Aldus Manutius in 1501, and has
often been reprinted. For full discussions see G. Ebert, Cesch. der
chr. lot. Litt., ed. 1889, p. 129 ff. ; O. Bardenhewer, Patrologie,
ed. 1901, p. 354.
FIRMINY FIRST OF JUNE (BATTLE)
424
FIRMINY, a town of central France in the department of
Loire, 8 m. S.W. of St Etienne by rail. Pop. (1906) 15,778.
It has important coal mines known since the I4th century and
extensive manufactures of iron and steel goods, including
railway material, .machinery and cannon. Fancy woollen
hosiery is also manufactured.
FIRST-FOOT, in British folklore, especially that of the north
and Scotland, the first person who crosses the threshold on
Christmas or New Year's Eve. Good or ill luck is believed to be
brought the house by First-Foot, and a female First-Foot is
regarded with dread. In Lancashire a light-haired man is as
unlucky as a woman, and it became a custom for dark-haired
males to hire themselves out to " take the New Year in." In
Worcestershire luck is ensured by stopping the first carol-singer
who appears and leading him through the house. In Yorkshire
it must always be a male who enters the house first, but his
fairness is no objection. In Scotland first-footing was always
more elaborate than in England, involving a subsequent enter-
tainment.
FIRST OF JUNE, BATTLE OF THE. By this name we call the
great naval victory won by Lord Howe over the French fleet of
Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse, on the ist of June 1794. No place
name can be given to it, because the battle was fought 429 m.
to the west of Ushant.
The French people were suffering much distress from the bad
harvest of the previous year, and a great convoy of merchant
ships laden with corn was expected from America. Admiral
Vanstabel of the French navy had been sent to escort it with
two ships of the line in December of 1793. He sailed with his
charge from the Chesapeake on the nth of April 1794. On the
previous day six French ships of the line left Brest to meet
Vanstabel in mid ocean. The British force designed to intercept
the convoy was under LordHowe,then in command of the channel
fleet. He sailed from Spithead on the 2nd of May with 34 sail
of the line and 15 smaller vessels, having under his charge
nearly a hundred merchant ships which were to be seen clear of
the Channel. On the 4th, when off the Lizard, the convoy was
sent on its way protected by 8 line of battle ships and 6 or 7
frigates. Two of the line of battle ships were to accompany
them throughout the voyage. The other six under Rear-admiral
Montagu were to go as far as Cape Finisterre, and were then to
cruise on the look-out for the French convoy between Cape
Ortegal and Belle Isle. These detachments reduced the force
under Lord Howe's immediate command to 26 of the line and
7 frigates. On the sth of May he was off Ushant, and sent
frigates to reconnoitre the harbour of Brest. They reported to
him that the main French fleet, which was under the command
of Villaret-Joyeuse, and was of 25 sail of the line, was lying at
anchor in the roads. Howe then sailed to the latitude on which
the convoy was likely to be met with, knowing that if the French
admiral came out it would be to meet the ships with the food and
cover them from attack. To seek the convoy was therefore the
most sure way of forcing Villaret-Joyeuse to action. Till the
i8th the British fleet continued cruising in the Bay of Biscay.
On the 1 9th Lord Howe returned to Ushant and again recon-
noitred Brest. It was then seen that Villaret-Joyeuse had gone
to sea. He had sailed with his whole force on the i6th and had
passed close to the British fleet on the i7th, unseen in a fog.
On the igth the French admiral was informed by the " Patriote "
(74) that Nielly had fallen in with, and had captured, the British
frigate " Castor " (32), under Captain Thomas Troubridge, to-
gether with a convoy from Newfoundland. On the same day
Villaret-Joyeuse captured part of a Dutch convoy of 53 sail
from Lisbon. On the igth a frigate detached by Admiral Montagu
joined Howe. It brought information that Montagu had re-
captured part of the Newfoundland convoy, and had learnt that
Nielly was to join Vanstabel at sea, and that their combined
force would be 9 sail of the line. Montagu himself had steered to
cruise on the route of the convoy between the 45th and 47th
degrees of north latitude. Howe now steered to meet his sub-
ordinate who, he considered, would be in danger from the main
French fleet. On the 2ist he recaptured some of the Dutch
ships taken by Villaret-Joyeuse. From them he learnt that
on the i gth the French fleet had been in latitude 47 46' N. and in
longitude n 22' N. and was steering westward. Judging that
Montagu was too far to the south to be in peril from Villaret-
Joyeuse, and considering him strong enough to perform the
duty of intercepting the convoy, Lord Howe decided to pursue
the main French fleet. The wind was changeable and the
weather hazy. It was not till the 28th of May at 6.30 A.M. that
the British fleet caught sight of the enemy in 47 34' N. and
13 39' W-
The wind was from the south-east, and the French were to
windward. Villaret-Joyeuse bore down to a distance of 10 m.
from the British, and then hauled to the wind on the port tack.
It was difficult for the British fleet to force an action from leeward
if the French were unwilling to engage. Lord Howe detached
a light squadron of four ships, the " Bellerophon " (74), " Russel "
(74), " Marlborough " (74), and "Thunderer" (74) under
Rear-admiral Thomas Pasley, to attack the rear of the French
line. Villaret-Joyeuse stood on and endeavoured to work to
windward. In the course of the afternoon Rear-admiral Pasley's
ships began to come up with the last of the French line, the
" Revolutionnaire " (no). A partial action took place which
went on till after dark; other British vessels joined. The
" Revolutionnaire " was so damaged that she was compelled
to leave her fleet, and the British " Audacious " (74) was also
crippled and compelled to return to port. The " ReVolution-
naire " was accompanied by another liner. During the night
the two fleets continued on the same course, and next day Howe
renewed his attempts to force an action from leeward. He
tacked his fleet in succession his first ship tacking first and the
rest in order in the hope that he would be able to cut through
the French rear and gain the weather-gage. Villaret-Joyeuse
then turned all his ships together and again headed in the same
direction as the British. This movement brought him nearer
the British fleet, and another partial action took place between
the van of each force. Seeing that the French admiral was not
disposed to charge home, Howe at noon once more ordered his
fleet to tack in succession. His signal was poorly obeyed by the
van, and his object, which was to cut through the French line,
was not at once achieved. But the admiral himself finally set
an example by tacking his flagship, the " Queen Charlotte "
(too), and passing through the French, two ships from the end
of their line. He was followed by his fleet, and Villaret-Joyeuse,
seeing the peril of the ships in his rear, wore all his ships together
to help them. Both forces had been thrown into considerable
confusion by these movements, but the British had gained the
weather-gage. Villaret-Joyeuse was able to save the two ships
cut off, but he had fallen to leeward and the power to force on a
battle had passed to Lord Howe. During the 3oth the fleets
lost sight of one another for a time. The French, who had four
ships crippled, had been joined by four others, and were again
26 in number, including the " Patriote."
The 3ist of May passed without a hostile meeting and in thick
weather, but by the evening the British were close to windward
of the French. As Howe, who had not full confidence in all his
captains, did not wish for a night battle, he waited till the follow-
ing morning, keeping the French under observation by frigates.
On the ist of June they were in the same relative positions, and
at about a quarter past eight Howe bore down on the French,
throwing his whole line on them at once from end to end, with
orders to pass through from windward to leeward, and so to
place the British ships on the enemy's line of retreat. It was a
very bold departure from the then established methods of
fighting, and most honourable in a man of sixty-eight, who had
been trained in the old school. Its essential merit was that it
produced a close mUte, in which the better average gunnery
and seamanship of the British fleet would tell. Lord Howe's
orders were not fully obeyed by all his captains, but a signal
victory was won, six of the French line of battle ships were
taken, and one, the " Vengeur," sunk. The convoy escaped
capture, having passed over the spot on which the action of the
2oth May was fought, on the following day, and it anchored at
FIRTH FISCHART
425
Brest on the 3rd of June. Its safe arrival went far to console
the French for their defeat. The failure to stop it was forgotten
in England in the pleasure given by the victory.
See James's Naval History, vol. i. (1837); and Tronde, Batailks
navales de la France (1867). (D. H.)
FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING (1857- ), British historian,
was born at Sheffield on the 1 6th of March 1857, and was educated
at Clifton College and at Balliol College, Oxford. At his univer-
sity he took the Stanhope prize for an essay on the marquess
Wellesley in 1877, became lecturer at Pembroke College in 1887,
and fellow of All Souls College in 1901. He was Ford's lecturer
in English history in 1900, and became regius professor of
modern history at Oxford in succession to F. York Powell in
1904. Firth's historical work was almost entirely confined to
English history during the time of the Great Civil War and the
Commonwealth; and although he is somewhat overshadowed
by S. R. Gardiner, a worker in the same field, his books are of
great value to students of this period. The chief of them are:
Life of the Duke of Newcastle (1886) ; Scotland and the Common-
wealth (1895); Scotland and the Protectorate (1899); Narrative
of General V enables (1900); Oliver Cromwell (1900); Cromwell's
Army (1902); and the standard edition of Ludlow's Memoirs
(1894). He also edited the Clarke Papers (1891-1901), and Mrs
Hutchinson's Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson (1885), and wrote
an introduction to the Stuart Tracts (1903), besides contributions
to the Dictionary of National Biography. In 1909 he published
The Last Years of the Protectorate.
FIRTH, MARK (1819-1880), English steel manufacturer and
philanthropist, was born at Sheffield on the 25th of April 1819,
the son of a steel smelter. At the age of fourteen Mark, with his
brother, left school to join their father in the foundry where he
was employed, and ten years later the three together started a
six-hole furnace of their own. The venture proved successful,
and besides an extensive home business, they soon established
a large American connexion. Their huge Norfolk works were
erected at Sheffield in 1849, and still greater were afterwards
acquired at Whittington in Derbyshire and others at Clay Wheels
near Wadsley. The manufacture of steel blocks for ordnance
was the principal feature of their business, and they produced
also shot and heavy forgings. They also installed a plant
for the production of steel cores for heavy guns, and for some
time they supplied nearly all the metal used for gun making
by the British government and a large proportion of that used
by the French. On the death of his father in 1848 Mark Firth
became the head of the firm. In 1869 he built and endowed
" Mark Firth's Almshouses " at Ranmoor near Sheffield, and in
1875, when mayor, he presented to his native place a freehold
park of thirty-six acres. He founded and endowed Firth College,
for lectures and classes in connexion with the extension of
university education, which was opened in 1879. He died on the
28th of November 1880, and was accorded a public funeral.
FIRUZABAD, a town of Persia, in the province of Fars, 72m.
S. of Shiraz, in 28 51' N. Pop. about 3000. It is situated
in a fertile plain, 15 m. long and 7 m. broad, well watered by
the river Khoja which flows through it from north to south.
The town is surrounded by a mud wall and ditch. Three or four
miles north-west of the town are the ruins of the ancient city
and of a large building popularly known as the fire-temple of
Ardashir, and beyond them on the face of the rock in the gorge
through which the river enters the plain are two Sassanian
bas-reliefs.
The river leaves the plain by a narrow gorge at the southern
end, and according to Persian history it was there that Alex-
ander the Great, when unable to capture the ancient city, built
a dike across the gorge, thus damming up the water of the river
and turning the plain into a lake and submerging the city and
villages. The lake remained until the beginning of the 3rd
century, when Ardashir, the first Sassanian monarch, drained
it by destroying the dike. He built a new city, called it Gur,
and made it the capital of one of the five great provinces or
divisions of Fars. Firuz (or Peroz, q.v.), one of Ardashir's
successors, called the district after his name Firuzabad (" the
abode of Firuz "), but the name of the city remained Gur until
Azud ed Dowleh (Adod addaula) (949-982) change'd it to its
present name. He did this because he frequently resided at Gur,
and the name meaning also " a grave " gave rise to unpleasant
allusions, for instance, " People who go to Gur (grave) never
return alive; our king goes to Gur (the town) several times a
year and is not dead yet."
The district has twenty villages and produces much wheat
and rice. It is said that the rice of Firuzabad bears sixty-
fold. (A. H.-S.)
FIRUZKUH, a small province of Persia, with a population
of about 5000, paying a yearly revenue of about 500. Its chiel
place is a village of the same name picturesquely situated in a
valley of the Elburz, about 90 m. east of Teheran, at an elevation
of 6700 ft. and in 35 46' N. and 52 48' E. It has post and
telegraph offices and a population of 2500. A precipitous cliff
on the eastern side of the valley is surmounted by the ruins of an
ancient fort popularly ascribed to Alexander the Great.
FISCHART, JOHANN (c. 1545-1591), German satirist and
publicist, was born, probably at Strassburg (but according to
some accounts at Mainz), in or about the year 1545, and was
educated at Worms in the house of Kaspar Scheid, whom in the
preface to his Eulenspiegel he mentions as his " cousin and
preceptor." He appears to have travelled in Italy, the Nether-
lands, France and England, and on his return to have taken the
degree of doctor juris at Basel. From 1 575 to 1 581 , within which
period most of his works were written, he lived with, and was
probably associated in the business of, his sister's husband,
Bernhard Jobin, a printer at Strassburg, who published many
of his books. In 1581 Fischart was attached, as advocate to
the Reichskammergericht (imperial court of appeal) at Spires,
and in 1583, when he married, was appointed Amtmann (magis-
trate) at Forbach near Saarbriicken. Here he died in the winter
of 1590-1591. Fischart wrote under various feigned names,
such as Mentzer, Menzer, Reznem, Huldrich Elloposkleros,
Jesuwalt Pickhart, Winhold Alkofribas Wiistblutus, Ulrich
Mansehr von Treubach, and Im Fiscnen Gilt's Mischen; and it
is partly owing to this fact that there is doubt whether some of
the works attributed to him are really his. More than 50 satirical
works, however, both in prose and verse, remain authentic,
among which are Nachtrab oder Nebelkrdh (1570), a satire
against one Jakob Rabe, who had become a convert to the
Roman Catholic Church; VonSt Dominici des Predigermonchs
und St Francisci Barfussers artlichem Leben (1571), a poem with
the expressive motto " Sie haben Nasen vnd riechen's nit "
(Ye have noses and smell it not) , written to defend the Protestants
against certain wicked accusations, one of which was that Luther
held communion with the devil; Eulenspiegel Reimensweis
(written 1571, published 1572); Aller Praktik Grossmutter
(1572), after Rabelais's Prognostication Pantagrueline; Floh
Haz, Weiber Traz (1573), in which he describes a battle be-
tween fleas and women; Ajfentheuerliche und ungeheuerliche Ge-
schichtschrift vom Leben, Rhaten und Thaten der . . . Helden
und Herren Grandgusier Gargantoa und Panlagruel, also after
Rabelais (1575, and again under the modified title, Naupen-
geheurliche Geschichtklitterung, 1577); Neue kunslliche Figuren
biblischer Historien (1576); Anmahnung zur christlichen Kinder-
zucht (1576); Das gliickhafft Schiff von Zurich (1576, repub-
lished 1828, with an introduction by the poet Ludwig Uhland),
a poem commemorating the adventure of a company of
Ziirich arquebusiers, who sailed from their native town to
Strassburg in one day, and brought, as a proof of this feat, a
kettleful of Hirsebrei (millet), which had been cooked in Zurich,
still warm into Strassburg, and intended to illustrate the pro-
verb " perseverance overcomes all difficulties "; Podagrammisch
Trostbiichlein (1577); Philosophisch Ehzuchtbilchlein (1578); the
celebrated Bienenkorb des heiligen romischen Immenschwarms,
&c., a modification of the Dutch De roomsche Byen-Korf, by
Philipp Marnix of St Aldegonde, published in 1579 and reprinted
in 1847; Der heilig Brotkorb (1580), after Calvin's Traite des
reliques; Das vierhornige Jesuilerhullein, a rhymed satire
against the Jesuits (1580); and a number of smaller poems.
426
FISCHER, EMIL FISCHER, ERNST
To Fischart also have been attributed some " Psalmen und
geistliche Lieder " which appeared in a Strassburg hymn-book
of 1576.
Fischart had studied not only the ancient literatures, but also
those of Italy, France, the Netherlands and England. He
was a lawyer, a theologian, a satirist and the most powerful
Protestant publicist of the counter-reformation period; in
politics he was a republican. Above all, he is a master of
language, and was indefatigable with his pen. His satire was
levelled mercilessly at all perversities in the public and private
life of his time at astrological superstition, scholastic pedantry,
ancestral pride, but especially at the papal dignity and the
lives of the priesthood and the Jesuits. He indulged in the
wildest witticisms, the most abandoned caricature; but all
this he did with a serious purpose. As a poet, he is characterized
by the eloquence and picturesqueness of his style and the symboli-
cal language he employed. Thirty years after Fischart's death
his writings, once so popular, were almost entirely forgotten.
Recalled to the public attention by Johann Jakob Bodmer and
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, it is only recently that his works
have come to be a subject of investigation, and his position
in German literature to be fully understood.
Freiherr von Meusebach, whose valuable collection of Fischart's
works has passed into the possession of the royal library in Berlin,
deals in his Fischartstudien (Halle, 1879) with the great satirist.
Fischart's poetical works were published by Hermann Kurz in three
volumes (Leipzig, 1866-1868); and selections by K. Goedeke
(Leipzig, 1800) and by A. Hauffen in Kiirschner's Deutsche National-
literatur (Stuttgart, 1893) ; Die Geschichtklitterung and some minor
writings appeared in Scheible's Kloster, vols. 7 and 10 (Stuttgart,
1847-1848). Das gluckhafft Schiff has been frequently reprinted,
critical edition by J. Baechtold (1880). See for further biographical
details, Erich Schmidt in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, vol. 7;
A. F. C. Vilmar in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopaedic ; W. Wacker-
nagel, Johann Fischart von Strassburg und Basels Anteil an ihm (2nd
ed., Basel, 1875); P. Besson, Etude sur Jean Fischart (Paris, 1889);
and A. Hauffen, " Fischart-Studien " (in Euphorion, 1896-1909).
FISCHER, EMIL (1852- ), German chemist, was born at
Euskirchen, in Rhenish Prussia, on the pth of October 1852,
his father being a merchant and manufacturer. After studying
chemistry at Bonn, he migrated to Strassburg, where he graduated
as Ph.D. in 1874. He then acted as assistant to Adolf von
Baeyer at Munich for eight years, after which he was appointed
to the chair of chemistry successively at Erlangen (1882) and
Wurzburg (1885). In 1892 he succeeded A. W. von Hofmann
as professor of chemistry at Berlin. Emil Fischer devoted
himself entirely to organic chemistry, and his investigations
are characterized by an originality of idea and readiness of
resource which make him the master of this branch of experi-
mental chemistry. In his hands no substance seemed too
complex to admit of analysis or of synthesis; and the more
intricate and involved the subjects of his investigations the more
strongly shown is the conspicuous skill in pulling, as it were,
atom from atom, until the molecule stood revealed, and, this
accomplished, the same skill combined atom with atom until
the molecule was regenerated. His forte was to enter fields
where others had done little except break the ground; and his
researches in many cases completely elucidated the problem in
hand, and where the solution was not entire, his methods and
results almost always contained the key to the situation.
In 1875, the year following his engagement with von Baeyer,
he published his discovery of the organic derivatives of a new com-
pound of hydrogen and nitrogen, which he named hydrazine (?..).
He investigated both the aromatic and aliphatic derivatives, estab-
lishing their relation to the diazo compounds, and he perceived the
readiness with which they entered into combination with other
substances, giving origin to a wealth of hitherto unknown compounds.
Of such condensation products undoubtedly the most important are
the hydrazones, which result from the interaction with aldehydes
and ketones. His observations, published in 1886, that such hydra-
zones, by treatment with hydrochloric acid or zinc chloride, yielded
derivatives of indpl, the pyrrol of the benzene series and the parent
substance of indigo, were a valuable confirmation of the views
advanced by his master, von Baeyer, on the subject of indigo and
the many substances related to it. Of greater moment was his
discovery that phenyl hydrazine reacted with the sugars to form
substances which he named osazones, and which, being highly
crystalline and readily formed, served to identify such carbohydrates
more definitely than had been previously possible. He next turned
to the rosaniline dyestuffs (the magenta of Sir W. H. Perkin), and in
collaboration with his cousin Otto Fischer (b. 1852), then at Munich
and afterwards professor at Erlangen, who has since identified
himself mainly with the compounds of this and related groups, he
published papers in 1878 and 1879 which indubitably established
that these dyestuffs were derivatives of triphenyl methane. Fischer's
next research was concerned with compounds related to uric acid.
Here the ground had been broken more especially by von Baeyer,
but practically all our knowledge of the so-called purin group (the
word purin appears to have been suggested by the phrase purum
uricum) is due to Fischer. In 1881-1882 he published papers which
established the formulae of uric acid, xanthine, caffeine, theobromine
and some other compounds of this group. But his greatest work
in this field was instituted in 1894, when he commenced his great
series of papers, wherein the compounds above mentioned were all
referred to a nitrogenous base, purin (q.v.). The base itself was
obtained, but only after much difficulty; and an immense series of
derivatives were prepared, some of which were patented in view of
possible therapeutical applications. 1 These researches were pub-
lished in a collected form in 1907 with the title Unlersuchungen in
der Puringruppe (1882-1906). The first stage of his purin work
successfully accomplished, he next attacked the sugar group. Here
the pioneer work was again of little moment, and Fischer may be
regarded as the prime investigator in this field. His researches may
be taken as commencing in 1883; and the results are unparalleled
in importance in the history of organic chemistry. The chemical
complexity of these carbohydrates, and the difficulty with which
they could be got into a manageable form they generally appeared
as syrups occasioned much experimental difficulty; but these
troubles were little in comparison with the complications due to
stereochemical relations. However, Fischer synthesized fructose,
glucose and a great number of other sugars, and having showed
how to deduce, for instance, the formulae of the 1 6 stereoisomeric
glucoses, he prepared several stereoisomerides, thereby completing
a most brilliant experimental research, and simultaneously confirm-
ing the van't Hoff theory of the asymmetric carbon atom (see
STEREO-ISOMERISM). The study of the sugars brought in its train
the necessity for examining the nature, properties and reactions of
substances which bring about the decomposition known as fermenta-
tion (q.v.). Fischer attacked the problem presented by ferments
and enzymes, and although we as yet know little of this complex
subject, to Fischer is due at least one very important discovery,
viz. that there exists some relation between the chemical constitution
of a sugar and the ferment and enzyme which breaks it down. The
magnitude of his researches in this field may be gauged by his
collected papers, Untersuchungen iiber Kohknhydrate und Fermente
(1884-1908), pp. viii. + 9i2 (Berlin, 1909).
From the sugars and ferments it is but a short step to the subject
of the proteins, substances which are more directly connected with
life processes than any others. The chemistry of the proteins, a
subject which bids fair to be Fischer's great lifework, presents
difficulties which are probably without equal in the whole field of
chemistry, partly on account of the extraordinary chemical com-
plexity of the substances involved, and partly upon the peculiar
manner in which chemical reactions are brought about in the living
organism. But by the introduction of new methods, Fischer suc-
ceeded in breaking down the complex albuminoid substances into
amino acids and other nitrogenous compounds, the constitutions
of most of which have been solved; and by bringing about the re-
combination of these units, appropriately chosen, he prepared
synthetic peptides which approximate to the natural products.
His methods led to the preparation of an octadeca-peptide of the
molecular weight 1213, exceeding that of any other synthetic
compound; but even this compound falls far short of the simplest
latural peptide, which has a molecular weight of from 2000 to 3000.
He considers, however, that the synthesis of more complex products
s only a matter of trouble and cost. His researches made from 1899
to 1906 have been published with the title Untersuchungen iiber
Aminosauren, Polypeptides und Proteine (Berlin, 1907). The extra-
ordinary merit of his many researches has been recognized by all the
mportant scientific societies in the world, and he was awarded the.
Mobel prize for chemistry in 1902. Under his control the laboratory
at Berlin became one of the most important in existence, and has
attracted to it a constant stream of brilliant pupils, many of whom
are to be associated with much of the experimental work indis-
solubly connected with Fischer.
FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD (1824-1907), German
shilosopher, was born at Sandewalde in Silesia, on the 23rd of
July 1824. After studying philosophy at Leipzig and Halle,
became a privat-docent at Heidelberg in 1850. The Baden
government in 1853 laid an embargo on his teaching owing to
1 For a brief review of the pharmacology of purin derivatives see
?. Francis and J. M. Fortescue-Brinkdale, The Chemical Basis of
Pharmacology (1908).
FISH FISHER, JOHN
his Liberal ideas, but the effect of this was to rouse considerable
sympathy for his views, and in 1856 he obtained a professorship
at Jena, where he soon acquired great influence by the dignity
of his personal character. In 1872, on Zeller's removal to Berlin,
Fischer succeeded him as professor of philosophy and the history
of modern German literature at Heidelberg, where he died on
the 4th of July 1 907 . His part in philosophy was that of historian
and commentator, for which he was especially qualified by his
remarkable clearness of exposition; his point of view is in the
main Hegelian. His Geschichte der neuern Philosophic (1852-
1893, new ed. 1897) is perhaps the most accredited modern book
of its kind, and he made valuable contributions to the study of
Kant, Bacon, Shakespeare, Goethe, Spinoza, Lessing, Schiller
and Schopenhauer.
Some of his numerous works have been translated into English:
Francis Bacon of Verulam, by J. Oxenford (1857); The Life and
Character of Benedict Spinoza, by Frida Schmidt (1882); A Com-
mentary on Kant's Kritik of Pure Reason, by J. P. Mahaffy (1866) ;
Descartes and his School, by J. P. Gordy (1887) ; A Critique of Kant,
by W. S. Hough (1888); see also H. Falkenheim, Kuno Fischer und
die litterar-historische Methode (1892); and bibliography in J. M.
Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (1905).
FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893), American statesman, was
born in New York City on the 3rd of August 1808. His father,
Nicholas Fish (1758-1833), served in the American army during
the War of American Independence, rising to the rank of
lieutenant-colonel. The son graduated at Columbia College in
1827, and in 1830 was admitted to the bar, but practised only
a short time. In 1843-1845 he was a Whig representative in
Congress. He was the Whig candidate for lieutenant-governor
of New York in 1846, and was defeated by Addison Gardner
(Democrat); but when in 1847 Gardner was appointed a judge
of the state court of appeals, Fish was elected (November 1847)
to complete the term (to January 1849). He was governor of
New York state from 1849 to 1851,. and was United States
senator in 1851-1857, acting with the Republicans during the
last part of his term. In 1861-1862 he was associated with John
A. Dix, William M. Evarts, William E. Dodge, A. T. Stewart,
John Jacob Astor, and other New York men, on the Union
Defence Committee, which (from April 22, 1861, to April 30,
1862) co-operated with the municipal government in the raising
and equipping of troops, and disbursed more than a million
dollars for the relief of New York volunteers and their families.
Fish was secretary of state during President Grant's two ad-
ministrations (1860-1877). He conducted the negotiations with
Great Britain which resulted in the treaty of the 8th of May
1871, under which (Article i) the "Alabama claims" were
referred to arbitration, and the same disposition (Article 34)
was made of the " San Juan Boundary Dispute," concerning
the Oregon boundary line. In 1871 Fish presided at the Peace
Conference at Washington between Spain and the allied republics
of Peru, Chile, Ecuador and Bolivia, which resulted in the
formulation (April 1 2) of a general truce between those countries,
to last indefinitely and not to be broken by any one of them
without three years' notice given through the United States;
and it was chiefly due to his restraint and moderation that a
satisfactory settlement of the " Virginius Affair " was reached
by the United States and Spain (1873). Fish was vice-president-
general of the Society of the Cincinnati from 1848 to 1854,
and president-general from 1854 until his death. He died in
Garrison, New York, on the 7th of September 1893.
His son, NICHOLAS FISH (1846-1902), was appointed second
secretary of legation at Berlin in 1871, became secretary in
1874, and was charge d'affaires at Berne in 1877-1881, and
minister to Belgium in 1882-1886, after which he engaged in
banking in New York City.
FISH (O. Eng. fisc, a word common to Teutonic languages,
cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth, fisks, cognate with the Lat.
piscis), the common name of that class of vertebrate animals
which lives exclusively in water, breathes through gills, and
whose limbs take the form of fins (see ICHTHYOLOGY). The
article FISHERIES deals with the subject from the economic and
commercial point of view, and ANGLING with the catching of
427
fish as a sport. The constellation and sign of the zodiac known
as " the fishes " is treated under PISCES.
The fish was an early symbol of Christ in primitive and medieval
Christian art. The origin is to be found in the initial letters
of the names and titles of Jesus in Greek, viz. "Ij<roDs Xpioros,
Qtov Tios, ZCOTIJP, Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour, which
together spell the Greek word for " fish," IxBvs. The fish is
also said to be represented in the oval-shaped figure, pointed at
both ends, and formed by the intersection of two circles. This
figure, also known as the iiesica piscis, is common in ecclesiastical
seals and as a glory or aureole in paintings of sculpture, surround-
ing figures of the Trinity, saints, &c. The figure is, however,
sometimes referred to the almond, as typifying virginity; the
French name for the symbol is Amande mystique.
The word " fish " is used in many technical senses. Thus
it is used of the purchase used in raising the flukes of an anchor
to the bill-board; of a piece of wood or metal used to strengthen
a sprung mast or yard; and of a plate of metal used, as in railway
construction, for the strengthening of the meeting-place of two
rails. This word is of doubtful origin, but it is probably an
adaptation of the Fr. fiche, that which " fixes," a peg. This
word also appears in the English form " fish," in the metal,
pearl or bone counters, sometimes made in the form of fish, used
for scoring points, &c., in many games.
FISHER, ALVAN (1792-1863), American portrait-painter,
was born at Needham, Massachusetts, on the gth of August 1792.
At the age of eighteen he was a clerk in a country shop, and
subsequently was employed by the village house painter, but at
the age of twenty-two he began to paint portrait heads, alternat-
ing with rural scenes and animals, for which he found patrons
at modest prices. In ten years he had saved enough to go to
Europe, studying at the Paris schools and copying in the galleries
of the Louvre. Upon his return he became one of the recognized
group of Massachusetts portrait-painters. Along with Doughty,
Harding and Alexander, in 1831, he held an exhibition of his
work in Boston perhaps the first joint display by painters
ever held in that city. Though he had considerable talent for
landscape, a lack of patronage for such work caused him to
confine himself to portraiture, in which he was moderately
successful. He died at Dedham, Mass., on the i6th of February
1863.
FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909), American theologian,
was born at Wrentham, Massachusetts, on the icth of August
1827. He graduated at Brown University in 1847, and at the
Andover Theological Seminary in 1851, spent three years in
study in Germany, was college preacher and professor of divinity
at Yale College in 1854-1861, and was Titus Street professor of
ecclesiastical history in the Yale Divinity School in 1861-1901,
when he was made professor emeritus. He was president of the
American Historical Association in 1897-1898. His writings have
given him high rank as an authority on ecclesiastical history.
They include Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity
(1865); History of the Reformation (1873), republished in several
revisions; The Beginnings of Christianity (1877); Discussions
in History and Theology (1880); Outlines of Universal History
(1886); History of the Christian Church (1887); The Nature
and Method of Revelation (1890); Manual of Natural Theology
(1893); A History of Christian Doctrine, in the "Interna-
tional Theological Library" (1896); and A Brief History of
Nations (1896). He died on the 2oth of December 1909.
FISHER, JOHN (c. 1460-1535), English cardinal and bishop of
Rochester, born at Beverly, received his first education at the
collegiate church there. In 1484 he went to Michael House,
Cambridge, where he took his degrees in arts in 1487 and 1491,
and, after filling several offices in the university, became master
of his college in 1499. He took orders; and his reputation for
learning and piety attracted the notice of Margaret Beaufort,
mother of Henry VII., who made him her confessor and chaplain.
In 1501 he became vice-chancellor; and later on, when chancellor,
he was able to forward, if not to initiate entirely, the beneficent
schemes of his patroness in the foundations of St. John's and
Christ's colleges, in addition to two lectureships, in Greek
428
FISHER, BARON
and Hebrew. His love for Cambridge never waned, and his
own benefactions took the form of scholarships, fellowships and
lectures. In 1503 he was the first Margaret professor at Cam-
bridge; and the following year was raised to the see of Rochester,
to which he remained faithful, although the richer sees of Ely
and Lincoln were offered to him. He was nominated as one of
the English prelates for the Lateran council (1512), but did not
attend. A man of strict and simple life, he did not hesitate at
the legatine synod of 1517 to censure the clergy, in the presence
of the brilliant Wolsey himself, for their greed of gain and love of
display; and in the convocation of 1523 he freely opposed the
cardinal's demand for a subsidy for the war in Flanders. A
great friend of Erasmus, whom he invited to Cambridge, whilst
earnestly working for a reformation of abuses, he had no sym-
pathy with those who attacked doctrine; and he preached at
Paul's Cross (i2th of May 1521) at the burning of Luther's books.
Although he was not the author of Henry's book against Luther,
he joined with his friend, Sir Thomas More, in writing a reply
to the scurrilous rejoinder made by the reformer. He retained
the esteem of the king until the divorce proceedings began in
1527; and then he set himself sternly in favour of the validity
of the marriage. He was Queen Catherine's confessor and her
only champion and advocate. He appeared on her behalf before
the legates at Blackfriars; and wrote a treatise against the
divorce that was widely read.
Recognizing that the true aim of the scheme of church reform
brought forward in parliament in 1529 was to put down the only
moral force that could withstand the royal will, he energetic-
ally opposed the reformation of abuses, which doubtless under
other circumstances he would have been the first to accept.
In convocation, when the supremacy was discussed (nth of
February 1531), he declared that acceptance would cause the
clergy " to be hissed out of the society of God's holy Catholic
Church "; and it was his influence that brought in the saving
clause, quantum per legem Dei licet. By listening to the revela-
tions of the " Holy Maid of Kent," the nun Elizabeth Barton
(q.v.), he was charged with misprision of treason, and was con-
demned to the loss of his goods and to imprisonment at the king's
will, penalties he was allowed to compound by a fine of 300
(25th of March 1534). Fisher was summoned (i3th of April)
to take the oath prescribed by the Act of Succession, which he
was ready to do, were it not that the preamble stated that the
offspring of Catherine were illegitimate, and prohibited all faith,
trust and obedience to any foreign authority or potentate.
Refusing to take the oath, he was committed (isth of April) to
the Tower, where he suffered greatly from the rigours of a long
confinement. On the passing of the Act of Supremacy (November
1534), in which the saving clause of convocation was omitted,
he was attainted and deprived of his see. The council, with
Thomas Cromwell at their head, visited him on the 7th of May
1535, and his refusal to acknowledge Henry as supreme head of
the church was the ground of his trial. The constancy of Fisher,
while driving Henry to a fury that knew no bounds, won the
admiration of the whole Christain world, where he had been
long known as one of the most learned and pious bishops of the
time. Paul III., who had begun his pontificate with the intention
of purifying the curia, was unaware of the grave danger in which
Fisher lay; and in the hope of reconciling the king with the
bishop, created him (2oth of May 1535) cardinal priest of St
Vitalis. When the news arrived in England it sealed his fate.
Henry, in a rage, declared that if the pope sent Fisher a hat there
should be no head for it. The cardinal was brought to trial at
Westminster (i7th of June 1535) on the charge that he did
" openly declare in English that the king, our sovereign lord,
is not supreme head on earth of the Church of England," and
was condemned to a traitor's death at Tyburn, a sentence
afterwards changed. He was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 2 2nd
of June 1535, after saying the Te Deum and the psalm In
te Domine speravi. His body was buried first at All Hallows,
Barking, and then removed to St. Peter's ad vincula in the Tower,
where it lies beside that of Sir Thomas More. His head was
exposed on London Bridge and then thrown into the river. As
a champion of the rights of conscience, and as the only one of
the English bishops that dared to resist the king's will, Fisher
commends himself to all. On the 9th of December 1886 he was
beatified by Pope 'Leo XIII.
Fisher's Latin works are to be found in the Opera J. Fisheri quae
hactenus inveniri potuerunt omnia (Wurzburg, 1595), and some of his
published English works in the Early English Text Society (Extra
series, No. 27, part i. 1876). There are others in manuscript at the
P.R.O. (27, Henry VIII., No. 887). Besides the State papers, the
main sources for his biography are The Life and Death of that renowned
John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (London, 1655), by an anonymous
writer, the best edition being that of Van Ortroy (Brussels, 1893) ;
Bridgett's Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (London,
1880 and 1890); and Thureau, Le bienheureux Jean Fisher (Paris,
1907)- (E. TN.)
FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, IST BARON (1841-
), British admiral, was born on the 2sth of January 1841,
and entered the navy in June 1854. He served in the Baltic
during the Crimean War, and was engaged as midshipman on
the " Highflyer," " Chesapeake " and " Furious," in the Chinese
War, in the operations required by the occupations of Canton,
and of the Peiho forts in 1859. He became sub-lieutenant on
the 25th of January 1860, and lieutenant on the 4th of November
of the same year. The cessation of naval wars, at least of wars
at sea in which the British navy had to take a part, after 1860,
allowed few officers to gain distinction by actual services against
the enemy. But they were provided with other ways of proving
their ability by the sweeping revolution which transformed the
construction, the armament, and the methods of propulsion of
all the navies of the world, and with them the once accepted
methods of combat. Lieutenant Fisher began his career as a
commissioned officer in the year after the launching of the French
" Gloire " had set going the long duel in construction between
guns and armour. He early made his mark as a student of
gunnery, and was prompted commander on the and of August
1869, and post-captain on the 3oth of October 1874. In this
rank he was chosen to serve as president of the committee
appointed to revise " The Gunnery Manual of the Fleet." It
was his already established reputation which pointed Captain
Fisher out for the command of H.M.S. " Inflexible," a vessel
which, as the representative of a type, had supplied matter for
much discussion. As captain of the " Inflexible " he took part
in the bombardment of Alexandria (nth July 1882). The
engagement was not arduous in itself, having been carried out
against forts of inferior construction, indifferently armed, and
worse garrisoned, but it supplied an opportunity for a display
of gunnery, and it was conspicuous in the midst of a long naval
peace. The " Inflexible " took a prominent part in the action,
and her captain had the command of the naval brigade landed in
Alexandria, where he adapted the ironclad train and com-
manded it in various skirmishes with the enemy. After the
Egyptian campaign, he was, in succession, director of Naval
Ordnance and Torpedoes (from October 1886 to May 1891);
A.D.C. to Queen Victoria (i8th June, 1887, to 2nd August 1890,
at which date he became rear-admiral) ; admiral superintendent
of Portsmouth dockyard (1891 to 1892); a lord commissioner
of the navy and comptroller of the navy (1892 to 1897), and
vice-admiral (8th May 1896); commander-in-chief on the
North American and West Indian station (1897). In 1899 he
acted as naval expert at the Hague Peace Conference, and on
the ist of July 1809 was appointed commander-in-chief in the
Mediterranean,, From the Mediterranean command, Admiral
Fisher passed again to the admiralty as second sea lord in 1902,
and became commander-in-chief at Portsmouth on the 3ist
of August 1903, from which post he passed to that of first sea
lord. Besides holding the foreign Khedivial and Osmanieh
orders, he was created K.C.B. in 1894 and G.C.B. in>i9O2. As
first sea lord, during the years 1903-1909, Sir John Fisher had
a predominant influence in all the far-reaching new measures of
naval development and internal reform; and he was also one
of the committee, known as Lord Esher's committee, appointed
in 1904 to report on the measures necessary to be taken to
put the administration and organization of the British army on
a sound footing. The changes in naval administration made
FISHERIES
429
under him were hotly canvassed among critics, who charged him
with autocratic methods, and in 1906-1909 with undue sub-
servience to the government's desire for economy; and whatever
the efficiency of his own methods at the admiralty, the fact
was undeniable that for the first time for very many years the
navy suffered, as a service, from the party-spirit which was
aroused. It was notorious that Admiral Lord Charles Beresford
in particular was acutely hostile to Sir John Fisher's administra-
tion; and on his retirement in the spring of 1909 from the
position of commander-in-chief of the Channel fleet, he put his
charges and complaints before the government, and an inquiry
was held by a small committee under the Prime Minister. Its
report, published in August, was in favour of the Admiralty,
though it encouraged the belief that some important suggestions
as to the organization of a naval " general staff " would take
effect. On the pth of November Sir John Fisher was created
a peer as Baron Fisher of Kilverstone, Norfolk. He retired
from the Admiralty in January 1910.
FISHERIES, 1 a general term for the various operations engaged
in for the capture of such aquatic creatures as are useful to man.
From time immemorial fish have been captured by various forms
of spears, nets, hooks and more elaborate apparatus, and a
historical description of the methods and appliances that have
been used would comprise a considerable portion of a treatise
on the history of man. For the most part the operations of
fishing have been comparable with those of primitive hunting
rather than with agriculture; they have taken the least possible
account of considerations affecting the supply; when one locality
has been fished out, another has been resorted to. The increasing
pressure on every source of food, and the enormous improvements
in the catching power of the engines involved, has made some
kind of regulation and control inevitable, with the result that
in practically every civilized country there exists some authority
for the investigation and regulation of fisheries.
The annexed table shows the department of state and the
The early years of the 2oth century witnessed another great
expansion of the sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. The
herring fishery has been revolutionized partly by the successful
introduction of steam drifters, which have markedly increased
the aggregate catching power, and partly by the prosecution
of .the fishery on one part or other of the British coasts during
the greater part of the year. The crews of many Scottish
vessels which formerly worked at the herring and line fisheries
in alternate seasons of the year now devote their energies almost
entirely to the herring fishery, which they pursue in nomad
fleets around all the coasts of Great Britain. The East Anglian
drifters carry on their operations at different seasons of the
year from Shetland in the north (for herrings) to Newlyn in the
west (for mackerel). In Scotland the value of the nets employed
on steam drifters has increased from 3000 in 1899 to 61,000
in 1906, and the average annual catch of herrings has increased
from about four to about five million cwts. during the past
ten years. In England also the annual catch of herrings,
which reached a total of two million cwts. for the first time
in 1899, has exceeded three millions in each year from 1902 to
1905-
In steam trawling also great enterprise has been shown. In
1906 Messrs Hellyer of Hull launched a new steam trawling
fleet of 50 vessels for working the North Sea grounds, and the
delivery of new steam trawlers at Grimsby was greater than
at any previous period, these vessels being designed more especi-
ally to exploit the distant fishing grounds, the range of which
has been extended from Morocco to the White Sea. About 100
vessels were added to the Grimsby fleet in the course of twelve
months. These new vessels measure about 140 ft. in length
and over 20 ft. in beam, and exceed 250 tons gross tonnage,
the accommodation both for fish and crews being considerably
in excess of that provided in vessels of this class hitherto.
Returns of the steam trawlers registered in 1907 in the chief
European countries show the expanse of this industry, and the
Administration of Fisheries.
Norway.
Sweden.
Denmark.
Germany.
Holland.
Belgium.
Department of State
Trade and In-
Agriculture.
Agriculture.
Imperial De-
Agriculture.
Agriculture and
dustry and
partment of
Woods and
Agriculture.
Interior.
Forests.
Approximate Annual Expenditure
I. Administration
15,000
5,500
10,200
Conducted by
12,500
M aritime
States
2. Scientific Fishery Research .
5,000
4-500
6,300
27-750
2,500
1,000
Canada.
U.S. America.
' Wales.
Scotland.
Ireland.
Department of State
Marine and Fish-
eries.
Bureau of Fisheries
under Commerce
Agriculture and
Fisheries.
Fishery Board.
Agriculture and
Technical In-
and Labour.
struction.
Approximate Annual Expenditure
I. Administration
159,000
Conducted by
8,000
13,000
10,000
Coastal States
2. Scientific Fishery Research .
48,000
141,000
14,000
(expended through
800
agents)
approximate expenditure on fisheries in some of the chief countries
of the world. The figures are only approximate and are based
on the expenditure for 1907. In the case of England and Wales
the expenditure is not complete, as under the Sea Fisheries
Regulation Act of 1888 the whole of the coast of England and
Wales could be placed under local fisheries committees with
power to levy rates for fishery purposes, and in a certain number
of districts advantage has been taken of this act. But even with
this addition, British expenditure on fisheries is less than that
undertaken by most of the countries of northern Europe, although
British fisheries are much more valuable than those of all the rest
of Europe together.
1 For fisheries in the cases of CORAL, OYSTER, PEARL, SALMON,
SPONGES and WHALE, see these articles; for fishing as a sport see
ANGLING.
enormous preponderance of Great Britain,
follows:
Belgium
Denmark
France
Germany
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
Scotland
Ireland
England and Wales
The numbers are as
23
5
224
239
81
20
12-18
ii
292
6
1317
A simultaneous development of the sea fisheries has been
manifested in other maritime countries of Europe, particularly
in Germany and Holland, but the total number of steam trawlers
430
FISHERIES
belonging to those countries in 1905 scarcely exceeded the mere
additions to the British fishing fleet in 1906.
The relative magnitude of British fisheries may best be
gauged by a comparison with the proceeds of the chief fisheries
of other European countries. The following table is based upon
official returns and mainly derived from the Bulletin Statistique
of the International Council for the Study of the Sea. It re-
presents in pounds sterling the value of the produce of the various
national fisheries during the year 1904, except in the case of
France, for which country the latest available figures are those
for 1902.
Values in Thousands of .
The total value of the sea fisheries in the three chief sub-
divisions of the British Isles in the year 1905, according to the
official returns, was as follows:
These figures show an increase of 1,000,000 as compared
with the total value in 1900, and of more than 3,000,000 as
compared with 1895 (cf. Table I. at end).
In England and Wales the trawl fisheries for cod, haddock,
and flat fish yielded about
three-quarters of the total,
and the drift fisheries for
herring and mackerel nearly
the whole of the remaining
quarter. The line fisheries in
England and Wales are now
relatively insignificant and
yield only about one-fortieth
of the total (cf. Table VIII. at end).
In Scotland, on the other hand, there is not so much difference
in the relative importance of the three chief fisheries. In 1905
herrings and other net-caught fish yielded rather more than one-
east coasts. The remaining quarter is mainly derived from the
trawl fisheries, the headquarters of which are at Dublin, Howth
and Balbriggan on the east, and at Galway and Dingle on the
west coast.
The value of the fishing boats and gear employed in the
Scottish fisheries during 1905 is returned as nearly 4,120,000.
Upon a moderate estimate, the total value of the boats and gear
employed in the fisheries of Great Britain and Ireland cannot
be less than 12,000,000.
The relative yield and value of the various fisheries on the
separate coasts of the British Isles is illustrated in the table of
landings from the latest data available.
From these figures it is manifest that the yield and value of
the east coast fisheries of England and Scotland preponderate
enormously over those of the western coasts, whether attention
be paid to the drift-net fisheries for surface fish or to the fisheries
for bottom fish with trawls and lines.
The preceding statistics and remarks, as well as the supple-
mentary tables at the end of this article, indicate that the British
fishing industry has enjoyed a period of unexampled prosperity.
The community at large has benefited by the more plentiful
supply, and the merchant by the general lowering of prices at
the ports of landing (see Tables I. -IV. at end). But it is to be
noted that this wave of prosperity, as on previous occasions,
has been attained by the application of increased and more
powerful means of capture and by the exploitation of new
fishing grounds in distant waters, and not by any increase,
natural or artificial, in the productivity of the home waters,
unless perhaps the abundance of herrings is to be ascribed to
the destruction of their enemies by trawling. British fisheries
are still pursued as a form of hunting rather than of husbandry.
In 1892 the Iceland and Bay of Biscay trawling banks were
discovered, in 1898 the Faroe banks, in 1905 rich plaice grounds
in the White Sea. In 1905 one-half of the cod and a quarter
of the haddock and plaice landed at east coast ports of England
were caught in waters beyond the North Sea.
Table showing, in Thousands of Cwt., the Quantity of Fish landed by Steam Trawlers on the East Coast
of England from Fishing Grounds within and beyond the North Sea respectively.
Herring.
Cod.
Plaice.
Other
Fish.
Total.
British Isles
Norway .
Denmark
Germany
Holland . . .
France (1902) .
1870
352
117
220
575
635
1015
834
60
64'
$.
IIOO
171
40 1
58
5496
443
223
5I2 1
3"
3562
9,481,000'
1,629,000
571,000
836,000
997,000
5,048,000
Fish landed in
Excluding
Shellfish.
Including
Shellfish.
England and Wales ....
Scotland
Ireland
Total
7,200,644
2,649,148
360.577
7,502,768
2,719,810
4'4.364
10,210,369 | 10,636,942
Year.
Within the North Sea.
Beyond the North Sea.
Cod.
Haddock.
Plaice.
All Kinds.
Cod.
Haddock.
Plaice.
All Kinds.
1903
1904
1905
729
637
640
2301
2032
1560
812
658
621
4776
4228
3739
470
447
603
389
429
518
114
284
244
1189
1389
1682
Trawl and Line.
Drift and Stake-nets.
Shellfish.
Fishery.
Thousands
Thousands
Thousands
Thousands
Thousands
of cwt.
of.
of cwt.
of.
of.
England and Wales, 1905
East Coast
6017
4713
3042
"45
202
South Coast .
303
245
728
268
6 4
West Coast
1 002
720
219
in
36
Scotland, 1906
East Coast
2296
1202
2709
819
25
Orkney and Shetland .
114
42
1735
642
10
West Coast
148
62
591
210
38
Ireland, 1905
North Coast .
9
5
177
70
7
East Coast
79
7<>
no
32
18
South and West Coast .
46
35
577
148
28
half of the total, the trawl fisheries nearly three-eighths, and
the line fisheries one-eighth (cf. Table X.).
In Ireland the mackerel and herring fisheries provide nearly
three-quarters 6f the total yield, the mackerel forming the chief
item in the south and west, and the herring on the north and
1 Estimated as regards about one-third of the total.
1 Including the Newfoundland fishery.
The statistics of the English Board of Agriculture and Fisheries
have distinguished since 1903 between the catch of fish within
and beyond the North Sea, and between the catch of trawlers
and liners. Neglecting the catch of the liners as relatively
insignificant, and of the sailing trawlers
as relatively small and practically con-
stant during the three years in question,
we see from the board's figures (see table
above) that the total catch of English
steam trawlers within the North Sea
during 1904 and 1905 was in each year 1
500,000 cwt. less than in the year
before, amounting to a gross decrease
of more than 25% in 1905 as com-
pared with 1903, and, in relation to the
catching power employed, to an average
decrease of 25 cwt. per boat per diem.
This decrease may be largely explained
by the occurrence in 1903 of one of
those periodic " floods " of email cod
and haddock which take place in the North Sea from time
to time; but the steady decline in the number of North
Sea voyages by English steam trawlers from 29,300 in 1903
to 26,700 in 1905 affords a clear indication of the fact that
many of our trawling skippers are deserting the North Sea
for more profitable fishing grounds. The number of Scottish
steam trawlers " employed " at Scottish North Sea ports has
FISHERIES
also declined during the same period from 240 in 1903 to
228 in 1905.
The following table shows the number of British and foreign
steam trawlers registered at North Sea ports, and for English
vessels the number of fishing voyages made within and beyond
the North Sea respectively:
Year.
Boats
Registered.
English Steam Trawlers.
Voyages. 1
Scottish.
Employed.
German,
Dutch and
Belgian.
Registered.
Within
North Sea.
Beyond
North Sea.
1903
1904
1905
1060
1049
1064
29,328
28,589
26,670
1822
2I2O
2671
240
2.33
228
181
199
228
Unfortunately the North Sea gains no rest from this with-
drawal of British trawlers, since the place of the latter is filled
year after year by increasing numbers of continental fishing
boats. The number of fishing steamers (practically all trawlers)
registered at North Sea ports in Germany and Holland was 159
in 1903, 177 in 1904, 205 in 1905, and 330 in 1907.
It is satisfactory under these circumstances to note the in-
creased attention which has been paid in recent years to the
acquisition of more exact knowledge upon the actual state of
the fisheries and upon the biological and other factors which
influence the supply.
A comprehensive programme of co-operative investigations,
both scientific and statistical, was put into execution in the
course of 1902 under the International Council for the Study
of the Sea (see below). The Fishery Board for Scotland and the
Marine Biological Association for England were commissioned
to carry out the work at sea allotted to Great Britain, and the
English fishery department was equipped soon afterwards with
the means for collecting more adequate statistics.
Trawling investigations and the quantitative collection of
fish eggs have located important spawning grounds of cod,
haddock, plaice, sole, eel, &c.; marking experiments with cod,
plaice and eel have thrown much light upon the migrations of
these fishes; and the rate of growth of plaice, cod and herring
has been elucidated in different localities. The percentage of
marked plaice annually recaptured in the North Sea has been
found to be remarkably high (from 25 to 50 %), and throws a
significant light on the intensity of fishing under modern con-
ditions. It seems probable that the impoverishment of the stock
of plaice on the central grounds of the North Sea is mainly
attributable to the excessive rate of capture of plaice during
their annual off-shore migrations from the coast. On the other
hand, it has been shown that the growth-rate of plaice on the
Dogger Bank is constantly and markedly greater (five- or six-fold
in weight) than on the coastal grounds where these fish are
reared, facts which open up the possibility of increasing the
permanent supply of plaice from the North Sea by the adoption
of some plan of commercial transplantation (see PISCICULTURE) .
History. A brief review may now be given of the history
of the administration of British sea-fisheries since 1860, and of
the steps which have been taken for the attainment of scientific
and statistical information in relation thereto.
In 1860 a royal commission, consisting of Professor Huxley,
Mr (afterwards Sir) John Caird, and Mr G. Shaw-Lefevre (after-
wards Lord Eversley), was appointed to inquire into the con-
dition of the British sea-fisheries, the harmfulness or otherwise
of existing methods of fishing, and the necessity or otherwise
of the existing legislation. The .important report of this com-
mission, issued in 1866, embodied the following main conclusions
and recommendations: (i) the total supply of fish obtained
upon the British coasts is increasing and admits of further
augmentation; (2) beam-trawling in the open sea is not a waste-
fully destructive mode of fishing; (3) all acts of parliament
which profess to regulate or restrict the modes of fishing pursued
in the open sea should be repealed and " unrestricted freedom
1 Excluding the voyages of the fleeting trawlers which supply
London by means of carriers.
of fishing be permitted hereafter "; (4) all fishing boats should
be lettered and numbered as a condition of registration and
licence.
In 1868 full effect was given to these recommendations by
the passing of the Sea Fisheries Act. Regulations for the
registration of fishing boats were issued by order in council in
the following year. (Mew regulations were intro-
duced in 1902.)
In 1878 a commission was given to Messrs Buck-
land and Walpole to inquire into the alleged
destruction of the spawn and fry of sea fish,
especially by the use of the beam-trawl and
ground seine. Their report is an excellent sum-
mary of the condition of the sea fisheries at the
time, and shows how little was then known with
regard to the eggs and spawning habits of our marine food
fishes.
In 1882 the former Board of British White Herring was dis-
solved and the Fishery Board for Scotland instituted, the latter
being empowered to take such measures for the improvement
of the fisheries as the funds under their administration might
admit of. Arrangements were made in the following year with
Professor M'Intosh of St Andrews which enabled the latter
to fit up a small marine laboratory and to begin a series of studies
'on the eggs and larvae of sea fishes, which have contributed
greatly to the development of more exact knowledge concerning
the reproduction of fishes. Under the Sea Fisheries (Scotland)
Amendment Act of 1885 the board closed the Firth of Forth
and St Andrews Bay against trawlers as an experiment for the
purpose of ascertaining the result of such prohibition on the
supply of fish on the grounds so protected. The treasury also,
by a further grant of 3000, enabled the board to purchase the
steam-yacht " Garland " as a means of carrying out regular experi-
mental trawlings over the protected grounds. Reports on the
results of these experiments have been annually published, and
were summarized at the end of ten years' closure in the board's
report for 1895. Dr Fulton's summary showed that " no very
marked change took place in the abundance of food-fishes
generally, either in the closed or open waters of the Firth of Forth
or St Andrews Bay," as a consequence of the prohibition of trawl-
ing. Nevertheless, among flat fishes, plaice and lemon soles,
which spawn off-shore, were reported to have decreased in
numbers in all the areas investigated, whether closed or open,
while dabs and long rough dabs showed a preponderating, if
not quite universal, increase.
The results of this classical experiment point strongly to the
presumptions (i) that trawling operations in the open sea have
now exceeded the point at which their effect on the supply of
eggs and fry for the upkeep of the flat fisheries is inappreciable;
and (2) that protection of in-shore areas alone is insufficient to
check the impoverishment caused by over-fishing off-shore.
(For critical examinations of Dr Fulton's account see M'Intosh,
Resources of the Sea, London, 1889; Garstang, " The Impoverish-
ment of the Sea," Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass. vol. vi., 1900; and
Archer, Report of Ichlhyological Committee, Cd. 1312, 1902.)
A laboratory and sea-fish hatchery were subsequently estab-
lished by the board at Dunbar in 1893, but removed to Aberdeen
in 1900.
In 1883 a royal commission, under the chairmanship of. the
late earl of Dalhousie, was appointed to inquire into complaints
against the practice of beam-trawling on the part of line and
drift-net fishermen. A small sum of money (200) was granted
to the commission for the purpose of scientific trawling experi-
ments, which were carried out by Professor M'Intosh.
The report of this commission was an important one, and its
recommendations resulted in the institution of fishery statistics
for England, Scotland and Ireland (1885-1887).
In 1884 the Marine Biological Association of the United
Kingdom was founded for the scientific study of marine zoology
and botany, especially as bearing upon the food, habits and
life-conditions of British food-fishes, Crustacea and molluscs.
Professor Huxley was its first president, and Professor Ray
432
FISHERIES
Lankester, who initiated the movement, succeeded him. A large
and well-equipped laboratory was erected at Plymouth, and
formally opened for work in 1888. The work of the association
has been maintained by annual grants of 400 from the Fish-
mongers' Company and 1000 from H. M. treasury, and by the
subscriptions of the members. The association publishes a
half-yearly journal recording the results of its investigations.
In 1886 a fishery department of the Board of Trade was
organized under the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act of
that year. The department publishes annually a return of
statistics of sea-fish landed, a report on salmon fisheries (trans-
ferred from the home office), and a report on sea fisheries. It
consists of several inspectors under an assistant secretary of
the board; it has no power to make scientific investigations
or bye-laws and regulations affecting the sea-fisheries. In 1894
the administration of the acts relating to the registration of
fishing vessels, &c., was transferred to the fisheries department.
In 1888 the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act provided for the
constitution (by provisional order of the Board of Trade) of local
fisheries committees having, within defined limits, powers for
the regulation of coast fisheries in England and Wales. The
powers of district committees were extended under Part II. of
the Fisheries Act 1891, and again under the Fisheries (Shell
Fish) Regulation Act 1894. Sea-fisheries districts have now been
created round nearly the whole coast of England and Wales.
Under bye-laws of these committees steam-trawling has been
prohibited in nearly all the territorial waters of England and
Wales, and trawling by smaller boats has been placed under a
variety of restrictions. Local scientific investigations have been
initiated under several of the committees, especially in Lancashire
by Professor Herdman of Liverpool and his assistants.
In 1890 an important survey of the fishing grounds off the
west coast of Ireland was undertaken by the Royal Dublin
Society, with assistance from the government, and in the hands
of Mr E. W. L. Holt led to the acquisition of much valuable
information concerning the spawning habits of fishes and the
distribution of fish on the Atlantic seaboard.
In 1892, under powers conferred by the Herring Fishery (Scot-
land) Act of 1889, the Fishery Board for Scotland closed the whole
of the Moray Firth including a large tract of extra-territorial
waters against trawling, in order to test experimentally the
effect of protecting certain spawning grounds in the outer parts
of the firth. The closure has given rise to a succession of protests
from the leaders of the trawling industry in Aberdeen and
England. It seems that the difficulty of policing so large an
area, as well as the absence of any power to enforce the restriction
on foreign vessels, have defeated the original intention; and
the bye-law appears to be now retained mainly in deference
to the wishes of the local line-fishermen, the decadence of whose
industry from economic causes which have been alluded to
above is manifest from the figures in Table X. below. The
controversy has had the effect of causing the transference of a
number of English trawlers to foreign flags, especially the
Norwegian.
Statistics. The following tables summarize the official statistics
of fish landed on the coasts of England and Wales, Scotland and
Ireland, and give some information relative to the numbers of
fishing-boats and fishermen in the three countries.
TABLE I. Summary of Statistics of Fish landed, imported and
exported for the United Kingdom.
Year.
Fish landed
(excluding Shell-fish).
Net
Imports.
Exports of
British Fish.
1890
1895
1900
1905
Cwt.
12,774,010
14,068,641
14,671,070
20,164,276
6,361,487
7,168,025
9,242,491
10,210,369
2,315-572
2,453-676
2,937-486
2,250,259
1,795,267
2,282,406
3,000,852
4,164,869
Note. Imported fish afterwards re-exported (consisting chiefly
of salted or cured fish to the value of over 900,000 in 1905) are not
included in the above values of imports and exports. The exports
consist mainly of herrings.
TABLE II. Quantity and Average Landing Value of Flat Fishes
landed on the Coasts of England and Wales (all caught with
Trawl-nets, except Halibut in part). .
Quantity
(in Thousands of Cwt.).
Average Price (per Cwt.).
<u
M
1
_j
d
B
4J
3
.O
V
.(J
o
.Q
~
_j
OJ
D
M
3
i
H
"3
E
&
3
C
BQ
J2
E
~a
{. s.
{, s.
f. S-
f. B.
f. s.
1890
72-1
51-9
15-4
623
95
6 7
3 13
2 8
o 19
I 10
i95
82-8
77-9
19-0
79
114
6 16
3 17
2 II
I I
I 15
1900
75-3
60-7
20-7
752
136
7 ii
4 3
2 14
I 4
I 14
1905
80- 1
89-5
22-4
1074
120
5 i
3 ii
2 II
o 19
I 17
TABLE III. Quantity and Average Landing Vaiue of Round Fishes,
caught with Trawls and Lines, landed on the Coasts of England
and Wales.
Quantity
(in Thousands of Cwt.).
Average Price (per Cwt.)
a
.
i
j
3
8
1
d
E
bo
_c
1
3
1
U
y
5
i
q
d
Jt
cS
E
U)
C
J
1
E
in
E
CO
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
1890
1895
363
496
1585
2433
132
96
114
"5i
1013
13 io
12 5
9 7
9 9
16 2
H 3
n 8
14 o
13 7
1900
589
2487
2.33
100
1190
14 8
13 8
15 io
12 10
14 io
'90S
1423
2148
484
16 5
1425
12 4
12 5
13 4
ii 3
9 8
TABLE IV. Quantity and Average Landing Value of Surface Fishes
landed on the Coasts of England and Wales (caught with Drift-,
Seine-, and Slow-nets).
Quantity
(in Thousands of Cwt.).
Average Price (per Cwt.).
1
M
"Z
fc
i
^
JB
o
'
2
u
|
1
I
E
K
(ft
^
E
E
in
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
1890
509
1332
61
99
15 5
7 2
5 1
3 o
1895
375
H37
65
91
16 3
5 io
5 3
3 i
1900
321
2425
1 06
73
IS 9
7 8
4 6
4 ii
1905
682
3062
169
75
8 ii
7 7
3 6
TABLE V. Quantity and Average Landing Value of Shell-fish landed
on the Coasts of England and Wales.
Number.
Average Price.
Thou-
p
Thousands.
Mills.
sands of
Cwt.
Per Hundred.
Cwt.
B
|
I
en
g
fi
(A
.-
o
|
M
ss
V
t
I
O
JD
O
1
B
CO
U
S
J
M
>.
O
j
f, s-
s.
s. d.
s. d.
1890
4808
922
47-6
505
i 4
4 18
6 I
5 o
1895
4501
677
25-3
590
i 4
4 8
6 2
411
1900
5177
654
37-8
539
I 2
4 7
7 o
5 8
1905
5106
503
35-4
423
i 3
4 15
5 9
5 6
TABLE VI. Total Quantity ofthemore important Fishes and Shell-fish
landed in Scotland.
Year.
In Thousands of Cwt.
Cwt.
Number
(Thousands) .
li
B
1
gjj
44C/3
Flounder,
Plaice,
and Brill.
Halibut.
1
U
M
Q
Haddock.
1
1
a
%
Mussels.
I
1
i
o
1890
1895
1900
i95
3980
4077
353
5343
17
19
21
31
81
80
loa
561
10
at)
16
36
449
459
434
677
170
165
157
151
754
IOOI
761
932
75
43
75
184
54
59
73
IOO
181
194
143
103
2882
2548
3138
1990
643
610
680
760
350
239
796
218
i Plaice only.
FISHERIES
TABLE VII. Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and Shell-
fish returned as landed on the Irish Coasts.
433
divergencies of opinion on the question whether the low size-
limits proposed would be effectual in keeping the trawlers from
working on the grounds where small fish congregated, the
committee reported against the bill, and urged the immediate
equipment of the government departments with means for
undertaking the necessary scientific investigations.
In 1901 an international conference of representatives of all
the countries bordering upon the North and Baltic Seas met at
Christiania to revise proposals which had been drafted at Stock-
holm in 1899 for a scientific exploration of these waters in the
interest of the fisheries, to be undertaken concurrently by all
the participating countries. The British government was
represented by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff, K.C.M.G., with Pro-
fessor D'Arcy W. Thompson, Mr (afterwards Professor) W.
Garstang and Dr H. R. Mill as advisers. The proposals were
subsequently accepted, with some restrictions, and an interna-
TABLE VIII. Classified List of British Fishing Boats on the Register for 1905, omitting 2nd Class Steamers tional council of manage-
In Thousands of Cwt.
Number
(Thousands) .
<5
"a
M
-4J
^
si
.
3
i
c
U
o
T3
bo
X
C
o
_o
B
9*
rt
C
V
E
S
C
H
a
J
TJ
T3
S
O
'J3
K
1
S
U
O
1
1890
502
85
4-5
1-4
39-6
I4-8
16-4
13-5
25-3
576
228
2^8
i95
339
'7'
1-8
I-O
43-6
29-7
30-9
n-9
18-7
563
240
276
1900
278
284
3 - i
1-5
33-6
1 1 -9
12-4
11-9
16-3
236
2O2
286
1905
505
354|
3'5
0-8
18-6
9-1
"3
18-3
7'i
348
175
236
Note. The Irish statistics of shell-fish are very incomplete, owing
to the inadequate means at the disposal of the authorities for collect-
ing statistics over large sections of the coast.
and Vessels under 18 Ft. Keel or Navigated by Oars only and Vessels unemployed.
Mode of
Fishing.
England and Wales.
Scotland.
Ireland.
Steamers,
ist Cl.
Sailing.
1st Cl. 2nd Cl.
Steamers,
ist Cl.
Sailing.
1st Cl. 2nd Cl.
Steamers.
1st Cl.
Sailing.
1st Cl. 2nd Cl.
Trawling .
Drift-nets
Lines
Various .
H73
263
56
21
904
562
29
215
586
539
685
2277
244
209
3403
68
2910
10
142
229
283
2776
Total .
1513
1710
4087
453
3403
2978
10
371
3059
Note. 1st class = steamers of at least 15 tons gross tonnage, and other boats of at least
tonnage (in Scotland exceeding 30 ft. keel).
2nd class =less than 15 tons tonnage, or from 18 to 30 ft. keel.
TABLE IX. Number (A) of Men and Boys constantly employed
and (B) of other Persons occasionally employed in Fishing.
Year.
England and
Wales.
Scotland.
Ireland.
United
Kingdom.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
1890
1895
1900
1905
32,503
33,229
31.589
34,3i8
93"
8995
7994
8132
34,319
3i.44
27,288
29,064
20,829
12,329
10,288
10.487
IO.I2I
8,693
8,677
8,744
I3,98l
18,218
18,982
17,079
78,450
73,090
68,708
73,293
*6,i37
41,23
37,8l4
36,131
TABLE X. Catch and Value of Line-caught and Trawled Fish landed
in Scotland.
Year.
Line-caught Fish.
Trawled Fish.
1890
1895
1900
1905
Cwt.
1-577-299
1,479,654
757,416
735,654
591,059
548,629
371,173
348,610
Cwt.
291,812
531,695
1,077,082
1,745.431
203,620
291,165
703,427
948,117
In 1893 a select committee of the House of Commons took
evidence as to the expediency of adopting measures for the
preservation of the sea-fisheries in the seas around the British
Islands, with especial reference to the alleged wasteful destruction
of under-sized fish. They reco-mmended the adoption of a size-
limit of 8 in. for soles and plaice, and 10 in. for turbot and brill,
below which the sale of these fishes should be prohibited, on the
ground that these limits would approximate to those already
adopted by foreign countries.
In 1899 the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland)
Act transferred the "powers and duties of the inspectors of Irish
fisheries to the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruc-
tion for Ireland. The department is provided with a steam
cruiser, the "Helga,"37S tons, fully equipped for fishery research,
as well as with a floating marine laboratory. Mr Holt, formerly
of the Marine Biological Association, was appointed to take
charge of the scientific work.
In 1900 another select committee of the House of Commons
was appointed to consider and take evidence on the proposals of
the Sea Fisheries Bill, which had been framed in accordance with
the recommendations of the select committee of 1893, but had
failed to pass in several sessions of parliament. Owing to marked
ment was appointed by
the participating govern-
ments. The Fishery
Board for Scotland and
the Marine Biological
Association from England
were commissioned in
1902 to carry out the
work at sea allotted to
Great Britain, and a
special grant of 5500
per annum was made to
15 tons registered each body by the Trea _
sury for this purpose.
Two steamers, the
" Huxley " and the " Goldseeker," were chartered for the investi-
gations and began. work in 1902 and 1903 from Lowestoft
and Aberdeen respectively. Reports on the work of the first
five years were published in 1909.
In 1901 the Board of Trade appointed a committee (the
Committee on Ichthyological Research) to inquire and report
as to the best means by which scientific fishery research could
be organized and assisted in relation to the state or local authori-
ties. The committee consisted of Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P.
(chairman), Mr W. F. Archer, Mr Donald Crawford, Rev. W. S.
Green, Professor W. A. Herdman, Hon. T. H. W. Pelham,
Mr S. E. Spring Rice and Professor J. A. Thomson. Sir Herbert
Maxwell resigned his chairmanship before the report was drawn
up (September 1902), and was succeeded by Sir Colin Scott-
Moncrieff. The committee recommended the provision of more
complete statistics; the provision and maintenance of five special
steamers (where not already existing) to work in connexion with
as many marine laboratories, viz. one for each of the three coasts
of England and Wales, and one each for Scotland and Ireland;
the provision of three biological assistants at each laboratory;
the grant of statutory powers to local sea-fisheries committees to
expend money on fishery research; the constitution of a fishery
council for England and Wales, and of a conference of represent-
atives of the central authorities in England, Scotland and
Ireland. In 1903 the fishery department of the Board of Trade
was transferred to the Board of Agriculture, Mr W. E. Archer,
chief inspector of fisheries, becoming an assistant secretary of
the new Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.
In 1907 a departmental treasury committee was appointed
to inquire into the scientific and statistical investigations carried
on in relation to the fishing industry of the United Kingdom.
The committee consisted of Mr H. J. Tennant, M.P. (chairman),
Lord Nunburnholme, Sir Reginald MacLeod, Mr N. W. Helms,
M.P., Mr A. Williamson. M.P., DrP. Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S.,
Mr J. S. Gardiner, F.R.S., the Rev. W. S. Green, Mr R. H. Rew
and Mr L. S. Hewby. This committee reviewed the work that
had already been done and urged its continuation and extension
under the direction of a central council composed of represent-
atives of the government departments concerned with fishery
matters in England, Scotland and Ireland, with a scientific
434
FISHERY
chairman and director ; and further insisted on the need of
international co-operation in the investigations.
United Slates Fisheries. The administration of the fisheries
of the United States of America is under the control of the
several coastal states, but the Bureau of Fisheries at Washing-
ton, which reports to the secretary of commerce and labour,
conducts a vast amount of scientific fishery investigation, issues
admirable statistical and biological reports, and conducts on a
very large scale work on the replenishment of the fishing stations
by artificial means (see PISCICULTURE). Although in recent
years Canada has given an increasing amount of state support
to the investigation, control and assistance of her fisheries, an
amount actually and relatively far exceeding that given in Great
Britain, the fishing industry of the United States still far exceeds
that of Canada. A considerable bulk of fish, taken by American
ships from the Newfoundland coasts and from those of other
British provinces, is landed at American ports, but as the follow-
ing recent table shows, it is much 1 less than that taken from
American waters.
Quantities and Values of Fish landed by American Vessels at Boston
and Gloucester, Mass., in 190$.
Quantities.
Value.
(a) From fishing grounds off U.S.
coasts
(ft) From fishing grounds off New-
foundland
(c) From fishing grounds off other
British provinces
152,241,139
17,165,083
32,608,343
669,640
103,145
192,517
The fisheries of the United States show a substantial increase
from year to year. There has been a decline in some important
branches owing to indiscreet fishing and to the inevitable effects
of civilization on certain kinds of animal life and in certain
restricted areas. Such diminution has been more than com-
pensated for by growth resulting from the invasion of new fishing
grounds made possible by increase in the sea-going capacity
of the vessels employed, by improvement in the preservation
and handling of the catch, and by the greater utilization of
products which until comparatively recently were disregarded
or considered without economic value. The annual value of the
water products taken and sold by the United States fishermen
now amounts to over 11,000,000, and this sum does not include
the very large quantities taken by the fishermen for home
consumption or captured by sportsmen and amateurs. Between
two and three hundred thousand persons make a livelihood by
the industry, and the capital involved exceeds 16,000,000.
The oyster is the most valuable single product, and the output
of the United States industry exceeds the combined output of
all other countries in the world. The most notable feature of
this fishery is that" nearly half the total yield now comes from
cultivated grounds, so that the business is being placed on a
secure basis. Virginia has now taken the first rank as an oyster-
producing state, oyster farming being now highly developed
with an annual yield of nearly nine million bushels.
The high-sea fisheries for cod, haddock, hake, halibut, mackerel,
herring, and so forth are on the whole not increasing in prosperity,
the annual value being between one and two million pounds.
The lobster fishery shows a markedly diminishing yield, the
diminution having been progressive since about 1890, and
being attributed to over-fishing and violation of the restrictive
regulations. At present a large part of the lobsters consumed
in the United States comes from Nova Scotia, but there is
evidence of useful results coming from the extensive cultural
operations now being carried out.
The whale fishery, at one time the leading fishing industry
of the country, is now conducted chiefly in the North Pacific
and Arctic oceans, but is decaying, being now expensive, un-
certain and often unremunerative. The annual value of the
take is now under 200,000.
The important group of anadromous fishes (those like salmon,
shad, alewife, striped bass and sea perches, which ascend the
rivers from the ocean) has continued to provide an increasing
source of income to fishermen, the combined value of the catch
on the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards now amounting to over
3,000,000 annually. The fisheries of the Great Lakes yield
about 600,000 annually. (W. GA.; P. C. M.)
FISHERY (LAW or). This subject has (i) its international
aspect; (2) its municipal aspect. On the high seas outside
territorial waters the right of fishery is now recognized as common
to all nations. Claims were made in former times by single
nations to the exclusive right of fishing in tracts of open sea;
such as that set up by Denmark in respect of the North Sea, as
lying between its possessions of Norway and Iceland, against
England in the 1 7th century, and against England and Holland
in the i8th century, when she prohibited any foreigners fishing
within 15 German miles of the shores of Greenland and Iceland.
This claim, however, was always effectively resisted on the
ground stated in Queen Elizabeth's remonstrance to Denmark
on the subject in 1602, that " the law of nations alloweth of
fishing in the sea everywhere, even in seas where a nation hath
propertie of command." The enunciation of this principle is
to be found, also, in the award of the arbitration court which
decided the question of the fur-seal fishery in Bering Sea in 1894.
(See BERING SEA ARBITRATION; ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL.)
The right of nations to take fish in the sea may, however, be
restrained or regulated by treaty or custom; and Great Britain
has entered into conventions with other nations with regard to
fishing in certain parts of the sea. The provisions of such
conventions are made binding on British subjects by statutes.
Instances of these are the conventions of 1818 and 1872 between
Great Britain and the United States as to the fisheries on the eastern
coasts of British North America iind the United States within certain
limits, and the award of the Bering Sea arbitration tribunal under the
treaty of 1892; the conventions between Great Britain and France
in 183^ and 1867 as regards fishing in the seas adjoining these
countries, the latter of which will come into force on the repeal of
the former; the agreement of 1904 with respect to the New-
foundland fisheries (see NEWFOUNDLAND) ; the convention of 1882
between Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain and
Holland, regarding the North Sea fisheries; that of 1887 between
the same parties concerning the liquor traffic in the North Sea;
and the declaration regarding the same waters made between
Great Britain and Belgium for the settlement of differences between
their fishermen subjects in such extra-territorial waters. At the
instance of the Swedish government the British parliament also
passed an act in 1875 to establish a close time for the seal fishery in
the seas adjacent to the eastern coasts of Greenland.
Cases have come before British courts with regard to the
whale fishery in northern and southern seas; and the customs
proved to exist among the whaling ships of the nations engaged
in a particular trade have been upheld if known to the parties
to the action. In territorial waters, on the other hand, fishery
is a right exclusively belonging to the subjects of the country
owning such waters, and no foreigners can fish there except by
convention.
(a) Tidal Waters. In British territorial waters, it may be
stated, as the general rule, that fishery is a right incidental
to the soil covered by the waters in which that right is exercised.
The bed of all navigable rivers where the tide flows and reflows,
and of all estuaries or arms of the sea, is vested in the crown ; and
therefore, in Lord Chief Justice Hale's words, " the right of the
fishery in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof is originally
lodged in the crown, as the right of depasturing is originally lodged
in the owner of the waste whereof he is lord, or as the right of fishing
belongs to him that is the owner of a private or inland river.
" But," he continues, " though the king is the owner of this great
waste, and as a consequent of his propriety hath the primary right
of fishing in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof, yet the common
people of England have regularly a liberty of fishing therein as a
public common of piscary, and may not without injury to their right
be restrained of it unless in such places or creeks or navigable rivers
where either the king or some particular subject hath gained a
propriety exclusive of that common liberty " (De Jure Maris, ch. iv.)_
This right extends to all fish floating in the sea or left on the
seashore, except certain fish known as royal fish, which, when
taken in territorial waters, belong to the crown or its grantee,
though caught by another person. These are whales, sturgeons
and porpoises; and grampuses are also sometimes added (whales,
porpoises and grampuses being " fishes " only in a legal sense).
In Scotland only whales which are of large size can be so claimed ;
FISHERY
435
but the rights of salmon fishing in the sea and in public and
private rivers, and those of mussel and oyster fishing, except
in private rivers, are inter regalia, and are only enjoyable by the
crown or persons deriving title under it. As salmon fishery was
formerly practised by nets and engines on the shore, and the
mussel and oyster fisheries were necessarily carried on on the
shore, the opinion was held at one time that angling for salmon
was a public right, but the later decisions have established that
the right of salmon fishing by whatever means is a jus regale in
Scotland. In England the crown in early times made frequent
grants of fisheries to subjects in tidal waters, and instances of
such fisheries belonging to persons and corporations are very
common at the present day: but by Magna Carta the crown
declared that " no rivers shall be defended from henceforth,
but such as were in defence in the time of King Henry, our
grandfather, by the same places and the same bounds as they
were wont to be in his time "; and thus bound itself not to
create a private fishery in any navigable tidal river. Judicial
decision and commentators having interpreted this statute
according to the spirit and not the letter, at the present day the
right of fishery in tidal waters prima facie belongs to the public,
and they can only be excluded by a particular person or corpora-
tion on proof of an exclusive right to fish there not later in its
origin than Magna Carta; and for this it is necessary either to
prove an actual grant from the crown of that date to the claimant's
predecessor in title, or a later grant or immemorial custom or
prescription to that effect, from which such an original grant
may be presumed. This exclusive right of fishing may be either
a franchise derived from the crown, or may arise by virtue of
ownership of the soil covered by the waters.
In Lord Hate's words: " Fishing may be of two kinds ordinarily,
viz. fishing with a net, which may be either as a liberty without the
soil, or as a liberty arising by reason of and in concomitance with the
soil or an interest or propriety of it; or otherwise it is a local fishing
that ariseth by or from the propriety of the soil, such are gurgites,
wears, fishing-places, borachiae, stachiae, which are the very soil
itself, and so frequently agreed by our books. And such as these a
subject may have by usage; either in gross, as many religious
nouses had, or as parcel of or appurtenant to their manors, as both
corporations and others have had ; and this not only in navigable
rivers and arms of the sea but in creeks and ports and havens, yea,
and in certain known limits in the open sea contiguous to the shore.
And these kinds of fishings are not only for small sea-fish, such as
herrings, &c., but for great fish, as salmons, and not only for them
but for royal fish. . . . Most of the precedents touching such rights
of fishing in the sea, and the arms and creeks thereof belonging by
usage to subjects, appear to be by reason of the propriety of the
very water and soil wherein the fishing is, and some of them even
within parts of the seas " (De Jure Marts, ch. v.)
An instance of the former kind of fishery is to be found in the
old case of Royal Fishery of the River Bann (temp. James I.,
Davis 655), and the modern one of Wilson v. Crossfield, 1883,
i T.L.R. 601, where a right of fishery in gross was established;
but the latter kind, as Hale says, is much more common, and the
presumption is always in its favour; & fortiori where the fishing
is proved to have been carried on by means of engines or struc-
tures fixed in the soil. In England the public have not at com-
mon law, as incidental to their right of fishing in tidal waters,
the right to make use of the banks or shores for purposes in-
cidental to the fishery, such as beaching their boats upon them,
landing there, or drying their nets there (though they can do so
by proving a custom from which such a grant may be presumed) ;
but statutes relating to particular parts of the realm, such as
Cornwall for the pilchard fishery, give them such rights. In
Scotland a right of salmon fishing separate from land implies
the right of access to and use of the banks, foreshores or beach
for the purposes of the fishing; and so does white fishing by
statute. But otherwise there is no right to do so, e.g. in a public
river for trout fishing. A similar privilege is given to Irish
fishermen for the purpose of sea fishery by special statute. There
is no property in fish in the sea, and they belong to the first
taker; and the custom of the trade decides when a fish is taken
or not, e.g. in the whale fishery the question whether a fish is
" loose " or not has come before English courts.
(b) Fresh Waters. In non-tidal waters in England and
Ireland, for the reason given above, the presumption is in favour
of the fishery in such waters belonging to the owners of the ad-
jacent lands; " fresh waters of what kind soever do of common
right belong to the owners of the soil adjacent, so that the owners
of the one side have of common right the property of the soil, and
consequently the right of fishing usque ad filum aquae, and the
owners of the other side the right of soil or ownership and fishing
unto the filum aquae on their side; and if a man be owner of
the land on both sides, in common presumption he is owner of
the whole river, and hath the right of fishing according to the
extent of his land in length " (Hale, ch. i.). There is a similar
presumption that the owner of the bed of a river has the exclusive
right of fishery there, and this is so even though he does not own
the banks; but these presumptions may be displaced by proof
of a different state of things, e.g. where the banks of a stream
are separately owned the owner of one bank may show by acts
of ownership exercised over the whole stream that he has the
fishery over it all. The crown prerogative of fishery, never it
seems, extended to non-tidal waters flowing over the land of a
subject, and it .could not therefore grant such a franchise to a
subject, nor has it any right de jure to the soil or fisheries of an
inland lake such as Lough Neagh (Bristow v. Cormican, 1878,
3 App. Cas. 641). The public cannot acquire the right to fish
in fresh waters by prescription or otherwise although they are
navigable; such a right is unknown to law, because a profit
a prendre in alieno solo is neither to be acquired by custom nor
by prescription under the Prescription Act. It has been decided
that the " dwellers " in a parish cannot acquire such a right,
being of too vague a class; but the commoners in a manor may
have it by custom; and the " free inhabitants of ancient tene-
ments " in a borough have been held capable of acquiring a
right to dredge for oysters in a fishery belonging to the coroora-
tion of the borough on certain days in each year by giving proof
of uninterrupted enjoyment of it from time immemorial, on the
presumption that this was a condition to which the grant made
to the corporation was subject.
In Scotland the law is similar. The right to fish for trout
in private streams is a pertinent of the land adjacent, and
owners of opposite banks may fish usque ad medium filum aquae;
and where two owners own land round a private loch, both have
a common of fishing over it. The public cannot prescribe for it,
for a written title either to adjacent lands or to the fishery is
necessary. A right of way along the bank of a river or loch
does not give it, nor does the right of the public to be on or
at a navigable but non-tidal river. The right of salmon fishing
carries with it the right of trout fishing: and eel fishing passes in
the same way.
In England and Ireland private fisheries have been divided
into (a) several (separalis), (b) free (liber a), (c) common of piscary
(communis) , whether in tidal or non-tidal waters. The distinction
between several and free fisheries has always been uncertain.
Blackstone's opinion was that several fishery implied a fishery in
right of the soil under the water, while free fishery was confined
to a public river and did not necessarily comprehend the soil.
He is supported by later writers, such as Woolrych and Paterson.
On the other hand, the opinions of Coke and Hale are opposed
to this view. " A man may prescribe to have a several fishery
in such a water, and the owner shall not fish there; but if he
claim to have common of fishery or free fishery the owner of the
soil shall fish there " (Co Littl. 122 A); " one man may have
the river and others the soil adjacent : or one man may have the
river and soil thereof, and another the free or several fishing in
that river " (De Jure Maris, ch. i.). Lord Holt, though in one
instance he distinguished them, in a later case thought that
they were " all one." Later decisions have established the latter
view, and it is now settled that although the owner of the several
fishery is prima facie owner of the soil of the waters, this presump-
tion may be displaced by showing that the terms of the grant
only convey an incorporeal hereditament, and that the words
" sole and exclusive fishery " give a several fishery in alieno solo.
In the .words of Mr Justice Willes, " the only substantial distinc-
tion is between an exclusive right of fishery, usually called
436
FISHERY
' several,' and sometimes ' free,' as in ' free warren,' and a right
in common with others, usually called ' common of fishery,'
and sometimes ' free,' as in ' free port.' A several fishery means
an exclusive right to fish in a given place, either with or without
the property in the soil " (Malcolmson v. O'Dea, 1863, 10 H.L.).
A common of piscary, or " a right to fish in common with certain
other persons in a particular stream," is usually found in manors,
the commoners of which may have the right to enjoy it to an
extent sufficient for the sustenance of their tenements; but
they cannot, except by immemorial special prescription, exclude
the lord of the manor therefrom, and have no rights over the
soil itself. Decisions also establish that a grant of " fishery "
will prima facie pass an exclusive fishery; a grant of soil covered
by water or a lease of lands including water will pass the fishery
therein; a several fishery will not merge on being resumed by
the crown; and a fishery situate within a manor is presumed
to belong to the owners of adjacent land, and not to the lord.
A several fishery, as already seen, being an incorporeal heredita-
ment, can only be transferred by deed, and therefore camot
be abandoned, and so acquired by the public, even on proof that
the public have, as far back as living memory, exercised the right
of fishing in the locus in quo to the knowledge of and without
interruption from the claimant of the fishery. But to establish
a title to a several fishery, a " paper title," i.e. one founded on
documentary evidence only, is not sufficient; it must be sup-
ported by evidence of acts of ownership in recent times, for
otherwise it will be presumed that a person other than the alleged
owner is the real owner. If the waters of a tidal river leave their
old channel and flow into another, the owner of a several fishery
in the old channel cannot claim to have it in the new one; but,
on the other hand, the owner of a several fishery can take
advantage of a gradual encroachment by the river upon and
into the land of a riparian owner, the limits of whose land are
ascertained. The owner of an exclusive fishery, whether in tidal
or fresh waters, has the right to take as many fish as he can, and
may do so by means of fixed engines or dredging, provided that
in navigable waters he does not interfere with the right of
navigation, and that in navigable and other waters he does not
interfere with the fishing rights of his neighbours or infringe the
provisions made by old or modern statutes as to the methods
of taking the fish, e.g. by weirs. These were forbidden in rivers
by Magna Carta and later statutes, and on the seashore by a
statute of James I.; but all weirs in navigable fresh waters
traceable to a date not later than 25 Edward III. are lawful,
for the statutes forbidding weirs do not apply to navigable
waters. It seems, however, that at common law any fixed
structures put up by the owner of a fishery in his part of a river,
which at all prevent the free passage of fish to the waters above
or below, give the owners of fisheries therein a right of action
against him. So the grantee of an exclusive fishery with rod
and line in an unnavigable river can prevent any person from
polluting the river higher up and so damaging the fishery. At
common law there is no property in fish when enjoying their
natural liberty; the taker is entitled to keep them unless they
are caught from a tank or small pond; or except in the case of
salmon by statute.
Modern statutes now regulate all fisheries, sea or fresh, in
territorial or inland waters. As regards sea fishery in England,
the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has (since 1903, when it
took it over from the Board of Trade) power by order to create
sea fisheries districts, comprising any part of the sea within
which British subjects have, by international law, the exclusive
right of fishing, and to provide for the constitution of a local
fisheries committee to regulate the sea fisheries in such district,
which can make by-laws for that purpose. It appoints fishery
officers to enforce them, prescribes a close time for sea fish
(which does not include salmon as defined in the Salmon Act),
has summary jurisdiction over offences committed on the sea
coast or at sea beyond the ordinary jurisdiction of a court of
summary jurisdiction, can enforce the Sea Fisheries Acts, or
regulate, protect and develop fisheries for all or any kind of shell
fish. Special provision is also made by statute for the oyster
fishery and herring fishery (applicable also to Scotland), and that
of mussels, cockles, lobsters and crabs (applicable to all the
United Kingdom) . In Scotland the Fishery Board can constitute
sea fishery districts, and boards with like powers to those in
England, and has general control over the coast and deep-sea
fisheries of Scotland; and there are acts relative to herring,
mussel and oyster fisheries, and allowing the appropriation of
money intended to relieve local distress and taxation towards
the encouragement of sea fisheries, and marine superintendence
and enforcement of Scottish sea fisheries laws. In Ireland the
sea fisheries are under the direction of the inspectors of Irish
fisheries, who have replaced the former fishery commissioners
and special commissioners for Irish fisheries; special statutes,
besides the general ones applying to all the United Kingdom,
deal with oyster fisheries and mussel fisheries; and money is
also appropriated for sea fisheries under the head of technical
instruction. In all three component parts of the United Kingdom
there are also special statutes relative to salmon and freshwater
fish: for England, the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts
1861-1907, and the Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1878-1886; for
Scotland the chief Salmon Acts are those of 1862-1868, and for
trout and freshwater fish those of 1845-1902; for Ireland, the
Fisheries (Ireland) Acts 1842-1901. A similar scheme is adopted
in each case, namely, fishery districts and district boards are
set up which regulate the fishing by by-laws and protect the fish
by fixing a close time, and prescribing passes, licences, inspection
and the like, breaches of which are punishable by courts of
summary jurisdiction. The supreme authorities in each case
are for England the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, for
Scotland the Fishery Board, and for Ireland the inspectors of
fisheries, and in England a certain official number of conservators
on such boards are appointed by the county councils. The
Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act 1907 gives the Board
of Agriculture and Fisheries power to make provisional orders
for the regulation of salmon fisheries or freshwater fisheries
within any area on the application of any board of conservators,
or of a county council, or of the owners of one-fourth in value
of private fisheries. There are also special acts dealing with the
fishing in certain rivers, such as the Thames, Medway, Severn,
Tweed and Esk. (The act of 1907 applies, however, to the Esk,
but not otherwise to Scotland nor to Ireland.) Throughout the
United Kingdom the use of dynamite or other explosive substance
to catch or destroy fish in any public fishery is prohibited, as it
is also in England in any private waters subject to the Salmon
and Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1878, in which it is also forbidden
to use poison or other noxious substance for destroying fish.
Officers in the army or marines are forbidden (under penalty) to
kill fish without written leave from the person entitled to grant
it. There are also provisions of the criminal law dealing with the
protection of fisheries generally, as well as the provisions of the
acts already mentioned dealing with special kinds of fish.
Special provision is made by the Merchant Shipping Acts
1894-1906 for sea-fishing boats (except in Scotland and the
colonies), relating to their registration, carrying official papers,
carrying boats in proportion to their tonnage, the punishment
of offences on board, the wages of their crews, and keeping record
of all casualties, punishments and the like on board. As regards
trawlers, especially in the case of those of 25 tons and upwards,
a statutory form of agreement with the crew is prescribed, as
well as accounts of wages and discharges; and skippers and
second hands must have certificates of competency, which are
granted under similar conditions to those required in the case
of seagoing ships and are registered with the Board of Trade.
Scottish fishing boats are regulated by a special statute of 1886
(except as regards agreements to pay crew by share of profits,
dealt with by the above act) and by the Sea Fisheries Act of 1868,
which applies to all British fishing boats. Particular lights must
be carried by fishing boats in navigation. An act of 1908 (The
Cran Measures Act) legalized the use of cran measures in connexion
with trading in fresh herrings in England and Wales, the Board
of Agriculture and Fisheries being empowered to make regula-
tions under the act.
FISHGUARD FISKE
437
AUTHORITIES. Green, Encyclopaedia of Scots Law (Edinburgh,
1896); Stewart, Law of Fishing in Scotland (Edinburgh, 1869);
Woolrych, Waters (London, 1851); Paterson, Fishery Laws of the
United Kingdom (London and Cambridge, 1863); Stuart Moore,
Foreshore (London, 1888); Phillimore, International Law (3rd ed.,
London, 1879); Martens, Causes celebres du droit des gens (Leipzig,
1827); Selwyn, Nisi Prius, Fishery (London, 1869). (G. G. P.*)
FISHGUARD (Abergwaun), a market town, urban district,
contributory parliamentary borough and seaport of Pembroke-
shire, Wales, near the mouth of the river Gwaun, which here
flows into Fishguard Bay of St George's Channel. Pop. (1901)
2002. Its railway station, which is the chief terminus of the
South Wales system of the Great Western railway, is at the hamlet
of Goodwick across the bay, a mile distant to the south-west.
Fishguard Bay is deep and well sheltered from all winds save
those of the N. and N.E., and its immense commercial value has
long been recognized. After many years of labour and at a great
expenditure of money the Great Western railway has constructed
a fine breakwater and railway pier at Goodwick across the lower
'end of the bay, and an important passenger and goods traffic with
Rosslare on the opposite Irish coast was inaugurated in 1906.
The importance of Fishguard is due to the local fisheries and
the excellence of its harbour, and its early history is obscure.
The chief historical interest of the town centres round the so-
called " Fishguard Invasion " of 1797, in which year on the
22nd of February three French men-of-war with troops on board,
under the command of General Tate, an Irish-American adven-
turer, appeared off Carreg Gwastad Point in the adjoining
parish of Llanwnda. To the great alarm of the ' inhabitants a
body of about 1400 men disembarked, but it quickly capitulated,
practically without striking a blow, to a combined force of the
local militias under Sir Richard Philipps, Lord Milford and
John Campbell, Lord Cawdor; the French frigates meanwhile
sailing away towards Ireland. For many years the castles and
prisons of Haverfordwest and Pembroke were filled to over-
flowing with French prisoners of war. Close to the banks of the
Gwaun is the pretty estate of Glyn-y-mel, for many years the
residence of Richard Fenton (1746-1821), the celebrated anti-
quary and historian of Pembrokeshire.
FISHKILL LANDING, or FISHKILL-ON-THE-HUDSON, a village
of Fishkill township, Dutchess county, New York, U.S.A.,
about 58 m. N. of New York City, on the E. bank of the Hudson
river, opposite Newburgh. Pop. (1890) 3617; (1900) 3673,
of whom 540 were foreign-born; (1905) 3939; (1910) 3902,
of Fishkill township (1890) 11,840; (1900) 13,016; (1905)
r 3>i83; (1910) 13,858. In the township are also the villages
of Matteawan (q.v.), Fishkill and Glenham. Fishkill Landing
is served by the New York Central & Hudson River and the
New York, New Haven & Hartford railways; by railway ferry
and passenger ferries to Newburgh, connecting with the West
Shore railway; by river steamboats and by electric railway
to Matteawan. Four miles farther N. on Fishkill Creek is
the village of Fishkill (incorporated in 1899), pop. (1905) 579.
In this village are two notable old churches, Trinity (1769),
and the First Dutch Reformed (1731), in which the New York
Provinical Congress met in August and September 1776.
At the old Verplanck mansion in Fishkill Landing the Society
of the Cincinnati was organized in 1783. Among the manu-
factures of Fishkill Landing are rubber-goods, engines (Corliss)
and other machinery, hats, silks, woollens, and brick and tile.
The village of Fishkill Landing was incorporated in 1864. The
first settlement in the township was made about 1690. The
township of Fishkill was, like Newburgh, an important military
post during the War of Independence, and was a supply depot
for the northern Continental Army.
FISK, JAMES (1834-1872), American financier, was born at
Bennington, Vermont, on the ist of April 1834. After a brief
period in school he ran away and joined a circus. Later he became
a hotel waiter, and finally adopted the business of his father,
a pedlar. He then became a salesman for a Boston dry goods
firm, his aptitude and energy eventually winning for him a share
in the business. By his shrewd dealing in army contracts during
the Civil War, and it is said by engaging in cotton smuggling,
he accumulated a considerable capital which he soon lost in
speculation. In 1864 he became a stockbroker in New York
and was employed by Daniel Drew as a buyer. He aided Drew
in his war against Vanderbilt for the control of the Erie railway,
and as a result of the compromise that was reached he and Jay
Gould became members of the Erie directorate. The association
with Gould thus began continued until his death. Subsequently
by a well-planned " raid," Fisk and Gould obtained control
of the road. They carried financial " buccaneering " to extremes,
their programme including open alliance with the Tweed " ring,"
the wholesale bribery of legislatures and the buying of judges.
Their attempt to corner the gold market culminated in the
fateful Black Friday of the 24th of September 1869. Fisk was
shot and killed in New York City by E. S. Stokes, a former
business associate, on the 6th of January 1872.
FISK, WILBUR (1792-1839), American educationist, was
born in Brattleboro, Vermont, on the 3ist of August 1792.
He studied at the university of Vermont in 1812-1814, and then
entered Brown University, where he graduated in 1815. He
studied law, and in 1817 came under the influence of a religious
revival in Vermont, where at Lyndon in the following year he
was licensed as a local preacher and was admitted to the New
England conference. His influence with the conference turned
that body from its opposition to higher education as immoral
in tendency to the establishment of secondary schools and
colleges. Upon the removal in 1824 of the conference's academy
at New Market, New Hampshire, to Wilbraham, Massachusetts,
Fisk became one of its agents and trustees, and in 1826 its
principal. He drafted the report of the committee on education
to the general conference in 1828, at which time he declined
the bishopric of the Canada conference. He was first president
of Wesleyan University from the opening of the university in
1831 until his death on the 22nd of February 1839 in Middle-
town, Connecticut. His successful administration of the Wesleyan
Academy at Wilbraham and of Wesleyan University were remark-
able. He was an able controversialist, and in the interests
of Arminianism attacked both New England Calvinism and
Unitarianism; he published in 1837 The Calvinislic Controversy.
He also wrote Travels on the Continent of Europe (1838).
See Life and Writings of Wilbur Fisk (New York, 1842), edited by
Joseph Holdich, and the biography by George Prentice (Boston,
1890), in the American Religious Leaders Series', also a sketch in
Memoirs of Teachers and Educators (New York, 1861), edited by
Henry Barnard.
FISKE, JOHN (1842-1901), American historical, philosophical
and scientific writer, was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on the
3oth of March 1842, and died at Gloucester, Massachusetts, on
the 4th of July 1901. His name was originally Edmund Fisk,e
Green, but in 1855 he took the name of a great-grandfather,
John Fiske. His boyhood was spent with a grandmother in
Middletown, Connecticut; and prior to his entering college he
had read widely in English literature and history, had surpassed
most boys in the extent of his Greek and Latin work, and had
studied several modern languages. He graduated at Harvard in
1863, continuing to study languages and philosophy with zeal;
spent two years in the Harvard law school, and opened an office
in Boston; but soon devoted the greater portion of his time
to writing for periodicals. With the exception of one year,
he resided at Cambridge, Massachusetts, from the time of his
graduation until his death. In 1869 he gave a course of lectures
at Harvard on the Positive Philosophy; next year he was
history tutor; in 1871 he delivered thirty-five lectures on the
Doctrine of Evolution, afterwards revised and expanded as
Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy (1874); and between 1872 and
1879 he was assistant-librarian. After that time he devoted
himself to literary work and lecturing on history. Nearly all
of his books were first given to the public in the form of lectures
or magazine articles, revised and collected under a general
title, such as Myths and Myth-Makers (1872), Darwinism and
Other Essays (1879), Excursions of an Evolutionist (1883), and
A Century of Science (1899). He did much, by the thoroughness
of his lea'rning and the lucidity of his style, to spread a knowledge
of Darwin and Spencer in America. His Outlines of Cosmic
438
FISKE FITCH
Philosophy, while setting forth the Spencerian system, made
psychological and sociological additions of original matter, in
some respects anticipating Spencer's later conclusions. Of one
part of the argument of this work Fiske wrote in the preface of
one of his later books (Through Nature to God, 1899): "The
detection of the part played by the lengthening of infancy in the
genesis of the human race is my own especial contribution to the
Doctrine of Evolution." In The Idea of God as affected by
Modern Knowledge (1885) Fiske discusses the theistic problem,
and declares that the mind of man, as developed, becomes an
illuminating indication of the mind of God, which as a great
immanent cause includes and controls both physical and moral
forces. More original, perhaps, is the argument in the immedi-
ately preceding work, The Destiny of Man, viewed in the Light of
his Origin (1884), which is, in substance, that physical evolution
is a demonstrated fact; that intellectual force is a later, higher
and more potent thing than bodily strength; and that, finally,
in most men and some " lower animals " there is developed a
new idea of the advantageous, a moral and non-selfish line of
thought and procedure, which in itself so transcends the physical
that it cannot be identified with it or be measured by its standards,
and may or must be enduring, or at its best immortal.
It is principally, however, through his work as a historian
that Fiske's reputation will live. His historical writings, with
the exception of a small volume on American Political Ideas
(1885), an account of the system of Civil Government in the
United States (1890), The Mississippi Valley in the Civil War
(1900), a school history of the United States, and an elementary
story of the American Revolution, are devoted to studies, in a
unified general manner, of separate yet related episodes in
American history. The volumes have not appeared in chrono-
logical order of subject, but form a nearly complete colonial
history, as follows: The Discovery of America, with some Account
of Ancient America, and the Spanish Conquest (1892, 2 vols.);
Old Virginia and her Neighbours (1897, 2 vols.); The Beginnings
of New England; or, The Puritan Theocracy in its Relations to
Civil and Religious Liberty (1889); Dutch and Quaker Colonies
in America (1899); The American Revolution (1891, 2 vols.);
and The Critical Period of American History, 1783-1789 (1888).
Of these the most original and valuable is the Critical Period
volume, a history of the consolidation of the states into a govern-
ment, and of the formation of the constitution. (C. F. R.)
FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN (1865- ), American actress,
was born in New Orleans, the daughter of Thomas Davey. As
a child she played, under her mother's name of Maddern, with
several well-known actors. In 1882 she first appeared as a
"star," but in 1890 she married Harrison Grey Fiske and was
absent from the stage for several years. In 1893 she reappeared
in Hester Crewe, a play written by her husband, and afterwards
acted a number of Ibsen's heroines, and in Becky Sharp, a
dramatization of Thackeray's Vanity Fair. In 1901 she opened,
in opposition to the American theatrical " trust," an independent
theatre in New York, the Manhattan. She won a considerable
reputation in the United States as an emotional actress.
FISTULA (Lat. for a pipe or tube), a term in surgery used to
designate an abnormal communication leading either from
the surface of the body to a normal cavity or canal, or from one
normal cavity or canal to another. These communications are
the result of disease or injury. They receive different names
according to their situation: lachrymal fistula is the small
opening left after the bursting of an abscess in the upper part of
the tear-duct, near the root of the nose; salivary fistula is an
opening into the salivary duct on the cheek; anal fistula, or
fistula in ano, is a suppurating track near the outlet of the
bowel; urethral fistula is the result of a giving way of the tissues
behind a stricture. These are examples of the variety of the
first kind of fistula; while recto-vesical fistula, a communication
between the rectum and bladder, and vesico-vaginal fistula, a
communication between the bladder and vagina, are examples
of the second. The abnormal passage may be straight or tortuous,
of considerable diameter or of narrow calibre. Fistulae may
be caused by an obstruction of the normal channel, the result
of disease or injury, which prevents, for example, the tears,
saliva or urine, as the case may be, from escaping; their reten-
tion gives rise to inflammation and ulceration in order that an
exit may be obtained by the formation of an abscess, vhich
bursts, for example, into the gut or through the skin; the
cavity does not close, and a fistula is the result. The fistulous
channel remains open as long as the contents of the cavity or
canal with which it is connected can pass through it. To obliter-
ate the fistula one must remove the obstruction and encourage
the flow along the natural channel; for example, one must
open up the nasal duct so as to allow the tears to reach the nasal
cavity, and the lachrymal fistula will close; and so also in the
salivary and urethral fistulae. Sometimes it may be necessary
to lay the channel freely open, to scrape out the unhealthy
material which lines the track, and to encourage it to fill up from
its deepest part, as in anal fistula; in other cases it may be
necessary to pare the edges of the abnormal opening and stitch
them together. (E. O.*)
FIT, a word with several meanings, (i) A portion or division'
of a poem, a canto, in this sense often spelled " fytte." (2) A
sudden but temporary seizure or attack of illness, particularly
one with convulsive paroxysms accompanied by unconsciousness,
especially an attack of apoplexy or epilepsy, but also applied to
a transitory attack of gout, of coughing, fainting, &c., also of an
outburst of tears, of merriment or of temper. In a transferred
sense, the word is also used of any temporary or irregular periods
of action or inaction, and hence in such expressions as "by
fits and starts." (3) As an adjective, meaning suitable, proper,
becoming, often with the idea of having necessary qualifications
for a specific purpose, " a fit and proper person "; and also
as prepared for, or in a good condition for, any enterprise. The
verb " to fit " is thus used intransitively and transitively, to be
adapted for, to suit, particularly to be of the right measurement
or shape, of a dress, of parts of a mechanism, &c., and to make
or render a thing in such a condition. Hence the word is used
as a substantive.
The etymology of the word is difficult; the word may be one
in origin, or may be a homonymous term, one in sound and
spelling but with different origin in each different meaning.
In Skeat's Etymological Dictionary (ed. 1898) (i) and (2) are
connected and derived from the root of " foot," which appears
in Lat. pes, pedis. The evolution of the word is: step, a part
of a poem, a struggle, a seizure. (3) A word of Scandinavian
origin, with the idea of " knitted together " (cf. Ice. fitja, to
knit together, Goth, fetjan, to adorn) ; the ultimate origin is a
Teutonic root meaning to seize (cf. " fetch "). The New English
Dictionary suggests that this last root may be the origin of all
the words, and that the underlying meaning is junction, meeting;
the early use of " fit " (2) is that of conflict. It is also pointed
out that the meanings of " fit," suitable, proper, have been
modified by " feat," which comes through Fr. fait, from Lat.
factum, facere, to do, make.
FITCH, JOHN (1743-1798), American pioneer of steam naviga-
tion, was born at Windsor, Connecticut, on the 2ist of January
1743. He was the son of a farmer, and received the usual
common school education. At the age of seventeen he went to
sea, but he discontinued his sailor life after a few voyages and
became successively a clockmaker, a brassfounder and a silver-
smith. During the War of Independence he was a sutler to the
American troops, and amassed in that way a considerable sum
of money, with which he bought land in Virginia. He was
appointed deputy-surveyor for Kentucky in 1780, and when
returning to Philadelphia in the following year he was captured
by the Indians, but shortly afterwards regained his liberty.
About this time he began an exploration of the north-western
regions, with the view of preparing a map of the district; and
while sailing on the great western rivers, the idea occurred to
him that they might be navigated by steam. He endeavoured
by the sale of his map to find money for the carrying out of his
projects, but was unsuccessful. He next applied for assistance
to the legislatures of different states, but though each reported
in favourable terms of his invention, none of them would agree
FITCH, SIR J. G. FITCHBURG
439
to grant him any pecuniary assistance. He was successful,
however, in 1786, in forming a company for the prosecution of
his enterprise, and shortly afterwards a steam-packet of his
invention was launched on the Delaware. His claim to be the
inventor of steam-navigation was disputed by James Rumsey
of Virginia, but Fitch obtained exclusive rights in steam-naviga-
tion in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware, while a similar
privilege was granted to Rumsey in Virginia, Maryland and
New York. A steam-boat built by Fitch conveyed passengers
for hire on the Delaware in the summer of 1790, but the under-
taking was a losing one, and led to the dissolution of the company.
In 1793 he endeavoured to introduce his invention into France,
but met with no success. On his return to America he found his
property overrun by squatters, and reaping from his invention
nothing but disappointment and poverty, he committed suicide
at Bardstown, Kentucky, on the" 2nd of July 1798.
He left behind him a record of his adventures and misfortunes,
" inscribed to his children and future posterity "; and from this a
biography was compiled by Thompson Westcott (Philadelphia,
1857.)
FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING (i824- I9 o3), English educa-
tionist, second son of Thomas Fitch, of a Colchester family, was
born in Southwark, London, in 1824. His parents were poor but
intellectually inclined, and at an early age Fitch started work
as an assistant master in the British and Foreign School Society's
elementary school in the Borough Road, founded by Thomas
Lancaster. But he continued to educate himself by assiduous
reading and attending classes at University College; he, was
made headmaster of another school at Kingsland; and in 1850
he took his B.A. degree at London University, proceeding M.A.
two years later. In 1852 he was appointed by the British and
Foreign School Society to a tutorship at their Training College
in the Borough Road, soon becoming vice-principal and in 1856
principal. He had previously done some occasional teaching
there, and he was thoroughly imbued with the Lancasterian
system. In 1863 he was appointed a government inspector of
schools for the York district, from which, after intervals in which
he was detached for work as an assistant commissioner (1865-
1867) on the Schools Inquiry Commission, as special commis-
sioner (1869), and as an assistant commissioner under the
Endowed Schools Act (1870-1877), he was transferred in 1877
to East Lambeth. In 1883 he was made a chief inspector,
to superintend the eastern counties, and in 1885 chief inspector
of training colleges, a post he held till he retired in 1894. In the
course of an extraordinarily active career, he acquired a unique
acquaintance with all branches of education, and became a
recognized authority on the subject, his official reports, lectures
and books having a great influence on the development of
education in England. He was a strong advocate and supporter
of the movement for the higher education of women, and he was
constantly looked to for counsel and direction on every sort of
educational subject; his wide knowledge, safe judgment and
amiable character made his co-operation of exceptional value,
and after he retired from official life his services were in active
request in inquiries and on boards and committees. In 1896
he was knighted; and besides receiving such academic distinc-
tions as the LL.D. degree from St Andrews University, he was
made a chevalier of the French Legion of Honour in 1889. He
was a constant contributor to the leading reviews; he published
an important series of Lectures on Teaching (1881), Educational
Aims and Methods, Notes on American Schools and Colleges
(1887), and an authoritative criticism of Thomas and Matthew
Arnold, and their Influence on English Education (see also the
article on ARNOLD, MATTHEW) in 1901; and he wrote the article
on EDUCATION in the supplementary volumes (loth edition)
of this encyclopaedia (1902). He died on the uth of July 1903
in London. A civil list pension was given to his widow, whom,
as Miss Emma Wilks, he had married in 1856.
See also Sir Joshua Fitch, by the Rev. A. L. Lilley (1906).
FITCH, RALPH (fl. 1583-1606), London merchant, one of
the earliest English travellers and traders in Mesopotamia, the
Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, India proper and Indo-China.
In January 1583 he embarked in the " Tiger " for Tripoli and
Aleppo in Syria (see Shakespeare, Macbeth, Act I. sc. 3), together
with J. Newberie, J. Eldred and two other merchants or em-
ployees of the Levant Company. From Aleppo he reached the
Euphrates, descended the river from Bir to Fallujah, crossed
southern Mesopotamia to Bagdad, and dropped down the Tigris
to Basra (May to July 1583). Here Eldred stayed behind to
trade, while Fitch and the rest sailed down the Persian Gulf
to Ormuz, where they were arrested as spies (at Venetian instiga-
tion, as they believed) and sent prisoners to the Portuguese
viceroy at Goa (September to October). Through the sureties
procured by two Jesuits (one being Thomas Stevens, formerly
of New College, Oxford, the first Englishman known to have
reached India by the Cape route in 1579) Fitch and his friends
regained their liberty, and escaping from Goa (April 1584)
travelled through the heart of India to the court of the Great
Mogul Akbar, then probably at Agra. In September 1585
Newberie left on his return journey overland via Lahore (he
disappeared, being presumably murdered, in the Punjab), while
Fitch descended the Jumna and the Ganges, visiting Benares,
Patna, Kuch Behar, Hugli, Chittagong, &c. (1585-1586), and
pushed on by sea to Pegu and Burma. Here he visited the
Rangoon region, ascended the Irawadi some distance, acquired
a remarkable acquaintance with inland Pegu, and even pene-
trated to the Siamese Shan states (1586-1587). Early in 1588
he visited Malacca; in the autumn of this year he began his
homeward travels, first to Bengal; then round the Indian coast,
touching at Cochin and Goa, to Ormuz; next up the Persian
Gulf to Basra and up the Tigris to Mosul (Nineveh); finally
via Urfa, Bir on the Euphrates, Aleppo and Tripoli, to the
Mediterranean. He reappeared in London on the 29th of April
1591. His experience was greatly valued by the founders of
the East India Company, who specially consulted him on Indian
affairs (e.g. 2nd of October 1600; 29th of January 1601; 3ist
of December 1606).
See Hakluyt, Principal Navigations (1599), voj. ii. part i. pp.
245-271, esp. 250-268; Linschoten, Voyages (Itineraris), part i.
ch. xcii. (vol. ii. pp. 158-169, &c., Hakluyt Soc. edition) ; Stevens and
Birdwood, Court Records of the East India Company 1599-1603 (1886),
esp. pp. 26, 123; State Papers, East Indies, &c., 1513-1616 (1862),
No. 36; Pinkerton, Voyages and Travels (1808-1814), ix. 406-425.
FITCHBURG, a city and one of the county-seats of Worcester
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated, at an altitude varying
from about 433 ft. to about 550 ft., about 23 m. N. of Worcester
and about 45 m. W.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1880) 12,429;
(1890) 22,037; (1900) 3i,S3i of whom 10,917 were foreign-born,
including 4063 French Canadians, 836 English Canadians,
2306 Irish and 963 Finns; (1910 census) 37,826. Fitchburg
is traversed by the N. branch of the Nashua river, and is served
by the Boston & Maine, and the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railways, and by three interurban electric lines. The
city area (27-7 sq.m.) is well watered, and is very uneven, with
hill spurs running in all directions, affording picturesque scenery.
The court house and the post office (in a park presented by the
citizens) are the principal public buildings. Fitchburg is the
seat of a state normal school (1895), with model and training
schools; has a free public library (1859; in the Wallace library
and art building), the Burbank hospital, the Fitchburg home
for old ladies, and an extensive system of parks, in one of which
is a fine fountain, designed by Herbert Adams. Fitchburg
has large mercantile and financial interests, but manufacturing
is the principal industry. The principal manufactures are
paper and wood pulp, cotton and woollen goods, yarn and silk,
machinery, saws, horn goods, and bicycles and firearms (the
Iver Johnson Arms and Cycle Works being located here). In
1905 the city's total factory product was valued at $i5,39>57>
of which $3,019,118 was the value of the paper and wood pulp
product, $2,910,572 was the value of the cotton goods, and
$1,202,421 was the value of the foundry and machine shop
products. The municipality owns and operates its (gravity)
water works system. Fitchburg was included in Lunenburg
until 1764, when it was incorporated as a township and was
440
FITTIG FITTON
named in honour of John Fitch, a citizen who did much to secure
incorporation; it was chartered as a city in 1872.
See W. A. Emerson, Fitchburg, Massachusetts, Past and Present
(Fitchburg, 1887).
FITTIG, RUDOLF (1835- ), German chemist, was born
at Hamburg on the 6th of December 1835. He studied chemistry
at Gottingen, graduating as Ph.D. with a dissertation on
acetone in 1858. He subsequently held several appointments at
Gottingen, being privat docent (1860), and extraordinary
professor (1870). In 1870 he obtained the chair at Tubingen,
and in 1876 that at Strassburg, where the laboratories were
erected from his designs. Fittig's researches are entirely in
organic chemistry, and cover an exceptionally wide field. The
aldehydes and ketones provided material for his earlier work.
He observed that aldehydes and ketones may suffer reduction in
neutral, alkaline, and sometimes acid solution to secondary
and tertiary glycols, substances which he named pinacones;
and also that certain pinacones when distilled with dilute
sulphuric acid gave compounds, which he named pinacolines.
The unsaturated acids also received much attention, and he
discovered the internal anhydrides of oxyacids, termed lactones.
In 1863 he introduced the reaction known by his name. In
1855 Adolph Wurtz had shown that when sodium acted upon
alkyl iodides, the alkyl residues combined to form more complex
hydrocarbons; Fittig developed this method by showing that a
mixture of an aromatic and alkyl haloid, under similar treatment,
yielded homologues of benzene. His investigations on Perkin's
reaction led him to an explanation of its mechanism which
appeared to be more in accordance with the facts. The question,
however, is one of much difficulty, and the exact course of the
reaction appears to await solution. These researches incidentally
solved the constitution of coumarin, the odoriferous principle
of woodruff. Fittig and Erdmann's observation that phenyl
isocrotonic acid readily yielded a-naphthol by loss of water was
of much importance, since it afforded valuable evidence as to
the constitution of naphthalene. They also investigated certain
hydrocarbons occurring in the high boiling point fraction of the
coal tar distillate and solved the constitution of phenanthrene.
We also owe much of our knowledge of the alkaloid piperine to
Fittig, who in collaboration with Ira Remsen established its
constitution in 1871. Fittig has published two widely used
text-books; be edited several editions of Wohler's Grundriss
der organischen Chemie (i ith ed., 1887) and wrote an Unorganische
Chemie (ist ed., 1872; 3rd, 1882). His researches have been
recognized by many scientific societies and institutions, the Royal
Society awarding him the Davy medal in 1906.
FITTON, MARY (c. 1578-1647), identified by some writers
with the " dark lady " of Shakespeare's sonnets, was the daughter
of Sir Edward Fitton of Gawsworth, Cheshire, and was baptized
on the 24th of June 1578. Her elder sister, Anne, married John
Newdigate in 1587, in her fourteenth year. About 1595 Mary
Fitton became maid of honour to Queen Elizabeth. Her father
recommended her to the care of Sir William Knollys, comptroller
of the queen's household, who promised to defend the " innocent
lamb " from the " wolfish cruelty and fox-like subtlety of the
tame beasts of this place." Sir William was fifty and already
married, but he soon became suitor to Mary Fitton, in hope of the
speedy death of the actual Lady Knollys, and appears to have
received considerable encouragement. There is no hint in her
authenticated biography that she was acquainted with Shake-
speare. William Kemp, who was a clown in Shakespeare's
company, dedicated his Nine Dales Wonder to Mistress Anne
(perhaps an error for Mary) Fitton, " Maid of Honour to Eliza-
beth"; and there is a sonnet addressed to her in an anonymous
volume, A Woman's Woorth defended against all the Men in the
World (1599). In 1600 Mary Fitton led a dance in court festivi-
ties at which William Herbert, later earl of Pembroke, is known
to have been present; and shortly afterwards she became his
mistress. In February 1601 Pembroke was sent to the Fleet
in connexion with this affair, but Mary Fitton, whose child
died soon after its birth, appears to have simply been dismissed
from court. Mary Fitton seems to have gone to her sister, Lady
Newdigate, at Arbury. A second scandal has been fixed on
Mary Fitton by George Ormerod, author of History of Cheshire,
in a MS. quoted by Mr. T. Tyler (Academy, 27th Sept. 1884).
Ormerod asserted, on the strength of the MSS. of Sir Peter
Leycester, that she had two illegitimate daughters by Sir Richard
Leveson, the friend and correspondent of her sister Anne. He
also gives the name of her first husband as Captain Logher, and
her' second as Captain Polwhele, by whom she had a son and
daughter. Polwhele died in 1609 or 1610, about three years
after his marriage. But Ormerod was mistaken in the order
of Mary Fitton's husbands, for her second husband, Logher,
died in 1636. Her own will, which was proved in 1647, gives
her name as " Mary Lougher." In Gawsworth church there is
a painted monument of the Fittons, in which Anne and Mary
are represented kneeling behind their mother . It is stated that
from what remains of the colouring Mary was a dark woman,
which is of course essential to her icrentification with the lady
of the sonnets, but in the portraits at Arbury described by Lady
Newdigate-Newdegate in her Gossip from a Muniment Room
(1897) she has brown hair and grey eyes.
The identity of the Arbury portrait with Mary Fitton was chal-
lenged by Mr Tyler and by Dr Furnivall. For an answer to their
remarks see an appendix by C. G. O. Bridgeman in the 2nd edition
of Lady Newdigate-Newdegate's book.
The suggestion that Mary Fitton should be regarded as the false
mistress of Shakespeare's sonnets rests on a very thin chain of
reasoning, and by no means follows on the acceptance of the theory
that William Herbert was the addressee of the sonnets, though it of
course fails with the rejection of that supposition. Mr William
Archer (Fortnightly^ Review, December 1897) found some support
for Mary Fitton's identification with the " dark lady " in the fact
that Sir William Knollys was also her suitor, thus numbering three
" Wills " among her admirers. This supplies a definite interpreta-
tion, whether right or wrong, to the initial lines of Sonnet 135 :
" Whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy ' Will,'
And ' Will ' to boot, and ' Will ' in overplus."
Arguments in favour of her adoption into the Shakespeare circle
will be found in Mr Thomas Tyler's Shakespeare's Sonnets (1890, pp.
73-92), and in the same writer's Herbert- Fitton Theory of Shake-
speare's Sonnets (1898).
FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY (1780-1861), British geologist
was born in Dublin in January 1780. Educated at Trinity
College, in that city, he gained the senior scholarship in 1798,
and graduated in the following year. At this time he began to
take interest in geology and to form a collection of fossils. Having
adopted the medical profession he proceeded in 1808 to Edin-
burgh, where he attended the lectures of Robert Jameson, and
thenceforth his interest in natural history and especially in
geology steadily increased. He removed to London in 1809,
where he further studied medicine and chemistry. In 1811 he
brought before the Geological Society of London a description
of the geological structure of the vicinity of Dublin, with an
account of some rare minerals found in Ireland. He took a
medical practice at Northampton in 1812, and for some years
the duties of his profession engrossed his time. He was admitted
M.D. at Cambridge in 1816. In 1820, having married a lady of
means, he settled in London, and devoted himself to the science
of geology with such assiduity and thoroughness that he soon
became a leading authority, and in the end, as Murchison said,
" one of the British worthies who have raised modern geology to
its present advanced position." His " Observations on some of the
Strata between the Chalk and the Oxford Oolite, in the South-east
of England " (Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. iv.) embodied a series
of researches extending from 1824 to 1836, and form the classic
memoir familiarly known as Fitton's " Strata below the Chalk."
In this great work he established the true succession and relations
of the Upper and Lower Greensand, and of the Wealden and
Purbeck formations, and elaborated their detailed structure.
He had been elected F.R.S. in 1815, and he was president of the
Geological Society of London 1827-1829. His house then
became a meeting place for scientific workers, and during his
presidency he held a conversazione open on Sunday evenings
to all fellows of the Geological Society. From 1817 to 1841 he
contributed to the Edinburgh Review many admirable essays on
the progress of geological science; he also wrote " Notes on the
FITZBALL FITZGERALD
44
Progress of Geology in England " for the Philosophical Magazine
(1832-1833). His only independent publication was A Geological
Sketch of the Vicinity of Hastings (1833). He was awarded the
Wollaston medal by the Geological Society in 1852. He died
in London on the i3th of May 1861.
Obituary by R. I. Murchison in Quart. Journ. Ceol. Soc., vol.
xviii., 1862, p. xxx.
FITZBALL, EDWARD (1792-1873), English dramatist,
whose real patronymic was Ball, was born at Burwell, Cambridge-
shire, in 1792. His father was a well-to-do farmer, and Fitzball,
after receiving his schooling at Newmarket, was apprenticed
to a Norwich printer in 1809. He produced some dramatic
pieces at the local theatre, and eventually the marked success
of his Innkeeper of Abbeville, or The Ostler and the Robber (1820),
together with the friendly acceptance of one of his pieces at the
Surrey theatre by Thomas Dibdin, induced him to settle in
London. During the next twenty-five years he produced a
great number of plays, most of which were highly successful.
He had a special talent for nautical drama. His Floating Beacon
(Surrey theatre, ipth of April 1824) ran for 140 nights, and his
Pilot (Adelphi, 1825) for 200 nights. His greatest triumph in
melodrama was perhaps Jonathan Bradford, or the Murder at the
Roadside Inn (Surrey theatre, I2th of June 1833). He was at
one time stock dramatist and reader of plays at Covent Garden,
and afterwards at Drury Lane. He had a considerable reputation
as a song-writer and as a librettist in opera. The last years of
his life were spent in retirement at Chatham, where he died on
the 27th of October 1873.
His autobiography, Thirty-Five Years of a Dramatic Author's Life
(2 vols., 1859), > s a naive record qf his career. Numbers of his plays
are printed in Cumberland's Minor British Theatre, Dick's Standard
Plays and Lacy's Acting Edition of Plays.
FITZGERALD, the name of an historic Irish house, which
descends from Walter, son of Other, who at the time of the
Domesday Survey (1086) was castellan of Windsor and a tenant-
in-chief in five counties. From his eldest son William, known
as " de Windsor," descended the Windsors of Stanwell, of whom
Andrew Windsor was created Lord Windsor of Stanwell (a
Domesday possession of the house) by Henry VIII., which
barony is now vested in the earl of Plymouth, his descendant
in the female line. Of Walter's younger sons, Robert was given
by Henry I. the barony of Little Easton, Essex; Maurice
obtained the stewardship (dapiferatus) of the great Suffolk abbey
of Bury St Edmunds; Reinald the stewardship to Henry I.'s
queen, Adeliza; and Gerald (also a dapifer) became the ancestor
of the FitzGeralds. As constable and captain of the castle that
Arnulf de Montgomery raised at Pembroke, Gerald strengthened
his position in Wales by marrying Nesta, sister of Griffith, prince
of South Wales, who bore to him famous children, " by whom
the southern coast of Wales was saved for the English and the
bulwarks of Ireland stormed." Of these sons William, the eldest,
was succeeded by his son Odo, who was known as " de Carew,"
from the fortress of that name at the neck of the Pembroke
peninsula, the eldest son Gerald having been slain by the Welsh.
The descendants of Odo held Carew and the manor of Moulsford,
Berks, and some of them acquired lands in Ireland. But the
wild claims of Sir Peter Carew, under Queen Elizabeth, to vast
Irish estates, including half of " the kingdom of Cork," were
based on a fictitious pedigree. Odo de Carew's brothers,
Reimund " Fitz William " (known as " Le Gros ") and Griffin
" Fitz William," took an active part in the conquest of Ireland.
Returning to Gerald and Nesta, their son David " Fitz Gerald "
became bishop of St David's (1147-1176), and their daughter
Angharat mother of Gerald de Barri (Giraldus Cambrensis, q.v.),
the well-known historian and the eulogist of his mother's family.
A third son, Maurice, obtained from his brother the stewardship
(dapiferatus) of St David's, c. 1174, and having landed in Ireland
in 1169, on the invitation of King Dermod, founded the fortunes
of his house there, receiving lands at Wexford, where he died
and was buried in 1176. His eventual territory, however, was
the great barony of the Naas in Ophaley (now in Kildare), which
Strongbow granted him with Wicklow Castle; but his sons were
forced to give up the latter. His eldest son William succeeded
him as baron of the Naas and steward of St David's, but William's
granddaughter carried the Naas to the Butlers and so to the
Loundreses. Gerald, a younger son of Maurice, who obtained
lands in Ophaley, was father of Maurice " Fitz Gerald," who
held the great office of justiciar of Ireland from 1232 to 1245.
In 1234 he fought and defeated his overlord, the earl marshal,
Richard, earl of Pembroke, and he also fought for his king
against the Irish, the Welsh, and in Gascony, dying in 1257.
He held Maynooth Castle, the seat of his descendants.
Much confusion follows in the family history, owing to the
justiciar leaving a grandson Maurice (son of his eldest son
Gerald) and a younger son Maurice, of whom the latter was
justiciar for a year in 1272, while the former, as heir male and
head of the race, inherited the Ophaley lands, which he is said
to have bequeathed at his death (1287) to John " Fitz Thomas,"
whose fighting life was crowned by a grant of the castle and
town of Kildare, and of the earldom of Kildare to him and the
heirs male of his body (May i4th, 1316), Dying shortly after,
he was succeeded by his son Thomas, son-in-law of Richard
(de Burgh) the " red earl " of Ulster, who received the hereditary
shrievalty of Kildare in 1317, and was twice (1320, 1327) justiciar
of Ireland for a year. His younger son Maurice " Fitz Thomas,"
4th earl (1331-1390), was frequently appointed justiciar, and
was great-grandfather of Thomas, the 7th earl (1427-1477), who
between 1455 and 1475 was repeatedly in charge of the govern-
ment of Ireland as " deputy," and who founded the " brotherhood
of St George " for the defence of the English Pale. He was also
made lord chancellor of Ireland in 1463. His son Gerald, the
8th earl (1477-1513), called " More" (the Great), was deputy
governor of Ireland from 1481 for most of the rest of his life,
though imprisoned in the Tower two years (1494-1496) on
suspicion as a Yorkist. He was mortally wounded while fighting
the Irish as "deputy." Gerald, the 9th earl (1513-1334),
followed in his father's steps as deputy, fighting the Irish, till
the enmity of the earl of Ormonde, the hereditary rival of his
house, brought about his deposition in 1520. In spite of tem-
porary restorations he finally died a prisoner in the Tower.
In his anger at his rival's successes the 9th earl had been led,
it was suspected, into treason, and while he was a prisoner in
England his son Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, " Silken Thomas,"
broke out into open revolt (1534), and declared war on the
government; his followers slew the archbishop of Dublin and
laid siege to Dublin Castle. Meanwhile he made overtures to
the native Irish, to the pope and to the emperor; but the
Butlers took up arms against him, an English army laid siege
to his castle of Maynooth, and, though its fall was followed by
a long struggle in the field, the earl, deserted by O'Conor, had
eventually to surrender himself to the king's deputy. He was
sent to the Tower, where he was subsequently joined by his
five uncles, arrested as his accomplices. They were all six
executed as traitors in February 1537, and acts of attainder
completed the ruin of the family.
But the earl's half-brother, Gerald (whose sister Elizabeth
was the earl of Surrey's " fair Geraldine "), a mere boy, had
been carried off, and, after many adventures at home and abroad,
returned to England after Henry VIII. 's death, and to propitiate
the Irish was restored to his estates by Edward VI. (1552).
Having served Mary in Wyat's rebellion, he was created by her
earl of Kildare and Lord Offaley, on the I3th of May 1554, but
the old earldom (though the contrary is alleged) remained under
attainder. Although he conformed to the Protestant religion
under Elizabeth and served against the Munster rebels and their
Spanish allies, he was imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of
treason in 1583. But the acts attainting his family had been
repealed in 1569, and the old earldom was thus regained. In
1585 he was succeeded by his son Henry (" of the Battleaxes "),
who was mortally wounded when fighting the Tyrone rebels
in 1 597. On the death of his brother in 1 599 the earldom passed
to their cousin Gerald, whose claim to the estates was opposed by
Lettice, Lady Digby, the heir-general. She obtained the
ancestral castle of Geashill with its territory and was recognized
442
FITZGERALD
in 1620 as Lady Offaley for life. George, the i6th earl (1620-
1 660) , had his castle of Maynooth pillaged by the Roman Catholics
in 1642, and after its subsequent occupation by them in 1646
it was finally abandoned by the family.
The history of the earls after the Restoration was uneventful,
save for the re-acquisition in 1739 of Carton, which thenceforth
became the seat of the family, until James the 2oth earl (1722-
1773), who obtained a viscounty of Great Britain in 1747, built
Leinster House in Dublin, and formed a powerful party in the
Irish parliament. In 1756 he was made lord deputy; in 1760
he raised the royal Irish regiment of artillery; and in 1766 he
received the dukedom of Leinster, which remained the only
Irish dukedom till that of Abercorn was created in 1868. His
wealth and connexions secured him a commanding position.
Of his younger children one son was created Lord Lecale;
another was the well-known rebel, Lord Edward Fitzgerald;
another was the ancestor of Lord De Ros; and a daughter
was created Baroness Rayleigh. William Robert, the 2nd duke
(1749-1804), was a cordial supporter of the Union, and received
nearly 30,000 for the loss of his.borough influence. In 1883 the
family was still holding over 70,000 acres in Co. Kildare; but,
after a tenure of nearly 750 years, arrangements were made to
sell them to the tenants under the recent Land Purchase Acts.
In 1893 Maurice Fitzgerald (b. 1887) succeeded his father Gerald,
the sth duke (1851-1893), as 6th duke of Leinster.
The other great Fitzgerald line was that of the earls of Desmond,
who were undoubtedly of the same stock and claimed descent
from Maurice, the founder of the family in Ireland, through a
younger son Thomas. It would seem that Maurice, grandson
of Thomas, was father of Thomas " Fitz Maurice " Nappagh
(" of the ape "), justice of Ireland in 1295, who obtained a grant
of the territory of " Decies and Desmond " in 1292, and died
in 1298. His son Maurice Fitz Thomas or Fitzgerald, inheriting
vast estates in Munster, and strengthening his position by marry-
ing a daughter of Richard de Burgh, earl of Ulster, was created
earl of Desmond (i.e. south Munster) on the 22nd of August
1329, and Kerry was made a palatine liberty for him. The
greatest Irish noble of his day, he led the Anglo-L-ish party
against the English representatives of the king, and was attacked
as the king's enemy by the viceroy in 1345. He surrendered in
England to the king and was imprisoned, but eventually regained
favour, and was even made viceroy himself in 1355. He died,
however, the following year. Two of his sons succeeded in
turn, Gerald, the 3rd earl (1359-1398), being appointed justiciar
(i.e. viceroy) in 1367, despite his adopting his father's policy
which the crown still wished to thwart. But he was superseded
two years later, and defeated and captured by the native king
of Thomond shortly after. Yet his sympathies were distinctly
Irish. The remote position of Desmond in the south-west of
Ireland tended to make the succession irregular on native lines,
and a younger son succeeded as 6th or 7th earl about 1422.
His son Thomas, the next earl (1462-1467), governed Ireland
as deputy from 1463 to 1467, and upheld the endangered English
rule by stubborn conflict with the Irish. Yet Tiptoft, who super-
seded him, procured his attainder with that of the earl of Kildare,
on the charge of alliance with the Irish, and he was beheaded on
the i4th of February 1468, his followers in Munster avenging his
death by invading the Pale. His younger son Maurice, earl
from 1487 to 1520, was one of Perkin Warbeck's Irish supporters,
and besieged Waterford on his behalf. His son James (1520-
1529) was proclaimed a rebel and traitor for conspiring with the
French king and with the emperor. At his death the succession
reverted to his uncle Thomas (1520-1534), then an old man, at
whose death there was a contest between his younger brother
Sir John " of Desmond " and his grandson James, a court page
of Henry VIII. Old Sir John secured possession till his death
(1536), when his son James succeeded de facto, and dejure on the
rightful earl being murdered by the usurper's younger brother
in 1540. Intermarriage with Irish chieftains had by this time
classed the earls among them, but although this James looked
to their support before 1540, he thenceforth played so prudent
a part that in spite of the efforts of the Butlers, the hereditary
foes of his race, he escaped the fate of the Kildare branch and
kept Munster quiet and in order for the English till his death
in 1558. His four marriages produced a disputed succession
and a break-up of the family. His eldest son Thomas " Roe "
(the Red) was disinherited, and failed to obtain the earldom,
which was confirmed by Elizabeth to his half-brother Gerald
"the rebel earl " (1558-1582), but Gerald had other enemies in
his uncle Maurice (the murderer of 1540) and his son especially,
the famous James " Fitz Maurice " Fitz Gerald. Gerald's
turbulence and his strife with the Butlers led to his detention
in England (1562-1564) and again in 1565-1566. In 1567
Sidney imprisoned him in Dublin Castle, whence, with his brother,
Sir John " of Desmond," he was sent to England and the Tower,
and not allowed to return to Ireland till 1573. Meanwhile the
above James, in spite of the protests of Thomas " Roe," had
usurped his position in his absence and induced the natives to
choose him as " captain " or chieftain of Desmond. He formed
a strong Irish Catholic party and broke into revolt in 1569.
Suppressed by Sidney, he rebelled again, till crushed by Perrot
in 1573. As Earl Gerald on his return would not join James in
revolt, the latter withdrew to France. But Gerald himself,
after some trimming, rose in rebellion (July 1574), though he
soon submitted to the queen's forces. On the continent James
Fitz Maurice offered the crown of Ireland in succession to France
and to Spain, and finally to the nephew of Pope Gregory XIII.
With the papal nuncio and a few troops he landed at Dingle in
Kerry (June 1 579) and called on the earls of Kildare and Desmond
to join him, but the latter assured the English government of
his loyalty, and James was killed in a skirmish. Yet Desmond
was viewed with suspicion and finally forced, by being proclaimed
as a traitor (Nov. ist, 1579), into a miserable rebellion. His
castles were soon captured, and he was hunted as a fugitive,
till surprised and beheaded on the nth of November 1583, after
long wanderings, his head being fixed on London Bridge. His
ruin is attributable to his restless turbulence and lack of settled
policy. The vast estates of the earls, estimated at 600,000 acres,
were forfeited by act of parliament.
But the influence of his mighty house was still great among
the Irish. The disinherited Thomas " Roe " left a son James
" Fitz Thomas," who, succeeding him in 1595 and finding that
the territory of the earls would never be restored, assumed the
earldom and joined O'Neill's rebellion in 1598, at the head of
8000 of his men. Long sheltered from capture by the fidelity
of the peasantry, he was eventually seized (1601) by his kinsman
the White Knight, Edmund Fitz Gibbon, whose sister-in-law he
had married, and sent to the Tower. The " sugan " (sham)
earl lingered there obscurely as " James M'Thomas " till his
death. In consequence of his rebellion and the devotion of the
Irish to his race, James, son of Gerald " the rebel earl," who
had remained in the Tower since his father's death (1583), was
restored as earl of Desmond and sent over to Munster in 1600, but
he, known as " the queen's earl," could, as a Protestant, do
nothing, and he died unmarried in 1601. The " sugan " earl's
brother John, who had joined in his rebellion, escaped into Spain,
and left a son Gerald, who appears to have assumed the title
and was known as the Conde de Desmond. He was killed in the
service of the emperor Ferdinand in 1632. The common origin
of the earls of Desmond and of Kildare had never been forgotten,
and intermarriage had cemented the bond. Just before his
death the exile wrote as " Desmond alias Gerratt Fitz Gerald "
to his " Most Noble Cosen " the earl of Kildare, that " wee must
not be oblivious of the true amity and love that was inviolably
observed betweene our antenates and elders."
There can be no doubt that the house of Fitzmaurice was also
of this stock, although their actual origin, in the iath century,
is doubtful. From a very early date they were feudal lords of
Kerry, and their dignity was recognized as a peerage by Henry
VII. in 1489. The isolated position of their territory (" Clan-
maurice ") threw them even more among the Irish than the earls
of Desmond, and they often adopted the native form of their
name, " MacMorrish." Under Elizabeth the lords of Kerry
narrowly escaped sharing the ruin of the earls. The conduct
FITZGERALD, EDWARD FITZGERALD, LORD E. 443
of Thomas in the rebellion of James " Fitz Maurice " was
suspicious, and his sons joined in that of the earl of Desmond,
while he himself was a rebel in 1582. Patrick, his successor
(1590-1600), was captured in rebellion (1587), and when free,
joined the revolt of 1598, as did his son and heir Thomas, who
continued in the field till he obtained pardon and restoration in
1603, though suspect till his death in 1630. His grandson with-
drew to France with James II., but the next peer became a
supporter of the Whig cause, married the eventual heiress of Sir
William Petty, and was created earl of Kerry in 1723. From
him descend the family of Petty-Fitzmaurice, who obtained the
marquessate of Lansdowne (q.v.) in 1818, and still hold among
their titles the feudal barony of Kerry together with vast estates
in that county.
From the three sons by a second wife of one of the earls of
Desmond's ancestors, descended the hereditary White Knights,
Knights of Glin and Knights of Kerry, these feudal dignities
having, it is said, been bestowed upon them by their father,
as Lord of Decies and Desmond. Glin Castle, county Limerick,
is still the seat of the (Fitzgerald) Knight of Glin. Valencia
Island is now the seat of the Knights of Kerry, who received a
baronetcy in 1880.
AUTHORITIES. Calendars of Irish documentsand state papers and
Carew papers; Gilbert's Viceroys of Ireland; Lord Kildare 's Earls
of Kildare; G. E. C[okayne]'s Complete Peerage; Haymond Graves,
Unpublished Geraldine Documents; Annals of the Four Masters;
Calendar of the duke of Leinster's MSS. in gth Report on Historical
MSS., part ii.; Ware's Annals; J. H. Round's "Origin of the
Fitzgeralds" and "Origin of the Carews" in the Ancestor; his
" Earldom of Kildare and Barony of Offaley " in Genealogist, ix.,
and " Barons of the Naas " in Genealogist, xv. ; and his " Decies
and Desmond " in Eng. Hist. Rev. xviii. (J. H. R.)
FITZGERALD, EDWARD (1809-1883), English writer, the
poet of Omar Khayyam, was born as EDWARD PURCELL, at
Bredfield House, in Suffolk, on the 3ist of March 1809. His
father, John Purcell, who had married a Miss FitzGerald, assumed
in 1818 the name and arms of his wife's family. From 1816 to
1821 the FitzGeralds lived at St Germain and at Paris, but in
the latter year Edward was sent to school at Bury St Edmunds.
In 1826 he proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, where,
some two years later, he became acquainted with Thackeray
and W. H. Thompson. With Tennyson, " a sort of Hyperion,"
his intimacy began about 1835. I n ^3 ne went to live in
Paris, but in 1831 was in a farm-house on the battlefield of
Naseby. He adopted no profession, and lived a perfectly
stationary and rustic life, presently moving into his native
county of Suffolk, and never again leaving it for more than a
week or two. Until 1835 the FitzGeralds lived at Wherstead;
from that year until 1853 the poet resided at Boulge, near
Woodbridge; until 1860 at Farlingay Hall; until 1873 in the
town of Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own house
hard by, called Little Grange.
During most of this time FitzGerald gave his thoughts almost
without interruption to his floweis, to music and to literature.
He allowed friends like Tennyson and Thackeray, however, to
push on far before him, and long showed no disposition to
emulate their activity. In 1851 he published his first book,
Euphranor, a Platonic dialogue, born of memories of the old
happy life at Cambridge. In 1 8 5 2 appeared Polonius, a collection
of " saws and modern instances," some of them his own, the rest
borrowed from the less familiar Engh'sh classics. FitzGerald
began the study of Spanish poetry in 1850, when he was with
Professor E. B. Cowell at Elmsett and that of Persian in Oxford
in 1853. In the latter year he issued Six Dramas of Calderon,
freely translated. He now turned to Oriental studies, and in
1856 he anonymously published a version of the Salamdn and
Absdl of Jami in Miltonic verse. In March 1857 the name with
which he has been so closely identified first occurs in FitzGerald's
correspondence " Hafiz and Omar Khayyam ring like true
metal." On the isth of January 1859 a little anonymous
pamphlet was published as The Rubdiydt of Omar Khayyam.
In the world at large, and in the circle of FitzGerald's particular
friends, the poem seems at first to have attracted no attention.
The publisher allowed it to gravitate to the fourpenny or even
(as he afterwards boasted) to the penny box on the bookstalls.
But in 1860 Rossetti discovered it, and Swinburne and Lord
Houghton quickly followed. The Rubdiydt became slowly
famous, but it was not until 1868 that FitzGerald was encouraged
to print a second and greatly revised edition. Meanwhile he
had produced in 1865 a version of the Agamemnon, and two more
plays from Calderon. In 1880-1881 he issued privately transla-
tions of the two Oedipus tragedies; his last publication was
Readings in Crabbe, 1882. He left in manuscript a version of
Attar's Manlic-Uttair under the title of The Bird Parliament.
From 1861 onwards FitzGerald's greatest interest had centred
in the sea. In June 1863 he bought a yacht, " The Scandal,"
and in 1867 he became part-owner of a herring-lugger, the
" Meum and Tuum." For some years, till 1871, he spent the
months from June to October mainly in " knocking about
somewhere outside of Lowestoft." In this way, and among his
books and flowers, FitzGerald gradually became an old man.
On the i4th of June 1883 he passed away painlessly in his sleep.
He was " an idle fellow, but one whose friendships were more
like loves." In 1885 a stimulus was given to the steady advance
of his fame by the fact that Tennyson dedicated his Tiresias
to FitzGerald's memory, in some touching reminiscent verses
to " Old Fitz." This was but the signal for that universal
appreciation of Omar Khayyam in his English dress, which has
been one of the curious literary phenomena of recent years.
The melody of FitzGerald's verse is so exquisite, the thoughts
he rearranges and strings together are so profound, and the
general atmosphere of poetry in which he steeps his version is
so pure, that no surprise need be expressed at the universal
favour which the poem has met with among criucal readers.
But its popularity has gone much deeper than this; it is now
probably better known to the general public than any single
poem of its class published since the year 1860, and its admirers
have almost transcended common sense in the extravagance
of their laudation. FitzGerald married, in middle life, Lucy, the
daughter of Bernard Barton, the Quaker poet. Of FitzGerald
as a man practically nothing was known until, in 1889, Mr W.
Aldis Wright, his intimate friend and literary executor, published
his Letters and Literary Remains in three volumes. This was
followed in 1895 by the Letters to Fanny Kemble. These letters
constitute a fresh bid for immortality, since they discovered that
FitzGerald was a. witty, picturesque and sympathetic letter-
writer. One of the most unobtrusive authors who ever lived,
FitzGerald has, nevertheless, by the force of his extraordinary
individuality, gradually influenced the whole face of English
belles-lettres, in particular as it was manifested between 1890 and
1900.
The Works of Edward FitzGerald appeared in 1887. See also
a chronological list of FitzGerald's works (Caxton Club, Chicago,
1899); notes for a bibliography by Col. W. F. Prideaux, in Notes
and Queries (gth series, vol. vi.), published separately in 1901 ;
Letters and Literary Remains (ed. W. Aldis Wright, 1902-1903);
and the Life of Edward FitzGerald, by Thomas Wright (1904),
which contains a bibliography (vol. ii. pp. 241-243) and a list of
sources (vol. i. pp. xvi.-xvii.). The volume on FitzGerald in the
" English Men of Letters " series is by A. C. Benson. The Fitz-
Gerald centenary was celebrated in March 1909. See the Centenary
Celebrations Souvenir (Ipswich, 1909) and The Times for March 25,
1909- (E. G.)
FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD (1763-1798), Irish con-
spirator, fifth son of James, ist duke of Leinster, by his wife
Emilia Mary, daughter of Charles Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond,
was born at Carton House, near Dublin, on the isth of October
1763. In 1773 the duke of Leinster died, and his widow soon
afterwards married William Ogilvie, who superintended Lord
Edward's early education. Joining the army in 1779, Lord
Edward served with credit in America on the staff of Lord
Rawdon (afterwards marquess of Hastings), and at the battle
of Eutaw Springs (8th of September 1781) he was severely
wounded, his life being saved by a negro named Tony, whom
Lord Edward retained in his service till the end of his life. In
1 783 Fitzgerald returned to Ireland, where his brother, the duke
of Leinster, had procured his election to the Irish parliament
as member for Athy. In parliament he acted with the small
444
Opposition group led by Grattan (q.v.), but took no prominent
part in debate. After spending a short time at Woolwich to
complete his military education, he made a tour through Spain
in 1787; and then, dejected by unrequited love for his cousin
Georgina Lennox (afterwards Lady Bathurst), he sailed for New
Brunswick to join the S4th regiment with the rank of major.
The love-sick mood and romantic temperament of the young
Irishman found congenial soil in the wild surroundings of un-
explored Canadian forests, and the enthusiasm thus engendered
for the " natural " life of savagery may have been already
fortified by study of Rousseau's writings, for which at a later
period Lord Edward expressed his admiration. In February
1789, guided by compass, he traversed the country, practically
unknown to white men, from Frederickstown to Quebec, falling
in with Indians by the way, with whom he fraternized; and in
a subsequent expedition he was formally adopted at Detroit
by the Bear tribe of Hurons as one of their chiefs, and made his
way down the Mississippi to New Orleans, whence he returned to
England.
Finding that his brother had procured his election for the
county of Kildare, and desiring to maintain political independ-
ence, Lord Edward refused the command of an expedition against
Cadiz offered him by Pitt, and devoted himself for the next few
years to the pleasures of society and his parliamentary duties.
He was on terms of intimacy with his relative C. J. Fox, with
R. B. Sheridan and other leading Whigs. According to Thomas
Moore, Lord Edward Fitzgerald was the only one of the numerous
suitors of Sheridan's first wife whose attentions were received
with favour; and it is certain that, whatever may have been
its limits, a warm mutual affection subsisted between the two.
His Whig connexions combined with his transatlantic experiences
to predispose Lord Edward to sympathize with the doctrines of
the French Revolution, which he embraced with ardour when
he visited Paris in October 1792. He lodged with Thomas Paine,
and listened to the debates in the Convention. At a convivial
gathering on the i8th of November he supported a toast to " the
speedy abolition of all hereditary titles and feudal distinctions,"
and gave proof of his zeal by expressly repudiating his own
title a performance for which he was dismissed from the army.
While in Paris Fitzgerald became enamoured of a young girl
whom he chanced to see at the theatre, and who is said to have
had a striking likeness to Mrs Sheridan. Procuring an intro-
duction he discovered her to be a protfgfe of Madame de Sillery,
comtesse de Genlis. The parentage of the girl, whose name was
Pamela (?i776-i83i), is uncertain; but although there is some
evidence to support the story of Madame de Genlis that Pamela
was born in Newfoundland of parents called Seymour or Sims,
the common belief that she was the daughter of Madame de
Genlis herself by Philippe (Egalit6), duke of Orleans, was prob-
ably well founded. On the 27th of December 1792 Fitzgerald
and Pamela were married at Tournay, one of the witnesses
being Louis Philippe, afterwards king of the French; and in
January 1793 the couple reached Dublin.
Discontent in Ireland was now rapidly becoming dangerous,
and was finding a focus in the Society of the United Irishmen,
and in the Catholic Committee, an organization formed a few
years previously, chiefly under the direction of Lord Kenmare,
to watch the interests of the Catholics. French revolutionary
doctrines had become ominously popular, and no one sympa-
thized with them more warmly than Lord Edward Fitzgerald,
who, fresh from the gallery of the Convention in Paris, returned
to his seat in the Irish parliament and threw himself actively
into the work of opposition. Within a week of his arrival he
denounced in the House of Commons a government proclamation,
which Grattan had approved, in language so violent that he
was ordered into custody and required to apologize at the bar
of the House. As early as 1794 the government had information
that placed Lord Edward under suspicion; but it was not till
1796 that he joined the United Irishmen, whose aim after the
recall of Lord Fitzwilliam in 1795 was avowedly the establish-
ment of an independent Irish republic. In May 1796 Theobald
Wolfe Tone was in Paris endeavouring to obtain French assist-
FITZGERALD, LORD E.
ance for an insurrection in Ireland. In the same month Fitz-
gerald and his friend Arthur O'Connor proceeded to Hamburg,
where they opened negotiations with the Directory through
Reinhard, French minister to the Hanseatic towns. The duke
of York, meeting Pamela at Devonshire House on her way
through London with her husband, had told her that " all was
known " about his plans, and advised her to persuade him not
to go abroad. The proceedings of the conspirators at Hamburg
were made known to the government in London by an informer,
Samuel Turner. Pamela was entrusted with all her husband's
secrets and took an active part in furthering his designs; and
she appears to have fully deserved the confidence placed in her,
though there is reason to suppose that at times she counselled
prudence. The result of the Hamburg negotiations was Hoche's
abortive expedition to Bantry Bay in December 1796. In
September 1797 the government learnt from the informer
MacNally that Lord Edward was among those directing the
conspiracy of the United Irishmen, which was now quickly
maturing. He was specially concerned with the military organ-
ization, in which he held the post of colonel of the Kildare
regiment and head of the military committee. He had papers
showing that 280,000 men were ready to rise. They possessed
some arms, but the supply was insufficient, and the leaders were
hoping for a French invasion to make good the deficiency and to
give support to a popular uprising. But French help proving
dilatory and uncertain, the rebel leaders in Ireland were divided
in opinion as to the expediency of taking the field without
waiting for foreign aid. Lorcl Edward was among the advocates
of the bolder course. His opinions and his proposals for action
were alike violent. He was on intimate terms with apologists
for assassination; there is some evidence that he favoured a
project for the massacre of the Irish peers while in procession
to the House of Lords for the trial of Lord Kingston in May
1798. It was probably abhorrence of such measures that
converted Thomas Reynolds from a conspirator to an informer;
at all events, by him and several others the authorities were kept
posted in what was going on, though lack of evidence producible
in court delayed the arrest of the ringleaders. But on the I2th
of March 1798 Reynolds' information led to the seizure of a
number of conspirators at the house of Oliver Bond. Lord
Edward Fitzgerald, warned by Reynolds, was not among them.
The government were anxious to save him from the consequences
of his own folly, and Lord Clare said to a member of his family,
" for God's sake get this young man out of the country; the ports
shall be thrown open, and no hindrance whatever offered."
Fitzgerald with chivalrous recklessness refused to desert others
who could not escape, and whom he had himself led into danger.
On the 30th of March a proclamation establishing martial law
and authorizing the military to act without orders from the civil
magistrate, which was acted upon with revolting cruelty in
several parts of the country, precipitated the crisis.
The government had now no choice but to secure if possible
the person of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, whose social position
more than his abilities made him the most important factor
in the conspiracy. On the nth of May a reward of 1000 was
offered for his apprehension. The 23rd of May was the date
fixed for the general rising. Since the arrest at Bond's, Fitzgerald
had been in hiding, latterly at the house of one Murphy, a feather
dealer, in Thomas Street, Dublin. He twice visited his wife in
disguise; was himself visited by his stepfather, Ogilvie, and
generally observed less caution than his situation required.
The conspiracy was honeycombed with treachery, and it was
long a matter of dispute to whose information the government
were indebted for Fitzgerald's arrest; but it is no longer open
to doubt that the secret of his hiding place was disclosed by a
Catholic barrister named Magan, to whom the stipulated reward
was ultimately paid through Francis Higgins, another informer.
On the igth of May Major Swan and a Mr. Ryan proceeded to
Murphy's house with Major H. C. Sirr and a few soldiers. Lord
Edward was discovered in bed. A desperate scuffle took place,
Ryan being mortally wounded by Fitzgerald with a dagger,
while Lord Edward himself was only secured after Sirr had
FITZGERALD, R. FITZGERALD, LORD T.
445
disabled him with a pistol bullet in the shoulder. He was
conveyed to Newgate gaol, where by the kindness of Lord Clare
he was visited by two of his relatives, and where he died of his
wound on the 4th of June 1798. An Act of Attainder (repealed
in 1819) was passed, confiscating his property; and his wife
against whom the government probably possessed sufficient
evidence to secure a conviction for treason was compelled
to leave the country before her husband had actually
expired.
Pamela, who was scarcely less celebrated than Lord Edward
himself, and whose remarkable beauty made a lasting impression
on Robert Southey, repaired to Hamburg, where in 1800 she
married J. Pitcairn, the American consul. Since her marriage
with Lord Edward she had been greatly beloved and esteemed
by the whole Fitzgerald family; and although after her second
marriage her intimacy with them ceased, there is no sufficient
evidence for the tales that represented her subsequent conduct
as open to grave censure. She remained to the last passionately
devoted to the memory of her first husband; and she died in
Paris in November 1831. A portrait of Pamela is in the Louvre.
She had three children by Lord Edward Fitzgerald: Edward
Fox (1794-1863); Pamela, afterwards wife of General Sir Guy
Campbell; and Lucy Louisa, who married Captain Lyon, R.N.
Lord Edward Fitzgerald was of small stature and handsome
features. His character and career have been made the subject
of eulogies much beyond their merits. He had, indeed, a winning
personality, and a warm, affectionate and generous nature,
which made him greatly beloved by his family and friends;
he was humorous, light-hearted, sympathetic, adventurous.
But he was entirely without the weightier qualities requisite
for such a part as he undertook to play in public affairs. Hot-
headed and impulsive, he lacked judgment. He was as con-
spicuously deficient in the statesmanship as he was in the oratori-
cal genius of such men as Flood, Plunket or Grattan. One of
his associates in conspiracy described him as " weak and not fit
to command a sergeant's guard, but very zealous." Reinhard,
who considered Arthur O'Connor " a far abler man," accurately
read the character of Lord Edward Fitzgerald as that of a young
man " incapable of falsehood or perfidy, frank, energetic, and
likely to be a useful and devoted instrument; but with no
experience or extraordinary talent, and entirely unfit to be
chief of a great party or leader in a difficult enterprise."
See Thomas Moore, Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitzgerald
(2 vols., London, 1832), also a revised edition entitled The Memoirs
of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, edited with supplementary particulars
by Martin MacDermott (London, 1897); R. R. Madden, The
United Irishmen (7 vols., Dublin, 1842-1846); C. H. Teeling,
Personal Narrative of the Irish Rebellion of 1798 (Belfast, 1832);
W. J. Fitzpatrick, The Sham Squire, The Rebellio-ii of Inland and the
Informers of 1798 (Dublin, 1866), and Secret Service under Pitt
(London, 1892); J. A. Froude, The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth
Century (3 vols., London, 1872-1874); W. E. H. Lecky, History of
England in the Eighteenth Century, vols. vii. and viii. (London,
1896) ; Thomas Reynolds the younger, The Life of Thomas Reynolds
(London, 1839); The Life and Letters of Lady Sarah Lennox,
edited by the countess of Ilchester and Lord Stayordale (London,
1901) ; Ida A. Taylor, The Life of Lord Edward- Fitzgerald (London,
1903)1 which gives a prejudiced and distorted picture of Pamela.
For particulars of Pamela, and especially as to the question of
her parentage, see Gerald Campbell, Edward and Pamela Fitz-
gerald (London, 1904) ; Memoirs of Madame de Genlis (London,
1825); Georgette Ducrest, Chromques populaires (Paris, 1855);
Thomas Moore, Memoirs of the Life of R. B. Sheridan (London,
1825). (R. J- M.)
FITZGERALD, RAYMOND, or REDMOND (d. ca. 1182),
surnamed Le Gros, was the son of William Fitzgerald and brother
of Odo de Carew. He was sent by Strongbow to Ireland in 1 170,
and landed at Dundunnolf, near Waterford, where he was
besieged in his entrenchments by the combined Irish and Ostmen,
whom he repulsed. He was Strongbow's second in command,
and had the chief share in the capture of Waterford and in the
successful assault on Dublin. He was sent to Aquitaine to
hand over Strongbow's conquests to Henry II., but was back
in Dublin in July 1171, when he led one of the sallies from the
town. Strongbow offended him later by refusing him the
marriage of his sister Basilea, widow of Robert de Quenci, con-
stable of Leinster. Raymond then retired to Wales, and Hervey
de Mountmaurice became constable in his place. At the outbreak
of a general rebellion against the earl in 1174 Raymond returned
with his uncle Meiler Fitz Henry, after receiving a promise of
marriage with Basilea. Reinstated as constable he secured a
series of successes, and with the fall of Limerick in October
1175 order was restored. Mountmaurice meanwhile obtained
Raymond's recall on the ground that his power threatened the
royal authority, but the constable was delayed by a fresh out-
break at Limerick, the earl's troops refusing to march without
him. On the death of Strongbow he was acting governor until
the arrival of William Fitz Aldhelm, to whom he handed over
the royal fortresses. He was deprived of his estates near Dublin
and Wexford, but the Geraldines secured the recall of Fitz
Aldhelm early in 1183, and regained their power and influence.
In 1182 he relieved his uncle Robert Fitzstephen, who was
besieged in Cork. The date of his death, sometimes stated to
be 1182, is not known.
FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS (loth earl of Kildare),
(1513-1537), the eldest son of Gerald Fitzgerald, 9th earl of
Kitdare, was born in London in 1513. He spent much of his
youth in England, but in 1534 when his father was for the
third time summoned to England to answer for his maladministra-
tion as lord deputy of Ireland, Thomas, at the council held at
Drogheda, in February was made vice-deputy. In June the
Ormond faction spread a report in Ireland that the earl had been
executed in the Tower, and that his son's life was to be attempted.
Inflamed with rage at this apparent treachery, Thomas rode
at the head of his retainers ' into Dublin, and before the council
for Ireland (the nth of June 1534) formally renounced his
allegiance to the king and proclaimed a rebellion. His enemies,
including Archbishop John Allen (of Dublin), who had been set
by Henry VIII. to watch Fitzgerald, took refuge in Dublin
Castle. In attempting to escape to England, Allen was taken
by the rebels, and on the 28th of July 1534, was murdered by
Fitzgerald's servants in his presence, but whether actually by
his orders is uncertain. In any case he sent to the pope for .
absolution, but was solemnly excommunicated by the Irish
Church. Leaving part of his army (with the consent of the
citizens) to besiege Dublin Castle, Fitzgerald himself went against
Piers Butler, earl of Ossory, and succeeded at first in making
a truce with him. But the citizens of Dublin now rose against
him, Ossory invaded Kildare, and the approach of an English
army forced Fitzgerald to raise the siege. Part of the English
army landed on the i7th of October, the rest a week later, but
taking advantage of the inactivity of the new lord deputy, Sir
William Skeffington, Fitzgerald from his stronghold at Maynooth
ravaged Kildare and Meath throughout the winter. He had now
succeeded to the earldom of 'Kildare, his father having died in
the Tower on the I3th of December 1534, but he does not seem
to have been known by that title. In March Skeffington
stormed the castle, the stronghold of the Geraldines, which was
defended, and some said betrayed, by Christopher Parese,
Fitzgerald's foster-brother. It fell on the 23rd of March 1535,
and most of the garrison were put to the sword. This proved
the final blow to the rebellion. The news of what is known as
the " pardon of Maynooth " reached Fitzgerald as he was
returning from levying fresh troops in Offaley; his men fell
away from him, and he retreated to Thomond, intending to sail
for Spain. Changing his mind he spent the next few months
in raids against the English and their allies, but his party gradu-
ally deserting him, on the i8th of August 1535 he surrendered
himself to Lord Leonard Grey (d. 1541). It seems likely that he
made some conditions, but what they were is very uncertain.
He was taken to England and placed in the Tower. In February
1536 his five uncles were also, some of them with great injustice,
seized and brought to England. The six Geraldines were hanged
at Tyburn on the 3rd of February 1537. Acts of attainder
against them and Gerald the 9th earl were passed by both the
1 Fitzgerald was known by the sobriquet of " Silken Thomas,"
either from the silken fringes on his helmet, or from his distinguished
FITZHERBERT, SIR A. FITZ-OSBERN, W.
Irish and English parliaments; but the family estates were
restored by Edward VI. to Gerald, nth earl of Kildare (step-
brother of Thomas), and the attainder was repealed by Queen
Elizabeth. Lord Thomas Fitzgerald married Frances, youngest
daughter of Sir Adrian Fortescue, but had no children.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Richard Stanihurst, Chronicles of Ireland (vol. 11.
of Holinshed's Chronicles); Sir James Ware, Rerum Hibermcarum
annales (Dublin, 1664) ; The Earls of Kildare, by C. W. Fitzgerald,
duke of Leinster (3rd ed., 1858); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under
the Tudors (3 vols., 1885, vol. i. passim); Calendar State Papers,
Hen. VIII. , Irish; G. E. C.'s Peerage; John Lodge, Peerage of
Ireland, ed. M. Archdall (1789), vol. i.
FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY (1470-1538), English jurist,
was born at Norbury, Derbyshire. After studying at Oxford,
he was called to the English bar, and in 1523 became justice of
the Court of Common Pleas, the duties of which office he con-
tinued to discharge till within a short time of his death in 1538.
As a judge he left behind him a high reputation for fairness and
integrity, and his legal learning is sufficiently attested by his
published works.
He is the author of La Graunde Abridgement, a digest of important
legal cases written in Old French, first printed in 1514; The Office
and Authority of Justices of the Peace, first printed in 1538 (last ed.
1794); the New Nalura Brevium (1534, last ed. 1794), with a
commentary ascribed to Sir Matthew Hale. To Fitzherbert are
sometimes attributed the Book of Husbandry (1523), the first published
work on agriculture in the English language, and the Book of Surveying
and Improvements (1523) (see AGRICULTURE).
FITZHERBERT, THOMAS (1552-1640), English Jesuit,
was the eldest son and heir of William Fitzherbert of Swynnerton
in Staffordshire, and grandson of Sir Anthony Fitzherbert,
judge of the common pleas. He was educated at Oxford, where,
at the age of twenty, he was imprisoned for recusancy. On
his release he went to London, where he was a member of the
association of young men founded in 1580 to assist the Jesuits
Edmund Campion and Robert Parsons. In 1582 he withdrew
to the continent, where he was active in the cause of Mary,
queen of Scots. He married in this year Dorothy, daughter of
Edward East of Bledlow in Buckinghamshire. After the death
of his wife (1588) he went to Spain, where on the recommendation
of the duke of Feria he received a pension from the king. He
continued his intrigues against the English government, and in
1598 he was charged with complicity in a plot to poison Queen
Elizabeth. After this he was for a short while in the service of
the duke of Feria at Milan, then went to Rome, where he was
ordained priest (1601-1602) and became agent for the English
clergy. He was unpopular with them, however, owing to his
subserviency to the Jesuits, and resigned the agency in 1607
owing to the remonstrances of the English arch-priest George
Birkhead. In 1613 he joined the Society of Jesus, and was
appointed superior of the English mission at Brussels in 1616,
and in 1618 rector of the English 'college at Rome. He held
this post to within a year of his death, which occurred at Rome
on the 7th of August (O.S.) 1640.
Father Fitzherbert, who is described as " a person of excellent
parts, a notable politician, and of graceful behaviour and generous
spirit," wrote many controversial works, a list of which is given in
the article on him by Mr Thompson Cooper in the Dictionary of
National Biography, together with authorities for his life.
FITZ NEAL or (Fixz NIGEL), RICHARD (d. 1198), treasurer
of Henry II. and Richard I. of England, and bishop of London,
belonged to a great administrative family whose fortunes were
closely linked with those of Henry I., Henry II. and Richard I.
The founder of the family was Roger, bishop of Salisbury, the
great minister of Henry I. Before the death of that sovereign
(1135) the care of the treasury passed from Roger to his nephew,
Nigel, bishop of Ely (d. 1169), who held that office until the
whole family were disgraced by Stephen (1139). Becoming a
partisan of the empress, Nigel reaped his reward at the accession
of her son, Henry II., who made him at first chancellor and
then treasurer. Nigel's son, Richard, who was born before his
father's elevation to the episcopate (1133), succeeded to the
office of treasurer in 1158, and held it continuously for forty
years. His name appears in the lists of itinerant justices for
1179 and 1194, but these are the only occasions on which he
exercised that office. Before 1184 he became dean of Lincoln,
and was in that year presented by the chapter of Lincoln among
three select candidates for the vacant see. The king passed
lim over in favour of Hugh of Avalon, having resolved on this
occasion to make a disinterested appointment. Richard I.,
lowever, rewarded the treasurer's services with the see of London
(1189).
Richard Fitz Neal is best remembered as an author. He lacked
the broad statesmanship of his father and great-uncle; he avoided
any connexion with pplitical parties; he is only once mentioned
as taking part in a debate of the Great Council (1193), and then
spoke, in his character as a bishop, to support a royal demand for
a special aid. But his work De necessariis observantiis Scaccarii
dialogus, commonly called the Dialogus de Scaccario, is of unique
interest to the historian. It is an account, in two books, of the
procedure followed by the exchequer in the author's time.
Richard handles his subject with the more enthusiasm because,
as he explains, the " course " of the exchequer was largely the
creation of his own family. When read in connexion with the
Pipe Rolls the Dialogus furnishes a most faithful and detailed
picture of English fiscal arrangements under Henry II. The
speakers in the dialogue are Richard himself and an anonymous
pupil. The latter puts leading questions which Richard answers
in elaborate fashion. The date of the conversation is given
in the prologue as 1176-1177. This probably marks the date
at which the book was begun; it was not completed before 1178
or 1179. Soon after the author's death we find it already recog-
nized as the standard manual for exchequer officials. It was
frequently transcribed and has been used by English antiquarians
of every period. Hence it is the more necessary to insist that
the historical statements which the treatise contains are some-
times demonstrably erroneous; the author appears to have
relied excessively upon oral tradition. But, as the work is only
known to us through transcripts, it is possible that some of the
blunders which it now contains are due to the misdirected zeal
of editors. Richard Fitz Neal also compiled in his earlier years
a register or chronicle of contemporary affairs, arranged in three
parallel columns. This was preserved in the exchequer at the
time when he wrote the Dialogus, but has since disappeared.
Stubbs' conjectural identification of this Liber tricolumnis with
the first part of the Gesta Henrici (formerly attributed to
Benedictus Abbas) is now abandoned as untenable.
See Madox's edition in his History of the Exchequer (1769); and
that of A. Hughes, C. G. Crump and C. Johnson (Oxford, 1902).
F. Liebermann's Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario (Gottingen,
1875) contains the fullest account of the author. (H. W. C. D.)
FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER (fl. 1070), succeeded to the earldom
of Hereford and the English estate of William Fitz-Osbern in
1071. He did not keep on good terms with William the Con-
queror, and in 1075, disregarding the king's prohibition, married
his sister Emma to Ralph Guader, earl of Norfolk, at the famous
bridal of Norwich. Immediately afterwards the two earls
rebelled. But Roger, who was to bring his force from the west
to join the earl of Norfolk, was held in check at the Severn by the
Worcestershire fyrd which the English bishop Wulfstan brought
into the field against him. On the collapse of his confederate's
rising, Roger was tried before the Great Council, deprived of
his lands and earldom, and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment;
but he was released, with other political prisoners, at the death
of William I. in 1087.
FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM, Earl of Hereford (d. 1071),
was an intimate friend of William the Conqueror, and the
principal agent in preparing for the invasion of England. He
received the earldom of Hereford with the special duty of pushing
into Wales. During William's absence in 1067, Eitz-Osbern
was left as his deputy in central England, to guard it from
the Welsh on one side, and the Danes on the other. He also
acted as William's lieutenant during the rebellions of 1069.
In 1070 William sent him to assist Queen Matilda in the govern-
ment of Normandy. But Richilde, widow of Baldwin VI. of
Flanders, having offered to marry him if he would protect her
son Arnulf against Robert the Frisian, Fitz-Osbern accepted
FITZ OSBERT FITZROY
447
the proposal and joined Richilde in Flanders. He was killed,
fighting against Robert, at Cassel in 1071.
See Freeman, Norman Conquest, vpls. iii. and iv. ; Sir James
Ramsay, Foundations of England, vol. ii.
FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM (d. 1106), was a Londoner of good
position who had served in the Third Crusade, and on his return
took up the cause of the poorer citizens against the magnates
who monopolized the government of London and assessed the
taxes, as he alleged, with gross partiality. It is affirmed that
he entered on this course of action through a quarrel with his
elder brother who had refused him money. But this appears
to be mere scandal; the chronicler Roger of Hoveden gives
Fitz Osbert a high character, and he was implicitly trusted by
the poorer citizens. He attempted to procure redress for them
from the king; but the city magistrates persuaded the justiciar
Hubert Walter that Fitz Osbert and his followers meditated
plundering the houses of the rich. Troops were sent to seize
the demagogue. He was smoked out of the sanctuary of St
Mary le Bow, in which he had taken refuge, and summarily
dragged to execution at Tyburn.
FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY (d. 1213), earl of Essex and chief
justiciar of England, began his official career in the later years
of Henry II., whom he served as a sheriff, a justice itinerant and
a justice of the forest. During Richard's absence on Crusade
he was one of the five justices of the king's court who stood next
in authority to the regent, Longchamp. It was at this time
(1190) that Fitz Peter succeeded to the earldom of Essex, in the
right of his wife, who was descended from the famous Geoffrey
de Mandeville. In attempting to assert his hereditary rights
over Walden priory Fitz Peter came into conflict with Long-
champ, and revenged himself by taking an active part in the
baronial agitation through which the regent was expelled from
his office. The king, however, forgave Fitz Peter for his share
in these proceedings; and, .though refusing to give him formal
investiture of the Essex earldom, appointed him justiciar in
succession to Hubert Walter (1108). In this capacity Fitz
Peter continued his predecessor's policy of encouraging foreign
trade and the development of the towns; many of the latter
received, during his administration, charters of self-government.
He was continued in his office by John, who found him a useful
instrument and described him in an official letter as " indispens-
able to the king and kingdom." He proved himself an able
instrument of extortion, and profited to no small extent by the
spoliation of church lands in the period of the interdict. But
he was too closely counected with the baronage to be altogether
trusted by the king. The contemporary Histoire des dues
describes Fitz Peter as living in constant dread of disgrace and
confiscation. In the last years of his life he endeavoured to act
as a mediator between the king and the opposition. It was by his
mouth that the king promised to the nation the laws of Henry I.
(at the council of St Albans, August 4th, 1213). But Fitz
Peter died a few weeks later (Oct. 2), and his great office passed
to Peter des Roches, one of the unpopular foreign favourites.
Fitz Peter was neither a far-sighted nor a disinterested statesman;
but he was the ablest pupil of Hubert Walter, and maintained
the traditions of the great bureaucracy which the first and
second Henries had founded.
See the original authorities specified for the reigns of Richard 1.
and John. Also Miss K. Norgate's Angevin England, vol. n. (1887),
and John Lackland (1902) ; A. Ballard in English Historical Review,
xiv. p. 93; H. W. C. Davis' England under the Normans and Angevms
(1905). ( H - w - C - D ;)
FITZROY, ROBERT (1803-1865), English vice-admiral,
distinguished as a hydrographer and meteorologist, was born
at Ampton Hall, Suffolk, on the sth of July 1805, being a grand-
son, on the father's side, of the third duke of Grafton, and on the
mother's, of the first marquis of Londonderry. He entered the
navy from the Royal Naval College, then a school for cadets,
on the igth of October 1819, and on the 7th of September 1824
was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. After serving in the
" Thetis " frigate in the Mediterranean and on the coast of South
. America, under the command of Sir John Phillimore and Captain
Bingham, he was in August 1828 appointed to the " Ganges,"
as flag-lieutenant to Rear-Admiral Sir Robert Otway, the
commander-in-chief on the South American station; and on the
death of Commander Stokes of the " Beagle," on the I3th of
November 1828, was promoted to the vacant command. The
" Beagle," a small brig of about 240 tons, was then, and had
been for the two previous years, employed on the survey of the
coasts of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, under the orders of
Commander King in the " Adventure," and, together with the
" Adventure," returned to England in the autumn of 1830.
Fitzroy had brought home with him four Fuegians, one of whom
died of smallpox a few weeks after arriving in England; to the
others he endeavoured, with but slight success, to impart a
rudimentary knowledge of religion and of some useful handi-
crafts; and, as he had pledged himself to restore them to their
native country, he was making preparations in the summer of the
following year to carry them back in a merchant ship bound to
Valparaiso, when he received his reappointment to the " Beagle,"
to continue the survey of the same wild coasts. The " Beagle "
sailed from Plymouth on the 27th of December 1831, carrying
as a supernumerary Charles Darwin, the afterwards famous
naturalist. After an absence of nearly five years, and having,
in addition to the survey of the Straits of Magellan and a great
part of the coast of South America, run a chronometric line round
the world, thus fixing the longitude of many secondary meridians
with sufficient exactness for all the purposes of ordinary naviga-
tion, the " Beagle " anchored at Falmouth on the 2nd of October
1836. In 1835 Fitzroy had been advanced to the rank of captain
and was now for the next few years principally employed in
reducing and discussing his numerous observations. In 1837 he
was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society;
and in 1839 he published, in two thick 8vo volumes, the narrative
of the voyage of the " Adventure " and " Beagle," 1826-1830,
and of the " Beagle," 1831-1836, with a third volume by Darwin
a book familiarly known as a record of scientific travel. Of
Fitzroy's work as a surveyor, carried on under circumstances
of great difficulty, with scanty means, and with an outfit that
was semi-officially denounced as " shabby," Sir Francis Beaufort,
the Hydrographer to the Admiralty, wrote, in a report to the
House of Commons, icth of February 1848, that " from the
equator to Cape Horn, and from thence round to the river
Plata on the eastern side of America, all that is immediately
wanted has been already achieved by the splendid survey of
Captain Robert Fitzroy." This was written before steamships
made the Straits of Magellan a high-road to the Pacific. The
survey that was sufficient then became afterwards very far
from sufficient.
In 1841 Fitzroy unsuccessfully contested the borough of
Ipswich, and in the following year was returned to parliament
as member for Durham. About the same time he accepted the
post of conservator of the Mersey, and in his double capacity
obtained leave to bring in a bill for improving the condition and
efficiency of officers in the mercantile marine. This was not
proceeded with at the time, but gave rise to the " voluntary
certificate " instituted by the Board of Trade in 1845, and
furnished some important clauses to the Mercantile Marine Act
of 1850.
Early in 1843 Fitzroy was appointed governor and commander-
in-chief of New Zealand, then recently established as a colony.
He arrived in his government in December, whilst the excitement
about the Wairau massacre was still fresh, and the questions
relating to the purchase of land from the natives were in a very
unsatisfactory state. The early settlers were greedy and un-
scrupulous; Fitzroy, on the other hand, had made no secret of
his partiality for the aborigines. Between such discordant
elements agreement was impossible: the settlers insulted the
governor; the governor did not conciliate the settlers, who
denounced his policy as adverse to their interests, as unjust
and illegal; colonial feeling against him ran very high; petition
after petition for his recall was sent home, and the government
was compelled to yield to the pressure brought to bear on it.
Fitzroy was relieved by Sir George Grey in November 1845.
In September 1848 he was appointed acting superintendent
FITZROY FITZWALTER
of the dockyard at Woolwich, and in the following March to the
command of the " Arrogant," one of the early screw frigates
which had been fitted out under his supervision, and with
which it was desired to carry out a series of experiments and
trials. When these were finished he applied to be superseded,
on account at once of his health and of his private affairs. In
February 1850 he was accordingly placed on half -pay; nor
did he ever serve again, although advanced in due course by
seniority to the ranks of rear- and vice-admiral on the retired
list (1857, 1863). In 1851 he was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society, and in 1854, after serving for a few months as private
secretary to his uncle, Lord Hardinge, then commander-in-chief
of the army, he was appointed to the meteorological department
of the Board of Trade, with, in the first instance, the peculiar
title of " Meteorological Statist."
From the date of his joining the " Beagle " in 1828 he had
paid very great attention to the different phenomena foreboding
or accompanying change of weather, and his narratives of the
voyages of the " Adventure " and " Beagle " are full of interest-
ing and valuable details concerning these. Accordingly, when
in 1854 Lord Wrottesley, the president of the Royal Society,
was asked by the Board of Trade to recommend a chief for its
newly forming meteorological department, he, almost without
hesitation, nominated Fitzroy, whose name and career became
from that time identified with the progress of practical meteor-
ology. His Weather Book, published in 1863, embodies in broad
outline his views, far in advance of those then generally held;
and in spite of the rapid march of modern science, it is still
worthy of careful attention and exact study. His storm warnings,
in their origin, indeed, liable to a charge of empiricism, were
gradually developed on a more scientific basis, and gave a high
percentage of correct results. They were continued for eighteen
months after his death by the assistants he had trained, and
though stopped when the department was transferred to the
management of a committee of the Royal Society, they were
resumed a few months afterwards; and under the successive
direction of Dr R. H. Scott and Dr W. N. Shaw, have been
developed into what we now know them. But though it is
perhaps by these storm warnings that Fitzroy's name has been
most generally known, seafaring men owe him a deeper debt of
gratitude, not only for his labours in reducing to a more practical
form the somewhat complicated wind charts of Captain Maury,
but also for his great exertions in connexion with the life-boat
association. Into this work, in its many ramifications, he threw
himself with the energy of an excitable temperament, already
strained by his long and anxious service in the Straits of Magellan.
His last years were fully and to an excessive degree occupied
by it; his health, both of body and mind, threatened to give
way; but he refused to take the rest that was prescribed. In
a fit of mental aberration he put an end to his existence on the
of April 1865.
Besides his works already named mention may be made of Remarks
on New Zealand (1846) ; Sailing Directions for South America (1848) ;
his official reports to the Board of Trade (18571865) ; and occasional
papers in the journal of the Royal Geographical Society and of the
Royal United Service Institution. (J. K. L.)
FITZROY, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia,
2 m. by rail N.E. of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901)
31,610. It is a prosperous manufacturing town, well served with
tramways and containing many fine residences.
FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT (fl. 1150), son of Nesta, a Welsh
princess and former mistress of Henry I., by Stephen, constable
of Cardigan, whom Robert succeeded in that office, took service
with Dermot of Leinster when that king visited England (1167).
In 1169 Robert led the vanguard of Dermot's Anglo- Welsh
auxiliaries to Ireland, and captured Wexford, which he was then
allowed to hold jointly with Maurice Fitz Gerald. Taken
prisoner by the Irish in 1171, he was by them surrendered to
Henry II., who appointed him lieutenant of the justiciar of
Ireland, Hugh de Lacy. Robert rendered good service in the
troubles of 1173, and was rewarded by receiving, jointly with
Miles Cogan, a grant of Cork (1177). He had difficulty in main-
taining his position and was nearly overwhelmed by a rising of
Desmond in 1182. The date of his death is uncertain.
FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM (d. c. 1190), bi9grapher of Thomas
Becket and royal justice, was a Londoner by origin. He entered
Becket's service at some date between 1154 and 1162. The
chancellor employed Fitz Stephen in legal work, made him
sub-deacon of his chapel and treated him as a confidant. Fitz
Stephen appeared with Becket at the council of Northampton
(1164) when the disgrace of the archbishop was published to the
world; but he did not follow Becket into exile. He joined
Becket's household again in 1170, and was a spectator of the
tragedy in Canterbury cathedral. To his pen we owe the most
valuable among the extant biographies of his patron. Though
he writes as a partisan he gives a precise account of the differ-
ences between Becket and the king. This biography contains
a description of London which is our chief authority for the
social life of the city in the I2th century. Despite his connexion
with Becket, William subsequently obtained substantial prefer-
ment from the king. He was sheriff of Gloucestershire from 1171
to 1190, and a royal justice in the years 1176-1180 and 1189-
1190.
See his " Vita S. Thomae " in J. C.'Robertson's Materials for the
History of Thomas Becket, vol. in. (Rolls series, 1877). Sir T. D.
Hardy, in his Catalogue of Materials, ii. 330 (Rolls series, 1865),
discusses the manuscripts of this biography and its value. W. H.
Hutton, St Thomas of Canterbury, pp. 272-274 (1880), gives an
account of the author. (H. W. C. D.)
FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD (d. 1274), London chronicler and
merchant, was born in London on the 9th of August 1201. Both
his parents were of German extraction. The family of his mother
migrated to England from Cologne in the reign of Henry II.;
his father, Thedmar by name, was a citizen of Bremen who had
been attracted to London by the privileges which the Plantagenets
conferred upon the Teutonic Hanse. Arnold succeeded in
time to his father's wealth and position. He held an honourable
position among the Hanse traders, and became their " alderman."
He was also, as he tells us himself, alderman of a London ward
and an active partisan in municipal politics. In the Barons'
War he took the royal side against the populace and the mayor
Thomas Fitz Thomas. The popular party planned, in 1265, to
try him for his life before the folk-moot, but he was saved by the
news of the battle of Evesham which arrived on the very day
appointed for the trial. Even after the king's triumph Arnold
suffered from the malice of his enemies, who contrived that
he should be unfairly assessed for the tallages imposed upon
the city. He appealed for help to Henry III., and again to
Edward I., with the result that his liability was diminished.
In 1270 he was one of the four citizens to whose keeping the
muniments of the city were entrusted. To this circumstance
we probably owe the compilation of his chronicle. Chronica
Maiorum et Vicecomitum, which begins at the year 1188 and is
continued to 1274. From 1239 onwards this work is a mine of
curious information. Though municipal in its outlook, it is
valuable for the general history of the kingdom, owing to the
important part which London played in the agitation against
the misrule of Henry III. We have the king's word for the fact
that Arnold was a consistent royalist; but this is apparent from
the whole tenor of the chronicle. Arnold was by no means
blind to the faults of Henry's government, but preferred an
autocracy to the mob-rule which Simon de Montfortcountenanced
in London. Arnold died in 1274; the last fact recorded of him
is that, in this year, he joined in a successful appeal to the king
against the illegal grants which had been made by the mayor,
Walter Hervey.
The Chronica Maiorum et Vicecomitum, with the other contents of
Arnold's common-place book, were edited for the Camden Society
by T. Stapleton (1846), under the title Liber de Antiquis Legibus.
Our knowledge of Arnold's life comes from the Chronica and his
own biographical notes. Extracts, with valuable notes, are edited
in G. H. Pertz's Man. Germaniae historica, Scriftores, vol. xxviii.
See also J. M. Lappenberg's Urkundliche Geschichte des Hansischen
Stahlhofes zu London (Hamburg, 1851). (H. W. C. D.)
FITZWALTER, ROBERT (d. 1235), leader of the baronial
opposition against King John of England, belonged to the
FITZWILLIAM FIUME
449
official aristocracy created by Henry I. and Henry II. He
served John in the Norman wars, and was taken prisoner by
Philip of France, and forced to pay a heavy ransom. He was
implicated in the baronial conspiracy of 1212. According to his
own statement the king had attempted to seduce his eldest
daughter; but Robert's account of his grievances varied from
time to time. The truth seems to be that he was irritated by
the suspicion with which John regarded the new baronage.
Fitzwalter escaped a trial by flying to France. He was outlawed,
but returned under a special amnesty after John's reconciliation
with the pope. He continued, however, to take the lead in the
baronial agitation against the king, and upon the outbreak of
hostilities was elected " marshal of the army of God and Holy
Church " (1215). To his influence in London it was due that his
party obtained the support of the city and used it as their base
of operations. The famous clause of Magna Carta ( 39) pro-
hibiting sentences of exile, except as the result of a lawful trial,
refers more particularly to his case. He was one of the twenty-
five appointed to enforce the promises of Magna Carta; and his
aggressive attitude was one of the causes which contributed to
the recrudescence of civil war (1215). His incompetent leadership
made it necessary for the rebels to invoke the help of France.
He was one of the envoys who invited Louis to England, and
was the first of the barons to do homage when the prince entered
London. Though slighted by the French as a traitor to his
natural lord, he served Louis with fidelity until captured at the
battle of Lincoln (May 1217). Released on the conclusion of
peace he joined the Damietta crusade of 1219, but returned at an
early date to make his peace with the regency. The remainder of
his career was uneventful; he died peacefully in 1235.
See the list of chronicles for the reign of John. The Histoire des
dues de Normandie et des rois d'Angleterre (ed. F. Michel, Paris, 1840)
gives the fullest account of his quarrel with the king. Miss K.
Norgate's John Lackland (1902), W. McKechnie's Magna Carta
(1905), and Stubbs's Constitutional History, vol. i. ch. xii. (1897),
should also be consulted.
FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM (1526-1599), lord deputy of
Ireland, was the eldest son of Sir William Fitzwilliam (d. 1576)
of Milton, Northamptonshire, where he was born, and grandson
of another Sir William Fitzwilliam (d. 1534), alderman and
sheriff of London, who was also treasurer and chamberlain to
Cardinal Wolsey, and who purchased Milton in 1506. On his
mother's side Fitzwilliam was related to John Russell, ist earl of
Bedford, a circumstance to which he owed his introduction to
Edward VI. In 1559 he became vice-treasurer of Ireland and a
member of the Irish House of Commons; and between this date
and 1571 he was (during the absences of Thomas Radclyffe,
earl of Sussex, and of his successor, Sir Henry Sidney) five times
lord justice of Ireland. In 1571 Fitzwilliam himself was appointed
lord deputy, but like Elizabeth's other servants he received little
or no money, and his period of government was marked by
continuous penury and its attendant evils, inefficiency, mutiny
and general lawlessness. Moreover, the deputy quarrelled with
the lord president of Connaught, Sir Edward Fitton (1527-1579),
but he compelled the earl of Desmond to submit in 1574. He
disliked the expedition of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex; he
had a further quarrel with Fitton, and after a serious illness
he was allowed to resign his office. Returning to England in
1575 he was governor of Fotheringhay Castle at the time of
Mary Stuart's execution. In 1588 Fitzwilliam was again in
Ireland as lord deputy, and although old and ill he displayed
great activity in leading expeditions, and found time to quarrel
with Sir Richard Bingham (1528-1599), the new president of
Connaught. In 1594 he finally left Ireland, and five years later
he died at Milton. From Fitzwilliam, whose wife was Anne,
daughter of Sir William Sidney, were descended the barons and
earls Fitzwilliam.
See R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors, vol. ii. (1885).
FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM WENTWORTH FITZWILLIAM,
2ND EARL (1748-1833), English statesman, was the son of the
ist earl (peerage of the United Kingdom), who died in 1756.
The English family of Fitzwilliam claimed descent from a natural
son of William the Conqueror, and among its earlier members
x. 15-
ware a Sir William Fitzwilliam (1460-1534), sheriff of London,
who in 1506 acquired the family seat of Milton Manor in North-
amptonshire, and his grandson Sir William Fitzwilliam (see
above). The latter's grandson was made an Irish baron in 1620;
and injlater generations the Irish titles of Viscount Milton and
Earl Fitzwilliam (1716) and the English titles of Baron Milton
(1742) and Viscount Milton and Earl Fitzwilliam (1746), were
added. These were all in the English house of the Fitzwilliams
of Milton Manor. They were distinct from the Irish Fitzwilliams
of Meryon, who descended from a member of the English family
who went to Ireland with Prince John at the end of the I2th
century, and whose titles of Baron and Viscount Fitzwilliam
died out with the 8th viscount in 1833; the best known of these
was Richard, 7th viscount (1745-1816), who left the Fitzwilliam
library and a fund for creating the Fitzwilliam Museum to
Cambridge University.
The 2nd earl inherited not only the Fitzwilliam estates in
Northamptonshire, but also, on the death of his uncle the
marquess of Rockingham in 1782, the valuable Wentworth
estates in Yorkshire, and thus became one of the wealthiest
noblemen of the day. He had been at Eton with C. J. Fox,
and became an active supporter of the Whig party; and in 1794,
with the duke of Portland, Windham and other " old Whigs "
he joined Pitt's cabinet, becoming president of the council. At
the end of the year, however, he was sent to Ireland as viceroy.
Fitzwilliam, however, had set his face against the jobbery of the
Protestant leaders, and threw himself warmly into Grattan's
scheme for admitting the Catholics to political power; and in
March 1795 he was recalled, his action being disavowed by Pitt,
the result of a series of misunderstandings which appeared to
Fitzwilliam to give him just cause of complaint. The quarrel
was, however, made up, and in 1798 Fitzwilliam was appointed
lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire. He continued
to take an active part in politics, and in 1806 was president
of the council, but his Whig opinions kept him mainly in
opposition. He died in February 1833, his son, Charles William
Wentworth, the 3rd earl (1786-1857), and later earls, being
notable figures in the politics and social life of the north of
England.
FIUME (Slav. Rjeka, Rieka or Reka, Ger. St Veil am Flaunt),
a royal free town and port of Hungary; situated at the northern
extremity of the Gulf of Quarnero, an inlet of the Adriatic, and
on a small stream called the Rjeka, Recina or Fiumara, 70 m.
by rail S.E. of Trieste. Pop. (1900) 38,955; including 17,354
Italians, 14,885 Slavs (Croats, Serbs and Slovenes), 2482 Hun-
garians and 1945 Germans. Geographically, Fiume belongs to
Croatia; politically the town, with its territory of some 7 sq. m. (
became a part of Hungary in August 1870. The picturesque
old town occupies an outlying ridge of the Croatian Karst;
while the modern town, with its wharves, warehouses, electric
light and electric trams, is crowded into the amphitheatre left
between the hills and the shore. On the north-west there is a
fine public garden. The most interesting buildings are the
cathedral church of the Assumption, founded in 1377, and com-
pleted with a modern facade copied from that of the Pantheon
in Rome; the church of St Veit, on the model of Santa Maria
della Salute in Venice; and the Pilgrimage church, hung with
offerings from shipwrecked sailors, and approached by a stairway
of 400 steps. In the old town is a Roman triumphal arch, said
to have been erected during the 3rd century A.D. in honour
of the emperor Claudius II. Fiume also possesses a theatre and
a music-hall; palaces for the governor and the Austrian emperor;
a high court of justice for commerce and marine; a chamber of
commerce; an asylum for lunatics and the aged poor; an
industrial home for boys; and several large schools, including
the marine academy (1856) and the school of seamanship (1903).
Municipal affairs are principally managed by the Italians, who
sympathize with the Hungarians against the Slavs.
Fiume is the only seaport of Hungary, with which country
it was connected, in 1809, by the Maria Louisa road, through
Karlstadt. It has two railways, opened in 1873; one a branch
of the southern railway from Vienna to Trieste, the other of the
450
FIVES
Hungarian state railway from Karlstadt. There are several
harbours, including the Porto Canale, for coasting vessels; the
Porto Harass, for timber; and the Porlo Grande, sheltered by
the Maria Theresia mole and breakwater, besides four lesser
moles, and flanked by the quays, with their grain-elevators.
The development of the Porto Grande, originally named the
Porto Nuow, was undertaken in 1847, and carried on at intervals
as trade increased. In 1902, arrangements were made for the
construction of a new mole and an enlargement of the quays
and breakwater; these works to be completed within 5 years,
at a cost of 420,000. The exports, worth 6,460,000 in 1902,
chiefly consisted of grain, flour, sugar, timber and horses; the
imports, worth 3,678,000 in the same year, of coal, wine, rice,
fruit, jute and various minerals, chemicals and oils. A large
share in the carrying trade belongs to the Cunard, Adria, Ungaro-
Croat and Austrian Lloyd Steamship Companies, subsidized
by the state. A steady stream of Croatian and Hungarian
emigrants, officially numbered in 1902 at 7500, passes through
Fiume. Altogether 11,550 vessels, of 1,963,000 tons, entered
at Fiume in 1902; and 11,535, of 1,956,000, cleared. Foremost
among the industrial establishments are Whitehead's torpedo
factory, Messrs Smith & Meynie's paper-mill, the royal tobacco
factory, a chemical factory, and several flour-mills, tanneries
and rope manufactories. In 1902 the last shipbuilding yard
was closed. The soil of the surrounding country is stony, but
the climate is warm, and wine is extensively produced. The
Gulf of Quarnero yields a plentiful supply of fish, and the tunny
trade with Trieste and Venice is of considerable importance.
Steamboats ply daily from Fiume to the Istrian health-resort
of Abbazia, the Croatian port of Buccari, and the islands of
Veglia and Cherso.
Fiume is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Liburnian
town Tersatica; later it received the name of Vitopolis, and
eventually that of Fanum Sancti Viti ad Flumen, from which its
present name is derived. It was destroyed by Charlemagne
in 799, from which time it probably long remained under the
dominion of the Franks. It was held in feudal tenure from the
patriarch of Aquileia by the bishop of Pola, and afterwards,
in 1139, by the counts of Duino, who retained it till the end
of the i4th century. It next passed into the hands of the counts
of Wallsee, by whom it was surrendered in 1471 to the emperor
Frederick III., who incorporated it with the dominions of the
house of Austria. From this date till 1776 Fiume was ruled by
imperial governors. In 1 7 23 it was declared a free port by Charles
VI., in 1776 united to Croatia by the empress Maria Theresa, and
in 1779 declared a corpus separatum of the Hungarian crown.
In 1809 Fiume was occupied by the French; but it was retaken
by the British in 1813, and restored to Austria in the following
year. It was ceded to Hungary in 1822, but after the revolution
of 1848-1849 was annexed to the crown lands of Croatia, under
the government of which it remained till it came under Hungarian
control in 1870.
FIVES, a ball-game played by two or four players in a court
enclosed on three or four sides, the ball being struck with the
hand, usually protected by a glove, whence the game is known
in America as " handball." The origin of the game is probably
the French jeu de paume, tennis played with the hand, the hand
in that case being eventually superseded by the racquet. Fives
and racquets are probably both descended from the jeu de paume,
of which they are simplified forms. The name fives may be
derived from la longue paume, in which five on a side played, or
from the five fingers, or from the fact that five points had to be
made by the winners (in modern times the game consists of
fifteen points). Fives is played in Great Britain principally
at the schools and universities, although its encouragement is
included in the functions of the Tennis Racquets and Fives
Association, founded in 1908. In America it is much affected
for training purposes by professional athletes and boxers. There
are two forms of fives the Eton game and the Rugby game
which require separate notice, though the main features of
the two games are the serving of the ball to the taker of the
service, the necessity of hitting the ball before the second
bounce, and of hitting it above a line and within the limits of
the court.
Eton Fives. The peculiar features of the Eton court arose
from the fact that in early times the game was played against
the chapel-wall, so that buttresses formed side walls and the
balustrade of the chapel-steps projected into the court, while
a step divided the court latitudinally. These were reproduced
in the regular courts, the buttress being known as the " pepper-
box " and the space between it and the step as the " hole."
The riser of the step is about 5 in. The floor of the court is paved ;
there is no back wall. On the front wall is a ledge, known as
the " line," 4 ft. 6 in. from the floor, and a vertical line, painted,
3 ft. 8 in. from the right-hand wall. Four people usually play,
two against two; one of each pair plays in the forward court,
the other in the back court. The server stands on the left of
the forward court, his partner in the right-hand corner of the back
court; the taker of the service by the right wall of the forward
court, his partner at the left-hand corner of the back court. The
forward court is known as " on-wall," the other as " off-wall."
The server must toss the ball gently against the front wall,
above the line, so that it afterwards hits the right wall and falls
on the " off-wall," but the server's object is not, as at tennis
and racquets, to send a service that cannot be returned. At
fives he must send a service that hand-out can take easily; indeed
hand-out can refuse to take any service that he does not like, and
if he fails to return the ball above the line no stroke is counted.
After the service has been returned either of the opponents
returns the ball if he can, and so on, each side and either member
of it returning the ball above the line alternately till one side
or the other hits it below the line or out of court. Only hand-in
can score. If hand-in wins a stroke, his side scores a point;
if he misses a stroke he loses his innings and his partner becomes
server, unless he has already served in this round, in which case
the opponents become hand-in. The game is fifteen points.
If the score is " 13 all," the out side may " set " the game to
5 or 3; i.e. the game becomes one of 5 or 3 points; at " 14 all "
it may be set to three. The game and its terminology being
somewhat intricate, can best be learnt in the court. No apparatus
is required except padded gloves and fives-balls, which are
covered with white leather tightly stretched over a hard founda-
tion of cork, strips of leather and twine. The Eton balls are
if in. in diameter and weigh about ij oz. apiece.
Rugby Fives is much less complicated owing to the simpler
form of the court. The rules as to service, taking the balls, &c.,
are the same as in Eton Fives. The balls are rather smaller. The
courts are larger, measuring about 34 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in. and may
be roofed or open. The side walls slope from 20 ft. to 12 ft.
Some courts have a dwarf back wall, some have none. The
back wall, when there is one, is 5 ft. 8 in. in height. In some
courts the side walls are plain; in others, where there is no
back wall, a projection about 3 in. deep is built at right angles
to the two side walls; in others a buttress, similar to the tambour
of the tennis-court, is built out from the left-hand wall about 10 ft.
from the front wall, and continued to the end of the court.
The line is generally a board fixed across the front wall, its
upper edge 34 in. from the ground, but the height varies slightly.
Handball, of ancient popularity in Ireland and much played
in the United States, is practically identical with fives, though
there are minor differences. The usual American court is about
60 ft. long, 24^ ft. wide and 35 ft. high at the front, tapering to
33 ft. at the back wall. The front wall is of brick faced with
marble, the sides of cement and the floor of white pine laid on
beams 10 in. apart. These are the dimensions of the Brooklyn
court of the former American champion, Phil Casey (d. 1904),
which has been extensively copied. Twenty-one aces constitute
a game and gloves are not usually worn. The American ball
is a trifle larger and softer than the Irish, which is called a " red
ace " when made of solid red rubber, and " black ace " when
made of black rubber. Baggs of Tipperary, who was in his
prime about 1855, was the most celebrated Irish handball player.
In his day nearly every village tavern in Ireland had a court.
Browning and Lawlor, who won the Irish championship in 1885,
FIX FIXTURES
were his most prominent successors. In America Phil Casey
and Michael Egan are the best-known names.
See A. Tait's Fives in the All England Series: " Fives " in the
Encyclopaedia of Sport; and Official Handball Guide in Spalding's
Athletic Library.
FIX, THEODORE (1800-1846), French journalist and econo-
mist, was born at Soleure in Switzerland in 1800. His
father was a French physician whose ancestors had been ex-
patriated by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. At first a
land surveyor, he in 1830 became connected with the Bulletin
universal des sciences, to which he contributed most of the
geographical articles. In 1833 he founded the Revue mensuelle
d' economic politique, which he edited during the three years
of its existence. He then became engaged in journalistic work,
till his essay on L' Association des douanes allemandes won him a
prize from the Academic des Sciences Morales et Politiques in
1840, and also procured him work on the report on the progress
of sciences since the Revolution, which the Institute was prepar-
ing. A few months before his death he published Observations
sur les classes ouvrieres, in which he argued against all attempts
to regulate artificially the rate of wages, and attributed the
condition of the working classes to their own thriftlessness and
intemperance. He died suddenly at Paris on the 3ist of July
1846.
FIXTURES (Lat. figere, to fix), in law, chattels which have
been so fixed or attached to land (as it is expressed in English law,
" so annexed to the freehold "), as to become, in contemplation
of law, a part of it. All systems of law make a marked distinction
for certain purposes, between immovables and movables, between
real and personal property, between land and all other things.
In the case of fixtures the question arises under which set of
rights they are to fall under those of real or of personal property.
The general rule of English law is that everything attached to
the land goes with the land quicquid plantalur solo, solo cedit.
This, like many other rules of English law, is all in favour of the
freeholder; but its hardship has been modified by a large
number of exceptions formulated from time to time by the
courts as occasion arose.
In order to constitute a fixture there must be some degree
of annexation to the land, or to a building which forms part of it.
Thus it has been held that a barn laid on blocks of timber, but
not fixed to the ground itself, is not a fixture; and the onus
of showing that articles not otherwise attached to the land than
by their own weight have ceased to be chattels, rests with those
who assert the fact. On the other hand, an article, even slightly
affixed to the land, is to be considered part of it, unless the
circumstances show that it was intended to remain a chattel.
The question is one of fact in each case depending mainly on
the mode, degree and object of the annexation, and the possi-
bility of the removal of the article without injury to itself or the
freehold. In certain cases the courts have recognized a construc-
tive annexation, when the articles, though not fixed to the soil,
pass with the freehold as if they were, e.g. the keys of a house,
the stones of a dry wall, and the detached or duplicate portions
of machines.
Questions as to the property in fixtures principally arise
(i) between landlord and tenant, (2) between heir and executor,
(3) between executor and remainder-man or reversioner, (4)
between seller and buyer.
I. At common law, if the tenant has affixed anything to the
freehold during his occupation, he cannot remove it without the
permission of his landlord. But an exception was established in
favour of trade fixtures. In a case before Lord Holt it was held that
a soap-boiler might, during his term, remove the vats he had set up
for trade purposes, and that not by virtue of any special custom,
but " by the common law in favour of trade, and to encourage
industry," and it may be stated as a general rule that things which
a tenant has fixed to the freehold for the purpose of trade or manu-
facture may be taken away by him, whenever the removal is not
contrary to any prevailing practice, or the particular terms of the
contract of tenancy, and can be effected without causing material
injury to the estate or destroying the essential character of the
articles themselves (Lambourn v. M c Lellan, 1903, 2 Ch. 269). Agri-
cultural tenants are not entitled, at common law, to remove trade
fixtures. But the Landlord and Tenant Act 1851 granted such
a right of removal in the case of buildings or machinery erected by a
tenant at his own expense, and with his landlord's consent in writing,
provided that the freehold was not injured or that any injury was
made good, and that before removal a month's written notice was
given to the landlord, who had an option of purchase. Under the
Agricultural Holdings Act 1883 the tenant might, under similar
conditions, remove fixtures, although the landlord had not consented
to their erection. The Agricultural Holdings Act 1900 extended
this provision to fixtures or buildings acquired, although not annexed
or erected, by the tenant. Similar rights were created by the Allot-
ments Compensation Act 1887, and by the Market Gardeners'
Compensation Act 1895. All these provisions were re-enacted by
the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908.
Again, ornamental fixtures, set up by the tenant for ornament and
convenience, such as hangings and looking-glasses, tapestry, iron-
backs to chimneys, wainscot fixed by screws, marble chimney-pieces,
are held to belong to the tenant, and to be removable without the
landlord's consent. Here again the extent of the privilege has been a
matter of some uncertainty.
In all these cases the fixtures must be removed during the term.
If the tenant gives up possession of the premises without removing
the fixtures, it will be presumed, it appears, that he has made a
gift of them to the landlord, and that presumption probably could
not be rebutted by positive evidence of a contrary intention. His
right to the fixtures is not, however, destroyed by the mere expiry
of the term, if he still remains in possession; but if he has once
left the premises he cannot come back and claim his fixtures. In
one case where the fixtures had actually been severed from the free-
hold after the end of the term, it was held that the tenant had no
right to recover them.
2. As between heir and executor or administrator. The question
of fixtures arises between these parties on the death of a person
owning land. The executor has no right to remove trade fixtures,
set up lor the benefit of the inheritance. As regards ornamental
objects, the rule quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit was in early times
somewhat relaxed in favour of the executor. As far back as 1701,
it was held that hangings fixed to a wall for ornament passed to the
executor; and, although the effect of this relaxation was subsequently
cut down, it^ is supported by the decisions of the courts affirming
the executor's right to valuable tapestries affixed by a tenant for
life to the walls of a house for ornament and their better enjoyment
as chattels (Leigh v. Taylor, 1902, App. Cas. 157) ; and the same
has been held as to statues and bronze groups set on pedestals in
the grounds of a mansion house.
3. When a tenant for life of land dies, the question of fixtures
arises between his representatives and the persons next entitled to
the estate (the remainder-man or reversioner). The remainder-man
is not so great a favourite of the law as the heir, and the right to
fixtures is construed more favourably for executors than in the
preceding cases between heir and executor. Whatever are executor's
fixtures against the heir would therefore be executor's fixtures
against the remainder-man. And the result of the cases seems to
be that, as against the remainder, the executor of the tenant for life
would be certainly entitled to trade fixtures. Agricultural fixtures
are not removable by the executor of a tenant for life.
4. As between seller and buyer, a purchase of the lands includes
a purchase of all the fixtures. But here the intention of the parties
is of great importance. Similar questions may arise in other cases,
e.g. as between mortgagor and mortgagee. When land is mortgaged
the fixtures pass with it, unless a contrary intention is expressed in
the conveyance; and this even where the chattels affixed are the
subject of a hire purchase agreement (Reynolds v. Ashby, 1903,
I K.B. 87). Aga.n, in reference to bills of sale the question arises.
Bills of sale are dispositions of personal property similar to mort-
gages, the possession remaining with the person selling them. To
make them valid they must be registered, and so the question has
arisen whether deeds conveying fixtures ought not to have been
registered as bills of sale. Unless it was the intention of the parties
to make the fixtures a distinct security, it seems that a deed of
mortgage embracing them does not require to be registered as a bill
of sale. The question of what is or is not a fixture must also often
be considered in questions of rating or assessment.
The law of Scotland as to fixtures is the same as that of England.
The Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1883 (ss. 35, 42) and 1900
(as to market gardens) give a similar statutory right of removal.
The law of Ireland has been the subject of the special legislation
sketched in the article LANDLORD AND TENANT. The French Code
Civil recognizes the right of the usufructuary to remove articles
attached by him to the subject of his estate on the expiry of his term,
on making good the place from which they were taken (Art. 599) ;
and there are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Italy (Art.
495), Spain (Arts. 487, 489), Portugal (Art. 2217) and Germany
(Arts. 1037, 1049).
The law of the United States as to fixtures is substantially identical
with English common law. Constructive, as well as actual, annexa-
tion is recognized. The same relaxations (from the common law
rule quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit) as regards trade fixtures, and
ornamental fixtures, such as tapestry, have been recognized.
In Mauritius the provisions of the Code Civil are in force without
modification. In Quebec (Civil Code, Arts. 374 et seq.) and St
Lucia (Civil Code, Arts. 368 et seq.) they have been re-enacted in
452
FIZEAU FLACH
substance. Some of the British colonies have conferred a statutory
right to remove fixtures on tenants (cf. Tasmania, Landlord and
Tenant Act 1874). In certain of the colonies acquired by cession or
settlement (e.g. New Zealand) the English Landlord and Tenant Act
1851 is in force.
AUTHORITIES. English law: Amos and Ferard, Law of Fixtures
(3rd ed., London, 1883) ; Brown, Law of Fixtures (yd ed., London,
1875); Ryde, on Rating (2nd ed., London, 1905). Scots Law:
Hunter, Landlord and Tenant; Erskine's Principles (2oth ed.,
Edin., 1903). American Law: Bronson, Law of Fixtures (St Paul,
1904) ; Reeves, Real Property (Boston, 1904) ; Ruling Cases (London
and Boston, 1894-1901), Tit. " Fixtures " (American Notes).
(A. W. R.)
FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS (1810-1896), French
physicist, was born at Paris on the 23rd of September 1819.
His earliest work was concerned with improvements in photo-
graphic processes; and then, in association with J. B. L. Foucault,
he engaged in a series of investigations on the interference of
light and heat. In 1849 he published the first results obtained
by his method for determining the speed of propagation of light
(see LIGHT), and in 1850 with E. Gounelle measured the velocity
of electricity. In 1853 he described the employment of the con-
denser as a means for increasing the efficiency of the induction-
coil. Subsequently he studied the expansion of solids by heat, and
applied the phenomena of interference of light to the measure-
ment of the dilatations of crystals. He died at Venteuil on the
i8th of September 1896. He became a member of the French
Academy in 1860 and of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1878.
FJORD, or FIORD, the anglicized Norwegian word for a long
narrow arm of the sea running far inland, with more or less
precipitous cliffs on each side. These " sea-lochs," as they are
sometimes called, present many peculiar features. They differ
entirely from an estuary in the fact that they are bounded sea-
wards by a rocky sill, covered by shallow water, and they deepen
inland for some distance before the bottom again curves up to
the surface. They are thus true rock basins drowned in sea-
water. It is pointed out by Dr H. R. Mill that Loch Morar on
the west coast of Scotland, a fresh-water basin 1 78 fathoms deep,
with its surface 30 ft. above sea-level, which is connected with
the sea by a short river, is exactly similar in configuration to
Loch Etive, 80 fathoms deep, filled with sea-water which pours
over the seaward sill in a waterfall with the retreating tide;
that Loch Nevis with a depth of 70 fathoms has its sill 8 fathoms
below the surface, while the gigantic Sogne Fjord in Norway,
more than too m. in length, is a rock basin with a maximum
depth of 700 fathoms. Any inland rock basin such as Loch
Morar would become a fjord if the seaward portion sank below
sea-level. The origin of these rock basins has not yet been
satisfactorily determined. Recent work upon somewhat similar
basins in the high Alps has suggested local weathering of surface
rock in fracture belts or faulted areas, or dikes, where material
is easily eroded, thus producing a trough bounded by high walls
in which a lake forms under favourable conditions. But in-
. vestigations in such regions as the Rocky Mountains and the
Yosemite Valley, where there is frequently a " reversed grade "
similar to that near the seaward end of rock basins and fjords,
seem to show, in some cases at least, that such a formation may
be due to the " gouging " effect of a glacier coming down the
valley which it constantly deepens where the ice pressure and
the supply of eroding material are greatest. There may be several
causes, but the results are the same in all these drowned valleys.
The mass of sea-water in the depth of the basin is either un-
affected by the seasonal changes in surface temperature, which
in Norway penetrate no deeper than 200 fathoms, or else, as in
Loch Goil, the fresher film of surface water responds quickly to
seasonal changes, while the heat of advancing summer penetrates
so slowly to the depth of the basin that it takes six months
to reach the bottom, arriving there in winter. It has been found
that where the fresher surface water has been frozen over, the
temperature may be as much as 45 F. at a few fathoms from
the surface. When the surface is warmest, on the other hand,
the depths are coldest.
FLACCUS, a cognomen in the plebeian gens Fulvia, one of the
most illustrious in ancient Rome. Cicero and Pliny state that
the family came from Tusculum, where some were still living in
the middle of the ist century B.C. Of the Fulvii Flacci the most
important were the following:
QUINTUS FULVIUS FLACCUS, son of the first of the family,
Marcus, who was consul with Appius Claudius Caudex in 264.
He especially distinguished himself during the second Punic
War. He was consul four times {237, 224, 212, 209), censor (231)
pontifex maximus (216), praetor urbanus (215). During his
first consulships he did good service against the Ligurians, Gauls
and Insubrians. In 212 he defeated Hanno near Beneventum,
and with his colleague Appius Claudius Pulcher began the siege
of Capua. The capture of this place was considered so important
that their imperium was prolonged, but on condition that they
should not leave Capua until it had been taken. Hannibal's
unexpected diversion against Rome interfered with the operations
for the moment, but his equally unexpected retirement enabled
Flaccus, who had been summoned to Rome to protect the city,
to return, and bring the siege to a successful conclusion. He
punished the inhabitants with great severity, alleging in excuse
that they had shown themselves bitterly hostile to Rome. He
was nominated dictator to hold the consular elections at which
he was himself elected (209). He was appointed to the command
of the army in Lucania and Bruttium, where he crushed all further
attempts at rebellion. Nothing further is known of him. The
chief authority for his life is the part of Livy dealing with the
period (see PUNIC WARS).
His brother GNAEUS was convicted of gross cowardice against
Hannibal near Herdoniae in 210, and went into voluntary exile
at Tarquinii. His son, QUINTUS, waged war with signal success
against the Celtiberians in 182-181, and the Ligurians in 179.
Having vowed to build a temple to Fortuna Equestris, he
dismantled the temple of Juno Lacinia in Bruttium of its marble
slabs. This theft became known and he was compelled to
restore them, though they were never put back in their places.
Subsequently he lost his reason and hanged himself.
MARCUS FULVIUS FLACCUS, grandnephew of the first Quintus,
lived in the times of the Gracchi, of whom he was a strong
supporter. After the death of Tiberius Gracchus (133 B.C.)
he was appointed in his place one of the commission of three
for the distribution of the land. He was suspected of having
had a hand in the sudden death of the younger Scipio (129),
but there was no direct evidence against him. When consul
in 125, he proposed to confer the Roman citizenship on all the
allies, and to allow even those who had not acquired it the right
of appeal to the popular assembly against penal judgments.
This proposal, though for the time successfully opposed by the
senate, eventually led to the Social War. The attack made upon
the Massilians (who were allies of Rome) by the Salluvii (Salyes)
afforded a convenient excuse for sending Flaccus out of Rome.
After his return in triumph, he was again sent away (122), this time
with Gaius Gracchus to Carthage to found a colony, but did not
remain absent long. In 121 the disputes between the optimates
and the party of Gracchus culminated in open hostilities,
during which Flaccus was killed, together with Gracchus and a
number of his supporters. It is generally agreed that Flaccus was
perfectly honest in his support of the Gracchan reforms, but his
hot-headedness did more harm than good to the cause. Cicero
(Brutus, 28) speaks of him as an orator of moderate powers, but
a diligent student.
See Livy, Epit. 59-61; Val. Max. ix. 5. i; Veil. Pat. ii. 6;
Appian, Bell. Civ. i. 18, 21, 24-26; Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 10. 13;
also A. H. J. Greenidge, Hist, of Rome (1904), and authorities quoted
under GRACCHUS.
FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES (1846- ), French jurist and
historian, was born at Strassburg, Alsace, on the i6th of February
1846, of a family known at least as early as the i6th century, when
Sigismond Flach was the first professor of law at Strassburg
University. G. J. Flach studied classics and law at Strassburg,
and in 1869 took his degree of doctor of law. In his theses as
well as in his early writings such as De la subrogation rtelle,
La Bonorum possessio, and Sur la duree des ejfets de la minoritt
(1870) he endeavoured to explain the problems of laws by
FLACIUS
453
means of history, an idea which was new to France at that time.
The Franco-German War engaged Flach's activities in other
directions, and he spent two years (described in his Strasbourg
apres le bombardement, 1873) at work on the rebuilding of the
library and the museum, which had been destroyed by Prussian
shells. When the time came for him to choose between Germany
and France, he settled definitely in Paris, where he completed
his scientific training at the Ecole des Charles and the Ecole des
Hautes Etudes. Having acted for some time as secretary to
Jules Senard, ex-president of the Constituent Assembly, he
published an original paper on artistic copyright, but as soon as
possible resumed the history of law. In 1879 he became assistant
to the jurist Edouard Laboulaye at the College de France, and
succeeded him in 1884 in the chair of comparative legislation.
Since 1877 he had been professor of comparative law at the free
school of the political sciences. To qualify himself for these
two positions he had to study the most diverse civilizations,
including those of the East and Far East (e.g. Hungary, Russia
and Japan) and even the antiquities of Babylonia and other
Asiatic countries. Some of his lectures have been published,
particularly those concerning Ireland: Histoire du regime
agraire de I'lrlande (1883) ; Considerations sur I'histoire politique
de I'lrlande (1885); and Jonathan Swift, son action politique
en Irlande (1886).
His chief efforts, however, were concentrated on the history
of ancient French law. A celebrated lawsuit in Alsace, pleaded
by his friend and compatriot Ignace Chauffour, aroused his
interest by reviving the question of the origin of the feudal
laws, and gradually led him to study the formation of those
laws and the early growth of the feudal system. His great work,
Les Origines de I'ancienne France, was produced slowly. In the
first volume, Le Regime seigneurial (1886), he depicts the triumph
of individualism and anarchy, showing how, after Charlemagne's
great but sterile efforts to restore the Roman principle of
sovereignty, the great landowners gradually monopolized the
various functions in the state; how society modelled on antiquity
disappeared; and how the only living organisms were vassalage
and clientship. The second volume, Les Origines communales, la
feodalM et la chevalerie (1893), deals with the reconstruction of
society on new bases which took place in the loth and nth
centuries. It explains how the Gallo-Roman villa gave place to
the village, with its fortified castle, the residence of the lord;
how new towns were formed by the side of old, some of which
disappeared; how the townspeople united in corporations; and
how the communal bond proved to be a powerful instrument
of cohesion. At the same time it traces the birth of feudalism
from the germs of the Gallo-Roman personal comitatus; and
shows how the bond that united the different parties was the
contract of the fief; and how, after a slow growth of three
centuries, feudalism was definitely organized in the I2th century.
In 1904 appeared the third volume, La Renaissance de I'etat,
in which the author describes the efforts of the Capetian kings
to reconstruct the power of the Prankish kings over the whole
of Gaul; and goes on to show how the clergy, the heirs of the
imperial tradition, encouraged this ambition; how the great lords
of the kingdom (the " princes," as Flach calls them), whether as
allies or foes, pursued the same end; and how, before the close
of the 1 2th century, the Capetian kings were in possession of
the organs and the means of action which were to render them
so powerful and bring about the early downfall of feudalism.
In these three volumes, which appeared at long intervals,
the author's theories are not always in complete harmony, nor
are they always presented in a very luminous or coherent manner,
but they are marked by originality and vigour. Flach gave
them a solid basis by the wide range of his researches, utilizing
charters and cartularies (published and unpublished), chronicles,
lives of saints, and even those dangerous guides, the chansons
de geste. He owed little to the historians of feudalism who knew
what feudalism was, but not how it came about. He pursued the
same method in his L'Origine de I'habitation et des lieux habites
en France (1899), in which he discusses some of the theories
circulated by A. Meitzen in Germany and by Arbois de Jubain-
ville in France. Following in the footsteps of the jurist F. C.
von Savigny, Flach studied the teaching of law in the middle
ages and the Renaissance, and produced Cujas, les glossateurs
et les Bartolistes (1883), and tudes critiques sur I'histoire du
droit remain au may en age, avec textes inedits (1890).
FLACIUS (Ger. Flack; Slav. Vlakich), MATTHIAS (1520-
1575), surnamed ILLYRICUS, Lutheran reformer, was born at
Albona, in Illyria, on the 3rd of March 1520. Losing his father
in childhood, he was in early years self-educated, and made
himself able to profit by the instructions of the humanist,
Baptista Egnatius in Venice. At the age of seventeen he
decided to join a monastic order, with a view to sacred learning.
His intention was diverted by his uncle, Baldo Lupetino, pro-
vincial of the Franciscans, in sympathy with the Reformation,
who induced him to enter on a university career, from 1539,
at Basel, Tubingen and Wittenberg. Here he was welcomed
(1541) by Melanchthon, being well introduced from Tubingen,
and here he came under the decisive influence of Luther. In
1544 he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg.
He married in the autumn of 1545, Luther taking part in the
festivities. He took his master's degree on the 24th of February
1 546, ranking first among the graduates. Soon he was prominent
in the theological discussions of the time, opposing strenuously
the "Augsburg Interim," and the compromise of Melanchthon
known as the " Leipzig Interim " (see ADIAPHORISTS). Melan-
chthon wrote of him with venom as a renegade (" aluimus in sinu
serpentem "), and Wittenberg became too hot for him. He
removed to Magdeburg (Nov. 9, 1551), where his feud with
Melanchthon was patched up. On the I7th of May 1557 he was
appointed professor of New Testament theology at Jena; but
was soon involved in controversy with Strigel, his colleague, on
the synergistic question (relating to the function of the will in
conversion). Affirming the natural inability of man, he un-
wittingly fell into expressions consonant with the Manichaean
view of sin, as not an accident of human nature, but involved in
its substance, since the Fall. Resisting ecclesiastical censure,
he left Jena (Feb. 1562) to found an academy at Regensburg.
The project was not successful, and in October 1 566 he accepted
a call from the Lutheran community at Antwerp. Thence he
was driven (Feb. 1567) by the exigencies of war, and betook
himself to Frankfort, where the authorities set their faces
against him. He proceeded to Strassburg, was well received
by the superintendent Marbach, and hoped he had found an
asylum. But here also his religious views stood in his way;
the authorities eventually ordering him to leave the city by May-
day 1573. Again betaking himself to Frankfort, the prioress,
Catharina von Meerfeld, of the convent of White Ladies,
harboured him and his family in despite of the authorities.
He fell ill at the end of 1574; the city council ordered him to
leave by Mayday 1575; but death released him on the nth
of March 1575. His first wife, by whom he had twelve children,
died in 1564; in the same year he remarried and had further
issue. His son Matthias was professor of philosophy and
medicine at Rostock. Of a life so tossed about the literary
fruit was indeed remarkable. His polemics we may pass over;
he stands at the fountain-head of the scientific study of church
history, and if we except, a great exception, the work of
Laurentius Valla of hermeneutics also. No doubt his impelling
motive was to prove popery to be built on bad history and bad
exegesis. Whether that be so or not, the extirpation of bad
history and bad exegesis is now felt to be of equal interest to
all religionists. Hence the permanent and continuous value of
the principles embodied in Flacius' Catalogus testium veritatis
(1556; revised edition by J. C. Dietericus, 1672) and his Clavis
scripturae sacrae (1567), followed by his Glossa compendiaria
in N. Testamentum (1570). His characteristic formula," historia
est fundamentum doctrinae," is better understood now than
in his own day.
See J. B. Ritter, Flacius 's Leben u. Tod (1725); M. Twesten, M.
Flacius Illyricus (1844); W. Preger, M. Flacius Illyricus u. seine
Zeit (1859-1861); G. Kawerau, in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie
(1899). (A. Go.*)
454
FLACOURT FLAG
FLACOURT, ETIENNE DE (1607-1660), French governor
of Madagascar, was born at Orleans in 1607. He was named
governor of Madagascar by the French East India Company
in 1648. Flacourt restored order among the French soldiers,
who had mutinied, but in his dealings with the natives he was
less successful, and their intrigues and attacks kept him in
continual harassment during all his term of office. In 1655 he
returned to France. Not long after he was appointed director
general of the company; but having again returned to Mada-
gascar, he was drowned on his voyage home on the icth of June
1660. He is the author of a Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar
(ist edition 1658, 2nd edition 1661).
See A. Malotet, t. de Flacourt, ou les origines de la colonisation
fran$a,ise a Madagascar (1648-1661), (Paris, 1898).
FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense,
but apparently first recorded in English), a piece of bunting
or similar material, admitting of various shapes and colours,
and waved in the wind from a staff or cord for use in display
as a standard, ensign or signal. The word may simply be derived
onomatopoeically, or transferred from the botanical "flag";
or an original meaning of " a piece of cloth " may be connected
with the 12th-century English "flage," meaning a baby's garment;
the verb " to flag," i.e. droop, may have originated in the idea
of a pendulous piece of bunting, or may be connected with the
O. Fr. flaguir, to become flaccid. It is probable that almost as
soon as men began to collect together for common purposes
some kind of conspicuous object was used, as the symbol of the
common sentiment, for the rallying point of the common force.
In military expeditions, where any degree of organization and
discipline prevailed, objects of such a kind would be necessary
to mark out the lines and stations of encampment, and to keep
in order the different bands when marching or in battle. In
addition, it cannot be doubted that flags or their equivalents
have often served, by reminding men of past resolves, past deeds
and past heroes, to arouse to enthusiasm those sentiments of
esprit de corps, of family pride and honour, of personal devotion,
patriotism or religion, upon which, as well as upon good leader-
ship, discipline and numerical force, success in warfare depends.
History. Among the remains of the people which has left
the earliest traces of civilization, the records of the forms of
objects used as ensigns are frequently to be found. From their
carvings and paintings, supplemented by ancient writers, it
appears that several companies of the Egyptian army had
their own particular standards. These were formed of such
objects as, there is reason to believe, were associated in the
minds of the men with feelings of awe and devotion. Sacred
animals, boats, emblems or figures, a tablet bearing a king's
name, fan and feather-shaped symbols, were raised on the end
of a staff as standards, and the office of bearing them was looked
upon as one of peculiar privilege and honour (fig. i). Somewhat
similar seem to have been the customs of the Assyrians and
Jews. Among the sculptures unearthed by Layard and others
at Nineveh, only two different designs have been noticed for
standards: one is of a figure drawing a bow and standing on
a running bull, the other of two bulls running in opposite direc-
tions (fig. 2). These may resemble the emblems of war and
peace which were attached to the yoke of Darius's chariot.
They are borne upon and attached to chariots; and this method
of bearing such objects was the custom also of the Persians,
and prevailed during the middle ages. That the custom survived
to a comparatively modern period is proved from the fact that
the " Guns," which are the " standards " of the artillery, have
from time immemorial been entitled to all the parade honours
prescribed by the usages of war for the flag, that is, the symbol
of authority. In days comparatively recent there was a " flag
gun," usually the heaviest piece, which emblemized authority
and served also as the " gun of direction " in the few concerted
movements then attempted. No representations of Egyptian
or Assyrian naval standards have been found, but the sails of
ships were embroidered and ornamented with devices, another
custom which survived into the middle ages.
In both Egyptian and Assyrian examples, the staff bearing the
emblem is frequently ornamented immediately below with
flag-like streamers. Rabbinical writers have assigned the
different devices of the different Jewish tribes, but the authen-
ticity of their testimony is extremely doubtful. Banners,
standards and ensigns are frequently mentioned in the Bible.
" Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his standard,
FIG. i. Egyptian Standards.
with the ensign of their father's house " (Num. ii. 2). " Who
is she that looketh forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear
as the sun, terrible as an army with banners?" (Cant. vi.
10. See also Num. ii. 10, x. 14; Ps. xx. 5, Ix. 4; Cant. ii. 4;
Is. v. 26, x. 18, lix. 19; Jer. iv. 21).
The Persians bore an eagle fixed to the end of a lance, and the
sun, as their divinity, was also represented upon their standards,
which appear to have been formed of some kind of textile, and
were guarded with the greatest jealousy by the bravest men of
FIG. 2. Assyrian Standards.
the army. The Carian soldier who slew Cyrus, the brother of
Artaxerxes, was allowed the honour of carrying a golden cock
at the head of the army, it being the custom of the Carians to
wear that bird as a crest on their helmets. The North American
Indians carried poles fledged with feathers from the wings of
eagles, and similar customs seem to have prevailed among other
semi-savage peoples.
The Greeks bore a piece of armour upon a spear in early
times; afterwards the several cities bore sacred emblems or
FLAG
455
letters chosen for their particular associations the Athenians
the olive and the owl, the Corinthians a pegasus, the Thebans
a sphinx, in memory of Oedipus, the Messenians their initial
M, and the Lacedaemonians A. A purple dress was placed on
the end of a spear as the signal to advance. The Dacians carried
a standard representing a contorted serpent, while the dragon
was the military sign of many peoples of the Chinese, Dacians
and Parthians among others and was probably first used by
the Romans as the ensign of barbarian auxiliaries (see fig. 3).
FIG. 3. Roman Standards.
The question of the signa militaria of the Romans is a wide
and very important one, having direct bearing on the history
of heraldry, and on the origin of national, family and personal
devices. With them the custom was reduced to system. "Each
century, or at least each maniple," says Meyrick, " had its
proper standard and standard-bearer." In the early days of the
republic a handful of hay was borne on a pole, whence probably
came the name manipulus (Lat. manus, a hand). The forms
of standards in later times were very various; sometimes a
cross piece of wood was placed at the end of a spear and sur-
mounted by the figure of a hand in silver, below round or oval
discs, with figures of Mars or Minerva, or in later times portraits
of emperors or eminent generals (fig. 3). Figures of animals,
as the wolf, horse, bear and others, were borne, and it was not
till a later period that the eagle became the special standard
of the legion. According to Pliny, it was Gaius Marius who, in
his second consulship, ordained that the Roman legions should
only have the eagle for their standard; " for before that time
the eagle marched foremost with four others wolves, minotaurs,
horses and bears each one in its proper order. Not many years
passed before the eagle alone began to be advanced in battle,
and the rest were left behind in the camp. But Marius rejected
them altogether, and since this it is observed that scarcely is
there a camp of a legion wintered at any time without having
a pair of eagles."
The vexillum, which was the cavalry flag, is described by
Livy as a square piece of cloth fastened to a piece of wood fixed
crosswise to the end of a spear, somewhat resembling the medieval
gonfalon. Examples of these vexilla are to be seen on various
Roman coins and medals, on the sculptured columns of Trajan
and Antoninus, and on the arch of Titus. The labarum, which
was the imperial standard of later emperors, resembled in shape
and fixing the vexillum. It was of purple silk richly embroidered
with gold, and sometimes was not suspended as the vexillum
from a horizontal crossbar, but displayed as our modern flags,
that is to say, by the attachment of one of its sides to a staff.
After Constantine, the labarum bore the monogram of Christ
(fig. 5, A) . It is supposed that the small scarf, which in medieval
days was of ten attached to the pastoral staff or crook of a bishop,
was derived from the labarum of the first Christian emperor,
Constantine the Great. The Roman standards were guarded
with religious veneration in the temples at Rome; and the
reverence of this people for their ensigns was in proportion to
their superiority to other nations in all that tends to success in
war. It was not unusual for a general to order a standard to be
cast into the ranks of the enemy, to add zeal to the onset of
his soldiers by exciting them to recover what to them was perhaps
the most sacred thing the earth possessed. The Roman soldier
swore by his ensign.
Although in earlier times drapery was occasionally used for
standards, and was often appended as ornament to those of
other material, it was probably not until the middle ages that
it became the special material of military and other ensigns;
and perhaps not until the practice of heraldry had attained to
definite nomenclature and laws does anything appear which is in
the modern sense a flag.
Early flags were almost purely of a religious character. In
Bede's description of the interview between the heathen king
^Ethelberht and the Roman missionary Augustine, the followers
of the latter are said to have borne banners on which silver
crosses were displayed. The national banner of England for
centuries the red cross of St George was a religious one; in
fact the aid of religion seems ever to have been sought to give
sanctity to national flags, and the origin of many can be traced
to a sacred banner, as is notably the case with the oriflamme
of France and the Dannebrog of Denmark. Of the latter the
legend runs that King Waldemar of Denmark, leading his troops
to battle against the enemy in 1219, saw at a critical moment
a cross in the sky. This was at once taken as an answer to his
prayers, and an assurance of celestial aid. It was forthwith
adopted as the Danish flag and called the " Dannebrog," i.e. the
strength of Denmark. Apart from all legend, this flag un-
doubtedly dates from the I3th century, and the Danish flag is
therefore the oldest now in existence.
The ancient kings of France bore the blue hood of St Martin
upon their standards. The Chape de St Martin was originally
in the keeping of the monks of the abbey of Marmoutier, and the
right to take this blue flag into battle with them was claimed
by the counts of Anjou. Clovis bore this banner against Alaric
in 507, for victory was promised him by a verse of the Psalms
which the choir were chanting when his envoy entered the church
of St Martin at Tours. Charlemagne fought under it at the battle
of Narbonne, and it frequently led the French to victory. At
what precise period the oriflamme, which was originally simply
the banner of the abbey of St Denis, supplanted the Chape de
St Martin as the sacred banner of all France is not known.
Probably, however, it gradually became the national flag after
the kings of France had transferred the seat of government to
Paris, where the great local saint, St Denis, was held in high
honour, and the banner hung over the tomb of the saint in the
abbey church. The king of France himself was one of the vassals
of the abbey of St Denis for the fief of the Vexin, and it was in his
quality of count of Vexin that Louis VI., le Gros, bore this banner
from the abbey to battle, in 1124. He is credited with having
been the first French king to have taken the banner to war, and
it appeared for the last time on the field of fight at Agincourt
in 1415. The accounts also of its appearance vary considerably.
Guillaume Guiart, in his Chronicle says:
" Oriflambe est une banniSre
De cendal voujoiant et simple
Sans portraiture d'autre affaire."
It would, therefore, seem to have been a plain scarlet flag; whilst
an English authority states " the celestial auriflamb, so by the
French admired, was but of one colour, a square redde banner."
The Chronique de Flandres describes it as having three points
with tassels of green silk attached. The banner of William the
Conqueror was sent to him by the pope, and the early English
kings fought under the banners of Edward the Confessor and
St Edmund; while the blended crosses of St George, St Andrew
and St Patrick still form the national ensign of the united
FLAG
kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, whose patron
saints they severally were.
The Bayeux tapestry, commemorating the Norman conquest
of England, contains abundant representations of the flags of
the period borne upon the lances of the knights of William's
army. They appear small in size, and pointed, frequently
indented into three points and bearing pales,-crosses and roundels.
One, a Saxon pennon, is triangular, and roundly indented into
four points; one banner is of segmental shape and rayed, and
FIG. 4. Pennons and Standards from the Bayeux Tapestry.
bears the figure of a bird, which has been supposed to represent
the raven of the war-flag of the Scandinavian Vikings (fig. 4).
In all, thirty-seven pennons borne on lances by various knights
are represented in the Bayeux tapestry, and of these twenty-eight
have triple points, whilst others have two, four or five. The
devices on these pennons are very varied and distinctive, although
the date is prior to the period in which heraldry became definitely
established. In fact, the flags and their charges are probably
not really significant of the people bearing them; for, even
admitting that personal devices were used at the time, the
figures may have been placed without studied intention, and
so give the general figure only of such flags as happened to have
come under the observation of the artists. The figures are
probably rather ornamental and symbolic than strictly heraldic,
that is, personal devices, for the same insignia do not appear
on the shields of the several bearers. The dragon standard
which he is known to have borne is placed near Harold; but
similar figures appear on the shields of Norman warriors, which
fact has induced a writer in the Journal of the Archaeological
Association (vol. xiii. p. 113) to suppose that on the spears of
the Saxons they represent only trophies torn from the shields
of the Normans, and that they are not ensigns at all. Standards
in form much resembling these dragons appear on the Arch of
Titus and the Trajan column as the standards of barbarians.
At the battle of the Standard in 1138 the English standard
was formed of the mast of a ship, having a silver pyx at the
top and bearing three sacred banners, dedicated severally to
St Peter, St John of Beverley and St Wilfrid of Ripon, the
whole being fastened to a wheeled vehicle. Representations
of three-pointed, cross-bearing pennons are found on seals of
as early date as the No man era, and the warriors in the first
crusade bore three-pointed pennons. It is possible that the
three points with the three roundels and cross, which so often
appear on these banners, have some reference to the faith of
the bearers in the Trinity and in the Crucifixion, for in con-
temporary representations of Christ's resurrection and descent
into hell he bears a three-pointed banner with cross above.
The triple indentation so common on the flags of this period has
been supposed to be the origin of one of the honourable ordinaries
the pile. The " pile," it may be explained, is in the form of a
wedge, and unless otherwise specified in the blazon, occupies
the central portion of the escutcheon, issuing from the middle
chief. It may, however, issue from any other extremity of the
shield, and there may be more th^ffbne. More secular characters
were, however, not uncommon^! In 1244 Henry III. gave order
for a " dragon to be made in fashion of a standard of red silk
sparkling, all over with fine gold, the tongue of which should be
made to resemble burning fire and appear to be continually
moving, and the eyes of sapphires or other suitable stones."
The Siege of Carlaverock, an Anglo-Norman poem of the i4th
century, describes the heraldic bearings on the banners of the
knights at the siege of that fortress. Of the king himself the
writer says:
" En sa bannieYe trois luparte
De or fin estoient mis en rouge;"
and he goes on to describe the kingly characteristics these may
be supposed to symbolize. A MS. in the British Museum (one
of Sir Christopher Barker's heraldic collection, Harl. 4632)
gives drawings of the standards of English kings from Edward
III. to Henry VIII., which are roughly but artistically
coloured.
The principal varieties of flags borne during the middle
ages were the pennon, the banner and the standard. The
" guydhommes " or " guidons," " banderolls," " pennoncells,"
" streamers " or pendants, may be considered as minor varieties.
The pennon (fig. 5, B) was a purely personal ensign, sometimes
pointed, but more generally forked or swallow-tailed at the
end. It was essentially the flag of the knight simple, as apart
from the knight banneret, borne by him on his lance, charged
with his personal armorial bearings so displayed that they
stood in true position when he couched his lance for action.
A MS. of the i6th century (Harl. 2358) in the British Museum,
which gives minute particulars as to the size, shape and bearings
of the standards, banners, pennons, guydhommes, pennoncells,
&c., says " a pennon must be two yards and a half long, made
round at the end, and conteyneth the armes of the owner,"
and warns that " from a standard or streamer a man may flee
but not from his banner or pennon bearing his arms."
A pennoncell (or penselle) was a diminutive pennon carried
by the esquires. Flags of this character were largely used on
FIG. 5. A, Labarum from medallion of Constantine; B, Medieval
Pennon; C, Medieval Banner; D, Standard of Henry V.
any special occasion of ceremony; and more particularly at state
funerals. For instance, we find " XII. doz. penselles " amongst
the items that figured at the funeral of the duke of Norfolk in
1554, and in the description of the lord mayor's procession in the
following year we read of " ij goodly pennes (state barges) deckt
with flages and stremers, and a m (1000) penselles." Amongst
FLAG
457
the items that ran the total cost of the funeral of Oliver Cromwell
up to an enormous sum of money, we find mention of thirty dozen
of pennoncells a foot long and costing twenty shillings a dozen,
and twenty dozen of the same kind of flags at twelve shillings a
dozen.
The banner was, in the earlier days of chivalry, a square flag,
though at a later date it is often found greater in length than in
depth, precisely as is the case in the ordinary national flags of
to-day. In some very early examples it is found considerably
longer in the depth on the staff than in its outward projection
from the staff. The banner was charged in a manner exactly
similar to the shield of the owner, and it was borne by knights
banneret and all above them in rank. As a rough guide it may
be taken that the banner of an emperor was 6 ft. square; of a
king, 5 ft.; of a prince or duke, 4 ft.; of a marquis, earl, viscount
or baron, 3 ft. square. As the function of the banner was to
display the armorial bearings of the dignitary who had the
right to carry it, it is evident that the square form was the most
convenient and akin to the shield of primal heraldry. In fact,
flags were originally heraldic emblems, though in modern devices
the strict laws of heraldry have often been departed from.
The rank of knights bannerets was higher than that of ordinary
knights, and they could be created on the field of battle only.
To create a knight banneret, the king or commander-in-chief
in person tore off the fly of the pennon on the lance of the knight,
thus turning it roughly into the square flag or banner, and so
making the knight a banneret. The date in which this dignity
originated is uncertain, but it was probably about the period of
Edward I. John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret
by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Najara on the 3rd
of April 1367; John of Copeland was made a banneret in the
reign of Edward III., he having taken prisoner David Bruce, the
Scottish king, at the battle of Durham. In more modern times
Captain John Smith, of Lord Bernard Stuart's troop of the
King's Guards, who saved the royal banner from the parlia-
mentary troops at Edgehill, was made a knight banneret by
Charles I. From this time the custom of creating knights
banneret ceased until it was revived by George II. after Dettingen
in 1743, when the dignity was again conferred. It is true, however,
that, when in 1763 Sir William Erskine presented to George III.
sixteen stands of colours captured by his regiment [now the
15th (king's) Hussars] at Emsdorf, he was raised to the dignity
of knight banneret, but as the ceremony was not performed on
the field of battle, the creation was considered irregular, and his
possession of the rank was not generally recognized.
The banner was therefore not only a personal ensign, but it
also denoted that he who bore it was the leader of a military
force, large or small according to his degree or estate. It was,
in fact, the battle flag of the leader who controlled the particular
force that followed it into the fight. Every baron who in time
of war had furnished the proper number of men to his liege was
entitled to charge with his arms the banner which they followed.
There could indeed be at present found no better representative
of the medieval " banner " than what we now term the " royal
standard "; it is essentially the personal battle flag of the king of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It and other
royal and imperial standards have now become " standards,"
inasmuch as they are to-day used for display in the same fashion,
and for the same purposes as was the " standard " of old. The
" gonfalon " or " gonfannon " was a battle flag differing from
the ordinary banner in that it was not attached to the pole but
hung from it crosswise, and was not always square in shape
but serrated, so that the lower edge formed streamers. The
gonfalon was in action borne close to the person of the commander-
in-chief and denoted his position. In certain of the Italian
cities chief magistrates had the privilege of bearing a gonfalon,
and for this reason were known as " gonfaloniere."
The standard (fig. 5, D) was a flag of noble size, long, tapering
towards the fly (the " fly " is that portion of the flag farther
from the pole, the " hoist " the portion of the flag attached to
the pole), the edges of the flag fringed or bordered, and with
the ends split and rounded off. The shape was not, however, by
any means uniform during the middle ages nor were there any
definite rules as to its charges. It varied in size according to
tne rank of the owner. The Tudor MS. mentioned above says
of the royal standard of that time " the Standard to be sett
before the king's pavilion or tente, and not to be borne in
battayle; to be in length eleven yards." A MS. of the time
of Henry VII. gives the following dimensions for standards:
" The King's had a length of eight yards; that of a duke, seven;
a marquis, six and a half; an earl, six; a viscount, five and a
half; a baron, five; a knight banneret, four and a half; and
a knight four yards." The standard was, in fact, from its size,
and as its very name implies, not meant to be carried into action,
as was the banner, but to denote the actual position of its pos-
sessor on occasions of state ceremonial, or on the tilting ground,
and to denote the actual place occupied by him and his following
when the hosts were assembled in camp preparatory for battle.
It was essentially a flag denoting position, whereas the banner
was the rallying point of its followers in the actual field. Its
uses are now fulfilled, as far as royalties are concerned, by the
" banner " which has now become the " royal standard," and
which floats over the palace where the king is in residence, is
hoisted at the saluting point when he reviews his troops, and is
broken from the mainmast of any ship in his navy the moment
that his foot treads its deck. The essential condition of the
standard was that it should always have the cross of St. George
conspicuous in the innermost part of the hoist immediately con-
tiguous to the staff; the remainder of the flag was then divided
fesse-wise by two or more stripes of colours exactly as the
heraldic " ordinary " termed " fesse " crosses the shield horizon-
tally. The colours used as stripes, as also those used in the fringe
or bordering of the standard, were those which prevailed in the
arms of the bearer or were those of his livery. The standard
here depicted (fig. 5, D) is that of Henry V.; the colours white
and blue, a white antelope standing between two red roses, and
in the interspaces more red roses. To quote again from the
Harleian MS. above mentioned: " Every standard and guidon
to have in the chief the cross of St George, the beast or crest with
his devyce and word, and to be slitt at the end." The motto
indeed usually figured on most standards, though occasionally
it was missing. An excellent type of the old standard is that
of the earls of Percy, which bore the blue lion, the crescent,
and the fetterlock all badges of the family whilst, as tokens
of matrimonial alliances with the families of Poynings, Bryan
and Fitzpayne, a silver key, a bugle-horn and a falchion were
respectively displayed. There was also the historic Percy motto,
Esptrance en Dieu. No one, whatsoever his rank, could possess
more than one banner, since it displayed his heraldic arms, which
were unchangeable. A single individual, however, might possess
two or three standards since this flag displayed badges that he
could multiply at discretion, and a motto that he could at any
time change. For example, the standards of Henry VII., mostly
green and white the colours of the Tudor livery had in one
" a red firye dragon," in another " a donne kowe," in a third
" a silver greyhound and two red roses." The standard was
always borne by an eminent person, and that of Henry V. at
Agincourt is supposed to have been carried upon a car that
preceded the king. At Nelson's funeral his banner and standard
were borne in the procession, and around his coffin were the
banderolls square, bannerlike flags bearing the various arms
of his family lineage. Nelson's standard bore his motto, Palmam
qui meruit ferat, but, in lieu of the cross of St George, it bore the
union of the crosses of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick,
the medieval England having expanded into the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland. Again, at the funeral of the duke
of Wellington we find amongst the flags his personal banner
and standard, and ten banderolls of the duke's pedigree and
descent.
The guidon, a name derived from the Fr. Guyd-homme, was
somewhat similar to the standard, but without the cross of St
George, rounded at the end, less elongated and altogether less
ornate. It was borne by a leader of horse, and according to a
medieval writer " must be two and a half yards or three yards
FLAG
long, and therein shall no armes be put, but only the man's
crest, cognisance, and devyce."
The streamer, so called in Tudor days but now better known
as the pennant or pendant, was a long, tapering flag, which it was
directed " shall stand in the top of a ship or in the forecastle,
and therein be put no armes, but the man's cognisance or devyce,
and may be of length twenty, thirty, forty or sixty yards, and
is slitt as well as a guidon or standard." Amongst the fittings
of the ship that took Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, to France in
the reign of Henry VII. was a " grete stremour for the shippe
xl yardes in length viij yardes in brede." In the hoist was
" a grete here holding a raggid staffe," and the rest of the fly
" powdrid full of raggid staves."
NATIONAL FLAGS. British. The royal standard of England
was, when it was hoisted on the Tower on the ist of January
1801, thus heraldically described: " Quarterly; first and
fourth, gules, three lions passant gardant, in pale, or, for England ;
second, or, a lion rampant, gules, within a double tressure flory
counter flory of the last, for Scotland; third, azure, a harp or,
stringed argent, for Ireland." The present standard connects
in direct descent from the arms of the Conqueror. These were
two leopards passant on a red field, and remained the same
until the reign of Henry II., when lions were substituted for
leopards, and a third added. The next change that took place
was in the reign of Edward III. when the royal arms were for
the first time quartered; fleurs-de-lis in the first and fourth
quarters, and the three lions of England in the second and third.
The fleurs-de-lis were assumed in token of the monarch's claim
to the throne of France. In the " coats " of Edward III. and
the two monarchs that succeeded him, the fleurs-de-lis were
powdered over a blue ground, but under Henry V. the fleurs-de-lis
were reduced in number to three, and the " coat " so devised
remained the same until the death of Queen Elizabeth. The lion
of Scotland and the Irish harp were added to the flag on the
accession of James I., and the flag then had the French and
English arms quartered in the first and fourth quarters, the lion
of Scotland, red on a yellow ground, in the second quarter, and
the harp of Ireland, gold on a blue ground, in the third quarter.
With the exception of the period of the Commonwealth, to
which reference will be made later, the flag remained thus until
the accession of William III., who imposed upon the Stuart
standard a central shield carrying the arms of Nassau. Queen
Anne made further alterations; the first and fourth quarters were
subdivided, the three lions of England being in one half, the lion of
Scotland in the other. Thefleurs-de-lis were in the second quarter;
the Irish harp in the third. Under George I. and George II.
the first, second and third quarters remained the same, the arms
of Hanover being placed in the fourth quarter, and this continued
to be the royal standard until 1801, when the standard was re-
arranged as first described with the addition of the Hanoverian
arms displayed on a shield in the centre. On the accession of
Queen Victoria, the Hanoverian arms were removed, and the
flag remained as it to-day exists. It is worthy of note, however,
that in the royal standard of King Edward VII. which hangs in
the chapel of St George at Windsor, the ordinary " winged
woman " form of the harp in the Irish third quartering is altered
to a harp of the old Irish pattern. At King Edward's accession
this banner replaced that of Queen Victoria which for sixty-two
years had hung in this, the chapel of the order of the Garter.
Up to the time of the Stuarts it had been the custom of
the lord high admiral or person in command of the fleet to fly
the royal standard as deputy of the sovereign. When royalty
ceased to be, a new flag was devised by the council of state for
the Commonwealth, which comprised the "arms of England
and Ireland in two several escutcheons in a red flag within a
compartment." In other words, it was a red flag containing
two shields, the one bearing the cross of St George, red on a white
ground, the other the harp, gold on a blue ground, and round the
shields was a wreath of palm and shamrock leaves. One of these
flags is still in existence at Chatham dockyard, where it is kept
in a wooden chest which was taken out of a Spanish galleon at
Vigo by Admiral Sir George Rooke in 1704. When Cromwell
became protector of the commonwealth of England, Scotland
and Ireland, he devised for himself a personal standard. This
had the cross of St George in the first and fourth quarters, the
cross of St Andrew, a white saltire on a blue ground, in the
second, and the Irish harp in the third. His own arms a lion
on a black shield were imposed on the centre of the flag. , No
one but royalty has a right to fly the royal standard, and though
it is constantly seen flying for purposes of decoration its use is
irregular. There has, however, always been one exception,
namely, that the lord high admiral when in executive command
of a fleet has always been entitled to fly the royal standard.
For example, Lord Howard flew it from the mainmast of the
" Ark Royal " when he defeated the Spanish Armada; the
duke of Buckingham flew it as lord high admiral in the reign
of Charles I., and the duke of York fought under it when he
commanded during the Dutch Wars.
The national flag of the British empire is the Union Jack,
in which are combined in union the crosses of St George, St
Andrew and St Patrick. St George had long been a patron
saint of England, and his banner, argent, a cross gules, its
national ensign. St Andrew in the same way was the patron
saint of Scotland, and his banner, azure, a saltire argent, the
national ensign of Scotland. On the union of the two crowns
James I. issued a proclamation ordaining that " henceforth all
our subjects of this Isle and Kingdom of Greater Britain and
the members thereof, shall bear in their main-top the red cross
commonly cajled St George's cross, and the white cross commonly
called St Andrew's cross, joined together according to a form
made by our heralds, and sent by us to our admiral to be pub-
lished to our said subjects; and in their fore-top our subjects
of south Britain shall wear the red cross only, as they were wont,
and our subjects of north Britain in their fore-top, the white
cross only as they were accustomed." This was the first Union
Jack, as it is generally termed, though strictly the name of the
flag is the " Great Union," and it is only a "Jack" when flown
on the jackstaff of a ship of war. Probably the name of the
Stuart king " Jacques," which James I. always signed, gave
the name to the flag, and then to the staff at which it was hoisted.
At the death of Charles I., the union with Scotland being dissolved,
the ships of the parliament reverted to the simple cross of St
George, but the union flag was restored when Cromwell became
protector, with the Irish harp imposed upon its centre. On the
Restoration, Charles II. removed the harp and so the original
union flag was restored, and continued as described until the
year 1801, when, on the legislative union with Ireland, the cross
of St Patrick, a saltire gules, on a field argent, was incorporated
in the union flag. To so combine these three crosses without
losing the distinctive features of each was not easy; each cross
must be distinct, and retain equally distinct its fimbriation, or
bordering, which denotes the original ground. In the first
union flag, the red cross of St George with the white fimbriation
that represented the original white field was simply imposed
upon the white saltire of St Andrew with its blue field. To
place the red saltire of St Patrick on the white saltire of St
Andrew would have been to obliterate the latter, nor would the
red saltire have its proper bordering denoting its original white
field; even were the red saltire narrowed in width the portion
of the white saltire that would appear would not be the St
Andrew saltire, but only the fimbriation appertaining to the
saltire of St Patrick. The difficulty has been got over by making
the white broader on one side of the red than the other. In fact,
the continuity of direction of the arms of the St Patrick red
saltire has been broken by its portions being removed from the
centre of the oblique points that form the St Andrew's saltire.
Thus both the Irish and Scottish saltires can be easily distin-
guished from one another, whilst the red saltire has its due white
fimbriation.
The Union Jack is the most important of all British ensigns,
and is flown by representatives of the empire all the world over.
It flies from the jackstaff of every man-of-war in the navy.
With the Irish harp on a blue shield displayed in the centre, it is
flown by the lord-lieutenant of Ireland. When flown by the
FLAGS
PLATE I.
GREAT BRITAIN.
Royal Standard.
GREAT BRITAIN.
White Ensign
(Royal Navy).
JAPAN.
Imperial Navy.
CANADA.
Red Ensign
(Mercantile Marine).
NEW ZEALAND.
Blue Ensign
(Government).
GERMANY.
Imperial Navy.
GREAT BRITAIN.
Union Jack.
GERMANY.
Mercantile Marine.
SPAIN.
Royal Navy.
SPAIN.
Mercantile Marine.
PORTUGAL.
National Flag.
JAPAN.
Mercantile Marine.
AUSTRI A-H UNG AR Y.
Imperial Navy.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
Mercantile Marine.
ITALY.
Mercantile Marine.
RUMANIA.
National Flag.
Niagara Litho. Co.. Buffalo, N. Y.
FLAG
459
governor-general of India the star and device of the order of
the Star of India are borne in the centre. Colonial governors fly
it with the badge of their colony displayed in the centre. Diplo-
matic representatives use it with the royal arms in the centre.
As a military flag, it is flown over fortresses and headquarters,
and on all occasions of military ceremonial. Hoisted at the
mainmast of a man-of-war it is the flag of an admiral of the
fleet.
Military flags in the shape of regimental standards and colours,
and flags used for signalling, are described elsewhere, and it will
here be only necessary to deal with the navy and admiralty
flags.
The origin of the three ensigns the red, white, and blue
had its genesis in the navy. In the days of huge fleets, such as
prevailed in the Tudor and Stuart navies, there were, besides
the admiral in supreme command, a vice-admiral as second in
command, and a rear-admiral as third in command, each con-
trolling his own particular group or squadron. These were
designated 'centre, van, and rear, the centre almost invariably
being commanded by the admiral, the vice-admiral taking the
van and the rear-admiral the rear squadron. In order that any
vessel in any group could distinguish its own admiral's ship,
the flagships of centre, van, and rear flew respectively a plain
red, white, or blue flag, and so came into being those naval
ranks of admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral of the red, white,
and blue which continued down to as late as 1864. As the
admiral in supreme command flew the union at the main, there
was no rank of admiral of the red, and it was not until November
1805 that the rank of admiral of the red was added to the navy
as a special compliment to reward Trafalgar. About 1652, so
that each individual ship in the squadron should be distinguish-
able as well as the flagships, each vessel carried a large red,
white, or blue flag according as to whether she belonged to the
centre, van, or rear, each flag having in the left-hand upper
corner a canton, as it is termed, of white bearing the St George's
cross. These flags were called ensigns, and it is, of course, due
to the fact that the union with Scotland was for the time dissolved
that they bore only the St George's cross. Even when the
restoration of the Stuarts restored the status quo the cross of St
George still remained alone on the ensign, and it was not altered
until 1707 when the bill for the Union of England and Scotland
passed the English parliament. In 1801, when Ireland joined
the Union, the flag, of course, became as we know it to-day. All
these three ensigns belonged to the royal navy, and continued
to do so until 1864, but as far back as 1707 ships of the mercantile
marine were instructed to fly the red ensign. As ironclads
replaced the wooden vessels and fleets became smaller the
inconvenience of three naval ensigns was manifest, and in 1864
the grades of flag officer were reduced again to admiral, vice-
admiral, and rear-admiral, and the navy abandoned the use
of the red and blue ensigns, retaining only the white ensign as
its distinctive flag. The mercantile marine retained the red
ensign which they were already using, whilst the blue ensign
was allotted to vessels employed on the public service whether
home or colonial.
The white ensign is therefore essentially the flag of the royal
navy. It should not be flown anywhere or on any occasion
except by a ship (or shore establishment) of the royal navy,
with but one exception. By a grant of William IV. dating from
1829 vessels belonging to the Royal Yacht Squadron, the chief
of all yacht clubs, are allowed to fly the white ensign. From
1821 to 1829 ships of the squadron flew the red ensign, as that of
highest dignity, but as it was also used by merchant ships, they
then obtained the grant of the white ensign as being more
distinctive. Some few other yacht clubs flew it until 1842, when
the privilege was withdrawn by an admiralty minute. By some
oversight the order was not conveyed to the Royal Western
of Ireland, whose ships flew the white ensign until in 1857 the
usage was stopped. Since that date the Royal Yacht Squadron
has alone had the privilege. Any vessel of any sort flying the
white ensign, or pennant, of the navy is committing a grave
offence, and the ship can be boarded by any officer of His
Majesty's service, the colours seized, the vessel reported to the
authorities, and a penalty inflicted on the owners or captain or
both. The penalty incurred is 500 fine for each offence, as
laid down in the 73rd section of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894.
In 1883 Lord Annesley's yacht, belonging to the Royal Yacht
Squadron, was detained at the Dardanelles in consequence of
her flying the white ensign of the royal navy which brought her
under the category of a man-of-war, and no foreign man-of-war
is allowed to pass the Dardanelles without first obtaining an
imperial trade. Since then owners belonging to the squadron
have been warned that they must either sail their ships through
the straits under the red ensign common to all ships British
owned, or obtain imperial permission if they wish to display
the white ensign.
Besides the white ensign the ship of war flies a long streamer
from the maintopgallant masthead. This, which is called a
pennant, is flown only by ships in commission; it is, in fact,
the sign of command, and is first hoisted when a captain com-
missions his ship. The pennant, which was really the old
" pennoncell," was of three colours for the whole of its length,
and towards the end left separate in two or three tails, and so
continued till the end of the great wars in 1816. Now, however,
the pennant is a long white streamer with the St George's cross
in the inner portion close to the mast. Pennants have been
carried by men-of-war from the earliest times, prior to 1653 at
the yard-arm, but since that date at the maintopgallant mast-
head.
The blue ensign is exclusively the flag of the public service
other than the royal navy, and is as well the flag of the royal
naval reserve. It is flown also by certain authorized vessels
of the British mercantile marine, the conditions governing this
privilege being that the captain and a certain specified portion
of the officers and crew shall belong to the ranks of the royal
naval reserve. When flown by ships belonging to British
government offices the seal or badge of the office is displayed
in the fly. For example, hired transports fly it with the yellow
anchor in the fly; the marine department of the Board of Trade
has in the fly the device of a ship under sail; the telegraph
branch of the post-office shows in the fly a device representing
Father Time with his hour-glass shattered by lightning; the
ordnance department displays upon the fly a shield with a
cannon and cannon balls upon it. Certain yacht clubs are also
authorized by special admiralty warrant to fly the blue ensign.
Some of these display it plain; others show in the fly the distinc-
tive badge of the club. Consuls-general, consuls and consular
agents also have a right to fly the blue ensign, the distinguishing
badge in their case being the royal arms.
The red ensign is the distinguishing flag of the British merchant
service, and special orders to this effect were issued by Queen
Anne in 1707, and again by Queen Victoria in 1864. The order
of Queen Anne directed that merchant vessels should fly a red
flag " with a Union Jack described in a canton at the upper
corner thereof next the staff," and this is probably the first
time that the term " Union Jack " was officially used. In some
cases those yacht clubs which fly the red ensign change it slightly
from that flown by the merchant service, for they are allowed
to display the badge of the club in the fly. Colonial merchant-
men usually display the ordinary red ensign, but, provided they
have a warrant of authorization from the admiralty, they can
use the ensign with the badge of the colony in the fly.
In regard to ensigns it is important to remember that they
are purely maritime flags, and though the rule is more honoured
in the breach than in the observance, the only flag that a private
individual or a corporation has a right to display on shore is the
national flag, the Union Jack, in its plain condition and without
any emblazonment.
There are two other British sea flags which are worthy of
brief notice. These are the admiralty flag and the flag of the
master of Trinity House. The admiralty flag is a plain red
flag with a clear anchor in the centre in yellow. In a sense it is
a national flag, for the sovereign hoists it when afloat in conjunc-
tion with the royal standard and the Union Jack. It would
460
FLAG
appear to have been first used by the duke of York as lord high
admiral, who flew it when the sovereign was afloat and had the
royal standard flying in another ship. When a board of com-
missioners was appointed to execute the office of lord high
admiral this was the flag adopted, and in 1691 we find the
admiralty, minuting the navy board, then a subordinate depart-
ment, " requiring and directing it to cause a fitting red silk
flag, with the anchor and cable therein, to be provided against
Tuesday morning next, for the barge belonging to this board."
In 1725, presumably as being more pretty and artistic, the cable
in the device was twisted round the stock of the anchor. It
was thus made into a " foul anchor," the thing of all others that
a sailor most hates, and this despite the fact that the first lord
at the time, the earl of Berkeley, was himself a sailor. The
anchor retained its unseamanlike appearance, and was not
" cleared " till 1815, and even to this day the buttons of the
naval uniform bear a " foul anchor." The " anchor " flag is
solely the emblem of an administrative board; it does not carry
the executive or combatant functions which are vested in the
royal standard, the union or an admiral's flag, but on two
occasions it has been made use of as an executive flag. In 1719
the earl of Berkeley, who at the time was not only first lord
of the admiralty, but vice-admiral of England, obtained the
special permission of George I. to hoist it at the main instead of
the union flag. Again in 1869, when Mr Childers, then first
lord, accompanied by some members of his board, went on
board the " Agincourt " he hoisted the admiralty flag and took
command of the combined Mediterranean and Channel squadrons,
thus superseding the flags of the two distinguished officers who
at the time were in command of these squadrons. It is hardly
necessary to add that throughout the navy there was a very
distinct feeling of dissatisfaction at the innovation. When the
admiralty flag is flown by the sovereign it is hoisted at the fore,
his own standard being of course at the main, and the union at
the mizzen.
The flag of the master of the Trinity House is the red cross
of St George on its white ground, but with an ancient ship on
the waves in each quarter; in the centre is a shield with a
precisely similar device and surmounted by a lion.
The sign of a British admiral's command afloat is always
the same. It is the St George's cross. Of old it was borne
on the main, the fore, or the mizzen, according as to whether
the officer to whom it pertained was admiral, vice-admiral,
or rear-admiral, but, as ironclads superseded wooden ships,
and a single pole mast took the place of the old three masts,
a different method of indicating rank was necessitated. To-day
the flag of an admiral is a square one, the plain St George's
cross. When flown by a vice-admiral it bears a red ball on the
white ground in the upper canton next to the staff; if flown
by a rear-admiral there is a red ball in both the upper and lower
cantons. As nowadays most battleships have two masts, the
admiral's flag is hoisted at the one which has no masthead
semaphore. The admiral's flag is always a square one, but that
of a commodore is a broad white pennant with the St George's
cross. If the commodore be first class the flag is plain; if of
the second class the flag has a red ball in the upper canton next
to the staff. The same system of differentiating rank prevails
in most navies, though very often a star takes the place of the ball.
In some cases, however, the indications of rank are differently
shown. For instance, both in the Russian and Japanese navies
the distinction is made by a line of colour on the upper or lower
edges of the flag.
The flags of the British colonies are the same as those of the
mother country, but differentiated by the badge of the colony
being placed in the centre of the flag if it is the Union Jack, or
in the fly if it be the blue or red ensign. Examples of these are
shown in the Plate, where the blue ensign illustrated is that of
New Zealand, the device of the colony being the southern cross
in the fly. Precisely the same flag, with a large six-pointed
star, emblematic of the six states immediately under the union,
forms the flag of the federated commonwealth of Australia.
The red ensign shown is that of the Dominion of Canada, the
device in the fly being the armorial bearings of the Dominion.
As the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, as the representative of royalty,
flies the Union Jack with a harp in the centre, or the viceroy
of India flies the same flag with, in the centre, the badge of the
order of the Star of India, so too colonial governors or high
commissioners fly the union flag with the arms of the colony
they preside over on a white shield in the centre and surrounded
by a laurel wreath. In the case of Canada the wreath, however,
is not of laurel but of maple, which is the special emblem of the
Dominion.
French. To come to flags of other countries, nowhere have
historical events caused so much change in the standards and
national ensigns of a country as in the case of France. The
oriflamme and the Chape de St Martin were succeeded at the
end of the i6th century, when Henry III., the last of the house
of Valois, came to the throne, by the white standard powdered
with fleurs-de-lis. This in turn gave place to the famous tricolour.
The tricolour was introduced at the time of the Revolution, but
the origin of this flag and its colours is a disputed question.
Some maintain that the intention was to combine in the flag
the blue of the Chape de St Martin, the red of the oriflamme,
and the white flag of the Bourbons. By others the colours are
said to be those of the city of Paris. Yet again, other authorities
assert that the flag is copied from the shield of the Orleans family
as it appeared after Philippe Egalite had knocked off the fleurs-
de-lis. The tricolour is divided vertically into three parts of equal
width blue, white and red, the red forming the fly, the white
the middle, and the blue the hoist of the flag. During the first
and second empires the tricolour became the imperial, standard,
but in the centre of the white stripe was placed the eagle, whilst
all three stripes were richly powdered over with the golden bees
of the Napoleons. The tricolour is now the sole flag of France.
American. Before the Declaration of Independence the
flags of those colonies which now form the United States of
America were very various. In the early days of New England
the Puritans objected to the red cross of St George, not from
any disloyalty to the mother country, but from a conscientious
objection to what they deemed an idolatrous symbol. By the
year 1700 most of the colonies had devised badges to distinguish
their vessels from those of England and of each other. In the
early stages of the revolution each state adopted a flag of its
own; thus, that of Massachusetts bore a pine tree, South
Carolina displayed a rattlesnake, New York had a white flag
with a black beaver, and Rhode Island a white flag with a blue
anchor upon it. Even after the Declaration of Independence,
and the introduction of the stars and stripes, the latter under-
went many changes in the manner of their arrangement before
taking the position at present established. In 1775 a committee
was appointed to consider the question of a single flag for the
thirteen states. It recommended that the union be retained
in the upper corner next to the staff, the remainder of the field
of the flag to be of thirteen horizontally disposed stripes, alter-
nately red and white. This flag, curiously enough, was precisely
the same as the flag of the old Honourable East India Company.
On the 1 4th of June 1777 congress resolved " that the flag
of the United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and
white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field,
representing a new constellation." This was the origin of the
national flag, but at first, as the number of the stripes were
unequal, the flag very often varied, sometimes having seven
white and six red stripes, and at other times seven red and six
white, and it was not for some considerable time that it was
authoritatively laid down that the latter arrangement was the
one to be adopted. It has also been held that the stars and
stripes of the American national flag, as well as the eagle, were
suggested by the crest and arms of the Washingoh family.
The latter supposition is absurd, for the Washington crest was a
raven. The Washington arms were a white shield having two
horizontal red bars, and above these a row of three red stars.
This might, by a stretch of imagination, be supposed to have
inspired the original idea of the flag which was that each state
in the Union should be represented in the national flag by a star
FLAGS
PLATE II.
RUSSIA.
Mercantile Marine.
RUSSIA.
Imperial Navy.
[ ! JP
m_JHH^. SWEDEN.
DENMARK. Royal Navy.
NETHERLANDS.
National Flag.
SWITZERLAND.
National Flag.
CHINA.
Imperial Navy.
ARGENTINA.
Naval.
PERU.
Naval.
BELGIUM.
National Flag.
NORWAY.
Mercantile Marine.
GREECE.
Mercantile Marine
UNITED STATES
National Flag.
TURKEY.
National Flag.
VENEZUELA.
Naval.
Niagara Litho. Co.. Buffalo, N. K.
FLAG
461
and stripe. Naturally other states coming into the Union
expected the same privilege. After Vermont in 1790 and
Kentucky in 1752 had entered the Union, the stars and stripes
were changed in number from thirteen to fifteen. Later on other
states joined, and soon the flag came to consist of twenty stars
and stripes. It was, however, found objectionable to be con-
stantly altering the national flag, and in the year 1818 it was
determined to go back to the original thirteen stripes, but to
place a star for each state in the blue union canton in the top
corner of the flag next the staff. Thus the stars always show the
exact number of states that are in the Union, whilst the stripes
denote the original number of the states that formed the union. 1
The presidential flag of the president of the United States is
an eagle on a blue field, bearing on its breast a shield displaying
stripes, and above the national motto E pluribus unum, and a
design of the stars of the original thirteen states of the union.
Other Countries. The most general and important of the
various national flags are figured in the Plate. In the top line
representing Great Britain are shown the royal standard, the
Union Jack (the national flag), the white ensign of the royal
navy, the blue ensign of government service, and the red ensign
of the commercial marine, colonial flags being shown in the case
of the two latter ensigns. The two Japanese flags shown are the
man-of-war ensign a rising sun, generally known as the sun-
burst and the flag of the mercantile marine, in which the-red ball
is used without the rays and placed in the centre of the white
field. The imperial standard of Japan is a golden chrysanthemum
on a red field. It is essential that the chrysanthemum should
invariably have sixteen petals. Heraldry in Japan is of a simpler
character than that of Europe, and is practically limited to the
employment of " Mon," which correspond very nearly to the
" crests " of European heraldry. The great families of Japan
possess at least one, and in many cases even three, " Mon."
The imperial family use two, the one Kiku no go Mon (the august
chrysanthemum crest) and Kiri no go Mon (the august Kiri
crest) . The first represents the sixteen-petalled chrysanthemum,
and, although the use of the chrysanthemum flower as a badge
is not necessarily confined to the imperial family, they alone
have the right to use the sixteen-petalled form. If used by any
other family, or society or corporation, it must be with a number
of petals less or more than sixteen. The second imperial " Mon "
is composed of three leaves and three flower spikes of the Kiri
(Paulownia imperialis). This, however, is not displayed as an
official emblem, that being reserved for the chrysanthemum.
The Kiri is used for more private purposes. For example, the
chrysanthemum figures in the imperial standard, and the Kiri
" Mon " adorns the harness of the emperor's horses. It is very
probable that the chrysanthemum crest did not originally repre-
sent the chrysanthemum flower at all but the sun with sixteen
rays, and it will be noticed that in the " sun-burst " flag the
sun's rays are sixteen in number. The use of the number sixteen
is probably traceable to Chinese geomantic ideas.
The German imperial navy and mercantile marine flags are next
depicted. The " iron cross in the navy flag is that of the Teutonic
Order, and dates from the close of the I2th century. For five
centuries black and white have been the Hohenzpllern colours,
and the first verse of the German war song, Ich bin ein Preusse,
runs:
" I am a Prussian ! Know ye not my banner?
Before me floats my flag of black and white !
My fathers died for freedom, 'twas their manner,
So say these colours floating in your sight.'
The mercantile marine tricolour of black, white and red is em-
blematic of the joining of the Hohenzollern black and white with
the red and white, which was the ensign of the Hanseatic League.
This flag came into being when the North German Confederacy
was established (November 25th, 1867) at the close of the Austro-
Prussian War. . . ...
The German imperial standard has the iron cross with its white
border displayed on a yellow field, diapered over in each ol the toi
quarters with three black eagles and a crown. In the centre ot i
cross is a shield bearing the arms of Prussia surmounted by a :rown,
1 By the admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1907 the number of
stars became 46, arranged from the top in horizontal rows tl
8, 7, 8, 7, 8, 8 = 46.
and surrounded by a collar of the Order of the Black Eagle. In the
four arms of the crown are the legend Gott mil uns 1870. The United
States flag and the tricolour of France have already been fully dealt
with, and in both countries the one flag is common to both men-of-
war and ships of the mercantile marine.
The next depicted are the imperial navy and the mercantile
marine flags of the Austro-Hungarian empire. In the latter the
introduction of the green half stripe denotes the combination of the
Austrian red, white and red with the Hungarian red, white and
green. The shields with which the flag is charged contain respectively
the arms of Austria and of Hungary. The former shield only is
borne on the man-of-war ensign, and displays the heraldic device of
the ancient dukes of Austria, which dates back to the year 1191.
The Austrian imperial standard has, on a yellow ground, the black
double-headed eagle, on the breast and wings of which are imposed
shields bearing the arms of the provinces of the empire. The flag
is bordered all round, the border being composed of equal-sided
triangles with their apices alternately inwards and outwards, those
with their apices pointing inwards being alternately yellow and
white, the others alternately scarlet and black.
The green, white and red Italian tricolour was adopted in 1805,
when Napoleon I. formed Italy into one kingdom. It was adopted
again in 1848 by the Nationalists of the peninsula, accepted by the
king of Sardinia, and, charged by him with the arms of Savoy, it
became the flag of a united Italy. The man-of-war flag is precisely
similar to that of the mercantile marine, except that in the case of
the former the shield of Savoy is surmounted by a crown. The royal
standard is a blue flag. In the centre is a black eagle crowned and
displaying on its breast the arms of Savoy, the whole surrounded
by the collar of the Most Sacred Annunziata, the third in rank of all
European orders. In each corner of the flag is the royal crown.
For Portugal the flag is one of the few national flags that are parti-
coloured. It is half blue, half white, with, in the centre, the arms of
Portugal surmounted by the royal crown, and it is the same both
in the mercantile marine and in the Portuguese navy. The royal
standard of Portugal is an all-red flag charged in the centre with the
royal arms, as shown in the national flag.
In the Spanish ensigns red and yellow are the prevailing colours,
and here again the arrangement differs from that generally used.
The navy flag has a yellow central stripe, with red above and below.
To be correct the yellow should be half the width of the flag, and each
of the red stripes a quarter of the width of the flag. The central
yellow stripe is charged in the hoist with an escutcheon containing
the arms of Castile and Leon, and surmounted by the royal crown.
In the mercantile flag the yellow centre is without the escutcheon,
and is one-third of the entire depth of the flag, the remaining thirds
being divided into equal stripes of red and yellow, the yellow above
in the upper part of the flag, the red in the lower. Of all royal
standards that of Spain is the most elaborate, for it contains quarter-
ings of the Spanish royal escutcheon, many of the bearings being as
much an anachronism as if the royal arms of England were to-day
to be quartered with the fleur-de-lis. In all, the quarterings displayed
are those of Leon, Castile, Aragon, Sicily, Austria, Burg--
Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant, Portugal and France. The Hag is
usually depicted as composed entirely of the quarterings. We
believe, however, that it is more correctly a purple flag in the centre
of which the quarterings are displayed on an oval shield surmounted
by a crown and encircled by the collar of the order of the Golden
Fleece.
The flag of the Russian mercantile marine is a horizontal tricolour
of white, blue and red. Originally, it was a tricolour of blue, white
and red, and it is said that the idea of its colouring was taken by
Peter the Great when learning shipbuilding in Holland, for as the
flag then stood it was simply the Dutch ensign reversed. Later, to
make it more distinctive, the blue and white stripes changed places,
leaving the tricolour as it stands to-day. The flag of the Russian
navy is the blue saltire of St Andrew on a white ground. St Andrew
is the patron saint of Russia, from whence the emblem. The imperial
standard is of a character akin to that of Austria; the ground is
yellow, and the centre bears the imperial double-headed eagle, a
badge that dates back to 1472, when Ivan the Great married a
niece of Constantine Palaeologus and assumed the arms of the Greek
empire. On the breast of the eagle is an escutcheon charged with
the emblem of St George and the Dragon on a red ground, and this
is surrounded by the collar of the order of St Andrew. On the splayed
wings of the eagle are small shields bearing the arms of the various
provinces of the empire.
The Rumanian flag is a blue, yellow and red tricolour, the stripes
vertical, with the blue stripe forming the fly. The Servian flag is a
horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the middle blue and the lower
white. When these tricolours are flown as royal standards the royal
arms are displayed on the central stripe. The flag of Montenegro is
a horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the centre blue, the lower-
most white. The Bulgarian flag is a similar tricolour, white, green
and red, the white stripe uppermost, but when flown as a war ensign
there is a canton in the upper corner of the hoist in which is a golden
lion on a red ground.
The flags of all the three Scandinavian kingdoms are somewhat
similar in design. That of Denmark, the Dannebrog, has been already
alluded to, and it is shown in our illustration as flown by the Danish
462
FLAG
!ar
cross
navy. The mercantile marine flag is precisely similar, but rectangul
instead of being swallow-tailed. The Swedish flag is a yellow cro
on a blue ground. When flown from a man-of-war it is forked as
in the Danish, but the longer arm of the cross is not cut off but
pointed, thus making it a three-pointed flag as illustrated. For the
mercantile marine the flag is rectangular. When Norway separated
from Denmark in 1814, the first flag was red with a white cross on it,
and the arms of Norway in the upper corner of the hoist, but as this
was found to resemble too closely the Danish flag, a blue cross
with a white border was substituted for the red cross. This, it will
be seen, is the Danish flag with a blue cross imposed upon the
white one. For a man-of-war the flag is precisely similar to that of
Sweden in shape; that is to say, converted from the rectangular
into the three-pointed design. While Sweden and Norway remained
united the flag of each remained distinct, but each bore jn the top
canton of the hoist a union device, being ; the combination of the
Norwegian and Swedish national colours and crosses. In each of the
three above nationalities the flag used for a royal standard is the
man-of-war flag with the royal arms imposed on the centre of the
cross.
The Belgian tricolour is vertical, the strips being black next the
hoist, yellow in the centre and red in the fly. That of the Nether-
lands is a horizontal tricolour, red above, white in the centre and
blue below. In both countries the same flag is common to both navy
and mercantile marine, but when the flag is used as a royal standard
the royal arms are displayed in the central stripe. The black,
yellow and red of the Belgian flag are the colours of the duchy of
Brabant, and were adopted in 1831 when the monarchy was founded.
The original Dutch colours adopted when Holland declared its
independence were orange, white and blue, the colours of the house
of Orange, and when and how the orange became red is not quite clear,
though it was certainly prior to 1643.
The blue and white which form the colouring of the Greek flag
shown in our illustration are the colours of the house of Bavaria,
and were adopted in 1832, when Prince Otho of Bavaria was elected
to the throne of Greece. The stripes are nine in number five blue
and four white -with, in the upper corner of the hoist, a canton
bearing a white cross on a blue ground. The flag for the royal navy
is similar to that flown by the mercantile marine, with the exception
that it has the addition of a golden crown in the centre of the cross.
The royal standard is a blue flag with a white cross, on the centre
of which the royal arms are imposed. The cross is exactly similar
to that in the Danish flag, that is to say, the arms of the cross are
not of equal length, the shorter end being in the hoist of the flag.
The very simple flag of Switzerland is one of great antiquity, for
it was the emblem of the nation as far back as 1339, and probably
considerably earlier. In addition to the national flag of the Swiss
confederation, each canton has its own cantonal colours. In each
case the flag has its stripes disposed horizontally. Basel, for instance,
is half black, half white; Berne, half black, half red; Glarus, red,
black and white, &c., &c.
The Turkish crescent moon and star were the device adopted by
Mahomet II. when he captured Constantinople in 1453. Originally
they were the symbol of Diana, the patroness of Byzantium, and
were adopted by the Ottomans as a triumph, for they had always
been the special emblem of Constantinople, and even now in Moscow
and elsewhere the crescent emblem and the cross may be seen
combined in Russian churches, the crescent badge, of course, indicat-
ing the Byzantine origin of the Russian church. The symbol origin-
ated at the time of the siege of Constantinople by Philip the father
of Alexander the Great, when a night attempt of the besiegers to
undermine the walls was betrayed by the light of a crescent moon,
and in acknowledgment of their escape the Byzantines raised a
statue to Diana, and made her badge the symbol of the city. Both
the man-of-war and mercantile marine flags are the same, but the
imperial standard of the sultan is scarlet, and bears in its centre
the device of the reigning sovereign. This device is known as the
" Tughra," and consists of the name of the sultan, the title of khan,
and the epithet al-Muzaffar Daima, which means " the ever vic-
torious." The origin of the " Tughra " is that the sultan Murad I.,
who was not of scholarly parts, signed a treaty by wetting his open
hand with ink, and pressing it on the paper, the first, second and
third fingers making smears close together, the thumb and fourth
finger leaving marks apart. Within the marks thus made the
scribes wrote in the name of Murad, his title, and the epithet above
quoted. The " Tughra " dates from the latter part of the I4th
century. The smaller characters in the " Tughra " change, of course,
on the accession of every fresh sovereign, but the leading form of the
device always remains the same, namely, rounded lines to the left
denoting the thumb, lines to the right denoting where the little
finger made impression, and three upright lines indicating the other
fingers.
The Mahommedan states tributary to Turkey also display the
crescent and star. Morocco, Muscat and other Arab states where
they use an ensign display a red flag, that of the Zanzibar protectorate
having the British union in the centre of the red field.
The Persian flag is white with a border, green on the upper edge
of the flag and in the fly, and red in the hoist and on the lower edge.
On the white ground are the lion and sun.
The flag of Siam is a white elephant on a red ground. That of
Korea, a white flag with, in the centre, a ball, half red, half blue,
the colours being curiously intermixed, the whole being precisely
as if two large commas of equal size, one red and the other blue,
were united to form a complete circle.
The Chinese flag is a yellow one, bearing on it the emblem of the
dragon devouring the sun. As at present used, it is a square flag,
but an earlier version was a triangular right-angled flag, hoisted with
the right-angle in the base of the hoist. The merchant flag is red
with a yellow ball in the centre.
Among the South American republics the Brazilian flag is peculiar
inasmuch as it is the only national flag which carries a motto.
Mexico flies precisely the same tricolour as Italy, but plain in
the case of the merchant ensign, and charged on the central stripe
with the Mexican arms (as illustrated) when flown as a man-of-war
ensign.
The Argentine flag is as illustrated flown by the navy, but, when
used by the mercantile marine, the sun emblazoned on the central
white stripe is omitted, the flag otherwise being precisely the same.
The Venezuelan flag shown is also that of the navy. The flag of the
mercantile marine is the same, but the shield bearing the arms of
the state is not introduced into the yellow top stripe in the corner
near the hoist, as in the naval flag.
The Chilean ensign illustrated is used alike by men-of-war and
vessels in the mercantile marine, but, when flown as the standard of
the president, the Chilean arms and supporters are placed in the
centre of the flag.
The plain red, white, red in vertical stripes, is the flag of the mer-
cantile marine of Peru, and becomes the naval ensign when charged
on the central stripe with the Peruvian arms as shown in our illus-
tration. In fact, in nearly every case with the South American
republics, the ordinary mercantile marine flag becomes that of the
war navy by the addition of the national arms, and in some cases is
used in the same way as a presidential flag.
In nearly every case the flags of the lesser American republics
are tricolours, and in a very great many of them the flags are by no
means such combinations as would meet with the approval of Euro-
pean heralds. All flag devising should be in accordance with
heraldic laws, and one of the most important of these is that colour
should not be placed on colour, nor metal on metal, yellow in blazonry
being the equivalent of gold and white of silver. Hence, properly
devised tricolours are such as, for example, those of France, where
the red and blue are divided by white, or Belgium, where the black
and red are divided by yellow. On the other hand, the yellow, blue,
red of Venezuela is heraldically an abomination.
Manufacture and Miscellaneous Uses. Flags, the manufacture
of which is quite a large industry, are almost invariably made
from bunting, a very light, tough and durable woollen material.
The regulation bunting as used in the navy is made in 9 in.
widths, and the flag classes in size according to the number of
breadths of bunting of which it is composed. The great centre
of the manufacture of flags, as far as the royal navy is concerned,
is the dockyard at Chatham. Ensigns and Jacks are made in
different sizes; the largest ensign made is 33 ft. long by 165 ft.
in width; the largest Jack issued is 24 ft. long and 12 ft. wide.
The dimensions of a flag according to heraldry should be
either square or in the proportion of two to one, and it is this
latter dimension that is used in the navy and generally.
Signalling flags are dealt with elsewhere (see SIGNAL), and here
it will only be necessary to make brief allusion to some inter-
national customs with regard to the use of flags to indicate
certain purposes. For long a blood-red flag has always been
used as a symbol of mutiny or of revolution. The black flag
was in days gone by the symbol of the pirate; to-day, in the only
case in which it survives, it is flown after an execution to indicate
that the requirements of the law have been duly carried out.
All over the world a yellow flag is the signal of infectious illness.
A ship hoists it to denote that there are some on board suffering
from yellow fever, cholera or some such infectious malady, and
it remains hoisted until she has received quarantine. This flag
is also hoisted on quarantine stations. The white flag is univers-
ally used as a flag of truce.
At the sea striking of the flag denotes surrender. When the
flag of one country is placed over that of another the victory of
the former is denoted, hence in time of peace it would be an
insult to hoist the flag of one friendly nation above that of another.
If such were done by mistake, say in " dressing ship " for instance,
an apology would have to be made. This custom of hoisting
the flag of the vanquished beneath that of the victor is of com-
paratively modern date, as up to about a century ago the sign of
victory was to trail the enemy's flag over the taffrail in the water.
FLAGELLANTS
463
Each national flag must be flown from its own flagstaff, and this
is often seen when the allied forces of two or more powers are
in joint occupation of a town or territory. To denote honour
and respect a flag is " dipped." Ships at sea salute each other
by " dipping " the flag, that is to say, by running it smartly
down from the masthead, and then as quickly replacing it.
When troops parade before the sovereign the regimental flags
are lowered as they salute him. A flag flying half-mast high is
the universal symbol of mourning. When a ship has to make
the signal of distress, this is done by hoisting the national ensign
reversed, that is to say, upside down. If it is wished to accentuate
the imminence of the danger it is done by making the flag into a
" weft," that is, by knotting it in the middle. This means of
showing distress at sea is of very ancient usage, for in naval
works written as far back as the reign of James I. we find the
" weft " mentioned as a method of showing distress.
We have already alluded to the Union Jack as used for denoting
nationality, and as a flag of command, but it also serves many
other purposes. For instance, if a court-martial is being held
on board any ship the Union Jack is displayed while the court
is sitting, its hoisting being accompanied by the firing of a gun.
In a fleet in company the ship that has the guard for the day
flies it. With a white border it forms the signal for a pilot, and
in this case is known as a Pilot Jack. In all combinations of
signalling flags which denote a ship's name the Union Jack
forms a unit. Lastly, it figures as the pall of every sailor or
soldier of the empire who receives naval or military honours
at his funeral.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See Flags: Some Account of their History and
Uses, by A. MacGeorge (1881); National Banners: Their History
and Construction, by W. Bland (1892) (one of a series of Heraldic
Tracts, 1850-1892, Br. Museum Library, No. 9906, b. 9; this
pamphlet gives the design of the national banners of St George,
St Andrew and St Patrick, and illustrates and tells the story of the
composition of the three flags into the great union flag, commonly
knownastheUnionJack) ; Our Flags: TheirOrigin, Use and Traditions,
by Rear-Admiral S. Eardley-Wilmot (1901), an excellent treatise,
historical and narrative, on all the flags of the British empire; A
History of the Flag of the United States (Boston, 1872), by G. H.
Preble; Flags of the World: Their History, Blazonry and Associations,
by Edward Hulme, F.L.S., F.S.A. (1897), a most complete mono-
graph on the subject, illustrated with a very complete series of plates ;
Admiralty Book of Flags of all Nations, printed for H.M. Stationery
office, 1889, kept up to date by the publication periodically of Errata,
officially issued under an admiralty covering letter; Flags of Mari-
time Nations, prepared by the Bureau of Equipment department of
the navy, printed by authority (Washington, 1899). The last two
works have no letterpress beyond titles, but contain, to scale,
delineations of all the flags at present used officially by all nations.
Between the two there are no discrepancies, and the delineation
of a flag taken from either may be assumed as absolutely correct.
Both are respectively the guides for flag construction in the royal
navy and the United States navy. (H. L. S.)
FLAGELLANTS (from Lat. flagdlare, to whip), in religion,
the name given to those who scourge themselves, or are scourged,
by way of discipline or penance. Voluntary flagellation, as a
form of exalted devotion, occurs in almost all religions. Accord-
ing to Herodotus (ii. 40. 61), it was the custom of the ancient
Egyptians to beat themselves during the annual festival in
honour of their goddess Isis. In Sparta children were flogged
before the altar of Artemis Orthia till the blood flowed (Plutarch,
Instil. Laced. 40). At Alea, in the Peloponnese, women were
flogged in the temple of Dionysus (Pausanias, Arcad. 23). The
priests of Cybele, or archigalli, submitted to the discipline in the
temple of the goddess (Plutarch, Adv. Colot. p. 1127; Apul.,
Metam. viii. 173). At the Roman Lupercalia women were
flogged by the celebrants to avert sterility or as a purificatory
ceremony (W. Mannhardt, Mythol. Forsch., Strassburg, 1884,
p. 72 seq.).
Ritual flagellation existed among the Jews, and, according
to Buxtorf (Synagoga judaica, Basel, 1603), was one of the
ceremonies of the day of the Great Pardon. In the Christian
church flagellation was originally a punishment, and was
practised not only by parents and schoolmasters, but also by
bishops, who thus corrected offending priests and monks (St
Augustine, Ep. 159 ad MarcelL; cf. Cone. Agd. 506, can. ii.).
Gradually, however, voluntary flagellation appeared in the
libri poenilentiales as a very efficacious means of penance. In
the nth century this new form of devotion was extolled by some
of the most ardent reformers in the monastic houses of the west,
such as Abbot Popon of Stavelot, St Dominic Loricatus (so
called from his practice of wearing next his skin an iron lorica,
or cuirass of thongs), and especially Cardinal Pietro Damiani.
Damiani advocated the substitution of flagellation for the recita-
tion of the penitential psalms, and drew up a scale according
to which 1000 strokes were equivalent to ten psalms, and 15,000
to the whole psalter. The majority of these reformers exemplified
their preaching in their own persons, and St Dominic gained
great renown by inflicting upon himself 300,000 strokes in six
days. The custom of collective flagellation was introduced into
the monastic houses, the ceremony taking place every Friday
after confession.
The early Franciscans flagellated themselves with character-
istic rigour, and it is no matter of surprise to find the Franciscan,
St Anthony of Padua, preaching the praises of this means of
penance. It is incorrect, however, to suppose that St Anthony
took any part in the creation of the flagellant fraternities, which
were the result of spontaneous popular movements, and later
than the great Franciscan preacher; while Ranieri, a monk of
Perugia, to whom the foundation of these strange communities
has been attributed, was merely the leader of the flagellant
brotherhood in that region. About 1259 these fraternities were
distributed over the greater part of northern Italy. The con-
tagion spread very rapidly, extending as far as the Rhine pro-
vinces, and, across Germany, into Bohemia. Day and night,
long processions of all classes and ages, headed by priests carrying
crosses and banners, perambulated the streets in double file,
reciting prayers and drawing the blood from their bodies with
leathern thongs. The magistrates in some of the Italian towns,
and especially Uberto Pallavicino at Milan, expelled theflagellants
with threats, and for a time the sect disappeared. The disorders
of the i4th century, however, the numerous earthquakes, and
the Black Death, which had spread over the greater part of
Europe, produced a condition of ferment and mystic fever which
was very favourable to a recrudescence of morbid forms of
devotion. The flagellants reappeared, and made the state of
religious trouble in Germany, provoked by the struggle between
the papacy and Louis of Bavaria, subserve their cause. In the
spring of 1349 bands of flagellants, perhaps from Hungary,
began their propaganda in the south of Germany. Each band
was under the command of a leader, who was assisted by two
lieutenants; and obedience to the leader was enjoined upon
every member on entering the brotherhood. The flagellants
paid for their own personal maintenance, but were allowed
to accept board and lodging, if offered. The penance lasted
335 days, during which they flogged themselves with thongs
fitted with four iron points. They read letters which they said
had fallen from heaven, and which threatened the earth with
terrible punishments if men refused to adopt the mode of penance
taught by the flagellants. On several occasions they incited
the populations of the towns through which they passed against
the Jews, and also against the monks who opposed their propa-
ganda. Many towns shut their gates upon them; but, in spite
of discouragement, they spread from Poland to the Rhine, and
penetrated as far as Holland and Flanders. Finally, a band
of 100 marched from Basel to Avignon to the court of Pope
Clement VI., who, in spite of the sympathy shown them by
several of his cardinals, condemned the sect as constituting a
menace to the priesthood. On the 2oth of October 1349 Clement
published a bull commanding the bishops and inquisitors to
stamp out the growing heresy, and in pursuance of the pope's
orders numbers of the sectaries perished at the stake or in the
cells of the inquisitors and the episcopal justices. In 1389 the
leader of a flagellant band in Italy called the bianchi was burned
by order of the pope, and his following dispersed. In 1417,
however, the Spanish Dominican St Vincent Ferrer pleaded
the cause of the flagellants with great warmth at the council
of Constance, and elicited a severe reply from John Gerson
4 6 4
FLAGELLATA
(Epistola ad Vincentium), who declared that the flagellants were
showing a tendency to slight the sacramental confession and
penance, were refusing to perform the cultus of the martyrs
venerated by the church, and were even alleging their own
superiority to the martyrs.
The justice of Gerson's protest was borne out by events.
In Germany, in 1414, there was a recrudescence of the epidemic
of flagellation, which then became a clearly-formulated heresy.
A certain Conrad Schmidt placed himself at the head of a com-
munity of Thuringian flagellants, who took the name of Brethren
of the Cross. Schmidt gave himself out as the incarnation of
Enoch, and prophesied the approaching fall of the Church of
Rome, the overthrow of the ancient sacraments, and the triumph
of flagellation as the only road to salvation. Numbers of
Beghards joined the Brethren of the Cross, and the two sects
were confounded in the rigorous persecution conducted in
Germany by the inquisitor Eylard Schoneveld, who almost
annihilated the flagellants. This mode of devotion, however,
held its ground among the lower ranks of Catholic piety. In
the i6th century it subsisted in Italy, Spain and southern France.
Henry III. of France met with it in Provence, and attempted to
acclimatize it at Paris, where he formed bands divided into
various orders, each distinguished by a different colour. The
king and his courtiers joined in the processions in the garb of
penitents, and scourged themselves with ostentation. The
king's encouragement seemed at first to point to a successful
revival of flagellation; but the practice disappeared along with
the other forms of devotion that had sprung up at the time of
the league, and Henry III.'s successor suppressed the Paris
brotherhood. Flagellation was occasionally practised as a
means of salvation by certain Jansenist convulsionaries in the
i8th century, and also, towards the end of the i8th century,
by a little Jansenist sect known as the Fareinists, founded by
the' brothers Bonjour, curis of Fareins, near Trevoux (Ain).
In 1820 a band of flagellants appeared during a procession at
Lisbon; and in the Latin countries, at the season of great
festivals, one may still see brotherhoods of penitents flagellating
themselves before the assembled faithful.
For an account of flagellation in antiquity see S. Reinach, Cultes,
mythes et religions (vol. i. pp. 173-183, 1906), which contains a biblio-
graphy of the subject. For a bibliography of the practice in medieval
times, see M. Rohricht, " Bibliographische Beitrage zur Gesch. der
Geissler" inBriegersZeitschriftfurK.irchengeschichte,\.j,\j,. (P. A.)
FLAGELLATA, the name given to the Protozoa whose
dominant phase is a " flagellula," or cell-body provided with
one, few or rarely many long actively vibratile, cytoplasmic
processes. Nutrition is variable: (i) "Holozoic"; food
taken in by ingestion, by amoeboid action either unspeciaiized
or at one or more well-defined oral spots, or through an aperture
(mouth); (2) " Saprophytic " ; food taken in in solution through
the general surface of the body; (3) " Holophytic "; food-
material formed in the coloured plasm by fixation of carbon
from the medium, with liberation of oxygen, in presence of light,
as in green plants. Fission in the " active " state occurs and is
usually longitudinal. Multiple fission rarely occurs save in a
sporocyst, and produces microzoospores, which in some cases
may conjugate with others as isogametes or with larger forms
(megagametes). " Hypnocysts " to tide over unfavourable
conditions are not infrequent, but have no necessary relation to
reproduction. Many have a firm pellicle which may form a hard
shell: again a distinct cell -wall of chitin or cellulose may be
formed: finally, an open cup, " theca," of .firm or gelatinous
material may be present, with or without a stalk: such a cup
and stalk are often found in colonial species, and are subject
to much the same conditions as in Infusoria. The nucleus is
simple in most cases; but in Haemoflagellates it is connected
with a second nucleus, which again is in immediate relation
with the motile apparatus; the former is termed the " tropho-
nucleus," the latter the " kineto-nucleus."
As reserves the protoplasm may contain oil, starch, paramylum,
leucosin (a substance soluble in water, and of doubtful com-
position), proteid granules. In the holophytic forms the cyto-
plasm contains specialized parts of more or less definite form,
FIG. i. Flagellata.
1 . Chlamydomonas pulvisculus,
Ehr. (Chlamydomonadidae) free-
swimming individual.
a = nucleus.
b = contractile vacuole.
c} = starch corpuscle.
d =cellulose investment.
e = stigma (eye-spot).
2. Resting stage of the same,
with fourfold division of the
cell-contents. Letters as before.
3. Breaking up of the cell-
contents into minute biflagellate
swarm-spores, which escape, and
whose history is not further
known.
4. Syncrypta volvox, Ehr.
(Chrysomonadidae). A colony
enclosed by a common gelatinous
test c.
a = stigma.
b =vacuole(non-contractile).
5. Uroglena volvox, Ehr.
(Chrysomonadidae). Half of a
large colony, the flagellates em-
bedded in a common jelly.
6. Chlorogonium euchlorum,
Ehr. (Chlamydomonadidae).
a = nucleus.
6 = contractile vacuole.
c = starch grain.
d = eye-spot.
7. Chlorogonium euchlorum,
Ehr. (Chlamydomonadidae). Copu-
lation of two liberated micro-
gonidia.
a = nucleus.
b = contractile vacuole.
d =eye-spot (so-called).
8. Colony of Dinobryon sertu-
laria, Ehr.; X2OO (Chrysomcna-
didae).
9. Haematococcvs palustris,
Girod ( = Chlamydococcus, Braun,
Protococcus, Conn), one of the
FLAGELLATA
Chrysomonadidae; ordinary in-
dividual with widely separated
test.
a = nucleus.
b = contractile vacuole.
c =amylon nucleus (pyre-
noid).
10. Dividing resting stage of
the same, with eight fission pro-
ducts in the common test e.
11. A microgonidium of the
same.
12. Phalansterium consociatum,
Cienk. (Choanoflagellata) ; X325.
Disk-like colony.
13. Euglena viridis, Ehr.;
X 300 (Euglenidae).
o = pigment spot (stigma).
b = clear space.
c =paramylum granules.
d = chromatophor (endo-
chrome plate).
14. Gonium pectorale, O. F.
Miiller (Volvocineae). Colony
seen from the flat side ; X 300.
a = nucleus.
6 = contractile vacuole.
c =amylon nucleus.
15. Dinobryon sertularia, Ehr.
( Chrysomonadidae) .
a = nucleus.
b =contractile vacuole.
c =amylon nucleus.
d = free colourless flagellates,
probably not belonging
to Dinobryon.
e = stigma (eye-spot).
/ = chromatophors.
1 6. Peranema trichophorum,
Ehr. (Peranemidae), creeping in-
dividual seen from the back;
X 140.
c = pharynx.
d = mouth.
17. Anterior end of Euglena
acus, Ehr., in profile.
a = mouth.
b =vacuoles.
c pharynx.
d = stigma (eye-spot).
e =paramylum-body.
/= chlorophyll corpuscles.
18. Part of the surface of
colony of Volvox globator,
465
a
L.
(Volvoctdae), showing the inter
cellular connective fibrils.
a = nucleus.
b = contractile vacuole.
c = starch granule.
19. Two microgametes (sper-
matozoa) of Volvox globator, L
a = nucleus.
b = contractile vacuole.
20. Ripe asexually producec
daughter-individual of Volvox
minor, Stein, still enclosed in the
cyst of the partheno-gonidium.
a = young, partheno-gonidia.
21,22. Trypanosoma sanguinis,
Gruby (Haematoflagella tes) , from
the blood of Rana esculenta.
a = nucleus; X 500.
23-26. Reproduction of Bodo
caudatus, Duj. (Bodonidae), after
Dallinger and Drysdale : 23,
fusion of several individuals (plas-
modium); 24, encysted fusion-
product dividing into four; 25,
later into eight; 26, cyst filled
with swarm-spores.
27. Distigma proteus, Ehbg.,
O. F. Muller (Euglenidae) X44O.
Individual with the two flagella,
and strongly contracting hinder
region of the body.
28. The same devoid of flagella.
c, c = the two dark pigment
spots (so-called eyes) near
the mouth.
29. Oicomonas termo (Monas
termo) Ehr. (one of the Oicomona-
didae).
c = food-ingesting vacuole.
d = food-particle; X44O.
30. The food-particle d has
now been ingested by the vacuole.
31. Oicomonas mutabilis, Kent
(Oicomonadidae), with adherent
stalk.
a = nucleus.
b= contractile vacuole.
c food-particle in food
vacuole.
32,33. Cercomonas crassicauda,
Duj. (Oicomonadidae), showing
two conditions of the pseudo-
podium-protruding tail.
a = nucleus.
6 = contractile vacuoles.
c = mouth.
known generally as " plastids " or " chromatophores " impreg-
nated with a lipochrome pigment, whether green (chlorophyll),
yellow or brown (diatomin or some allied pigment), or again red
(chlorophyll with phycoerythrin). In the active condition of
such coloured holophytic forms there is usually at least one
anterior " eye-spot," of a refractive globule embedded behind
in a collection of red pigment granules. The single anterior
" flagellum tractellum " of so many of the larger forms acts
by the bending over of its free end in consecutive meridians,
so as to describe a hollow cone with its apex backwards: we
may imitate this by bending the head of a slender sapling round
and round while it is implanted in the soil; and the result is to
push the water backwards, or in other words to pull the body
forwards, the whole rotating on its longitudinal axis as it moves
on (Y. Delage). An anterior lateral trailing flagellum may
modify this axial rotation, and help in steering. When the animal
is at rest attached by its base or with its body so curved as
to resist onward motion the current produced by the tractellum
will bring suspended particles up against the protoplasm at its
base of insertion. As noted by E. R. Lankester, the posterior
flagellum of many Haemoflagellates, like that of the spermato-
zoon of Metazoa, propels the cell by a sculling motion behind;
he terms it a " pulsellum." Such flagellar motion is distinct
from that of cilia, which always move backwards and forwards,
with a swift downstroke and a slower recovery in the same plane;
though where the flagella are numerous they may behave in this
way, and indeed flagella agree with cilia in being mere vibratory
extensions of cytoplasm. Symmetrically placed flagella may
have a symmetrical reciprocating motion like that of cilia.
Many of the Flagellata are parasitic (some haematozoic) ;
the majority live in the midst of putrefying organic matter in
sea and fresh waters, but are not known to be active as agents
of putrefaction. Dallinger and Drysdale have shown that the
spores of Bodo and others will survive an exposure to a higher
temperature than do any known Schizomycetes (Bacteria),
viz. 250 to 300 Fahr., for ten minutes, although the adults are
killed at 180.
The Flagellata are for the most part very minute; the Proto-
mastigopoda rarely exceeding 20 /i in length. The Euglenaceae
contain the largest species, up to 130 /i in length, exclusive of
the flagellum.
Our classification is modified from those of Senn (in Engler
and Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien) and Hartog (in Cambridge Natural
History).
I. RHIZOFLAGELLATA (PANTOSTOMATA)
Food taken in by pseudopodia at any part of the body.
Order I. HOLOMASTIGACEAE. Body homaxial with uniform
flagella. Multicilia (Cienkowski) ; Crassia (Fisch, in frog's blood
and gastric mucus).
Order 2. RHIZpMASTIGACEAE. Flagellum i, 2 or few, diverg-
ing from anterior end. Mastigamoeba (F. E. Schulze).
II. EUFLAGELLATA
Food taken in at one or more definite mouth-spots, or by a true
mouth, or by absorption ; or nutrition holophytic.
Order I . PROTOMASTIGACEAE. Contractile vacuole simple, one
or more, or absent; either holozoic, ingesting food by a mouth-
spot (or 2 or more), saprophytic, or parasitic.
Family i .^OICOMONADIDAE. Flagellum i, sometimes with
a tail-like posterior prominence passing into a temporary
flagellum, but without other cytoplasmic processes.
Oicomonas (Kent); Cercomonas (Dujardin) (fig. 1,32,33);
Codonoeca (James-Clark), with a gelatinous theca.
Family 2. BICOECIDAE. Differs from Oicomonadidae in a uni-
lateral proboscidiform process next the flagellum; often
thecate and stalked, forming branched colonies, like
Choanoflagellates in habit. Bicoeca (J.-C1.), Poteriodendron.
Family 3. CHOANOFLAGELLIDAE (Choanoflagellata, Kent;
Craspedomonadina, Stein). As in previous families, but
with flagellum surrounded by an obconical or cylindrical
rim of cytoplasm, at the base of which is the ingestive
area. The cells of this group have the morphology of the
fiageljate cells (choanocvtes) of sponges. They are often
colonial, and in the gelatinous colony of Proterospongia,
the more internal cells (fig. 2, 15) pass into a definite
" reproductive state." Many stalked forms are epizoic on
Entomostracan Crustacea.
(a) Naked forms often stalked: Monosiga (Kent), stalked
solitary; Codosiga (Kent) (fig. 2, 3), stalked social;
Desmarella (Kent), unstalked, and Astrosiga (Kent),
stalked, form floating colonies.
(b) Forms enclosed in a vase-like shell: Salpingoeca (J.-
Cl.); (fig. 2, I, 6, 7) recalling the habit of Monosiga
and Cod siga; Polyoeca forming a branched free
swimming colony.
(f) Forms surrounded by a gelatinous sheath : Protero-
spongia (Kent) (fig. 2, is); Phalansterium (Cienk.)
(fig. i, 12), has a slender cylindrical collar, and a
branching tubular stalk.
Family 4. HAEMOFLAGELLIDAE. Formswithacomplexnuclear
apparatus, and a muscular undulating membrane with
which one or two flagella are connected, parasitic in Metazoa
(often in the blood). Trypanosoma (Gruby) (fig. I, 21, 22),
Herpetomonas(Kent),Treponema(Vu'Memin)( = Spirochaele,
auctt., nee. Ehrbg.).
Family 5. AMPHIMONADIDAE. Flagella 2 anterior.both directed
forward, equal and similar; in stalk sheath, &c., often
recalling Choanoflagellata, Amphimonas (Kent), Diplomitus
(Kent); Spongomonas (St.), with thick branching gelatinous
sheath.
Family 6.^MoNADiDAE. Flagella 2 (3), anterior all directed
forwards, one long the other (or 2) accessory, short.
Monas (St.); Anthophysa (Bory) (fig. 2, 12, 13), with the
stalk composed of the accumulation of faeces at the hinder
end of the cells of the colony.
Family 7. BODONIDAE. Flagella 2 (or 3) i anterior, the other
(i or 2) antero-lateral and trailing or becoming fixed at the
end to form a temporary anchor.
j( Bodo (Ehrb.) (figs, i, 23-26 and 2, jo). B. lens is the
" hooked " and B. saltans the " springing monad " of
Dallinger and Drysdale ; Dallingeria (Kent) with a pair of
4-66
FLAGELLATA
FIG. 2. Flagellata.
1. Salpingoeca fusiformis, S.
Kent (Chpanoflagellata). The
protoplasmic body is drawn to-
gether within the goblet-shaped
shell, and divided into numerous
spores; Xi5<x>.
2. Escape of the spores of the
same as monoflagellate and
swarm-spores.
3. Codosiga umbellate, Tatem
(Choanoflagellata) ; adult colony
formed by dichotomous growth;
X625.
4. A single zooid of the same;
Xi250.
a = nucleus.
b = contractile vacuole.
c=the characteristic "col-
lar " of naked stream-
ing protoplasm.
5. Hexamita inflata, Duj. (Dis-
tomatidae); X6so; normal
adult.
6, 7. Salpingoeca urceolata, S.
Kent (Choanoflagellata) : 6,
with collar extended; 7, with
collar retracted within the
stalked cup.
8. Polytoma uvella, Mull. sp.
(Chlamydomonadidae) ; X8oo.
9. Lophomonas blattarum,
Stein (Trichonymphidae) from
the intestine of Blatta orientalis.
10. Bodo lens, Mull.; X8oo.
(Bodonidae), the wavy filament
is a tractellum, the straight one
is a trailing thread.
11. Tetramitus sulcatus, Stein
(Tetramitidae); X43O.
12. Anthophysavegetans, O. F.
Muller (Monadidae) ; Xjoo.
A typical, erect, shortly-branch-
ing colony stock with four ter-
minal monad-clusters.
13. Monad cluster of the same
in optical section (X8oo), show-
ing the relation of the individual
monads or flagellate zooids to the
stem d.
14. Tetramitus rostratus, Perty
( Tetramitidae) ; X i ooo.
a = nucleus.
b = contractile vacuole.
15. Proterospongia Haeckeli,
Saville Kent (Choanoflagellata);
X8oo. A social colony of about
forty flagellate zooids.
a = nucleus.
b = contractile vacuole.
c=amoebiform cell sunk
within the colonial gela-
tinous test compared by
S. Kent to a mesoderm
cell of the sponges.
d = similar cell reproducing
by transverse fission.
e = normal cells, with their
collars contracted.
/ = substance of test.
g = individual reproducing
by multiple fission, pro-
ducing microzOospores,
comparable to the sper-
matozoa of sponges.
antero-lateral flagella; Cosiia necalrix (Leclerq) is also 3-
flagellate; causes destructive epidemics in fish-hatcheries.
Family 8. TETRAMITIDAE. Body pyriform, the pointed end
posterior ; flagella 4 anterior.
Tetramitus (Perty) (T. calycinus of Kent, fig. 2, n, id),
is the " calycine monad " of Dallinger and Drysdale;
Trichomonas, Donne, possesses a longitudinal undulating
membrane, and is an innocuous human parasite; it is
possibly related to
H a e m o fl agellates
on one hand and
to Trichonymphi-
dae on the other.
Family 9. DISTOMA-
TIDAE. Mouth- ,
spots two, or one,
with a distinct
construction ; fla-
gella symmetri-
cally arranged ;
nucleus bilobed
or geminate. Hex-
amitus (Duj.) (fig.
2, 5), saprpphytic
and parasitic ; Tre-
p'omonas (Duj.),
freshwater; Mega-
stoma (Grassi) ( =
I^amblia of Blan-
chard), with con-
stricted mouth-
spot and blepha-
roplast (kinetp-
nucleus) parasitic
in the small intes-
tine of Mammals,
including Man.
Family 10. TRICHO-
NYMPHIDAE. Fla-
gella numerous,
sometimes accom-
panied by one or FIG. 3.
more undulating i. Trichonympha agilis, Leidy, from
membranes; cyto- gut of White Ant (Termite); X6oo.
plasm highly 2. Opalina ranarum, Purkinje para-
differentiated; sitic in frog rectum multinucleate adult ;
contractile vac- Xioo.
uole absent; all 3,4. Binary fissionsof same, i-nucleat
parasitic in in- individual at final stage of fission,
sects (all except 5. Same encysted dejected from
Lophomonas in rectum to be swallowed by tadpole.
Termites the so- 6. Young l-nucleate individual
called White emerged from cyst, destined to grow,
Ants.) proliferating its nuclei to adult form.
Lophomonas (St.) a = nucleus,
(fig. 2, p); para- 6 = food (?) particles in fig. I.
sitic in the cock-
roach; Dinenympha (Leidy ),Pyrsonympha (Leidy); Triche-
nympha (Leidy) (fig. 3, j).
Family n. OPALINIDAE. Flagella short, numerous, cUiform,
uniformly distributed over the flat oval body ; nuclei small,
numerous, uniform.
Only genus, Opalina (Purkinje and Valentin) (fig. 3, 2-6),
in bladder and cloaca of the frog (usually regarded as an
aberrant ciliate, but E. R. Lankester expressed doubts as
to its position in the gth edition of this encyclopaedia).
Order 2. CHRYSOMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuole simple (in
fresh-water forms) or absent; plastids yellow or brown always
present; reserves fat.
Family i. CHRYSOMONADIDAE. Body naked, often amoeboid
in active state, or sometimes with a cup-like theca, a gela-
tinous investment, a firm cuticle, or silicified shell ; reserves
fat or leucosin (starch in Zooxanthella) ; eye-spot present.
Chromulina (Cienk.) often forms a golden scum on tanks;
Chrysamoeba (Klebs); Hydrurus (Agardh), theca of colony
FLAGELLATA
467
forming branching tubes, simulating a yellow Conferva in
mountain torrents; Dinobryon (Ehrb.) (fig. I, 8, 15);
Stylochrysalis (St.); Uroglena (Ehrb.); Syncrypta (Ehrb.),
and Synura (Ehrb.) (fig. i, 5) form floating spherical
colonies; Zooxanthella (Brandt), symbiotic as " yellow
cells " in RadioJaria Foramtnifera, Millet>ora, and many
Actinozoa.
Family 2. COCCOLITHOPHORIDAE. Body invested in a spheri-
cal test strengthened by calcareous elements, tangential
circular plates, " coccoliths," " discoliths," " cyatholiths,"
or radiating rods " rhabdpliths." These are often found in
Foraminiferal ooze and its fossil condition, chalk; when
coherent as in the complete test, they are known as " cocco-
spheres " and " rhabdospheres." Coccolithophora (Loh-
mann), Rhabdospkaera (Haeckel).
Order 3. CRYPTOMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuole (in fresh-
water forms) simple; plastids green, more rarely red, brown or
absent; reserves starch; holophytic or saprophytic. Crypto-
monas (Ehrb.); Paramoeba (Greeff) has yellow plastids and
shows two cycles, in the one amoeboid, finally encysting to pro-
duce a brood of flagellulae; in the other flagellate, and multiply-
ing by longitudinal fission (it differs from Mastigamoeba in possess-
ing no flagellum in the amoeboid state, though it takes in food
amoeba-fashion) ; Chilomonas (Ehrb.).
Order 4. CHLOROMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuoles 1-3, a
complex of variable arrangement; pellicle delicate; plastids dis-
coid chlorophyll-bodies; reserves oil; eye-spot absent even in
active state; holophytic or saprophytic, though with an anterior
blind tubular depression simulating a pharynx. Coelomonas (St.),
Vacuolaria (Cienk.).
Order 5. EUGLENACEAE. Vacuole large, a reservoir for one or
more accessory vacuoles, contractile and opening to the surface
by a canal (" pharynx ") in which are planted one or two strong
flagella ; pellicle strong often striated ; nucleus large, chromato-
phores green, complex or absent; reserves paramylum granules
of definite shape, and oil; nutrition variable; body stiff or
" metabolic," never amoeboid. Among the true Flagellates these
are the largest, few being below 40 p and several attaining 130 n
in length of cell-body (excluding flagellum). Encysted condition
common; the green forms sometimes multiply in this state and
simulate unicellular Algae.
Family I. EUGLENIDAE. Radial (monaxial) forms; nutrition
saprophytic or holophytic, mostly one flagellate. (l)
Chromatophore large; eye-spot conspicuous. Euglena
(Ehrb.) (fig. I, 13, 17), with flexible cuticle and metabolic
movements (this is probably Priestley's " green matter "
through which he obtained oxygen gas) -a very common
genus; Colacium (Ehbg.), in its resting state epizoic on
Copepoda, which it colours green; Eutreptia (Perty), bi-
flagellate; Ascoglena (St.); Trachelomonas (Ehrb.), with
a hard brown cuticle; Phacus (Nitszche), with a firm rigid
pellicle, often symmetrically flattened; Cryptoglena (Ehbg.).
(2) Chromatcphores absent. Astasia (Duj.), body meta-
bolic; Menoidium (Perty), body not metabolic, somewhat
inflected and crescentic; Sphenomonas (Stein), with a short
accessory trailing flagellum in front peeled; Distigma
(Ehbg.) (fie. I, 27 . 28), very metabolic, with two unequal
flagella and two dark pigment spots.
Family 2. PERANEMIDAE. Bilaterally symmetrical, often
creeping, pharynx highly developed, with a firm rod-like
skeleton, sometimes protrusible; nutrition saprophytic
and holozoic. Peranema (Ehbg.) and Urceolus (Mcre-
schowsky), uni-flagellate creeping, very metabolic. Peta-
lomonas (St.), uni-flagellate flattened with a deep ventral
groove, not metabolic; Heteronema (Duj.) and Tropido-
scyphus (St.), with a small accessory anterior trailing
flagellum; Anisonema (Duj.) and Entosiphon (St.), with
the trailing flagellum as long as the tractellum or even much
longer.
Order 6. VOLVOCACEAE. Contractile vacuole simple anterior;
cell always enclosed in a cellulose wall (sometimes gelatinous)
perforated by the two (more rarely four, five) diverging anterior
flagella; reserves starch; chlorophyll almost always present,
except in Polytoma, sometimes masked by a red pigment; nutri-
tion usually holophytic, rarely saprophytic, never holozoic.
Brood-division in active state common, radial.
Family I. CHLAMYDOMONADIDAE. Cell-wall firm not
gelatinous, rarely forming colonies. Fore-end of the body
with two or four (seldom five) flagella. Almost always
green in consequence of the presence of a very large single
chromatophore. Generally a delicate shell-like envelope
of membranous consistence. I to 2 simple contractile
vacuoles at the base of the flagella. Usually one eye-
speck. Division of the protoplasm within the envelope may
produce four, eight or more new individuals. This may
occur in the swimming or in a resting stage. Also by more
continuous fission microgametes of various sizes are
formed. Conjugation is frequent.
Genera. Chlorangium (Stein), lacking green chlorophyll;
Chlorogonium (Ehr.) (fig. I, 6, 7): Polytoma (Ehr.) (fig. 2, 8);
Chlamydomonas (Ehr.) (fig. I, I, 2, j); Haematococcus (Agardh)
( = Chlamydococcus, A. Braun, Stein); Prolococcus (Cohn, Huxley
and Martin); Chlamydomonas (Cienkowski), causes red snow and
" bloody rairt "; Carteria (Diesing), quadri-flagellate ; Spondyto-
morum (Ehrb.), forming floating colonies; Coccomonas (St.);
Phacotus (Perty); Zoochlorella (Brandt), is the name given to un-
determined Chlamydomonads found multiplying in the resting state
within and in symbiotic relation to other Protozoa, to the fresh-
water sponge, Ephydatia, Hydra viridis, and to the Turbellarian,
Convoluta viridis (in which last species the active form has been
recognized as a Carteria).
Family 2. VOLVOCIDAE. Cell-wall gelatinous; always as-
sociated in colonies; cells, as in Family I. The number
of individuals united to form a colony varies very much,
as does the shape of the colony. Reproduction by the
continuous division of all or of only certain individuals of
the colony, resulting in the production of a daughter colony
(from each such individual). In some, probably in all,
at certain times copulation of the individuals of distinct
sexual colonies takes place, without or with a differentiation
of the colonies and of the copulating cells as male and female.
The result of the copulation is a resting zygospore (also
called zygote or oospermo or fertilized egg), which after a
time develops itself into one or more new colonies.
Genera. Gonium (O. F. Miiller) (fig. I, 14); Slephanosphaera
(Cohn); Pandorina (Bory de Vine.); Eudorina (Ehr.); Volvox
(Ehr.) (fig. i, 18, 20).
The sexual reproduction of the colonies of the Volvocaceae is one
of the most important phenomena presented by the Protozoa. In
some families of Flagellata full-grown individuals become amoeboid,
fuse, encyst, and then break up into flagellate spores which develop
simply to the parental form (fig. I, 23 to 26). In the Chlamydomona-
didae a single adult individual by division produces small individuals,
so-called ' microgametes." These conjugate with one another or
with similar microgametes formed by other adults (as in Chloro-
gonium, fig. I, 7); or more rarely in certain genera a microgamete
conjugates with an ordinary individual megagamete. The result
in either case is a " zygote, a cell formed by fusion of two which
divides in the usual way to produce new individuals. The micro-
gamete in this case is the male element and equivalent to a sperma-
tozoon; the megagamete is the female and equivalent to an egg-
cell. The zygote is a " fertilized egg," or oosperm. In some colony-
building forms we find that only certain cells produce by division
microgametes; and, regarding the colony as a multicellular in-
dividual, we may consider these cells as testis-cells and their micro-
gametes as spermatozoa.
CYSTOFLAGELLATA(RHYNCHOFLAGELLATApfE.R.Lankester)and
DINOFLAGELLATA are scarcely more than subdivisions of Flagellata ;
but, following O. Biitschli, we describe them separately; the three
groups being united into his MASTIGOPHORA.
Further Remarks on the Flagellates. Besides the work of special
Protozoologists, such as F. Cienkowski, O. Biitschli, F. v. Stein, F.
Schaudinn, W. Saville Kent, &c., the Flagellates have been a
favourite study with botanists, especially algologists: we may cite
N. Pringsheim, F. Cohn, W. C. Williamson, W. Zopf, P. A. Dangeard,
G. Klebs, G. Senn, F. Schiitt; the reason for this is obvious. They
present a wide range of structure, from the simple amoeboid genera
to the highly differentiated cells of Euglenaceae, and the complex
colonies of Proterospongia and Volvox. By some they are regarded
as the parent-group of the whole of the Protozoa a position which
may perhaps better be assigned to the Proteomyxa ; but they seem
undoubtedly ancestral to Dinoflagellates and to Cystoflagellates, as
well as to Sporozoa, and presumably to Infusoria. Moreover, the
only distinction between the CUamydomonadidae and the true green
Algae or Chlorophyceae is that when the former divide in the resting
condition, or are held together by gelatinization of the older cell-
walls (Palmella state), they round off and separate, while the latter
divide by a " party wall ' so as to give rise either to a cylindrical
filament when the partitions are parallel and the axis of growth
constant (Conferva type), or to a plate of tissue when the directions
alternate in a plane. The same holds good for the Chrysomonadaceac
and Cryptomonadaceae, so that .these little groups are included in
all text-books of botany. Again among Fungi, the zoospores of
the Zoosporous Phycomycetes (Chytrydiaceae, Peronosporaceae,
Saprolegniaceae) have the characters of the Bodonidae. Thus in
two directions the Flagellates lead up to undoubted Plants. Prob-
ably also the Chlamydomonads have an ancestral relation to the
Conjugatae in the widest sense, and the Chrysomonadaceae to the
Diatomaceae; both groups of obscure affinity, since even the repro-
ductive bodies have no special organs of locomotion. For these
reasons the Volvocaceae, Chloromonadaceae, Chrysomonadaceae
and Cryptomonadaceae have been united as Phytpflagellates ; and
the Euglenaceae might well be added to these. It is easy to under-
stand the relation of the saprophytic and the holophytic Flagellates
to true plants. The capacity to absorb nutritive matter in solution
(as contrasted with the ingestion of solid matter) renders the encysted
condition compatible with active growth, and what in holozoic forms
is a true hypnocyst, a state in which all functions are put to sleep,
is here only a rest from active locomotion, nutrition being only
limited by the supply of nutritive matter from without, and in the
4 68
FLAGEOLET FLAMBARD
case of holophytic species by the illumination: this latter con-
dition naturally limits the possible growth in thickness in holophytes
with undifferentiated tissues. The same considerations apply
indeed to the larger parasitic organisms among Sporozoa, such as
Gregarines and Myxosporidia and Dolichosporidia, which are giants
among Protozoa.
LITERATURE. W. S. Kent, Manual of the^ Infusoria, vol. i. Protozoa
(1880-1882) ; O. Butschli, Die Flagellaten (in Bronn's Thierreich, vol.
i. Protozoa, 1885) ; these two works contain full bibliographies of the
antecedent authors. See also J. Goroschankin (on Chlamydomonads)
in Bull. Soc. Nat. (Moscow, iv. v., 1890-1891); G. Klebs, " Flagel-
latenstudien " in Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool. Iv. (1892); Dofjein, Prolozoen
als Krankheitserreger (1900) ; Senn, " Flagellaten," in Engler and
Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien, i Teil, Abt. la (1900); R. France, Der
Organismus der Craspedomonaden (1897) ; Grass! and Sandias, " Tri-
chonymphidae," in Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxix.-xl. (1897); Bezzen-
berger, " Opa inidae " in Arch. Protist, iii. (1903); Marcus Hartog,
" Protozoa," in Cambridge Nat. Hist. vol. i. (1906). (M. HA.)
FLAGEOLET, in music, a kind of flule-a-bec with a new
fingering, invented in France at the end of the i6th century, and
in vogue in England from the end of the i7th to the beginning of
the i gth century. The instrument is described and illustrated
by Mersenne, 1 who states that the most famous maker and
player in his day was Le Vacher. The flageolet differed from
the recorder in that it had four finger-holes in front and two
thumb-holes at the back instead of seven finger-holes in front
and one thumb-hole at the back. This fingering has survived
in the French flageolet still used in the provinces of France in
small orchestras and for dance music. The arrangement of the
holes was as follows: i, left thumb-hole at the back near
mouthpiece; 2 and 3, finger-holes stopped by the left hand;
4, finger-hole stopped by right hand; 5, thumb-hole at the back;
6, hole near the open end. According to Dr Burney (History
of Music) the flageolet was invented by the Sieur Juvigny, who
played it in the Ballet comique de la Royne, 1581. Dr Edward
Browne, 2 writing to his father from Cologne on the 2oth of June
1673, relates, " We have with us here one . . . and Mr Hadly
upon the flagelet, which instrument he hath so improved as to
invent large ones and outgoe in sweetnesse all the basses whatso-
ever upon any other instrument." About the same time was
published Thomas Greeting's Pleasant Companion; or New
Lessons and Instructions for the Flagelet (London, 1675 or 1682),
a rare book of which the British Museum does not possess a
copy. The instrument retained its popularity until the beginning
of the i gth century, when Bainbridge constructed double and
triple flageolets. 3 The three tubes were bored parallel through
one piece of wood communicating near the mouthpiece which
was common to all three. The lowest notes of the respective
tubes were
The word flageolet was undoubtedly derived from the medieval
Fr. flajol, the primitive whistle-pipe. (K. S.)
FLAGSHIP, the vessel in a fleet which carries the flag, the
symbol of authority of an admiral.
FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, AUGUSTE CHARLES
JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870), French general and statesman,
son of Alexandre Sebastien de Flahaut de la Billarderie, comte
de Flahaut, beheaded at Arras in February 1793, and his wife
Adelaide Filleul, afterwards Mme de Souza (q.v.), was born in
Paris on the 2ist of April 1785. Charles de Flahaut was generally
recognized to be the offspring of his mother's liaison with Talley-
rand, with whom he was closely connected throughout his life.
His mother took him with her into exile in 1792, and they
remained abroad until 1 798. He entered the army as a volunteer
in 1800, and received his commission after the battle of Marengo.
He became aide-de-camp to Murat, and was wounded at the
battle of Landbach in 1805. At Warsaw he met Anne Ponia-
towski, Countess Potocka, with whom he rapidly became inti-
mate. After the battle of Fried land he received the Legion of
1 Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636), bk. v. pp. 232-237.
2 See Sir Thomas Browne's Works, vol. i. p. 206.
1 See Capt. C. R. Day, Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instruments
(London, 1891), pp. 18-22 and pi. 4; also Complete Instructions for
the Double Flageolet (London, 1825); and The Preceptor, or a Key
to the Double Flageolet (London, 1815).
Honour, and returned to Paris in 1807. He served in Spain in
1808, and then in Germany. Meanwhile the Countess Potocka
had established herself in Paris, but Charles de Flahaut had by
this time entered on his liaison with Hortense de Beauharnais,
queen of Holland. The birth of their son was registered in Paris
on the 2ist of October 1811 as Charles Auguste Louis Joseph
Demorny, known later as the due de Morny. Flahaut fought
with distinction in the Russian campaign of 1812, and in 1813
became general of brigade, aide-de-camp to the emperor, and,
after the battle of Leipzig, general of division. After Napoleon's
abdication in 1814 he submitted to the new government, but
was placed on the retired list in September. He was assiduous
in his attendance on Queen Hortense until the Hundred Days
brought him into active service again. A mission to Vienna to
secure the return of Marie Louise resulted in failure. He was
present at Waterloo, and afterwards sought to place Napoleon II.
on the throne. He was saved from exile by Talleyrand's influence,
but was placed under police surveillance. Presently he elected
to retire to Germany, and thence to England, where he married
Margaret, daughter of Admiral George Keith Elphinstone,
Lord Keith, and after the latter's death Baroness Keith in her
own right. The French ambassador opposed the marriage, and
Flahaut resigned his commission. His eldest daughter, Emily
Jane, married Henry, 4th marquess of Lansdowne. The Flahauts
returned to France in 1827, and in 1830 Louis Philippe gave the
count the grade of lieutenant-general and made him a peer of
France. He remained intimately associated with Talleyrand's
policy, and was, for a short time in 1831, ambassador at Berlin.
He was afterwards attached to the household of the duke of
Orleans, and in 1841 was sent as ambassador to Vienna, where
he remained until 1848, when he was dismissed and retired from
the army. After the coup d'etat of 1851 he was again actively
employed, and from 1860 to 1862 was ambassador at the court
of St James's. He died on the ist of September 1870. The
comte de Flahaut is perhaps better remembered for his exploits
in gallantry, and the elegant manners in which he had been
carefully trained by his mother, than for his public services,
which were not, however, so inconsiderable as they have some-
times been represented to be.
See A. de Haricourt, Madame de Souza el safamille (1907).
FLAIL (from Lat. flagellum, a whip or scourge, but used in
the Vulgate in the sense of " flail "; the word appears in Dutch
vlegel, Ger. Flegel, and Fr.Jl&au) , a farm hand-implement formerly
used for threshing corn. It consists of a short, thick club called
a " swingle " or " swipple " attached by a rope or leather thong
to a wooden handle in such a manner as to enable it to swing
freely. The " flail " was a weapon used for military purposes
in the middle ages. It was made in the same way as a threshing-
flail but much stronger and furnished with iron spikes. It also
took the form of a chain with a spiked iron ball at one end
swinging free on a wooden or iron handle. This weapon was
known as the " morning star " or " holy water sprinkler."
During the panic over the Popish plot in England from 1678
to 1681, clubs, known as " Protestant flails," were carried by
alarmed Protestants (see GREEN RIBBON CLUB).
FLAMBARD, RANULF, or RALPH (d. 1128), bishop of Durham
and chief minister of William Rufus, was the son of a Norman
parish priest who belonged to the diocese of Bayeux. Migrating
at an early age to England, the young Ranulf entered the
chancery of William I. and became conspicuous as a courtier.
He was disliked by the barons, who nicknamed him Flambard
in reference to his talents as a mischief-maker; but he acquired
the reputation of an acute financier and appears to have played
an' important part in the compilation of the Domesday survey.
In that record he is mentioned as a clerk by profession, and as
holding land both in Hants and Oxfordshire. Before the death
of the old king he became chaplain to Maurice, bishop of London,
under whom he had formerly served in the chancery. But
early in the next reign Ranulf returned to the royal service.
He is usually described as the chaplain of Rufus; he seems in
that capacity to have been the head of the chancery and the
custodian of the great seal. But he is also called treasurer;
FLAMBOROUGH HEAD FLAME
469
and there can be no doubt that his services were chiefly of a
fiscal character. His name is regularly connected by the
chroniclers with the ingenious methods of extortion from which
all classes suffered between 1087 and noo. He profited largely
by the tyranny of Rufus, farming for the king a large proportion
of the ecclesiastical preferments which were illegaly kept vacant,
and obtaining for himself the wealthy see of Durham (1099).
His fortunes suffered an eclipse upon the accession of Henry I.,
by whom he was imprisoned in deference to the popular outcry.
A bishop, however, was an inconvenient prisoner, and Flambard
soon succeded in effecting his escape from the Tower of London.
A popular legend represents the bishop as descending from the
window of his cell by a rope which friends had conveyed to him
in a cask of wine. He took refuge with Robert Curthose in
Normandy and became one of the advisers who pressed the
duke to dispute the crown of England with his younger brother;
Robert rewarded the bishop by entrusting him with the ad-
ministration of the see of Lisieux. After the victory of Tinchebrai
(1106) the bishop was among the first to make his peace with
Henry, and was allowed to return to his English see. At Durham
he passed the remainder of his life. His private life was lax;
he had at least two sons, for whom he purchased benefices before
they had entered on their teens; and scandalous tales are told
of the entertainments with which he enlivened his seclusion.
But he distinguished himself, even among the bishops of that
age, as a builder and a pious founder. He all but completed
the cathedral which his predecessor, William of St Carilef, had
begun; fortified Durham; built Norham Castle; founded the
priory of Mottisfout and endowed the college of Christchurch,
Hampshire. As a politician he ended his career with his sub-
mission to Henry, who found in Roger of Salisbury a financier
not less able and infinitely more acceptable to the nation. Ranulf
died on the sth of September 1128.
See Orderic Vitalis, Historia ecclesiastica, vols. iii. and iv. (ed.
le Prevost, Paris, 1845) ; the first continuation of Symeon's Historia
Ecclesiae Dunelmensis (Rolls ed., 1882); William of Malmesbury
in the Gesta pontificum (Rolls ed., 1870); and the Peterborough
Chronicle (Rolls ed., 1861). Of modern writers E. A. Freeman in
his William Rufus (Oxford, 1882) gives the fullest account. See also
T. A. Archer in the English Historical Review, ii. p. 103 ; W. Stubbs's
Constitutional History of England, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); J. H.
Round's Feudal England (London, 1895). (H. W. C. D.)
FLAMBOROUGH HEAD, a promontory on the Yorkshire
coast of England, between the Filey and Bridlington bays of
the North Sea. It is a lofty chalk headland, and the resistance
it offers to the action of the waves may be well judged by contrast
with the low coast of Holderness to the south. The cliffs of the
Head, however, are pierced with caverns and fringed with rocks
of fantastic outline. Remarkable contortion of strata is seen
at various points in the chalk. Sea-birds breed abundantly on
the cliffs. A lighthouse marks the point, in 54 7' N., o 5' W.
FLAMBOYANT STYLE, the term given to the phase of Gothic
architecture in France which corresponds in period to the
Perpendicular style. The word literally means " flowing " or
" flaming," in consequence of the resemblance to the curved
lines of flame in window tracery. The earliest examples of
flowing tracery are found in England in the later phases of the
Decorated style, where, in consequence of the omission of the
enclosing circles of the tracery, the carrying through of the
foliations resulted in a curve of contrary flexure of ogee form
and hence the term flowing tracery. In the minster and the
church of St Mary at Beverley, dating from 1320 and 1330, are
the earliest examples in England; in France its first employment
dates from about 1460, and it is now generally agreed that the
flamboyant style was introduced from English sources. One of
the chief characteristics of the flamboyant style in France is
that known as " interpenetration," in which the base mouldings
of one shaft are penetrated by those of a second shaft of which
the faces are set diagonally. This interpenetration, which was
in a sense a tour de force of French masons, was carried to such
an extent that in a lofty rood-screen the mouldings penetrating
the base-mould would be found to be those of a diagonal buttress
situated 20 to 30 ft. above it. It was not 'limited, however, to
internal work; in late isth and early i6th century ecclesiastical
architecture it is found on the facades of some French
cathedrals, and often on the outside of chapels added in later
times.
FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to
burn, blaze, and Gr. <t>\iytiv). There is no strict scientific
definition of flame, but for the purpose of this article it will be
regarded as a name for gas which is temporarily luminous in
consequence of chemical action. It is well known that the
luminosity of gases can be induced by the electrical discharge,
and with rapidly alternating high-tension discharges in air an
oxygen-nitrogen flame is produced which is long and flickering,
can be blown out, yields nitrogen peroxide, and is in fact in-
distinguishable from an ordinary flame except by its electrical
mode of maintenance. The term " flame " is also applied to
solar protuberances, which, according to the common view,
consist of gases whose glow is of a purely thermal origin. Even
with the restricted definition given above, difficulties present
themselves. It is found, for example, with a hydrogen flame
that the luminosity diminishes as the purity of the hydrogen
is increased and as the air is freed from dust, and J. S. Stas
declared that under the most favourable conditions he was only
able, even in a dark room, to localize the flame by feeling for it,
an observation consistent with the fact that the line spectrum
of the flame lies wholly in the ultra-violet. On the other hand,
there are many examples of chemical combination between gases
where the attendant radiation is below the pitch of visibility,
as in the case of ethylene and chlorine. It will be obvious from
these facts that a strict definition of flame is hardly possible.
The common distinction between luminous and non-luminous
flames is, of course, quite arbitrary, and only corresponds to a
rough estimate of the degree of luminosity.
The chemical energy necessary for the production of flame may
be liberated during combination or decomposition. A single
substance like gun-cotton, which is highly endothermic and
gives gaseous products, will produce a bright flame of decom-
position if a single piece be heated in an evacuated flask. Com-
bination is the more common case, and this means that we have
two separate substances involved. If they be not mixed en
masse before combination, the one which flows as a current into
the other is called conventionally the " combustible," but the
simple experiment of burning air in coal gas suffices to show
the unreality of this distinction between combustible and sup-
porter of combustion, which, in fact, is only one of the many
partial views that are explained and perhaps justified by the
dominance of oxygen in terrestrial chemistry.
Although hydrocarbon flames are the commonest and most
interesting, it will be well to consider simpler flames first in
order to discuss some fundamental problems. In hydrocarbon
flames the complexity of the combustible, its susceptibility
to change by heating, and the possibilities of fractional oxidation,
create special difficulties. In the flame of hydrogen and oxygen
or carbon monoxide and oxygen we have simpler conditions,
though here, too, things may be by no means so simple as they
seem from the equations 2H 2 + O 2 = 2H 2 O and 2CO + O 2 = 2COj-
The influence of water vapour on both these actions is well
known, and the molecular transactions may in reality be com-
plicated. We shall, however, assume for the sake of clearness
that in these cases we have a simple reaction taking place through-
out the mass of flame. There are various ways in which a pair
of gases may be burned, and these we shall consider separately.
Let us first suppose the two gases to have been mixed en masse
and a light to be applied to the stationary mixture. If the
mixture be made within certain limiting proportions, which
vary for each case, a flame spreads from the point where the light
is applied, and the flame traverses the mixture. This flame
may be very slow in its progress or it may attain a velocity of
the order of one or two thousand metres per second. Until
comparatively recent times great misunderstanding prevailed
on this subject. The slow rate of movement of flame in short
lengths of gaseous mixtures was taken to be the velocity of
explosion, but more recent researches by M. P. E. Berthelot,
470
FLAME
E. Mallard and H. L. le Chatelier and H. B. Dixon have shown
that a distinction must be made between the slow initial rate
of inflammation of gaseous mixtures and the rapid rate of detona-
tion, or rate of the explosive wave, which in many cases is subse-
quently set up. We shall here deal only with the slow movements
of flame. The development of a flame in such a gaseous mixture
requires that a small portion of it should be raised to a tempera-
ture called the temperature of ignition. Here again considerable
misunderstanding has prevailed. The temperature of ignition
has often been regarded as the temperature at which chemical
combination begins, whereas it is really the temperature at
which combination has reached a certain rate. The combination
of hydrogen and oxygen begins at temperatures far below that
of ignition. It may indeed be supposed that the combination
occurs with extreme slowness even at ordinary temperatures,
and that as the temperature is raised the velocity of the reaction
increases in accordance with the general expression according
to which an increase of 10 C. will approximately double the rate.
However that may be, it has been proved experimentally by
J. H. van't Hoff, Victor Meyer and others that the combination
of hydrogen and oxygen proceeds at perceptible rates far below
the temperature of ignition. The phenomenon appears to be
greatly influenced by the solid surfaces which are present; thus
in a plain glass vessel the combination only began to be per-
ceptible at 448, whilst in a silvered glass vessel it would be
detected at 182 C.
The same kind of thing is true for most oxidizable substances,
including ordinary combustibles. We must look upon the
application of heat to a combustible mixture as resulting in an
increase of the rate of combination locally. Let us suppose
that we are dealing with a stratum of the mixture in small
contiguous sections. If we raise the temperature of the first
section a C., an increased rate of combination is set up. The
heat produced by this combination will be dissipated by conduc-
tion and radiation, and we will suppose that it does not quite
suffice to raise the adjacent section of the mixture to a C. The
combination in that section, therefore, will not be as rapid as in
the first one, and so evidently the impulse to combination will
go on abating as we pass along the stratum. Suppose now we
start again and heat the first section of the mixture to a tempera-
ture c C., such that the rate of combination is very rapid and the
heat developed by combination suffices to raise the adjacent
section of the mixture to a temperature higher than c C. The
rate of combination will then be greater than in the first section,
and the impulse to combination will be intensified in the same
way from section to section along the stratum until a maximum
temperature is reached. It is obvious that there must be a
temperature of b C. between a" and c which will satisfy this
condition, that the heat which results from the combination
stimulated in the first section just suffices to raise the temperature
of the second section to 6. This temperature b is the tempera-
ture of ignition of the mixture; so soon as it is attained by a
portion of the mixture the combustion becomes self-sustaining
and flame spreads through the mixture. Ignition temperature
may be defined briefly as the temperature at which the initial
loss of heat due to conduction, &c., is equal to the heat evolved
in the same time by the chemical reaction (van't Hoff). From
the above considerations we see that the temperature of ignition
will vary not only when the gases are varied, but when the
proportions of the same gases are varied, and also when the
pressure is varied. We can see also that outside certain limiting
proportions a mixture of gases will have no practicable ignition
temperature, that is to say, the cooling effect of the gas which
is in excess will carry off so much heat that no attainable initial
heating will suffice to set up the transmission of a constant
temperature. Thus in the case of hydrogen and air, mixtures
containing less than 5 and more than 72% of hydrogen are not
inflammable. The theory of ignition temperature enables us
to understand why in an explosive mixture a very small electric
spark may not suffice to induce explosion. Combination will
indeed take place in the path of the spark, but the amount of it
is not sufficient to meet the loss of heat by conduction, &c. It
must be added that the theory of ignition temperatures given
above does not explain all the observed facts. F. Emich states
that the inflammability of gaseous mi:;tures is not necessarily
greatest when the gases are mixed in the proportions theoretically
required for complete combination, and the influence of foreign
gases does not appear to follow any simple law. The presence
of a small quantity of a gas may exercise a profound influence
on the ignition temperature as in the case of the addition of
ethylene to hydrogen (Sir Edward Frankland), and again when a
mixture of methane and air is raised to its ignition temperature
a sensible interval (about 10 seconds) elapses before inflammation
occurs.
The rate at which a flame will traverse a mixture of two gases
which has been ignited depends on the proportions in which the
gases are mixed. Fig. i (Bunte) represents this relationship
for several common gases.
10 20 3O 4O SO 6O 70
Percentage of combustible gat in mixture
FIG. I. Rates of inflammation of combustible gases with air.
If a ready-made gaseous mixture is to be used-for the produc-
tion of a steady flame, it may be forced through a tube and
ignited at the end; it is obvious that the velocity of efflux must
be greater than the initial rate of inflammation of the mixture;
for otherwise the mixture would fire back down the tube. If
the velocity of efflux be considerably greater than the rate of
inflammation, the flame will be separated from the end of the tube,
and only appear as a flickering crown where the velocity and
inflammability of the issuing gas have been diminished by
admixture with air. With much increased velocity of efflux
the flame will be blown out. J. B. A. Dumas used to show the
experiment of blowing out a candle with electrolytic gas. A
steady flame formed by burning a ready-made gaseous mixture
at the end of a tube of circular section has the form shown in
fig. 2. The small internal cone marks the lower limiting surface
of the flame; it is the locus of all points where the velocity of
efflux is just equal to the velocity of inflammation,
and its conical form is explained by the fact that the
rate of efflux of gas is greatest in the vertical axis of
the tube where the flow is not retarded by friction
with the walls, as well as by the further fact that
the gas issuing from such an orifice spreads outwards,
the inflammation proceeding directly against it. The
flame, it will be seen, is of considerable thickness.
If the gaseous mixture be hydrogen and oxygen, or
carbon .monoxide and oxygen, it will have no obvious
features of structure beyond those shown in the figure;
that is to say, the shaded region of burning gas has
the appearance of homogeneity and uniform colour
which might be expected to accompany a uniform
chemical condition. Some admixture of the external FIG. 2.
air will, of course, take place, especially in the upper
parts of the flame, and detectable quantities of oxides of nitrogen
may be found in the products of combustion, but this is an
inconsiderable feature. The flame just described is essentially
that of a blowpipe.
A second %ay of producing a flame is the more common one of
allowing one gas to stream into the other. Using the same gases
as before, hydrogen or carbon monoxide with oxygen, we find
FLAME
again that the flame is conical in form and uniform in colour,
but in this case, if the velocity of efflux be not immoderate,
the burning gas only extends over a comparatively thin shell,
limited on the inside by the pure combustible and on the outside
by a mixture of the products of combustion with oxygen. The
combustible gas has to make its own inflammable mixture with
the circumambient oxygen, and we may suppose the column of
gas to be burned through as it ascends. The core of unburned
gas thus becomes thinner as it ascends and the flame tapers to a
point. The external surface of a flame of this kind will for
the same consumption of gas be larger than that of a flame where
the ready-made mixture of gases is used. If a jet of one gas be
sent with a sufficient velocity into another, turbulent admixture
takes place and an unsteady sheet of flame of uniform colour is
obtained.
A third way of forming a flame is to allow the whole of one
gas, mixed with a less quantity of the second than is sufficient
for complete combustion, to issue into an atmosphere of the
second. This is the case with what are generally known as
at mospheric burners, of which the B unsen burner is the prototype.
The development of a flame of this kind can be well studied in
the case of carbon monoxide and air. The carbon monoxide is
fed into a Bunsen burner with closed air-valve, the burner-tube
being prolonged by affixing a glass tube to it by means of a
cork. The flame consists of a single conical blue sheet. If now
the air-valve be opened very slightly, an internal cone of the same
blue colour makes its appearance. The air which has entered
through the air-valve (" primary " air) has become mixed with
the carbon monoxide and so oxidizes its quota in an internal
cone, the rest of the carbon monoxide (diluted now, of course,
with carbon dioxide and nitrogen) wandering into the external
atmosphere to burn (with " secondary " air) in a second cone.
The existence of the internal cone and the subsequent thermal
effect lead to slight convexity of surface in the outer cone. If
the quantity of primary air be increased more internal combustion
can take place. This, however, does not lead to an enlargement
of the inner cone, for the increase of air increases the rate of
inflammation of the mixture, and the inner cone (which only
maintains its stability because the rate of efflux of the mixture is
greater than the velocity of inflammation) contracts, and will, as
the proportion of primary air is increased, soon evince a tendency
to enter the burner-tube. At this stage an interesting pheno-
menon is to be noticed. When we have reached the point of
aeration where the velocity of inflammation of the mixture
just surpasses the velocity of efflux, the inner cone enters the
burner-tube as a disk and descends, but this downward motion
checks the suction flow of air through the valve at the base of
the burner, whilst it does not appreciably check the pressure
flow of the carbon monoxide through the gas nozzle. The
result is that a stratum of gas-mixture poor in air, and therefore
of low rate of inflammation, is formed, and when the descending
disk of flame meets it, the descent is arrested and the disk
returns to the top of the tube, reproducing the inner cone. The
full air suction is now restored and the course of events is repeated.
This oscillatory action can be maintained almost indefinitely
long if the pressure and other conditions be maintained constant.
With still more primary air the inner cone of flame simply fires
back to the burner nozzle, or, in the last stage, we may have
enough air entering to produce a flame of the blast blowpipe
type, namely, one where the carbon monoxide mixed with an
excess of primary air burns with a single cone in a steady
flame.
By means of a simple contrivance devised by A. Smithells
a two-coned flame of the kind described may be resolved into
its components. The apparatus is like a half-extended telescope
made of two glass tubes, and it is evident that the velocity of
a mixture of gases flowing through it must be greater in the
narrow tube than in the wider one. If the end of the narrower
tube be fixed to a Bunsen burner and the flame be formed at the
end of the wider one, then when the air-supply is increased to a
certain point the inner cone will descend into the wide tube and
attach itself to the upper end of the narrower one. This occurs
when the velocity of inflammation is just greater than the
upward velocity of the gaseous stream in the wide tube and less
than the upward velocity in the narrow tube. If the outer
tube be now drawn down, a two-coned flame burns at the end
of the inner tube; if the outer tube he slid up again, it
detaches the outer cone and carries it upward. This apparatus
has been of use in investigating the progress of combustion in
various flames.
Temperature of Flames. The term " flame-temperature " is
used very vaguely and has no clear meaning unless qualified by
some description. It it least ambiguous when used in reference
to flames where the combining gases are mixed in theoretical
proportions before issuing from the burner. The flame in such
a case has considerable thickness and uniformity, and, though
the temperature is not constant throughout, flames of this
type given by different combustibles admit of comparison. In
other flames where the shells of combustion are thin and envelop
large regions of unburned or partly-burned gas, it is not clear how
temperature should be specified. An ordinary gas-flame will
not, from the point of view of the practical arts, give a sufficient
temperature for melting platinum, yet a very thin platinum
wire may be melted at the edge of the lower part of such a flame.
The maximum temperature of the flame is therefore not in any
serious sense an available temperature. It will suffice to point
out here that in order to burn a gas so that it may have the
highest available temperature, we must burn it with the smallest
external flame-surface obtainable. This is done when the com-
bining gases are completely mixed before issuing from the burner.
Where this is impracticable we may employ a burner of the
Bunsen type, and arrange matters so that a large amount of
primary air is supplied. It is in this direction that modern
improvements have been made with a view to obtaining hot
flames for heating the Welsbach mantle. The Kern burner,
for example, employs the principle of the Venturi tube. Where
much primary air is drawn in it is usual to provide for it being
well mixed with the gas, otherwise an unsteady flame may be
produced with a great tendency to light back. The burner head
is therefore usually provided with a mixing chamber and the
mixture issues through a slit or a mesh. A great many modified
Bunsen burners have been produced, the aim in all of them being
to produce a flame which shall combine steadiness with the
smallest attainable external surface.
To estimate the temperature of flames several methods have
been employed. The method of calculation, based on the
supposition that the whole heat of combustion is localized in
the product (or products) of combustion and heats it to a tem-
perature depending on its specific heat, cannot be applied in a
simple way. Apart from the assumption (which there is reason
to suppose incorrect) that none of the chemical energy assumes
the radiant form directly, we have to regard the possible change
of specific heat at high temperatures, the likelihood of dissociation
and the time of reaction. Any practical consideration of tem-
perature must have regard to a large assemblage of molecules
and not to a single one, and therefore any influence which means
delay in combination will result in reduction of temperature by
radiation and conduction. It can hardly be maintained that
in the present state of knowledge we have the requisite data for
the calculation of flame temperature, though good approxima-
tions may be made. Many attempts have been made to deter-
mine flame temperatures by means of thermo-electric couples
and by radiation pyrometers. The couple most employed is that
known as H. L. le Chatelier's, consisting of two wires, one of
platinum and the other an alloy of 90% platinum and 10% of
rhodium. When all possible precautions are taken it is possible
by means of such thermo-couples to measure local flame tempera-
tures with a considerable degree of accuracy. Subjoined are
some results obtained at different times and by different observers
with regard to the maximum temperatures of flames:
Coal gas in Bunsen burner (Waegener, 1896). . . 1770 C.
,, ,, (Berkenbusch, 1899). . 1830
(White & Traver, 1902) . 1780
(Fery, 1905). . . . 1871
47 2 FLAME
The following are given by F6ry:
Acetylene . . . . 2548 C.
Alcohol ... . . 1705
Hydrogen (in air) . . . 1900
Oxy-hydrogen . . . 2420
Oxy-coal gas blowpipe . . 2200
Source of Light in Flames. We may consider first those
flames where solid particles are out of the question ; for example,
the flame of carbon monoxide in air. The old idea that the
luminosity was due to the thermal glow of the highly heated
product of combustion has been challenged independently by a
number of observers, and the view has been advanced that the
emission of light is due to radiation attendant upon a kind of
discharge of chemical energy between the reacting molecules.
E. Wiedemann proposed the name " chemi-luminescence "
for radiation of this kind. The fact is that colourless gases
cannot be made to glow by any purely thermal heating at present
available, and products of combustion heated to the average
temperature of the flames in which they are produced are non-
luminous. On the other hand, it must be remembered that in a
mass of burning gas only a certain proportion of the molecules
are engaged at one instant in the act of chemical combination,
and that the energy liberated in such individual transactions,
if localized momentarily as heat, would give individual molecules
a unique condition of temperature far transcending that of the
average, and the distribution of heat in a flame would be very
different from that existing in the same mixture of gases heated
from an external source to the same average temperature. The
view advocated by Smithells is that in the chemical combination
of gases the initial phase of the formation of the new molecule
is a vibratory one, which directly furnishes light, and that the
damping down of this vibration by colliding molecules is the
source of that translatory motion which is evinced as heat.
This, it will be seen, is an exact reversal of the older view.
The view of Sir H. Davy that " whenever a flame is remarkably
brilliant and dense it may always be concluded that some solid
matter is produced in it " can be no longer entertained. The
flames of phosphorus in oxygen and of carbon disulphide in
nitric oxide contain only gaseous products, and Frankland
showed that the flames of hydrogen and carbon monoxide became
highly luminous under pressure. From his experiments Frank-
land was led to the generalization that high luminosity of flames
is associated with high density of the gases, and he does
not draw a distinction in this respect between high' density due
to high molecular weight and high density due to the close
packing of lighter molecules. The increased luminosity of a
compressed flame is not difficult to understand from the kinetic
theory of gases, but no explanation has appeared of the luminosity
considered by Frankland to be due merely to high molecular
weight. It is possible that the electron theory may ultimately
afford a better understanding of these phenomena.
Structure of Flame. The vagueness of the term structure,
as applied to flames, is to be seen from the very conflicting
accounts which are current as to the number of differentiated
parts in different flames. Unless this term is restricted to
sharp differences in appearance, there is no limit to the number
of parts which may be selected for mention. The flame of carbon
monoxide, when the gas is not mixed with air before it issues
from the burner, shows no clearly differentiated structure, but is
a shell of blue luminosity of shaded intensity a hollow cone if
the orifice of the burner be circular and the velocity of the gas
not immoderate, or a double sheet of fan shape if the burner have
a slit or two inclined pores which cause the jets of issuing gas
to spread each other out. Such a flame has but one single
distinct feature, and this is not surprising, as there is no reason
to suppose that there is any difference in the chemical process
or processes that are occurring in different quarters of the flame.
The amount of materials undergoing this transformation in
different parts of the flame may and does vary; the gases
become diluted with products of combustion, and the molecular
vibrations gradually die down. These things may cause a
variation in the intensity of the light in different quarters, but
the differences induced are not sharp or in any proper sense
structural. A flame of this kind may develop a secondary
feature of structure. If carbon monoxide be burnt in oxygen
which is mixed or combined with another element there may
be an additional chemical process that will give light; flames in
air are sometimes surrounded by a faintly luminous fringe of a
greenish cast, apparently associated with the combination of
nitrogen with oxygen (H. B. Dixon). Carbon monoxide on being
strongly heated begins to dissociate into carbon and carbon
dioxide; if the unburnt carbon monoxide within a flame of
that gas were so highly heated by its own burning walls as to
reach the temperature of dissociation, we might expect to see
a special feature of structure due to the separated carbon. Such
a temperature does not, however, appear to be reached.
Apart from hydrocarbon flames not much has been published
in reference to the structure of flames. The case of cyanogen is
of peculiar interest. The beautiful flame of this gas consists
of an almost crimson shell surrounded by a margin of bright blue.
Investigations have shown that these two colours correspond
to two steps in the progress of the combustion, in the first of
which the carbon of the cyanogen is oxidized to carbon monoxide
and in the second the carbon monoxide oxidized to carbon
dioxide.
The inversion of combustion may bring new features of
structure into existence; thus when a jet of cyanogen is burnt
in oxygen no solid carbon can be found in the flame, but when
a jet of oxygen is burnt in cyanogen solid carbon separates on
the edge of the flame.
Hydrocarbon Flames. As already stated the flames of carbon
compounds and especially of hydrocarbons have been much more
studied than any other kind, as is natural from their common
use and practical importance. The earliest investigations were
made with coal gas, vegetable oils and tallow, and the composite
and complex nature of these substances led to difficulties and
confusion in the interpretation of results. One such difficulty
may be illustrated by the fact, often overlooked, that when a
mixed gaseous combustible issues into air the individual com-
ponent gases will separate spontaneously in accordance with
their diffusibilities: hydrogen will thus tend to get to the outer
edge of a flame and heavy hydrocarbons to lag behind.
The features of structure in a hydrocarbon flame depend of
course on the manner in which the air is supplied. The extreme
cases are (i.) when the issuing gas is supplied before it leaves the
burner with sufficient air for complete combustion, as in the
blast blowpipe, in which case we have a sheet of blue undiffer-
entiated flame; and (ii.) when the gas has to find all the air it
requires after leaving the burner. The intermediate stage is
when the issuing gas is supplied before leaving the burner with
a part of the air that is required. In this case a two-coned flame
is produced. The general theory of such phenomena has already
been discussed. It must be remarked that the transition of one
kind of flame into the others can be effected gradually, and this
is seen with particular ease and distinctness by burning benzene
vapour admixed with gradually increasing quantities of air.
The key to the explanation of the structure of an ordinary
luminous flame, such as that of a candle, is to be found, according
to Smithells, by observing the changes undergone by a well-aerated
Bunsen flame as the " primary " air is gradually cut off by
closing the air-ports at the base of the burner. It is then seen
that the two cones of flame evolve or degenerate into the two
recognizable blue parts of an ordinary luminous flame, whilst
the appearance of the bright yellow luminous patch becomes
increasingly emphasized as a hollow dome lying within the upper
part of the blue sheath. There are thus three recognizable
features of structure in an ordinary luminous flame, each region
being as it were a mere shell and the interior of the flame filled
with gas which has not yet entered into active combustion.
If, as is suggested, the blue parts of an ordinary luminous flame
are the relics of the two cones of a Bunsen flame, the chemistry
of a Bunsen flame may be appropriately considered first. What
happens chemically when -a hydrocarbon is burned in a Bunsen
burner ? The air sent in with the gas is insufficient for complete
FLAME
473
combustion so that the inner cone of the flame may be considered
as air burning in an excess of coal gas. What will be the products
of this combustion? This question has been answered at
different times in very different ways. There are many conceiv-
able answers: part of the hydrocarbon might be wholly oxidized
and the rest left unaltered to mix with the outside air and burn
as the outer cone; on the other hand, there might be (as has
been so commonly assumed) a selective oxidation in the inner
cone whereby the hydrogen was fully oxidized and the carbon
set free or oxidized to carbon monoxide; or again the carbon
might be oxidized to carbon dioxide or monoxide and the
hydrogen set free. There might of course be other intermediate
kinds of action. Now it is important at this point to insist upon
a distinction between what can be found by direct analysis as
to the products of partial combustion, and what can be imagined
or inferred as the transitory existence of substances of which
the products actually found in analysis are the outcome. We
shall consider only in the first instance what substances are
found by analysis. Earlier experiments on the Bunsen burner
in which coal gas was used, and the gases withdrawn directly
from the flame by aspiration, gave no very clear results, but the
introduction of the cone-separating apparatus and the use of
single hydrocarbons led to more definite conclusions. The
analysis of the inter-conal gases from an ethylene flame gave
the following numbers: carbon dioxide = 3-6; water = 9-5;
carbon monoxide = 15-6; hydrocarbons = 1-3; hydrogen = 9-4;
nitrogen = 60-6.
It appears therefore, and it may be stated as a fact, that a
considerable amount of hydrogen is left unoxidized, whilst
practically all the carbon is converted into monoxide or dioxide.
As the gases have cooled down before analysis and as the reaction
CO + H 2 O^fCO 2 + H 2 is reversible, it may be objected that the
inter-conal gases may have a composition when they are hot
very different from what they show when cold. Experiments
made to test this question have not sustained the objection.
Subsequent experiments on the oxidation of hydrocarbons
have made it appear undesirable to use the expression " pre-
ferential combustion " or " selective combustion " in connexion
with the facts just stated; but for the purpose of describing in
brief the chemistry of a hydrocarbon flame it is necessary to say
that in the inner cone of a Bunsen flame hydrogen and carbon
monoxide are the result of the limited oxidation, and that the
combustion of these gases with the external air generates the
outer cone of the flame. As to the actual stages in the limited
oxidation of a hydrocarbon a large amount of very valuable
work has been carried out by W. A. Bone and his collaborators.
Different hydrocarbons mixed with oxygen have been circulated
continuously through a vessel heated to various temperatures,
beginning with that (about 250 C.) at which the rate of oxidation
is easily appreciable. Proceeding in this way, Bone, without
effecting a complete transformation of the hydrocarbon into
partially oxidized substances, has isolated large quantities of
such products, and concludes that the oxidation of a hydrocarbon
involves nothing in the nature of a selective or preferential
oxidation of either the hydrogen or the carbon. He maintains
that it occurs in several well-defined stages during which oxygen
enters into and is incorporated with the hydrocarbon molecule,
forming oxygenated intermediate products among which are
alcohols and aldehydes. The reactions between ethane and
ethylene with an equal volume of oxygen would be represented
as follows*
Stage i. Stage 2.
--^ CH,-CH 2 OH # CH.-CH(OH),
Ethyl alcohol.
CH 3 -CH 3
Ethane.
CH 2 : CH 2
C 2 H,+H 2
2C+2H 2 +H 2
CH 2 : CHOH
CH,CHO+H,
Acetaldehyde.
( CH 4 +CO i
? C+2H 2 +CO \
HO-CH : CH-OH
Ethylene.
('C 2 H 2 +H 2 ) 2CH 2 0=2CO+2H 2
I 2C+H 2 +H 2 O \ Formaldehyde.
The affinity between the hydrocarbon and oxygen at a high
temperature is so great that, when the supply of oxygen is
sufficient to carry the oxidation as far as the second stage,
practically no decomposition of the monohydroxy molecule
formed in the first stage occurs. This is especially the case
with unsaturated hydrocarbons.
As a crucial test decisive against the hypothesis of preferential
carbon oxidation, Bone cites the experiment of firing a mixture
of equal volumes of ethane and oxygen sealed up in a glass bulb.
In such a case a lurid flame fills the vessel, accompanied by a
black cloud of carbon particles and considerable condensation
of water. About 10% of methane is also found. It is impossible
within the limits of this article to give a more extended account
of these later researches on the oxidation of hydrocarbons.
They make it evident that the relative oxidizability of carbon
and hydrogen cannot form the basis of a general theory of the
combustion of hydrocarbons, and that both the a priori view
that hydrogen is the more oxidizable element, and the inference
from the behaviour of ethylene when exploded with its own
volume of oxygen, viz. that carbon is the more oxidizable element
in hydrocarbons, are not in harmony with experimental facts.
The view that the bright luminosity of hydrocarbon flames is
due " to the deposition of solid charcoal " was first put forward
by Sir Humphry Davy in 1816. In explaining the origin of
this charcoal, Davy used somewhat ambiguous language, stating
that it " might be owing to a decomposition of a part of the gas
towards the interior of the flame where the air was in smallest
quantity." This statement was interpreted commonly as
implying that the charcoal became free by the preferential
combustion of the hydrogen, and such an interpretation was
given explicitly by Faraday. Whatever may have been Davy's
view with regard to this part of the theory, his conclusion that
finely divided carbon was the cause of luminosity in hydrocarbon
flames was not questioned until 1867, when E. Frankland, in
connexion with researches already alluded to, maintained that
the luminosity of such flames was not due in any important
degree to solid particles of carbon, but to the incandescence of
dense hydrocarbon vapours. Among the arguments adduced
against this view the most decisive is furnished by the optical
test first used by J. L. Soret. If the image of the sun be focussed
upon the glowing part of a hydrocarbon flame the scattered
light is found to be polarized, and it is indisputable that the
luminous region is pervaded by a cloud of finely divided solid
matter. The quantity of this solid (estimated by H. H. C. Bunte
to be o- 1 milligram in a coal-gas flame burning 5 cub. ft. per hour)
is sufficient to account for the luminosity, so that Davy's original
view may be said to be now universally accepted.
The remaining question with regard to the luminosity of a
hydrocarbon flame relates to the manner in which the carbon is
set free. The fact that hydrocarbons when strongly heated in
absence of air will deposit carbon has long been known and is
daily evident in the operation of coal-gas making, when gas
carbon accumulates as a hard deposit in the highly-heated
crown of the retorts. There is no difficulty in supposing therefore
that the carbon in a flame is separated from the hydrocarbon
within it by the purely thermal action of the blue burning walls
of the flame. Many experiments might be adduced to confirm
this view. It is sufficient to name two. If a ring of metal wire
be so disposed in a small flame as to make a girdle within the
blue walls towards the base, the withdrawal of heat is rapid
enough to prevent the maintenance of a temperature sufficient
to cause a separation of carbon, and the bright luminosity
disappears. Again, if the flame of a Bunsen burner be fed
through the air-ports not with air but with some neutral
gas such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide or steam, the dilution of
the burning gas and the hydrocarbon within it becomes so great
that the temperature of separation is not attained, no carbon is
separated and the flame consists of a single blue shell.
Whilst it is thus easy to understand generally why carbon
becomes separated as a solid within a flame, it is not easy to
trace the processes by which the carbon becomes separated in
the case of a given hydrocarbon. According to M. P. E.
Berthelot, who made prolonged and elaborate researches on the
474
FLAMEL
pyrogenetic relationships of hydrocarbons, these compounds
only liberate carbon by a process of the continual coalescence
of hydrocarbon molecules with the elimination of hydrogen,
until there is left the limiting solid hydrocarbon hardly distin-
guishable from carbon itself and constituting the glowing soot
of flames.
V. B. Lewes, on the other hand, basing his conclusions on a
study of the thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons, on tempera-
ture measurements of flames and analysis of their gases, has
more recently developed a theory of flame luminosity in which
the formation and sudden exothermic decomposition of acetylene
are regarded as the essential incidents productive of carbon
separation and luminosity. Smithells has disputed the evidence
on which this theory is based and it appears to have gained no
adherence from those who have worked in the same field; but
as it has not been formally disavowed by the author and has
found its way into some text-books, it is mentioned here.
W. A. Bone and H. F. Coward (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1908)
published the results of a very careful study of the decomposition
of hydrocarbons when heated in a stationary condition and when
continually circulated through hot vessels. Their results disclose
once more the great difficulty of tracing the processes of decom-
position and of arriving at a generalization of wide applicability,
but they appear to be conclusive against the views both of
Berthelot and of Lewes.
They do not think that the decomposition of hydrocarbons
can be adequately represented by ordinary chemical equations
owing to the complexity of the changes which really take place.
Methane, which is the most stable of the hydrocarbons, appears
to be resolved at high temperatures directly into carbon and
hydrogen, hut the phenomenon is dependent mainly on surface
action; ethane, ethylene and acetylene undergo decomposition
throughout the body of the gas (loc. cil. p. 1197 et seq.).
" In the cases of ethane and ethylene it may be supposed that the
primary effect of high temperature is to cause an elimination of
hydrogen with a simultaneous loosening or dissolution of the bond
between the carbon atoms, giving rise to (in the event of dissolution)
residues such as : CH 2 and CH. These residues, which can only
have a very fugitive separate existence, may either (a) form
H 2 C : CH 2 and HC CH, as the result of encounters with other
similar residues, or (b) break down directly into carbon and hydrogen,
or (c) be directly hydrogenized to methane in an atmosphere rich in
hydrogen. These three possibilities may all be realized simul-
taneously in the same decomposing gas in proportions dependent
on the temperature, pressure and amount of hydrogen present.
The whole process may be represented by the following scheme, the
dotted line indicating the tendency to dissolve a bond between the
carbon atoms which becomes actually effective at higher tem-
peratures :
H=H ( (a) C 2 H4+H 2
] = (b) 2C+2H 2 +H 2
H '
...
H-OC-H
-[2(:CH)+H 2 ]
(
= }
(
(a) C 2 H 2 +H 2
(b) 2C+H 2 +H 2
(c) plus 2U t = C
" In the case of acetylene, the main primary change may be either
one of polymerization or of dissolution according to the temperature,
and if the latter, it may be supposed that the molecule breaks down
across the triple bond between the carbon atoms, giving rise to
2( ': CH),andthat these residues are subsequently either resolved into
carbon and hydrogen or " hydrogenized " according to circumstances,
thus :
Polymerization.
" Acetylene is, moreover, distinguished by its power of poly-
merization at moderate temperatures so that whether it is the gas
initially heated or whether it is a prominent product of the decom-
position of another hydrocarbon polymerization will occur to an
extent dependent on temperature.'
We may describe briefly the view to which we are led as to
the genesis of an ordinary luminous hydrocarbon flame:
The gaseous hydrocarbon issues from the burner or wick,
let us suppose, in a cylindrical column. This column is not
sharply marked off from the air but is so penetrated by it that
we must suppose a gradual transition from the pure hydrocarbon
in the centre of column to the pure air on the outside. Let us
take a thin transverse slice of the flame, near the lower part of
the wick or close to the burner tube. At what lateral distance
from the centre will combustion begin ? Clearly, where enough
oxygen has penetrated the column to give such partial combus-
tion as takes place in the inner cone of a Bunsen burner. This
then defines the blue region. Outside this the combustion of
the carbon monoxide, hydrogen and any hydrocarbons which
pass from the blue region takes place in a faintly luminous
fringe. These two layers form a sheath of active combustion,
surrounding and intensely heating the enclosed hydrocarbons
in the middle of the column. These heated hydrocarbons rise
and are heated to a higher temperature as they ascend. Th^y
are accordingly decomposed with separation of carbon in the
higher parts of the flame, giving the region of bright yellow
luminosity. There remains a central core in which neither is
there any oxygen for combustion nor a sufficiently high tempera-
ture to cause carbon separation. This constitutes the dark
interior region of the flame. We thus account for the different
parts of the flame. It is to be noted, however, that the bright,
blue layer only surrounds the lower part of the flame, whilst
the pale, faintly-luminous fringe surrounds the whole flame.
The flame also is conical and not cylindrical. The foregoing
explanation is therefore not quite complete. Let us suppose
that the changes have gone on in the small section of the flame
exactly as described and consider how the processes will differ
in parts above this section. The central core of unburned gases
will pass upwards and we may treat it as a new cylindrical
column which will undergo, changes just as the original one,
leaving, however, a smaller core of unburned gases, or, in other
words, each succeeding section of the flame will be of smaller
diameter. This gives us the conical form of the flame. Again,
the higher we ascend the flame the greater proportionally is the
amount of separated carbon, for we have not only the heat of
laterally outlying combustion to effect decomposition, but also
that of the lower parts of the flame. The lower part of a luminous
flame accordingly contains less separated carbon than the upper.
Where the hydrocarbon is largely decomposed before combustion
we have no longer the conditions of the Bunsen flame, and so in
the upper parts of a luminous flame the bright blue part fades
away. The luminous fringe would, however, be continued,
for the separated hydrogen has still to burn. In this way
then we may reasonably account for the existence, position
and relative sizes of the four regions of an ordinary luminous
flame. (A. S.)
FLAMEL, NICOLAS (c. 1330-1418), reputed French alchemist
and scrivener to the university of Paris, was born in Paris or
Pontoise about 1330, and died in Paris in 1418, bequeathing the
bulk of his property to the church of Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie,
where he was buried. During his life he contributed freely to
charitable and religious purposes from the considerable wealth
he amassed either by the practice of his craft, or, as some surmise
without definite proof, by fortunate speculation or money
lending, or, as legend has it, by alchemy. According to a docu-
ment purporting to be written by himself in 1413 (printed in
Waite's Lives of the Alchemystical Philosophers, London, 1888),
there fell into his hands in 1357, at the cost of two florins, a book
on alchemy by Abraham the Jew, which taught in plain words
the transmutation of metals. It did not, however, explain the
materia prima, but merely figured or depicted it, and for more
than 20 years Flamel strove in vain to find out the secret. Then,
returning from a journey to Spain, he fell in with a Christian
Jew, named Canches, who gave him the explanation, and after
three more years' work he succeeded in preparing the materia
prima, thus being enabled in 1382 to transmute mercury into
both silver and gold. But this fantastic story was disposed
of by the facts, derived from parish records, set forth in Vilain's
Essai sur I'histoire de Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie, 1758, and his
Histoire critique de Nicolas Flamel et de Pernelle sa femme,
recueillie d'acles anciens qui justifient I'origine et la midiocriti de
leur fortune centre les imputations des alchimistes, 1761.
A book on alchemy in the Paris'Bibliotheque, Le Tresor de philo-
sophie, professing to be written and illuminated by Flamel with his
FLAMEN FLAMINGO
475
own hand, is of very doubtful authenticity, and other treatises bear-
ing his name, such as the Sommaire philospphique de Nicolas Flamel,
published in 1561 in a collection of alchemist treatises entitled Trans-
formation metallique, are certainly spurious.
FLAMEN (from flare, " to blow up " the altar fire), a Roman
sacrificial priest. The flamens were subject to the pontifex (q.v.)
maximus, and were consecrated to the service of some particular
deity. The highest in rank were the flamen Dialis, flamen
Marlialis and flamen Quirinalis, who were always selected
from among the patricians. Their institution is generally
ascribed to Numa. When the number of flamens was raised
from three to fifteen, those already mentioned were entitled
majores, in contradistinction to the other twelve, who were
called minores, as connected with less important deities, and were
chosen from the plebs. Towards the end of the republic the
number of the lesser flamens seems to have diminished. The
flamens were held to be elected for life, but they might be com-
pelled to resign office for neglect of duty, or on the occurrence
of some ill-omened event (such as the cap falling off the head)
during the performance of their rites. The characteristic dress
of the flamens in general was the apex, a white conical cap, the
laena or mantle, and a laurel wreath. The official insignia
of the flamen Dialis (of Jupiter), the highest of these priests,
were the white cap (pileus, albogalerus), at the top of which was
an olive branch and a woollen thread; the laena, a thick woollen
toga praetexta woven by his wife; the sacrificial knife; and a
rod to keep the people from him when on his way to offer sacrifice.
He was never allowed to appear without these emblems of office,
every day being considered a holy day for him. By virtue of his
office he was entitled to a seat in the senate and a curule chair.
The sight of fetters being forbidden him, his toga was not allowed
to be tied in a knot but was fastened by means of clasps, and the
only kind of ring permitted to be worn on his finger was a broken
one. If a person in fetters took refuge in his house he was
immediately loosed from his bonds; and if a criminal on his
way to the scene of his punishment met him and threw himself
at his feet he was respited for that day. The flamen Dialis was
not allowed to leave the city for a single night, to ride or even
touch a horse (a restriction which incapacitated him for the
consulship), to swear an oath, to look at an army, to touch any-
thing unclean, or to look upon people working. His marriage,
which was obliged to be performed with the ceremonies of
confarreatio (q.v.), was dissoluble only by death, and on the death
of his wife (called flaminica Dialis) he was obliged to resign his
office. The flaminica Dialis assisted her husband at the sacrifices
and other religious duties which he performed. She wore long
woollen robes; a veil and a kerchief for the head, her hairbeing
plaited up with a purple band in a conical form (tutulus') ; and
shoes made of the leather of sacrificed animals; like her husband,
she carried the sacrificial knife. The main duty of the flamens
was the offering of daily sacrifices; on the ist of October the
three major flamens drove to the Capitol and sacrificed to Fides
Publica (the Honour of the People). Some of the municipal
towns in Italy had flamens as well as Rome.
We may mention, as distinct from the above, the flamen
curialis, who assisted the curio, the priest who attended to the
religious affairs of each curia (?..); the flamens of various
sacerdotal corporations, such as the Arval Brothers; the flamen
Augustalis, who superintended the worship of the emperor in
the provinces.
See Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. (1885), pp. 326-
336, 473; H. Dessau, in Ephemeris epigraphica, iii. (1877); and the
exhaustive article by C.Jullian in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire
des antiquites.
FLAMINGO (Port. Flamingo, Span. Flamenco), one of the
tallest and most beautiful birds, conspicuous for the bright
flame-coloured or scarlet patch upon its wings, and long known
by its classical name Phoenicopterus, as an inhabitant of most
of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Flamingos
have a very wide distribution, and the sole genus comprises
only a few species. Ph. roseus or antiquorum, white, with a rosy
tinge above, and with scarlet wing-coverts, while the remiges
are black (as in all species), ranges from the Cape Verde Islands
to India and Ceylon, north as far as Lake Baikal; southwards
through Africa and Madagascar, eventually as P. minor. P. ruber,
entirely light vermilion, extends from Florida to Para and the
Galapagos; P. chilensis s. ignipalliatus, from Peru to Patagonia,
more resembles the classical species; while P. andinus, the tallest
of all, which lacks the hallux, inhabits the salt lakes of the
elevated desert of Atacama, whence it extends into Chile and
Argentina. Fossil remains of flamingos have been described
from the Lower Miocene of France as P. croizell, and from the
Pliocene of Oregon. From the Mid-Miocene to the Oligocene
of France are known several species of Palaelodus, Elornis and
Agnoplerus, which have relatively shorter legs, longer toes and a
complicated hypotarsus, and represent an earlier family, less
specialized although not directly ancestral to the flamingos.
Palaeiodidae and Phoenicopteridae together form the larger group
Phoenicopteri. These are in many respects exactly intermediate
between Anserine and stork-like birds, so much so in fact that
The Flamingo.
T. H. Huxley preferred to keep them separate as A mphimorphae.
However, if we carefully sift their characters, the flamingos
obviously reveal themselves as much nearer related to the
Ciconiae, especially to Platalea and Ibis, than to the Anseres. This
is the opinion arrived at by W. F. R. Weldon, M. Fuerbringer
and Gadow, while others prefer the goose-like voice and the
webbed toes as reliable characters. (For a detailed analysis of this
instructive question see Bronn's Thierreich, Aves Syst. p. 146.)
The food of the flamingo seems to consist chiefly of small
aquatic invertebrate animals whch live in the mud of lagoons,
for instance Mollusca, but also of Confervae and other low
salt-water algae. Whilst feeding, the bird wades about, stirs
up the mud with its feet, and, reversing the ordinary position
of its head so as to hold the crown downwards and to look
backwards, sifts the mud through its bill. This is abruptly
bent down in the middle, as if broken; the upper jaw is rather
flat and narrow, while the lower jaw is very roomy and furnished
with numerous lamellae, which, together with the thick and
476
FLAMINIA, VIA FLAMININUS
large tongue, act like a sieve, an arrangement enhanced by the
considerable movability of the upper jaw. Then the bird
erects its long neck to swallow the selected food. When flying,
flamingos present a striking and beautiful sight, with legs and
neck stretched out straight, looking like white and rosy or scarlet
crosses with black arms. Not less fascinating is a flock of these
sociable birds when at rest, standing on one or both legs, with
their long necks twisted or coiled upon the body in any conceiv-
able position.
The nest is likewise peculiar. It is built of mud, a somewhat
conical structure rising above the water according to the depth,
of which the cone is from a few inches to 2 ft. in height. If, as
often happens, the water-level sinks, the nests stand out higher.
On the top is a shallow cup for the reception of the one or two
eggs, which have a bluish-white shell with chalky incrustation.
Of course the hen sits with her legs doubled up under her, as
does any other long-legged bird. It seems strange that many
ornithologists should have given credence to W. Dampier's
statement of the mode of incubation (New Voyage round the
World, ed. 2, i. p. 71, London, 1699): " And when they lay their
eggs, or hatch them, they stand all the while, not on the hillock,
but close by it with their legs on the ground and in the water,
resting themselves against the hillock, and covering the hollow
nest upon it with their rumps," &c. P. S. Pallas (Zoograph.
Rosso- Asiatica, ii. p. 208) tried to improve upon this by stating
that the standing bird leans upon the nest with its breast ! The
young, which are hatched after about four weeks' incubation,
look very different from the adult. The small bill is still quite
straight and the legs are short. The whole body is covered with
a thick coat of short nestling feathers, pure white in colour.
These neossoptUes or first feathers bear no resemblance to those
of the Anseriform birds, but agree in detail with those of spoonbills,
the young of which the little flamingos resemble to a striking
extent, but they leave the nest soon after their birth to shift
for themselves like ducks and geese. (H. F. G.)
FLAMINIA, VIA, an ancient high road of Italy, constructed
by C. Flaminius during his censorship (220 B.C.). It led from
Rome to Ariminum, and was the most important route to the
north. We hear of frequent improvements being made in it
during the imperial period. Augustus, when he instituted a
general restoration of the roads of Italy, which he assigned for
the purpose among various senators, reserved the Flaminia for
himself, and rebuilt all the bridges except the Pons Mulvius, by
which it crosses the Tiber, 2 m. N. of Rome (built by M. Scaurus
in 109 B.C.), and an unknown Pons Minucius. Triumphal
arches were erected in his honour on the former bridge and at
Ariminum, the latter of which is still preserved. Vespasian
constructed a new tunnel through the pass of Intercisa, modern
Furlo, in A.D. 77 (see CALES), and Trajan, as inscriptions show,
repaired several bridges along the road.
The Via Flaminia runs due N. from Rome, considerable
remains of its pavement being extant in the modern high road,
passing slightly E. of the site of the Etruscan Falerii, through
Ocriculi and Narnia. Here it crossed the Nar by a splendid
four-arched bridge to which Martial alludes (Epigr. vii. 93, 8), one
arch of which and all the piers are still standing; and went on,
followed at first by the modern road to Sangemini which passes
over two finely preserved ancient bridges, past Carsulae to
Mevania, and thence to Forum Flaminii. Later on a more
circuitous route from Narnia to Forum Flaminii was adopted,
passing by Interamna, Spoletium and Fulginium (from which
a branch diverged to Perusia), and increasing the distance by
12 m. The road thence went on to Nuceria (whence a branch
road ran to Septempeda and thence either to Ancona or to
Tolentinum and Urbs Salvia) and Helvillum, and then crossed
the main ridge of the Apennines, a temple of Jupiter Apenninus
standing at the summit of the pass. Thence it descended to
Cales (where it turned N.E.), and through the pass of Intercisa
to Forum Sempronii (Fossombrone) and Forum Fortunae,
where it reached the coast of the Adriatic. Thence it ran N.W.
through Pisaurum to Ariminum. The total distance from Rome
was 210 m. by the older road and 222 by the newer. The road
gave its name to a juridkal district of Italy from the 2nd century
A.D. onwards, the former territory of the Senones, which was
at first associated with Umbria (with which indeed under
Augustus it had formed the sixth region of Italy), but which after
Constantine was always administered with Picenum. (T. As.)
FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS (c. 228-174 B.C.), Roman
general and statesman. He began his public life as a military
tribune under M. Claudius Marcellus, the conqueror of Syracuse.
In 199 he was quaestor, and the next year, passing over the
regular stages of aedile and praetor, he obtained the consulship.
Flamininus was one of the first and most successful of the
rising school of Roman statesmen, the opponents of the narrow
patriotism of which Cato was the type, the disciples of Greek
culture, and the advocates of a wide imperial policy. His
winning manners, his polished address, his knowledge of men,
his personal fascination, and his intimate knowledge of Greek,
all marked him out as the fittest representative of Rome in the
East. Accordingly, the province of Macedonia, and the conduct
of the war with Philip V. of Macedon, in which, after two years,
Rome had as yet gained little advantage, were assigned to him.
Flamininus modified both the policy and tactics of his pre-
decessors. After an unsuccessful attempt to come to terms, he
drove the Macedonians from the valley of the Aous by skilfully
turning an impregnable position. Having thus practically
made himself master of Macedonia, he proceeded to Greece,
where Philip still had allies and supporters. The Achaean
League (q.v .) at once deserted the cause of Macedonia, and Nabis,
the tyrant of Sparta, entered into an alliance with Rome;
Acarnania and Boeotia submitted in less than a year, and, with
the exception of the great fortresses, Flamininus had the whole
of Greece under his control. The demand of the Greeks for the
expulsion of Macedonian garrisons from Demetrias, Chalcis and
Corinth, as the only guarantee for the freedom of Greece, was
refused, and negotiations were broken off. Hostilities were
renewed in the spring of 197, and Flamininus took the field
supported by nearly the whole of Greece. At Cynoscephalae
the Macedonian phalanx and the Roman legion for the first time
met in open fight, and the day decided which nation was to be
master of Greece and perhaps of the world. It was a victory of
superior tactics. The left wing of the Roman army was retiring
in confusion before the Macedonian right led by Philip in person,
when Flamininus, leaving them to their fate, boldly charged
the left wing under Nicanor, which was forming on the heights.
Before the left wing had time to form, Flamininus was upon
them, and a massacre rather than a fight ensued. This defeat
was turned into a general rout by a nameless tribune, who
collected twenty companies and charged in the rear the victorious
Macedonian phalanx, which in its pursuit had left the Roman
right far behind. Macedonia was now at the mercy of Rome,
but Flamininus contented himself with his previous demands.
Philip lost all his foreign possessions, but retained his Macedonian
kingdom almost entire. He was required to reduce his army,
to give up all his decked ships except five, and to pay an indemnity
of 1000 talents (244,000). Ten commissioners arrived from
Rome to regulate the final terms of peace, and at the Isthmian
games a herald proclaimed to the assembled crowds that " the
Roman people, and T. Quinctius their general, having conquered
King Philip and the Macedonians, declare all the Greek states
which had been subject to the king henceforward free and
independent." Flamininus's last act before returning home
was characteristic. Of the Achaeans, who vied with one another
in showering upon him honours and rewards, he asked but one
personal favour, the redemption of the Italian captives who had
been sold as slaves in Greece during the Hannibalic War. These,
to the number of 1 200, were presented to him on the' eve of his
departure (spring, 194), and formed the chief ornament of his
triumph.
In 192, on the rupture between the Romans and Antiochus III.
the Great, Flamininus returned to Greece, this time as the civil
representative of Rome. His personal influence and skilful
diplomacy secured the wavermg Achaean states, cemented the
alliance with Philip, and contributed mainly to the Roman
FLAMINIUS, GAIUS FLAMSTEED
victory at Thermopylae (191). In 183 he undertook an embassy
to Prusias, king of Bithynia, to induce him to deliver up Hannibal,
who forestalled his fate by taking poison. Nothing more is
known of Flamininus, except that, according to Plutarch, his
end was peaceful and^happy.
There seems no doubt that Flamininus was actuated by a
genuine love of Greece and its people. To attribute to him a
Machiavellian policy, which foresaw ,the overthrow of Corinth
fifty years later and the conversion of Achaea into a Roman
province, is absurd and disingenuous. There is more force in
the charge that his Hellenic sympathies prevented him from
seeing the innate weakness and mutual jealousies of the Greek
states of that period, whose only hope of peace and safety lay
in submitting to the protectorate of the Roman republic. But
if the event proved that the liberation of Greece was a political
mistake, it was a noble and generous mistake, and reflects
nothing but honour on the name of Flamininus, " the liberator
of the Greeks."
His life has been written by Plutarch, and in modern times by
F. D. Gerlach (1871); see also Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eng. tr.),
bk. iii. chs. 8, 9.
FLAMINIUS, GAIUS, Roman statesman and general, of
plebeian family. During his tribuneship (232 B.C.), in spite of
the determined opposition of the senate and his own father, he
carried a measure for distributing among the plebeians the ager
Gallicus Picenus, an extensive tract of newly-acquired territory
to the south of Ariminum (Cicero, De seneclute, 4, Brutus, 14).
As praetor in 227, he gained the lasting gratitude of the people
of his province (Sicily) by his excellent administration. In 223,
when consul with P. Furius Philus, he took the field against the
Gauls, who were said to have been roused to war by his agrarian
law. Having crossed the Po to punish the Insubrians, he at
first met with a severe check and was forced to capitulate.
Reinforced by the Cenomani, he gained a decisive victory on the
banks of the Addua. He had previously been recalled by the
optimates, but ignored the order. The victory seems to have
been due mainly to the admirable discipline and fighting qualities
of the soldiers, and he obtained the honour of a triumph only
after the decree of the senate against it had been overborne by
popular clamour. During his censorship (220) he strictly
limited the freedmen to the four city tribes (see COMITIA). His
name is further associated with two great works. He erected
the Circus Flaminius on the Campus Martius, for the accommoda-
tion of the plebeians, and continued the military road from
Rome to Ariminum, which had hitherto only reached as far as
Spoletium (see FLAMINIA, VIA). He probably also instituted
the " plebeian " games. In 218, as a leader of the democratic
opposition, Flaminius was one of the chief promoters of the
measure brought in by the tribune Quintus Claudius, which
prohibited senators and senators' sons from possessing sea-going
vessels, except for the transport of the produce of their own
estates, and generally debarred them from all commercial
speculation (Livy xxi. 63). His effective support of this measure
vastly increased the popularity of Flaminius with his own order,
and secured his second election as consul in the following year
(217), shortly after the defeat of T. Sempronius Longus at the
Trebia. He hastened at once to Arretium, the termination of
the western high road to the north, to protect the passes of the
Apennines, but was defeated and killed at the battle of the
Trasimene lake (see PUNIC WARS).
The testimony of Livy (xxi., xxii.) and Polybius (ii., iii.)
no friendly critics shows that Flaminius was a man of ability,
energy and probity. A popular and successful democratic
leader, he cannot, however, be ranked among the great statesmen
of the republic. As a general he was headstrong and self-
sufficient and seems to have owed his victories chiefly to personal
boldness favoured by good fortune.
His son, GAIUS FLAMINIUS, was quaestor under P. Scipio
Africanus the elder in Spain in 210, and took part in the capture
of New Carthage. Fourteen years later, when curule aedile, he
distributed large quantities of grain among the citizens at a very
low price. In 193, as praetor, he carried on a successful war
477
against the insubordinate populations of his recently constituted
province of Hispania Citerior. In 187 he was consul with M.
Aemilius Lepidus, and subjugated the warlike Ligurian tribes.
In the same year the branch of the Via Aemilia connecting
Bononia with Arretium was constructed by him. In 181 he
founded the colony of Aquileia. The chief authority for his life
is the portion of Livy dealing with the history of the period.
FLAMSTEED, JOHN (1646-1719), English astronomer, was
born at Denby, near Derby, on the ipth of August 1646. The
only son of Stephen Flamsteed, a maltster, he was educated at
the free school of Derby, but quitted it finally in May 1662, in
consequence of a rheumatic affection of the joints, due to a
chill caught while bathing. Medical aid having proved of no
avail, he went to Ireland in 1665 to be " stroked " by Valentine
Greatrakes, but " found not his disease to stir." Meanwhile,
he solaced his enforced leisure with astronomical studies. Begin-
ning with J. Sacrobosco's De sphaera, he read all the books
on the subject that he could buy or borrow; observed a partial
solar eclipse on the 12th of September 1662; and attempted the
construction of measuring instruments. A tract on the equation
of time, written by him in 1667, was published by Dr John Wallis
with the Posthumous Works of J. Horrocks (1673); and a paper
embodying his calculations of appulses to stars by the moon,
which appeared in the Philosophical Transactions (iv. 1099),
signed In Mathesi a sole fundes, an anagram of " Johannes
Flamsteedius," secured for him, from 1670, general scientific
recognition.
On his return from a visit to London in 1670 he became
acquainted with Isaac Newton at Cambridge, entered his name
at Jesus college, and took, four years later, a degree of M.A.
by letters-patent. An essay composed by him in 1673 on the
true and apparent diameters of the planets furnished Newton
with data for the third book of the Principia, and he fitted
numerical elements to J. Horrocks's theory of the moon. In
1674, and again in 1675, he was invited to London by Sir Jonas
Moore, governor of the Tower, who proposed to establish him in
a private observatory at Chelsea, but the plan was anticipated
by the determination of Charles II. to have the tables of the
heavenly bodies corrected, and the places of the fixed stars
rectified " for the use of his seamen," and Flamsteed was ap-
pointed " astronomical observator " by a royal warrant dated
4th of March 1675. His salary of 100 a year was cut down by
taxation to 90; he had to provide his own instruments, and to
instruct, into the bargain, two boys from Christ's hospital.
Sheer necessity drove him, in addition, to take many private
pupils; but having been ordained in 1675, he was presented by
Lord North in 1684 to the living of Burstow in Surrey; and his
financial position was further improved by a small inheritance
on his father's death in 1688. He now ordered, at an expense of
120, a mural arc from Abraham Sharp, with which he began
to observe systematically on the izth of September 1689 (see
ASTRONOMY: History). The latter part of Flamsteed's life
passed in a turmoil of controversy regarding the publication of
his results. He struggled to withhold them until they could be
presented in a complete form; but they were urgently needed
for the progress of science, and the astronomer-royal was a public
servant. Sir Isaac Newton, who depended for the perfecting
of his lunar theory upon " places of the moon " reluctantly
doled out from Greenwich 1 , led the movement for immediate
communication; whence arose much ill-feeling between him
and Flamsteed. At last, in 1704, Prince George of Denmark
undertook the cost of printing; a committee of the Royal
Society was appointed to arrange preliminaries, and Flamsteed,
protesting and exasperated, had to submit. The work was only
partially through the press when the prince died, on the 28th of
October 1708, and its completion devolved upon a board of
visitors to the observatory endowed with ample powers by a
royal order of the i2th of December 1712. As the upshot, the
Historia coelestis, embodying the first Greenwich star-catalogue,
together with the mural arc observations made 1689-1705, was
issued under Edmund Halley's editorship in 1712. Flamsteed
denounced the production as surreptitious; he committed to
FLANDERS
the flames three hundred copies, of which he obtained possession
through the favour of Sir Robert Walpole; and, in defiance of
bodily infirmities, vigorously prosecuted his designs for the
entire and adequate publication of the materials he continued
to accumulate. They were but partially executed when he died
on the 3ist of December 1719. The preparation of his monu-
mental work, Historia coelestis Britannica (3 vols. folio, 1725),
was finished by his assistant, Joseph Crosthwait, aided by
Abraham Sharp. The first two volumes included the whole'of
Flamsteed's observations at Derby and Greenwich; the third
contained the British Catalogue of nearly 3000 stars. Numerous
errors in this valuable record having been detected by Sir William
Herschel, Caroline Herschel drew up a list of 560 stars observed,
but not catalogued, while 1 1 1 of those catalogued proved to have
never been observed (Phil. Trans. Ixxxvii. 293; see also F.
Baily, Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society, iv. 129). The appearance
of the Atlas coelestis, corresponding to the British Catalogue,
was delayed until 1729. A portrait of Flamsteed, painted by
Thomas Gibson in 1712, hangs in the rooms of the Royal Society.
The extent and quality of his performance were the more remark-
able considering his severe physical sufferings, his straitened
means, and the antagonism to which he was exposed. Estimable
in private life, he was highly susceptible in professional matters,
and hence failed to keep on terms with his contemporaries.
Francis Daily's Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed (1835) is the
leading authority for his life. It comprises an autobiographical
narrative pieced together from various sources, a large collection of
Flamsteed's letters, a revised and enlarged edition of the British
Catalogue, besides authoritative and detailed introductory dis-
cussions. Some clamour was raised by a publication in which blame
for harsh dealings was freely imputed to Newton, but W. Whewell
vindicated his character in Flamsteed and Newton (1836).
See also General Dictionary, vol. v. (1737), from materials supplied
by James Hodgson, Flamsteed's nephew-in-law ; Biographia Britan-
nica, iii. 1943 (1750); S. Rigaud's Correspondence of Scientific Men;
Cunningham's Lives of Eminent Englishmen, iv. 366 (1835); Mark
Noble's Continuation of James Granger's Biog. Hist, of England,
ii. 132; R. Grant's Hist, of Phys. Astronomy, p. 467; W. Whewell's
Hist, of the Inductive Sciences, ii. 162; I. S. Bailly's Hist, de
I' astronomic moderne, ii. 423, 589, 650; J. Delambre's Hist, de
I' astronomic au XVIII' siecle, p. 93; Observatory, xv. 355, 379,
382. (A. M. C.)
FLANDERS (Flem. Vlaanderen), a territorial name for part of
the Netherlands, Europe. Originally it applied only to Bruges
and the immediate neighbourhood. In the 8th and 9th centuries
it was gradually extended to the whole of the coast region from
Calais to the Scheldt. In the middle ages this was divided into
two parts, one looking to Bruges as its capital, and the other to
Ghent. The name is retained in the two Belgian provinces of
West and East Flanders.
1. West Flanders is the portion bordering the North Sea, and
its coast-line extends from the French to the Dutch frontier for
a little over 40 m. Its capital is Bruges, and the principal towns
of the province are Ostend, Courtrai, Ypres and Roulers. Agri-
culture is the chief occupation of the population, and the country
is under the most careful and skilful cultivation. The admiration
of the foreign observer for the Belgian system of market gardening
is not diminished on learning that the subsoil of most of this
tract is the sand of the " dunes." Fishing employs a large
proportion of the coast population. The area of West Flanders
is officially computed at 808,667 acres or 1 263 sq. m. In 1904 the
population was 845,732, giving an average of 669 to the sq. m.
2. East Flanders lies east and north-east of the western
province; and extends northwards to the neighbourhood of
Antwerp. It is still more productive and richer than Western
Flanders, and is well watered by the Scheldt. The district of
Waes, land entirely reclaimed within the memory of man, is
supposed to be the most productive district of its size in Europe.
The principal towns are Ghent (capital of the province), St
Nicolas, Alost, Termonde, Eecloo and Oudenarde. The area is
given at 749,987 acres or 1172 sq. m. In 1904 the population
was 1,073,507, showing an average of 916 per sq. m.
History. The ancient territory of Flanders comprised not
only the modern provinces known as East and West Flanders,
but the southernmost portion of the Dutch province of Zeeland
and a considerable district in north-western France. In the time
of Caesar it was inhabited by the Morini, Atrebates and other
Celtic tribes, but in the centuries that followed the land was
repeatedly overrun by German invaders, and finally became
a part of the dominion of the Franks. On the break-up of the
Carolingian empire the river Scheldt was by the treaty of Verdun
(843) made the line of division between the kingdom of East
Francia (Austrasia) under the emperor Lothaire, and the
kingdom of West Francia (Neustria) under Charles the Bald.
In virtue of this compact Flanders was henceforth attached to
the West Prankish monarchy (France). It thus acquired a
position unique among the provinces of the territory known in
later times as the Netherlands, all of which were included in that
northern part of Austrasia assigned on the death of the emperor
Lothaire (855) to King Lothaire II., and from his name called
Lotharingia or Lorraine.
The first ruler of Flanders of whom history has left any record
is Baldwin, surnamed Bras-de-fer (Iron-arm). This man, a brave
and daring warrior under Charles the Bald, fell in love with
the king's daughter Judith, the youthful widow of two English
kings, married her, and fled with his bride to Lorraine. Charles,
though at first very angry, was at last conciliated, and made
his son-in-law margrave (Marchio Flandriae) of Flanders, which
he held as an hereditary fief. The Northmen were at this time
continually devastating the coast lands, and Baldwin was
entrusted with the possession of this outlying borderland of the
west Prankish dominion in order to defend it against the invaders.
He was the first of a line of strong rulers, who at some date
early in the loth century exchanged the title of margrave for
that of count. His son, Baldwin II. the Bald from his strong-
hold at Bruges maintained, as did his father before him, a
vigorous defence of his lands against the incursions of the North-
men. On his mother's side a descendant of Charlemagne, he
strengthened the dynastic importance of his family by marrying
Aelfthryth, daughter of Alfred the Great. On his death in 918
his possessions were divided between his two sons Arnulf the
Elder and Adolphus, but the latter survived only a short time
and Arnulf succeeded to the whole inheritance. His reign was
filled with warfare against the Northmen, and he took an active
part in the struggles in Lorraine between the emperor Otto I.
and Hugh Capet. In his old age he placed the government in the
hands of Baldwin, his son by Adela, daughter of the count of
Vermandois, and the young man, though his reign was a very
short one, did a great deal for the commercial and industrial
progress of the country, establishing the first weavers and
fullers at Ghent, and instituting yearly fairs at Ypres, Bruges
and other places.
On Baldwin III.'s death in 961 the old count resumed the
control, and spent the few remaining years of his life in securing
the succession of his grandson Arnulf II. the Younger. The
reign of Arnulf was terminated by his death in 989, and he was
followed by his son Baldwin IV., named Barbalus or the Bearded.
This Baldwin fought successfully both against the Capetian
king of France and the emperor Henry II. Henry found himself
obliged to grant to Baldwin IV. in fief Valenciennes, the bur-
graveship of Ghent, the land of Waes, and Zeeland. The count
of Flanders thus became a feudatory of the empire as well as of
the French crown. The French fiefs are known in Flemish
history as Crown Flanders (Kroon-Vlaaiideren) , the German fiefs
as Imperial Flanders (Rijks-Vlaanderen). Baldwin's son
afterwards Baldwin V. rebelled in 1028 against his father at
the instigation of his wife Adela, daughter of Robert II. of
France; but two years later peace was sworn at Oudenaarde,
and the old count continued to reign till his death in 1036.
Baldwin V. proved a worthy successor, and acquired from the
people the surname of D&bonnaire. He was an active enter-
prising man, and greatly extended his power by wars and
alliances. He obtained from the emperor Henry IV. the territory
between the Scheldt and the Dender as an imperial fief, and the
margraviate of Antwerp. So powerful had he become that the
Flemish count on the decease of Henry I. of France in 1060
was appointed regent during the minority of Philip I. (see
FLANDERS
479
FRANCE). Before his death he saw his eldest daughter Matilda
(d. 1083) sharing the English throne with William the Conqueror,
his eldest son Baldwin of Mons in possession of Hainaut in right
of his wife Richilde, heiress of Regnier V. (d. 1036) and widow
of Hermann of Saxony (d. 1050/1) (see HAINAUT), and his second
son Robert the Frisian regent (tioogd) of the county of Holland
during the minority of Dick V., whose mother, Gertrude of
Saxony, widow of Floris I. of Holland (d. 1061), Robert had
married (see HOLLAND). On his death in 1067 his son Baldwin
of Mons, already count of Hainaut, succeeded to the countship
of Flanders. Baldwin V. had granted to Robert the Frisian
on his marriage in 1063 his imperial fiefs. His right to these was
disputed by Baldwin VI., and war broke out between the two
brothers. Baldwin was killed in battle in 1070. Robert now
claimed the tutelage of Baldwin's children and obtained the
support of the emperor Henry IV., while Richilde, Baldwin's
widow, appealed to Philip I. of France. The contest was decided
at Ravenshoven, near Cassel, on the 22nd of February 1071,
where Robert was victorious. Richilde was taken prisoner and
her eldest son Arnulf III. was slain. Robert obtained from
Philip I. the investiture of Crown Flanders, and from Henry IV.
the fiefs which formed Imperial Flanders.
The second son of Richilde was recognized as count of Hainaut
(see HAINAUT) , which was thus after a brief union separated from
Flanders. Robert died in 1093, and was succeeded by his son
Robert II., who acquired great renown by his exploits in the
first crusade, and won the name of the Lance and Sword of
Christendom. His fame was second only to that of Godfrey
of Bouillon. Robert returned to Flanders in 1 1 oo. He fought
with his suzerain Louis the Fat of France against the English,
and was drowned in 1 1 1 1 by the breaking of a bridge. His son
and successor, Baldwin VII., or Baldwin with the Axe, also
fought against the English in France. He died at the age of
twenty-seven from the wound of an arrow, in 1119, leaving no
heir. He nominated as his successor his cousin Charles, son of
Knut IV. of Denmark and of Adela, daughter of Robert the
Frisian. Charles tried his utmost to put down oppression and to
promote the welfare of his subjects, and obtained the surname
of " the Good." His determination to enforce the right made
him many enemies, and he was foully murdered on Ash
Wednesday, 1127, at Bruges. He died childless, and there
were no less than six candidates to the countship. The contest
lay between two of these, William Clito, son of Robert of
Normandy and grandson of William the Conqueror and Matilda
of Flanders, and Thierry or Dirk of Alsace, whose mother
Gertrude was a daughter of Robert the Frisian. William Clito,
through the support of Louis of France, was at first accepted by
the Flemish nobles as count, but he gave offence to the com-
munes, who supported Thierry. A struggle ensued and William
was killed before Alost. Thierry then became count without
further opposition. He married the widow of Charles the Good,
Marguerite of Clermont, and proved himself at home a wise
and prudent prince, encouraging the growth of popular liberty
and of commerce. In 1146 he took part in the second crusade
and distinguished himself by his exploits. In 1157 he resigned
the countship to his son Philip of Alsace and betook himself
once more to Jerusalem. On his return from the East twenty
years later Thierry retired to a monastery to die in his own
land.
Count Philip of Alsace was a strong and able man. .
much to promote the growth of the municipalities for which
Flanders was already becoming famous. Ghent, Bruges, Ypres,
Lille and Douai under him made much progress as flourishing
industrial towns. He also conferred rights and privileges on
a number of ports, Hulst, Nieuwport, Sluis, Dunkirk, Axel,
Damme, Gravelines and others. But while encouraging the
development of the communes and " free towns," Philip sternly
repressed any spirit of independence or attempted uprisings
against his authority. This count was a powerful prince He
acted for a time as regent in France during the minority of his
godson Philip Augustus, and married his ward to his niece
Isabella of Hainaut (1180). Philip took part in the third
crusade, and died in the camp before Acre of the pestilence
in 1191.
As he had no children, the succession passed to Baldwin of
Hainaut, who had married Philip's sister Margaret. The count-
ships of Flanders and Hainaut were thus united under the same,
ruler. Baldwin did not obtain possession of Flanders without
strong opposition on the part of the French king, and he was
obliged to cede Artois, St Omer, Lens, Hesdin and a great part
of southern Flanders to France, and to allow Matilda of Portugal,
the widow of Philip of Alsace, to retain certain towns in right of
her dowry. Margaret died in 1194 and Baldwin the following
year, and their eldest son Baldwin IX. succeeded to both count-
ships. Baldwin IX. is famous in history as the founder of the
Latin empire at Constantinople. He perished in Bulgaria in
1206. The emperor's two daughters were both under age, and
the government was carried on by their uncle Philip, marquess
of Namur, whom Baldwin had appointed regent on his departure
to Constantinople. Philip proved faithless to his charge, and
he allowed his nieces to fall into the hands of Philip Augustus,
who married the elder sister Johanna of Constantinople to his
nephew Ferdinand of Portugal. The Flemings were averse to
the French king's supremacy, and Ferdinand, who acted as
governor in the name of his wife, joined himself to the confederacy
formed by Germany, England, and the leading states of the
Netherlands against Philip Augustus. Ferdinand was, however,
taken prisoner at the disastrous battle of Bouvines (1214) and
was kept for twelve years a prisoner in the Louvre. The countess
Johanna ruled the united countships with prudence and courage.
On Ferdinand's death she married Thomas of Savoy, but died
in 1244, leaving no heirs. She was succeeded in her dignities
by her younger sister Margaret of Constantinople, commonly
known amongst her contemporaries as " Black Meg " (Zwarle
Grief). Margaret had been twice married. Her first husband
was (1212) Buchard of Avesnes, one of the first of Hainaut's
nobles and a man of knightly prowess, but originally destined
for the church. On this ground he was excommunicated by
Innocent III. and imprisoned by the countess Johanna, with
the result that Margaret at last was driven to repudiate him.
She married in second wedlock (1225) William of Dampierre.
Two sons were the issue of the first marriage, three sons and three
daughters of the second.
When Margaret in 1244 became countess of Flanders and
Hainaut, she wished her son William of Dampierre to be acknow-
ledged as her successor. John of Avesnes, her eldest son, strongly
protested against this and was supported by the French king,
A civil war ensued, which ended in a compromise (1246), the
succession to Flanders being granted to William of Dampierre,
that of Hainaut to John of Avesnes. Margaret, however, ruled
with a strong hand for many years and survived both her sons,
dying at the age of eighty in 1 280. On her death her grandson,
John II. of Avesnes, became count of Hainaut : Guy of Dampierre,
her second son by her second marriage, count of Flanders.
The two counties were once more under separate dynasties.
The government of Guy of Dampierre was unfortunate. It was
the interest of the Flemish weavers to be on good terms with
England, the wool-producing country, and Guy entered into an
alliance with Edward I. against France. This led to an invasion
and conquest of Flanders by Philip the Fair. Guy with his sons
and the leading Flemish nobles were taken prisoners to Paris,
and Flanders was ruled as a French dependency. But though
in the principal towns, Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, there was a
powerful French faction known as Leliaerts (adherents of the
lily) the arbitrary rule of the French governor and officials
stirred up the mass of the Flemish people to rebellion. The
anti-French partisans (known as Clauwaerts) were strongest at
Bruges under the leadership of Peter de Conync, master of
the cloth- weavers, and John Breydel, master of the butchers.
The French garrison at Bruges were massacred (May igth, 1302),
and on the following nth of July a splendid French army of
invasion was utterly defeated near Courtray. Peace was con-
cluded in 1305, but owing to Guy of Dampierre, and the leading
Flemish nobles being in the hands of the French king, on terms
480
FLANDRIN FLANNEL
very disadvantageous to Flanders. Very shortly afterwards the
aged count Guy died, as did also Philip the Fair. Robert of
Bethune, his son and successor, had continual difficulties with
France during the whole of his reign, the Flemings offering a
.stubborn resistance to all attempts to destroy their independence.
Robert was succeeded in 1322 by his grandson Louis of Nevers.
Louis had been brought up at the French court, and had married
Margaret of France. His sympathies were entirely French, and
he made use of French help in his contests with the communes.
Under Louis of Nevers Flanders was practically reduced to the
status of a French province. In his time the long contest between
Flanders and Holland for the possession of the island of Zeeland
was brought to an end by a treaty signed on the 6th of March
1323, by which West Zeeland was assigned to the count of Holland,
the rest to the count of Flanders. The latter part of the reign of
Louis of Nevers was remarkable for the successful revolt of the
Flemish communes, now rapidly advancing to great material
prosperity under Jacob van Artevelde (see ARTEVELDE, JACOB
VAN). Artevelde allied himself with Edward III. of England in
his contest with Philip of Valois for the French crown, while
Louis of Nevers espoused the cause of Philip. He fell at the battle
of Crecy (1346). He was followed in the countship by his son
Louis II. of Male. The reign of this count was one long struggle
with the communes, headed by the town of Ghent, for political
supremacy. Louis was as strong in his French sympathies as
his father, and relied upon French help in enforcing his will
upon his refractory subjects, who resented his arbitrary methods
of government, and the heavy taxation imposed upon them by
his extravagance and love of display. Had the great towns with
their organized gilds and great wealth held together in their
opposition to the count's despotism, they would have proved
successful, but Ghent and Bruges, always keen rivals, broke out
into open feud. The power of Ghent reached its height under
Philip van Artevelde (see ARTEVELDE, PHILIP VAN) in 1382.
He defeated Louis, took Bruges and was made rmoard of Flanders.
But the triumph of the White Hoods, as the popular party was
called, was of short duration. On the 27th of November 1382
Artevelde suffered a crushing defeat from a large French army at
Roosebeke and was himself slain. Louis of Male died two years
later, leaving an only daughter Margaret, who had married in
1369 Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy.
Flanders now became a portion of the great Burgundian
domain, which in the reign of Philip the Good, Margaret's
grandson, had absorbed almost the whole of the Netherlands
(see BURGUNDY; NETHERLANDS). The history of Flanders as
a separate state ceases from the time of the acquisition of the
countship by the Burgundian dynasty. There were revolts
from time to time of great towns against the exactions even of
these powerful princes, but they were in vain. The conquest
and humiliation of Bruges by Philip the Good in 1440, and the
even more relentless punishment inflicted on rebellious Ghent
by the emperor Charles V. exactly a century later are the most
remarkable incidents in the long-continued but vain struggle of
the Flemish communes to maintain and assert their privileges.
The Burgundian dukes and their successors of the house of
Habsburg were fully alive to the value to them of Flanders
and its rich commercial cities. It was Flanders that furnished
to them no small part of their resources, but for this very reason,
while fostering the development of Flemish industry and trade,
they were the more determined to brook no opposition which
sought to place restrictions upon their authority.
The effect of the revolt of the Netherlands and the War of
Dutch Independence which followed was ruinous to Flanders.
Albert and Isabel on their accession to the sovereignty of the
southern Netherlands in 1599 found " the great cities of Flanders
and Brabant had been abandoned by a large part of their in-
habitants; agriculture hardly in a less degree than commerce
and industry had been ruined." In 1633 with the death of
Isabel, Flanders reverted to Spanish rule (1633). By the treaty
of Munster the north-western portion of Flanders, since known
as States (or Dutch) Flanders, was ceded by Philip IV. to the
United Provinces (1648). By a succession of later treaties of
the Pyrenees (1659), Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), Nijmwegen (1679)
and others a large slice of the southern portion of the old county
of Flanders became French territory and was known as French
Flanders.
From 1795 to 1814 Flanders, with the rest of the Belgic
provinces, was incorporated in France, and was divided into
two departments department de I'Escaut and departemenl de la
Lys. This division has since been retained, and is represented
by the two provinces of East Flanders and West Flanders in the
modern kingdom of Belgium. The title of count of Flanders
was revived by Leopold I. in 1840 in favour of his second son,
Philip Eugene Ferdinand (d. 1905). (G. E.)
FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE (1809-1864), French painter,
was born at Lyons in 1809. His father, though brought up to
business, had great fondness for art, and sought himself to follow
an artist's career. Lack of early training, however, disabled
him for success, and he was obliged to take up the precarious
occupation of a miniature painter. Hippolyte was the second
of three sons, all painters, and two of them eminent, the third
son Paul (b. 1811) ranking as one of the leaders of the modern
landscape school of France. Auguste (1804-1842), the eldest,
passed the greater part of his life as professor at Lyons, where he
died. After studying for some time at Lyons, Hippolyte and
Paul, who had long determined on the step and economized for
it, set out to walk to Paris in 1829, to place themselves under the
tuition of Hersent. They chose finally to enter the atelier of
Ingres, who became not only their instructor but their friend for
life. At first considerably hampered by poverty, Hippolyte's
difficulties were for ever removed by his taking, in 1832, the
Grand Prix de Rome, awarded for his picture of the " Recognition
of Theseus by his Father." This allowed him to study five years
at Rome, whence he sent home several pictures which consider-
ably raised his fame. " St Clair healing the Blind " was done
for the cathedral of Nantes, and years after, at the exhibition of
1855, brought him a medal of the first class. " Jesus and the
Little Children " was given by the government to the town of
Lisieux. " Dante and Virgil visiting the Envious Men struck
with Blindness," and " Euripides writing his Tragedies," belong
to the museum at Lyons. Returning to Paris through Lyons in
1838 he soon received a commission to ornament the chapel of
St John in the church of St Severin at Paris, and reputation
increased and employment continued abundant for the rest of
his life. Besides the pictures mentioned above, and others of a
similar kind, he painted a great number of portraits. The works,
however, upon which his fame most surely rests are his monu-
mental decorative paintings. Of these the principal are those
executed in the following churches: in the sanctuary of St
Germain des Pres at Paris (1842-1844), in the choir of the same
church (1846-1848), in the church of St Paul at Nismes (1848-
1849), of St Vincent de Paul at Paris (1850-1854), in the church
of Ainay at Lyons (1855), in the nave of St Germain des Pr6s
(1855-1861). In 1856 Hippolyte Flandrin was elected to the
Academic des Beaux- Arts. In 1863 his failing health, rendered
worse by incessant toil and exposure to the damp and draughts
of churches, induced him again to visit Italy. He died of small-
pox at Rome on the 2ist of March 1864. As might naturally
be expected in one who looked upon painting as but the vehicle
for the expression of spiritual sentiment, he had perhaps too
little pride in the technical qualities of his art. There is shown
in his works much of that austerity and coldness, expressed in
form and colour, which springs from a faith which feels itself in
opposition to the tendencies of surrounding life. He has been
compared to Fra Angelico; but the faces of his long processions
of saints and martyrs seem to express rather the austerity of
souls convicted of sin than the joy and purity of never-corrupted
life which shines from the work of the early master.
See Delaborde, Lettres el pensees de H. Flandrin (Paris, 1865);
Beule, Notice historique sur H. F. (1869).
FLANNEL, a woollen stuff of various degrees of weight and
fineness, made usually from loosely spun yarn. The origin of
the word is uncertain, but in the i6th century flannel was a
well-known production of Wales, and a Welsh origin has been
FLANNELETTE FLAT
481
suggested. The French form flanelle was used late in the i7th
century, and the Ger. Flandl early in the i8th century. Baize,
a kind of coarse flannel with a long nap, is said to have been first
introduced to England about the middle of the i6th century
by refugees from France and the Netherlands. The manufacture
of flannel has naturally undergone changes, and, in some cases,
deteriorations. Flannels are frequently made with an admixture
of silk or cotton, and in low varieties cotton has tended to become
the predominant factor. Formerly a short staple wool of fine
quality from a Southdown variety of the Sussex breed was
principally in favour with the flannel manufacturers of Rochdale,
who also used largely the wool from the Norfolk breed, a cross
between the Southdown and Norfolk sheep. In Wales the short
staple wool of the mountain sheep was used, and in Ireland that
of the Wicklow variety of the Cottagh breed, but now the New
Zealand, Cape and South American wools are extensively
employed, and English wools are not commonly used alone.
Over 2000 persons are employed in flannel manufacture in
Rochdale alone, which is the historic seat of the industry, and a
good deal of flannel is now made in the Spen Valley district,
Yorkshire. Blankets, which constitute a special branch of the
flannel trade, are largely made at Bury in Lancashire and
Dewsbury in Yorkshire. Welsh flannels have a high reputation,
and make an important industry in Montgomeryshire. There
are also flannel manufactories in Ireland.
A moderate export trade in flannel is done by Great Britain.
The following table gives the quantities exported during three
years:
1904. 1905. 1906.
Yards . . 9,758,300 9,220,500 8,762,200
In 1877 the export was 9,273,429 yds., so it appears that this
trade has varied comparatively little. The imports of flannel
are not very large.
Many so-called flannels have been made with a large admixture
of cotton, but the Merchandise Marks Act has done something
to limit the indiscriminate use of names. Unquestionably the
development of the flannel trade has been checked by the great
increase in the production of flannelettes, the better qualities
of which have become formidable competitors with flannel.
There must, however, be a regular and large demand for flannel
while theory and experience confirm its value as a clothing
particularly suitable for immediate contact with the body.
FLANNELETTE, a cotton cloth made to imitate flannel.
The word seems to have been first used in the early 'eighties,
and there is a reference in the Daily News of 1887 to " a poverty-
stricken article called flannelette." Now it is used very exten-
sively for underclothing, night gear, dresses, dressing-gowns,
shirts, &c. It is usually made with a much coarser weft than
warp, and its flannel-like appearance is obtained by the raising
or scratching up of this weft, and by various finishing processes.
Some kinds are raised equally on both sides, and the nap may
be long or short according to the purpose for which the cloth is
required. A considerable trade is done in plain cloths dyed,
and also in woven coloured stripes and checks, but almost any
heavy or coarse cotton cloth can be made into flannelette. It is
now largely used by the poorer classes of the community, and
the flimsier kinds have been a frequent source of accident by
fire. It is, however, when used discreetly and in a fair quality,
a cheap and useful article. A flannelette, patented under the
title of " Non-flam," has been made with fire-resisting properties,
but its sale has been more in the better qualities than in the lower
and more dangerous ones. Flannelette is made largely on the
continent of Europe, and in the United States as well as in Great
Britain.
FLASK, in its earliest meaning in Old English a vessel for
carrying liquor, made of wood or leather. The principal applica-
tions in current usage are (i) to a vessel of metal or wood,
formerly of horn, used for carrying gunpowder; (2) to a long-
necked, round-bodied glass vessel, usually covered with plaited
straw or maize leaves, containing olive or other oil or Italian
wines it is often known as a "Florence flask": similarly
shaped vessels are used for experiments, &c., in a laboratory;
x. 16
(3) to a small metal or glass receptacle for spirits, wine or other
liquor, of a size and shape to fit into a pocket or holster, usually
covered with leather, basket-work or other protecting substance,
and with a detachable portion of the case shaped to form a cup.
" Flask " is also used in metal-founding of a wooden frame or
case to contain part of the mould. The word " flagon," which
is by derivation a doublet of " flask," is usually applied to a
larger type of vessel for holding liquor, more particularly to a
type of wine-bottle with a short neck and circular body with
flattened sides. The word is also used of a jug-shaped vessel
with a handle, spout and lid, into which wine may be decanted
from the bottle for use at table, and of a similarly shaped vessel
to contain the Eucharistic wine till it is poured into the chalice.
" Flask " (in O. Eng.flasce orflaxe) is represented both in Teutonic
and Romanic languages. The earliest examples are found in
Med. Lat. fiasco, flasconis, whence come Ital. fiascone, O. Fr.
flascon(mod. flacon), adapted in the Eng. "flagon." Another
Lat. form isflasca, this gave a Fr.flasque, which in the sense of
" powder flask " remained in use till later than the i6th century.
In Teutonic languages the word, in its various forms, is the
common one for " bottle," so in Ger. Flasche, Dutch flesch, &c.
If the word is of Romanic origin it is probably a metathesized
form of the Lat. vasculum, diminutive of vas, vessel. There is
no very satisfactory etymology if the word is of Teutonic origin;
the New English Dictionary considers a connexion with " flat "
probable phonetically, but finds no evidence that the word was
used originally for a flat-shaped vessel.
FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of
Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet), a term
commonly used as an adjective, signifying level in surface, level
with the ground, and so, figuratively, fallen, dead, inanimate,
tasteless, dull; or, by another transference, downright; or, in
music, below the true pitch. In a substantival form, the term is
used in physical geography for a level tract.
The word is also generally applied by modern usage to a
self-contained residence or separate dwelling (in Scots law, the
term flatted house is still used), consisting of a suite of rooms which
form a portion, usually on a single floor, of a larger building,
called the tenement house, the remainder being similarly divided.
The approach to it is over a hall, passage and stairway, which
are common to all residents in the building, but from which each
private flat is divided off by its own outer door (Clode, Tenement
Houses and Flats, pp. i, 2).
There is in England a considerable body of special law applic-
able to flats. The following points deserve notice: (i.) The
occupants of distinct suites of rooms in a building divided into
flats are generally, and subject, of course, to any special terms
in their agreements, not lodgers but tenants with exclusive
possession of separate dwelling-houses placed one above the
other. They are, therefore, liable to distress by the immediate
landlord, and each flat is separately rateable, though as a general
rule by the contract of tenancy the rates are payable by the
landlord. Flats used solely for business purposes arc exempt
from house tax, by the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1878
(see Grant, v. Langston, 1900, A.C. 383); and, by the Revenue
Act 1903 (s. u), provision is made for excluding from assessment
or for assessing at a low rate buildings used for providing separate
dwellings at rents not exceeding 60 a year. It appears that
tenants of a flat would not come within the meaning of " lodger "
for the purposes of the Lodgers' Goods Protection Act 1871.
(ii.) The owner of an upper storey, without any express grant or
enjoyment for any given time, has a right to the support of the
lower storey (Dalton v. Angus, i88i,6A.C. 740,793). The owner
of the lower storey, however, so long as he does nothing actively
in the way of withdrawing its support, is not bound to repair,
in the absence of a special covenant imposing that obligation
upon him. The right of support being an easement in favour of
the owner of the upper storey, it is for him to repair. He is in
law entitled to enter on the lower storey for the purpose of doing
the necessary repairs. It appears, however, that there is an
implied obligation by the landlord to the tenants to keep the
common stair and the lift or elevator in repair, and, for breach
482
FLATBUSH FLATHEADS
of this duty, he will be liable to a third party who, while visiting
a tenant in the course of business, is injured by its defective
condition (Miller v. Hancock, 1893, 2 Q.B. 177). No such
liability would be involved in a mere licence to the tenants to
use a part of the building not essential to the enjoyment of their
Hats, (iii.) In case of the destruction of the flat by fire, the rent
abates pro tanto and an apportionment is made; pari ratione,
where a flat is totally destroyed, the rent abates altogether
(Clode, p. 14); unless the tenant has entered into an express
and unqualified agreement to pay rent, when he will remain
liable till the expiration of his tenancy, (iv.) Where the agree-
ments for letting the flats in a single building are in common
form, an agreement by the lessor not to depart from the kind of
building there indicated may be held to be implied. Thus an
injunction has been granted to restrain the conversion into a
club of a large part of a building, adapted to occupation in
residential flats, at the instance of a tenant who held under an
agreement in a common form binding the tenants to rules
suitable only for residential purposes (Hudson v. Cripps,i8g6,
i Ch. 265). (v.) The porter is usually appointed and paid by
the landlord, who is liable for his acts while engaged on
his general duties; while engaged on any special duty for any
tenant the porter is the servant of the latter, who is liable for
his conduct within the scope of his employment.
In Scots law the rights and obligations of the lessors and
lessees of flats, or as they are called " flatted houses," spring
partly from the exclusive possession by each lessee of his own
flat, partly from the common interest of all in the tenement as a
whole. The " law of the tenement " may be thus summed up.
The solum on which the flatted house stands, the area in front
and the back ground are presumed to belong to the owner of the
lowest floor or the owners of each floor severally, subject to
the common right of the other proprietors to prevent injury
to their flats, especially by depriving them of light. The external
walls belong to each owner in so far as they enclose his flat;
but the other owners can prevent operations on them which
would endanger the security of the building. The roof and
uppermost storey belong to the highest owner or owners, but
he or they may be compelled to keep them in repair and to refrain
from injuring them. The gables are common to the owner of
each flat, so far as they bound his property, and to the owner of
the adjoining house; but he and the other owners in the building
have cross rights of common interest to prevent injury to the
stability of the building. The floor and ceiling of each flat are
divided in ownership by an ideal line drawn through the middle
of the joists; they may be used for ordinary purposes, but may
not be weakened or exposed to unusual risk from fire. The
common passages and stairs are the common property of all to
whose premises they form an access, and the walls which bound
them are the common property of those persons a nd of the owners
on their farther side.
In the United States the term " apartment-house " is applied
to what in England are called flats. The general law is the same
as in England. The French Code Civil provides (Art. 664) that
where the different storeys of a house belong to different owners
the main walls and roof are at the charge of all the owners,
each one in proportion to the value of the storey belonging
to him. The proprietor of each storey is responsible for his own
flooring. The proprietor of the first storey makes the staircase
which leads to it, the proprietor of the second, beginning from
where the former ended, makes the staircase leading to his and
so on. There are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Belgium
(Art. 664), Quebec (Art. 521), St Lucia (Art. 471).
AUTHORITIES. ENGLISH LAW: Clode, Law of Tenement-Houses
and Flats (London, 1889); Daniels, Manual of the Law of Flats
(London, 1905). SCOTS LAW: Erskine, Principles of the Law of
Scotland (2Oth ed., Edinburgh, 1903); Bell, Principles of the Law
of Scotland (loth ed., Edinburgh, 1899). AMERICAN LAW: Bouvier,
Law Dicty. (Boston and London, 1897). FOREIGN LAWS: Burge,
Foreign and Colonial Laws (2nd ed., London, 1906). (A. W. R.)
FLATBUSH, formerly a township of Kings county, Long
Island, New York, U.S.A., annexed to Brooklyn in 1894, and
after the ist of January 1898 a part of the borough of Brooklyn,
New York City. The first settlement was made here by the
Dutch about 1651, and was variously called " Midwout," " Mid-
woud " and "Medwoud" (from the Dutch words, med, "middle"
and woud, ' wood ") for about twenty years, when it became more
commonly known as Vlachte Bos (vlachle, "wooded"; bos,
" plain ") or Flackebos, whence, by further corruption, the
present name. Farming was the chief occupation of the early
settlers. On the 23rd of August 1776 the village was occupied
by General Cornwallis's division of the invading force under Lord
Howe, and on the 2'7th, at the disastrous battle of Long Island
(or " battle of Flatbush," as it is sometimes called), " Flatbush
Pass," an important strategic point, was vigorously defended by
General Sullivan's troops.
FLAT-FISH (Pleuroneclidae), the name common to all those
fishes which swim on their side, as the halibut, turbot, brill,
plaice, flounder, sole, &c. The side which is turned towards the
bottom, and in some kinds is the right, in others the left, is
generally colourless, and called " blind," from the absence of an
eye on this side. The opposite side, which is turned upwards and
towards the light, is variously, and in some tropical species even
vividly, coloured, both eyes being placed on this side of the head.
All the bones and muscles of the upper side are more strongly
developed than on the lower; but it is noteworthy that these
fishes when hatched, and for a short time afterwards, are sym-
metrical like other fishes.
Assuming that they are the descendants of symmetrical fishes,
the question has been to determine which group of Teleosteans
may be regarded as the ancestors of the flat-fishes. The old
notion that they are only modified Gadids (Anacanthini) was
the result of the artificial classification of the past and is now
generally abandoned. The condition of the caudal fin, which
in the cod tribe departs so markedly from that of ordinary
Teleosteans, is in itself a sufficient reason for dismissing the idea
of the homocercal flat-fishes being derived from the Anacanthini,
and the whole structure of the two types of fishes speaks against
such an assumption. On the other hand it has been shown, as
noticed in the article DORY, that considerable, deep-seated
resemblances exist between the Zeidae or John Dories and the
more generalized of the Pleuronectidae; and that a fossil fish
from the Upper Eocene, Amphistium paradoxum, evidently
allied to the Zeidae, appears to realize in every respect the
prototype of the Pleuronectidae before they had assumed the
asymmetry which characterizes them as a group. In accordance
with these views the flat-fishes are placed by G. A. Boulenger
in the suborder Acanthopterygii, in a division called Zeorhombi.
The three families included in that division can be traced back
to the Upper Eocene, and their common ancestors will probably
be found in the Upper Cretaceous associated with the Berycidae,
to which they will no doubt prove to be related. The very young
are transparent and symmetrical, with an eye on each side, and
swim in a vertical position. As they grow, the eye of one side
moves by degrees to the other side, where it becomes the upper
eye. If at that age the dorsal fin does not extend to the frontal
region, the migrating eye simply moves over the line of the profile,
temporarily assuming the position which it preserves in some
of the less modified genera, such as Pseltodes; in other genera,
the dorsal fin has already extended to the snout before the
migration takes place, and the eye, passing between the frontal
bone and the tissues supporting the fin, appears to make its
way from side to side through the head, as was believed by some
of the earlier observers.
About 500 species of flat-fish are known, mostly marine, a
few species allied to the sole being confined to the fresh waters
of South America, West Africa, and the Malay Archipelago,
whilst a few others, such as the English flounder, ascend streams,
though still breeding in the sea. They range from the Arctic
Circle to the southern coasts of the southern hemisphere and
may occur at great depths. (G. A. B.)
FLATHEADS, a tribe of North American Indians of Salishan
stock. They formerly occupied the mouptains of north-western
Montana and the country around. The)' have always been
friendly to the whites. Curiously enough tbey have not the
FLAUBERT
483
custom, so general among American tribes, of flattening the
heads of their infants. Father P. J. de Smet in 1841 founded
among them a mission which proved the most successful in
the north-west. With the Pend d'Oreille tribe and some
Kutenais they are on a reservation in Montana, and number
a few hundreds.
FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE (1821-1880), French novelist, was
born at Rouen on the izth of December 1821. His father,
of whom many traits are reproduced in Flaubert's character of
Charles Bo vary, was a surgeon in practice at Rouen; his mother
was connected with some of the oldest Norman families. He was
educated in his native city, and did not leave it until 1840, when
he came up to Paris to study law. He is said to have been idle at
school, but to have been occupied with literature from the age
of eleven. Flaubert in his youth " was like a young Greek,"
full of vigour of body and a certain shy grace, enthusiastic,
intensely individual, and apparently without any species of
ambition. He loved the country, and Paris was extremely
distasteful to him. He made the acquaintance of Victor Hugo,
and towards the close of 1840 he travelled in the Pyrenees and
Corsica. Returning to Paris, he wasted his time in sombre
dreams, living on his patrimony. In 1846, his mother being left
quite alone through the deaths of his father and his sister Caroline,
Flaubert gladly abandoned Paris and the study of the law
together, to make a home for her at Croisset, close to Rouen.
This estate, a house in a pleasant piece of ground which ran down
to the Seine, became Flaubert's home for the remainder of his
life. From 1846 to 1854 he carried on relations with the poetess,
Mile Louise Colet; their letters have been preserved, and accord-
ing to M. Emile Faguet, this was the only sentimental episode
of any importance in the life of Flaubert, who never married.
His principal friend at this time was Maxime du Camp, with
whom he travelled in Brittany in 1846, and through the East in
1849. Greece and Egypt made a profound impression upon the
imagination of Flaubert. From this time forth, save for occa-
sional visits to Paris, he did not stir from Croisset.
On returning from the East, in 1850, he set about the com-
position of Madame Bovary. He had hitherto scarcely written
anything, and had published nothing. The famous novel took
him six years to prepare, but was at length submitted to the
Revue de Paris, where it appeared in serial form in 1857. The
government brought an action against the publisher and against
the author, on the charge of immorality, but both were acquitted;
and when Madame Bovary appeared in book-form it met with
a very warm reception. Flaubert paid a visit to Carthage in
1858, and now settled down to the archaeological studies which
were required to equip him for Salammlo, which, however, in
spite of the author's ceaseless labours, was not finished until
1862. He then took up again the study of contemporary
manners, and, making use of many recollections of his youth
and childhood, wrote L' Education sentimentale, the composition
of which occupied him seven years; it was published in 1869.
Up to this time the sequestered and laborious life of Flaubert
had been comparatively happy, but misfortunes began to gather
around him. He felt the anguish of the war of 1870 so keenly
that the break-up of his health has been attributed to it; he
began to suffer greatly from a distressing nervous malady. His
best friends were taken from him by death or by fatal misunder-
standing; in 1872 he lost his mother, and his circumstances
became greatly reduced. He was very tenderly guarded by
his niece, Mme Commonville; he enjoyed a rare intimacy of
friendship with George Sand, with whom he carried on a corre-
spondence of immense artistic interest, and occasionally he saw
his Parisian acquaintances, Zola, A. Daudet, Tourgenieff, the
Goncourts; but nothing prevented the close of Flaubert's life
from being desolate and melancholy. He did not cease, however,
to work with the same intensity and thoroughness. La Tentation
de Saint- Antoine, of which fragments had been published as early
as 1857, was at length completed and sent to press in 1874. In
that year he was subjected to a disappointment by the failure
of his drama Le Candidat. In 1877 Flaubert published, in one
volume, entitled Trois contes, Un Cceur simple, La Legende de
Saint-Julien-l' Hospilalier and Herodias. After this something of
his judgment certainly deserted him ; he spent the remainder of
his life in the toil of building up a vast satire on the futility of
human knowledge and the omnipresence of mediocrity, which he
left a fragment. This is the depressing and bewildering Bouvard
et Pecuchet (posthumously printed, 1881), which, by a curious
irony, he believed to be his masterpiece. Flaubert had rapidly
and prematurely aged since 1870, and he was quite an old man
when he was carried off by a stroke of apoplexy at the age of only
58, on the 8th of May 1880. He died at Croisset, but was buried
in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen. A beautiful
monument to him by Chapu was unveiled at the museum of
Rouen in 1890.
The personal character of Flaubert offered various peculiarities.
He was shy, and yet extremely sensitive and arrogant ; he passed
from silence to an indignant and noisy flow of language. The
same inconsistencies marked his physical nature; he had the
build of a guardsman, with a magnificent Viking head, but his
health was uncertain from childhood, and he was neurotic to
the last degree. This ruddy giant was secretly gnawn by mis-
anthropy and disgust of life. His hatred of the " bourgeois "
began in his childhood, and developed into a kind of monomania.
He despised his fellow-men, their habits, their lack of intelligence,
their contempt for beauty, with a passionate scorn which has
been compared to that of an ascetic monk. Flaubert's curious
modes of composition favoured and were emphasized by these
peculiarities. He worked in sullen solitude, sometimes occupying
a week in the completion of one page, never satisfied with what
he had composed, violently tormenting his brain for the best
turn of a phrase, the most absolutely final adjective. It cannot
be said that his incessant labours were not rewarded. His
private letters show that he was not one of those to whom
easy and correct language is naturally given; he gained his
extraordinary perfection with the unceasing sweat of his brow.
One of the most severe of academic critics admits that " in all his
works, and in every page of his works, Flaubert may be con-
sidered a model of style." That he was one of the greatest writers
who ever lived in France is now commonly admitted, and his
greatness principally depends upon the extraordinary vigour
and exactitude of his style. Less perhaps than any other
writer, not of France, but of modern Europe, Flaubert yields
admission to the inexact, the abstract, the vaguely inapt ex-
pression which is the bane of ordinary methods of composition.
He never allowed a cliche to pass him, never indulgently or
wearily went on, leaving behind him a phrase which " almost "
expressed his meaning. Being, as he is, a mixture in almost
equal parts of the romanticist and the realist, the marvellous
propriety of his style has been helpful to later writers of both
schools, of every school. The absolute exactitude with which
he adapts his expression to his purpose is seen in all parts of his
work, but particularly in the portraits he draws of the figures in
his principal romances. The degree and manner in which, since
his death, the fame of Flaubert has extended, form an interesting
chapter of literary history. The publication of Madame Bovary
in 1857 had been followed by more scandal than admiration;
it was not understood at first that this novel was the beginning
of a new thing, the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life.
Gradually this aspect of his genius was accepted, and began to
crowd out all others. At the time of his death he was famous as
a realist, pure and simple. Under this aspect Flaubert exercised
an extraordinary influence over E. de Goncourt, Alphonse
Daudet and M. Zola. But even since the decline of the realistic
school Flaubert has not lost prestige; other facets of his genius
have caught the light. It has been perceived that he was not
merely realistic, but real; that his clairvoyance was almost
boundless; that he saw certain phenomena more clearly than
the best of observers had done. Flaubert is a writer who
must always appeal more to other authors than to the world at
large, because the art of writing, the indefatigable pursuit of
perfect expression, were always before him, and because he hated
the lax felicities of improvization as a disloyalty to the most
sacred procedures of the literary artist.
FLAVEL FLAX
His (Euvres competes (8 vols., 1885) were printed from the original
manuscripts, and included, besides the works mentioned already,
the two plays, Le Candidat and Le Chateau des cceurs. Another
edition (10 vols.) appeared in 1873-1885. Flaubert's correspondence
with George Sand was published in 1884 with an introduction by
Guy de Maupassant. Other posthumous works are Par les champs
et par les greves (1885), the result of a tour in Brittany; and four
volumes of Correspondance (1887-1893). See also Paul Bourget,
Essais de psychologic contemporaine (1883); Emile Faguet, Flaubert
(1899) ; Henry James, French Poets and Novelists (1878) ; Emile Zola,
Les Romanciers naluralistes (1881); C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Gausenes
du lundi, vol. xiii., Nouveaux lundis, vol. iv. ; and the Souvenirs
litteraires (2 vols., 1882-1883) of Maxime du Camp. (E. G.)
FLAVEL, JOHN (c. 1627-1691), English Presbyterian divine,
was born at Bromsgrove in Worcestershire, probably in 1627.
He was the elder son of Richard Flavel, described in con-
temporary records as " a painful and eminent minister." After
receiving his early education, partly at home and partly at the
grammar-schools of Bromsgrove and Haslar, he entered Uni-
versity College, Oxford. Soon after taking orders in 1650 he
obtained a curacy at Diptford, Devon, and on the death of the
vicar he was appointed to succeed him. From Diptford he re-
moved in 1656 to Dartmouth. He was ejected from his living
by the passing of the Act of Uniformity in 1662, but continued
to preach and administer the sacraments privately till the Five
Mile Act of 1665, when he retired to Slapton, 5 m. away. He
then lived for a time in London, but returned to Dartmouth,
where he laboured till his death in 1691. He was married four
times. He was a vigorous and voluminous writer, and not without
a play of fine fancy.
His principal works are his Navigation Spiritualized (1671); The
Fountain of Life, in forty-two Sermons (1672) ; The Method of Grace
(1680); Pneumatologia, a Treatise on the Soul of Man (1698); A
Token for Mourners; Husbandry Spiritualized (1699). Collected
editions appeared throughout the l8th century, and in 1823 Charles
Bradley edited a 2 vol. selection.
FLAVIAN I. (d. 404), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was
born about 320, most probably in Antioch. He inherited great
wealth, but resolved to devote his riches and his talents to the
service of the church. In association with Diodorus, afterwards
bishop of Tarsus, he supported the Catholic faith against the
Arian Leontius, who had succeeded Eustathius as bishop of
Antioch. The two friends assembled their adherents outside
the city walls for the observance of the exercises of religion;
and, according to Theodoret, it was in these meetings that the
practice of antiphonal singing was first introduced in the services
of the church. When Meletius was appointed bishop of Antioch
in 361 he raised Flavian to the priesthood, and on the death of
Meletius in 381 Flavian was chosen to succeed him. The
schism between the two parties was, however, far from being
healed; the bishop of Rome and the bishops of Egypt refused to
acknowledge Flavian, and Paulinus, who by the extreme Eus-
tathians had been elected bishop in opposition to Meletius,
still exercised authority over a portion of the church. On the
death of Paulinus in 383, Evagrius was chosen as his successor,
but after the death of Evagrius (c. 393) Flavian succeeded in
preventing his receiving a successor, though the Eustathians still
continued to hold separate meetings. Through the intervention
of Chrysostom, soon after his elevation to the patriarchate of
Constantinople (398) ,and the influence of the emperorTheodosius,
Flavian was acknowledged in 399 as legitimate bishop of Antioch
by the Church of Rome; but the Eustathian schism was not
finally healed till 415. Flavian, who died in February 404, is
venerated in both the Western and Eastern churches as a saint.
See also the article MELETIUS OF ANTIOCH, and the article
" Flavianus von Antiochien " by Loofs in Herzog-Hauck's Real-
encyklop. (ed. 3). For the Meletian schism see also A. Harnack's,
Hist, of Dogma, iv. 95.
FLAVIAN II. (d. 518), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was
chosen by the emperor Anastasius I. to succeed Palladius, most
probably in 498. He endeavoured to please both parties by
steering a middle course in reference to the Chalcedon (q.v.)
decrees, but was induced after great hesitation to agree to the
request of Anastasius that he should accept the Henoticon,
or decree of union, issued by the emperor Zeno. His doing so,
while it brought upon him the anathema of the patriarch of
Constantinople, failed to secure the favour of Anastasius, who
in 511 found in the riots which were occurring between the rival
parties in the streets of Antioch a pretext for deposing Flavian,
and banishing him to Petra, where he died in 518. Flavian was
soon after his death enrolled among the saints of the Greek
Church, and after some opposition he was also canonized by the
Latin Church.
FLAVIAN (d. 449), bishop of Constantinople, and an adherent
of the Antiochene school, succeeded Proclus in 447. He presided
at the council which deposed Eutyches (q.v.) in 448, but in the
following year he was deposed by the council of Ephesus (the
" robber synod "), which reinstated Eutyches in his office.
Flavian's death shortly afterwards was attributed, by a pious
fiction, to ill treatment at the hands of his theological opponents.
The council of Chalcedon canonized him as a martyr, and in the
Latin Church he is commemorated on the i8th of February.
FLAVIGNY, a town of eastern France, in the department of
Cote-d'Or, situated on a promontory overlooking the river
Ozerain, 33 m. W.N.W. of Dijon by road. Pop. (1906) 725.
Among its antiquities are the remains of an abbey of the 8th
century, which has been rebuilt as a factory for the manufacture
of anise, an industry connected with the town as early as the
1 7th century. There is also a church of the i3th and isth
centuries, containing carved stalls (i5th century) and a fine
rood-screen (early i6th century). A Dominican convent, some
old houses and ancient gateways are also of interest. About
3- m. north-west of Flavigny rises Mont Auxois, the probable
site of the ancient Alesia, where Caesar in A.D. 52 defeated the
Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix, to whom a statue has been erected
on the summit of the height. Numerous remains of the Gallo-
Roman period have been discovered on the hill.
FLAVIN (Lat. flaws, yellow), the commercial name for an
extract or preparation of quercitron bark (Quercus tinctoria),
which is used as a yellow dye in place of the ground and powdered
bark (see QUERCITRON).
FLAX. The terms flax or lint (Ger. Flacks, Fr. Km, Lat.
linum) are employed at once to denote the fibre so called, and
the plant from which it is prepared. The flax plant (Linum
usitatissimum) belongs to the natural order Linaceae, and, like
most plants which have been long under cultivation, it possesses
numerous varieties, while its origin is doubtful. As cultivated
it is an annual with an erect stalk rising to a height of from
2c? to 40 in., with alternate, sessile, narrowly lance-shaped leaves,
branching only at the top, each branch or branchlet ending in a
bright blue flower. The flowers are regular and symmetrical,
having five sepals, tapering to a point and hairy on the margin,
five petals which speedily fall, ten stamens, and a pistil bearing
five distinct styles. The fruit or boll is round, containing five
cells, each of which is again divided into two, thus forming ten
divisions, each of which contains a single seed. The seeds of the
flax plant, well known as linseed, are heavy, smooth, glossy and
of a bright greenish-brown colour. They are oval in section,
but their maximum contour represents closely that of a pear
with the stalk removed. The contents are of an oily nature,
and when liquefied are of great commercial value.
The earliest cultivated flax was Linum anguslifolium, a smaller
plant with fewer and narrower leaves than L. usitatissimum,
and usually perennial. This is known to have been cultivated by
the inhabitants of the Swiss lake-dwellings, and is found wild
in south and west Europe (including England), North Africa,
and western Asia. The annual flax (L. usitatissimum) has been
cultivated for at least four or five thousand years in Mesopotamia,
Assyria and Egypt, and is wild in the districts included between
the Persian Gulf, the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea. This
annual flax appears to have been introduced into the north of
Europe by the Finns, afterwards into the west of Europe by
the western Aryans, and perhaps here and there by the Phoe-
nicians; lastly, into Hindustan by the eastern Aryans after
their separation from the European Aryans. (De Candolle,
Origin of Cultivated Plants)
The cultivation and preparation of flax are among the most
ancient of all textile industries, very distinct traces of their
FLAX
existence during the stone age being preserved to the present
day. " The use of flax," says Ferdinand Keller (Lake Dwellings
of Switzerland, translated by J. E. Lee), " reaches back to the
very earliest periods of civilization, and it was most extensively
and variously applied in the lake-dwellings, even in those of the
stone period. But of the mode in which it was planted, steeped,
heckled, cleansed and generally prepared for use, we can form
no idea any more than we can of the mode or tools employed by
the settlers in its cultivation. . . . Rough or unworked flax is
found in the lake-dwellings made into ' bundles, or what are
technically called heads, and, as much attention was given to
this last operation, it was perfectly clean and ready for use."
As to its applications at this early period, Keller remarks:
" Flax was the material for making lines and nets for fishing and
catching wild animals, cords for carrying the earthenware vessels
and other heavy objects; in fact, one can hardly imagine how
485
FIG. i. Flax Plant (Linum usitalissimum).
navigation could be carried on, or the lake-dwellings themselves
be erected, without the use of ropes and cords; and the erection
of memorial stones (menhirs, dolmens), at whichever era, and to
whatever people these monuments may belong, would be alto-
gether impracticable without the use of strong ropes."
Manufacture. That flax was extensively cultivated and was
regarded as of much importance at a very. early period in the
world's history there is abundant testimony. Especially in
ancient Egypt the fibre occupied a most important place, linen
having been there not only generally worn by all classes, but it
was the only material the priestly order was permitted to wear,
while it was most extensively used as wrappings for embalmed
bodies and for general purposes. In the Old Testament we are
told that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph " in vestures of fine linen "
(Gen. xlii. 42), and among the plagues of Egypt that of hail
destroyed the fiax and barley crops, " for the barley was in the
ear, and the flax was boiled " (Exod. ix. 31). Further, numerous
pictorial representations of flax culture and preparation exist
to the present day on the walls of tombs and in Egypt. Sir J.
G. Wilkinson in his description of ancient Egypt shows clearly
the great antiquity of the ordinary processes of preparing flax.
" At Beni Hassan," he says, " the mode of cultivating the plant,
in the same square beds now met with throughout Egypt (much
resembling our salt pans), the process of beating the stalks and
making them into ropes, and the manufacture of a piece of cloth
are distinctly pointed out." The preparation of the fibre as
conducted in Egypt is illustrated by Pliny, who says: " The
stalks themselves are immersed in water, warmed by the
heat of the sun, and are kept down by weights placed upon
them, for nothing is lighter than flax. The membrane, or rind,
becoming loose is a sign of their being sufficiently macerated.
They are then taken out and repeatedly turned over in the sun
until perfectly dried, and afterwards beaten by mallets on stone
slabs. That which is nearest the rind is called stupa [' tow '],
inferior to the inner fibres, and fit only for the wicks of lamps.
It is combed out with iron hooks until the rind is all removed.
The inner part 'is of a whiter and finer quality. Men are not
ashamed to prepare it " (Pliny, N.H. xix. i). For many ages,
even down to the early part of the uth century, Egyptian flax
occupied the foremost place in the commercial world, being sent
into all regions with which open intercourse was maintained.
Among Western nations it was, without any competitor, the
most important of all vegetable fibres till towards the close of
the i8th century, when, after a brief struggle, cotton took its
place as the supreme vegetable fibre of commerce.
Flax prospers most when grown upon land of firm texture
resting upon a moist subsoil. It does well to succeed oats or
potatoes, as it requires the soil to be in fresh condition without
being too rich. Lands newly broken up from pasture suit it
well, as these are generally freer from weeds than those that have
been long under tillage. It is usually inexpedient to apply
manure directly to the flax crop, as the tendency of this is to
produce over-luxuriance, and thereby to mar the quality of the
fibre, on which its value chiefly depends. For the same reason
it must be thickly seeded, the effect of this being to produce tall,
slender stems, free from branches. The land, having been
ploughed in autumn, is prepared for sowing by working it with
the grubber, harrow and roller, until a fine tilth is obtained.
On the smooth surface the seed is sown broadcast by hand or
machine, at the rate of 3 bushels per acre, and covered in the
same manner as clover seeds. It is advisable immediately to
hand-rake it with common hay-rakes, and thus to remove all
stones and clods, and to secure a uniform close cover of plants.
When these are about 2 to 3 in. long the crop must be carefully
hand-weeded. This is a tedious and expensive process, and
hence the importance of sowing the crop on land as free as
possible from weeds of all kinds. The weeders, faces to the wind,
move slowly on hands and knees, and should remove every vestige
of weed in order that the flax plants may receive the full benefit
of the land. When flax is cultivated primarily on account of
the fibre, the crop ought to be pulled before the capsules are
quite ripe, when they are just beginning to change from a green
to a pale-brown colour, and when the stalks of the plant have
become yellow throughout about two-thirds of their height.
The various operations through which the crop passes from
this point till flax ready for the market is produced are (i)
Pulling, (2) Rippling, (3) Retting, (4) Drying, (5) Rolling,
(6) Scutching.
Pulling and rippling may be dismissed very briefly. Flax is
always pulled up by the root, and under no circumstances is it
cut or shorn like cereal crops. The pulling ought to be done in
dry clear weather; and care is to be taken in this, as in all the
subsequent operations, to keep the root-ends even and the stalks
parallel. At the same time it is desirable to have, as far as
possible, stalks of equal length together, all these conditions
having considerable influence on the quality and appearance
of the finished sample. As a general rule the removal of the
bolls " or capsules by the process of rippling immediately
fellows the pulling, the operation being performed in the field;
but under some systems of cultivation, as, for example, the
Courtrai method, alluded to below, the crop is made up into
sheaves, dried and stacked, and is only boiled and retted in the
early part of the next ensuing season. The best rippler, or
apparatus for separating the seed capsules from the branches,
consists of a kind of comb having, set in a wooden frame, iron
teeth made of round-rod iron -j^ths of an inch asunder at
the bottom, and half an inch at the top, and 18 in. long, to
allow a sufficient spring, and save much breaking of flax. The
points should begin to taper 3 in. from the top. A sheet or other
cover being spread on the field, the apparatus is placed in the
middle of it, and two ripplers sitting opposite each other, with
4 86
FLAX
the machine between them, work at the same time. It is un-
advisable to ripple the flax so severely as to break or tear the
delicate fibres at the upper part of the stem. The two valuable
commercial products of the flax plant, the seeds and the stalk,
are separated at this point. We have here to do with the latter
only.
Retting or rotting is an operation of the greatest importance,
and one in connexion with which in recent years numerous
experiments have been made, and many projects and processes
put forth, with the view of remedying the defects of the primi-
tive system or altogether supplanting it. From the earliest times
two leading processes of retting have been practised, termed re-
spectively water-retting and dew-retting; and as no method
has yet been introduced which satisfactorily supersedes these
operations, they will first be described.
Water-retting. For this the process by which flax is generally
prepared pure soft water, free from iron and other materials
which might colour the fibre, is essential. Any water much
impregnated with lime is also specially objectionable. The dams
or ponds in which the operation is conducted are of variable size,
and usually between 4 and 5 ft. in depth. The rippled stalks
are tied in small bundles and packed, roots downwards, in the
dams till they are quite full; over the top of the upper layer
is placed a stratum of rushes and straw, or sods with the grassy
side downwards, and above all stones of sufficient weight to
keep the flax submerged. Under favourable circumstances a
process of fermentation should immediately be set up, which
soon makes itself manifest by the evolution of gaseous bubbles.
After a few days the fermentation subsides; and generally in
from ten days to two weeks the process ought to be complete.
The exact time, however, depends upon the weather and upon
the particular kind of water in which the flax is immersed.
The immersion itself is a simple matter; the difficulty lies in
deciding when the process is complete. If allowed to remain
under water too long, the fibre is weakened by what is termed
" over-retting," a condition which increases the amount of
cedilla in the scutching process; whilst " under-retting " leaves
part of the gummy or resinous matter in the material, which
hinders the subsequent process of manufacture. As the steeping
is such a critical operation, it is essential that the stalks be
frequently examined and tested as the process nears completion.
When it is found that the fibre separates readily from the woody
" shove " or core, the beets or small bundles are ready for remov-
ing from the dams. It is drained, and then spread, evenly and
equally, over a grassy meadow to dry. The drying, which takes
from a week to a fortnight, must be uniform, so that all the
fibres may spin equally well. To secure this uniformity, it is
necessary to turn the material over several times during the
process. It is ready for gathering when the core cracks and
separates easily from the fibre. At this point advantage is
taken of fine dry weather to gather up the flax, which is now
ready for scutching, but the fibre is improved by stocking
and stacking it for some time before it is taken to the scutching
mill.
Dew^retting is the process by which all the Archangel flax
and a large portion of that sent out from St Petersburg are pre-
pared. By this method the operation of steeping is entirely
dispensed with, and the flax is, immediately after pulling, spread
on the grass where it is under the influence of air, sunlight,
night-dews and rain. The process is tedious, the resulting fibre
is brown in colour, and it is said to be peculiarly liable to undergo
heating (probably owing to the soft heavy quality of the flax) if
exposed to moisture and kept close packed with little access of
air. Archangel flax is, however, peculiarly soft and silky in
structure, although in all probability water-retting would result
in a fibre as good or even better in quality.
The theory of retting, according to the investigations of J. Kolb,
is that a peculiar fermentation is set up under the influence
of heat and moisture, resulting in a change of the intercellular
substance pectose or an analogue of that body into pectin
and pectic acid. The former, being soluble, is left in the water;
but the latter, an insoluble body, is in part attached to the
fibres, from which it is only separated by changing into soluble
metapectic acid under the action of hot alkaline ley in the
subsequent process of bleaching.
To a large extent retting continues to be conducted in the
primitive fashions above described, although numerous and
persistent attempts have been made to improve upon it, or to
avoid the process altogether. The uniform result of all ex-
periments has only been to demonstrate the scientific soundness
of the ordinary process of water-retting, and all the proposed
improvements of recent times seek to obviate the tediousness,
difficulties and uncertainties of the process as carried on in the
open air. In the early part of the igth century much attention
was bestowed, especially in Ireland, on a process invented by
Mr James Lee. He proposed to separate the fibre by purely
mechanical means without any retting whatever; but after the
Irish Linen Board had expended many thousands of pounds
and much time in making experiments and in erecting his
machinery, his entire scheme ended in complete failure. About
the year 1851 Chevalier Claussen sought to revive a process of
" cottonizing " flax a method of proceeding which had been
suggested three-quarters of a century earlier. Claussen's process
consisted in steeping flax fibre or tow for twenty-four hours
in a weak solution of caustic soda, next boiling it for about two
hours in a similar solution, and then saturating it in a solution
containing 5 % of carbonate of soda, after which it was immersed
in a vat containing water acidulated with 3% of sulphuric
acid. The action of the acid on the carbonate of soda with which
the fibre was impregnated caused the fibre to split up into a
fine cotton-like mass, which it was intended to manufacture in
the same manner as cotton. A process to turn good flax into
bad cotton had, however, on the face of it, not much to recom-
mend it to public acceptance; and Claussen's process therefore
remains only as an interesting and suggestive experiment.
The only modification of water-retting which has hitherto
endured the test of prolonged experiment, and taken a firm
position as a distinct improvement, is the warm-water retting
patented in England in 1846 by an American, Robert B. Schenck.
For open pools and dams Schenck substitutes large wooden vats
under cover, into which the flax is tightly packed in an upright
position. The water admitted into the tanks is raised to and
maintained at a temperature of from 75 to 95 F. during the
whole time the flax is in steep. In a short time a brisk fermenta-
tion is set up, gases at first of pleasant odour, but subsequently
becoming very repulsive, being evolved, and producing a frothy
scum over the surface of the water. The whole process occupies
only from 50 to 60 hours. A still further improvement, due
to Mr Pownall, comes into operation at this point, which
consists of immediately passing the stalks as they are taken
out of the vats between heavy rollers over which a stream
of pure water is kept flowing. By this means, not only is all
the slimy glutinous adherent matter thoroughly separated, but
the subsequent processes of breaking and scutching are much
facilitated.
A process of retting by steam was introduced by W. Watt of
Glasgow in 1852, and subsequently modified and improved by
J. Buchanan. The system possessed the advantages of rapidity,
being completed in about ten hours, and freedom from any
noxious odour; but it yielded only a harsh, ill-spinning fibre,
and consequently failed to meet the sanguine expectations of
its promoters.
In connexion with improvements in retting, Mr Michael
Andrews, secretary of the Belfast Flax Supply Association,
made some suggestions and experiments which deserve close
attention. In a paper contributed to the International Flax
Congress at Vienna in 1873 he entered into details regarding an
experimental rettery he had formed, with the view of imitating
by artificial means the best results obtained by the ordinary
methods. In brief, Mr Andrews' method consists in introducing
water at the proper temperature into the retting vat, and main-
taining that temperature by keeping the air of the chamber
at a proper degree of heat. By this means the flax is kept at a
uniform temperature with great certainty, since even should the
FLAX
487
heat of the air vary considerably through neglect, the water in the
vat only by slow degrees follows such fluctuations. " It may be
remarked," says Mr Andrews, " that the superiority claimed
for this method of retting flax over what is known as the
'hot- water steeping' is uniformity of temperature; in fact
the experiments have demonstrated that an absolute control
can be exercised over the means adopted to produce the
artificial climate in which the vats containing the flax are
situated."
Several other attempts have been made with a view of obtain-
ing a quick and practical method of retting flax. The one by
Messrs Doumer and Deswarte appears to have been well received
in France, but in Ireland the invention of Messrs Loppens and
Deswarte has recently received the most attention. The
apparatus consists of a tank with two chambers, the partition
being perforated. The flax is placed in the upper chamber and
covered by two sets of rods or beams at right angles to each other.
Fresh water is allowed to enter the lower chamber immediately
under the perforated partition. As the tank fills, the water enters
the upper chamber and carries with it the flax and the beams,
the latter being prevented from rising too high. The soluble
substances are dissolved by the water, and the liquid thus formed
being heavier than water, sinks to the bottom of the tank
where it is allowed to escape through an outlet. By this arrange-
ment the flax is almost continually immersed in fresh water, a
condition which hastens the retting. The flow of the liquids,
in and out, can be so arranged that the motion is very slow,
and hence the liquids of different densities do not mix. When the
operation is completed, the whole of the water is run off, and the
flax remains on the perforated floor, where it drains thoroughly
before being removed to dry.
The Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for
Ireland, and the Belfast Flax Supply Association, have jointly
made some experiments with this method, and the following
extract from the Association's report for 1905 shows the success
which attended their efforts:
" By desire of the department (which has taken up the position
of an impartial critic of the experiment) a quantity of flax straw was
divided into two equal lots. One part was retted at Millisle by the
patent-system of Loppens and Deswarte; the other was sent to
Courtrai and steeped in the Lys. Both lots when retted and scutched
were examined by an inspector of the department and by several
flax spinners. That which was retted at Millisle was pronounced
superior to the other "...
" To summarise results up to date
1. It has been proved that flax can be thoroughly dried in
the field in Ireland.
2. That the seed can be saved, and is of first quality.
3. That the system of retting (Loppens and Deswarte's
patent) is at least equal to the Lys, as to quality and
yield of fibre produced."
Since these results appear to be satisfactory, it is natural to
expect further attempts with the same object of supplanting
the ordinary steeping. A really good chemical, mechanical
or other method would probably be the means of reviving the
flax industry in the remote parts of the British Isles.
Scutching is the process by which the fibre is freed from its
woody core and rendered fit for the market. For ordinary water-
retted flax two operations are required, first breaking and then
scutching, and these are done either by hand labour or by means
of small scutching or lint mills, driven either by water or steam
power. Hand labour, aided by simple implements, is still much
used in continental countries; also in some parts of Ireland
where labour is cheap or when very fine material is desired;
but the use of scutching mills is now very general, these being
more economical. The breaking is done by passing the stalks
between grooved or fluted rollers of different pitches; these
rollers, of which there may be from 5 to 7 pairs, are sometimes
arranged to work alternately forwards and backwards in order to
thoroughly break the woody material or " boon " of the straw,
while the broken " shoves " are beaten out by suspending the
fibre in a machine fitted with a series of revolving blades, which,
striking violently against the flax, shake out the bruised and
broken woody cores. A great many modified scutching machines
and processes have been proposed and introduced with the view
of promoting economy of labour and improving the turn-out of
fibre, both in respect of cleanness and in producing the least
proportion of codilla or scutching tow.
The celebrated Courtrai flax of Belgium is the most valuable
staple in the market, on account of its fineness, strength and
particularly bright colour. There the flax is dried in the field,
and housed or stacked during the winter succeeding its growth,
and in the spring of the following year it is retted in crates sunk
in the sluggish waters of the river Lys. After the process has
proceeded a certain length, the crates are withdrawn, and the
sheaves taken out and stocked. It is thereafter once more tied
up, placed in the crates, and sunk in the river to complete the
retting process; but this double steeping is not invariably
practised. When finally taken out, it is unloosed and put up in
cones, instead of being grassed, and when quite dry it is stored
for some time previous to undergoing the operation of scutching.
In all operations the greatest care is taken, and the cultivators
being peculiarly favoured as to soil, climate and water, Courtrai
flax is a staple of unapproached excellence.
An experiment made by Professor Hodges of Belfast on 7770 lb
of air-dried flax yielded the following results. By rippling he
separated 1946 lb of bolls which yielded 910 lb of seed. The 5824 lb
(52 cwt.) of flax straw remaining lost in steeping 13 cwt., leaving
39 cwt. of retted stalks, and from that 6 cwt. I qr. 2 lb (702 tb) of
finished flax was procured. Thus the weight of the fibre was equal
to about 9 % of the dried flax with the bolls, 12 % of the boiled straw,
and over 16% of the retted straw. One hundred tons treated by
Schenck's method gave 33 tons bolls, with 27-50 tons of loss in steep-
ing; 32-13 tons were separated in scutching, leaving 5-90 tons of
finished fibre, with 1-47 tons of tow and pluckings. The following
analysis of two varieties of heckled Belgian flax is by Dr Hugo
Miiller (Hoffmann's Berichte uber die Entwickelung der chemischen
Industrie) :
Ash . . 0-70
Water . . 8-65
Extractive matter 3-65
Fat and wax . 2-39
Cellulose . . 82-57
Intercellular substance and pectose bodies 2-74
According to the determinations of Julius Wiesner (Die Rohstoffe
des Pflanzenreiches), the fibre ranges in length from 20 to 140 centi-
metres, the length of the individual cells being from 2-0 to 4-0
millimetres, and the limits of breadth between 0-012 and 0-025 mm.,
the average being 0-016 mm.
Among the circumstances which have retarded improvement
both in the growing and preparing of flax, the fact that, till
comparatively recent times, the whole industry was conducted
only on a domestic scale has had much influence. At no very
remote date it was the practice in Scotland for every small
farmer and cotter not only to grow " lint " or flax in small
patches, but to have it retted, scutched, cleaned, spun, woven,
bleached and finished entirely within the limits of his own
premises, and all by members or dependents of the family.
The same practice obtained and still largely prevails in other
countries. Thus the flax industry was long kept away from the
most powerful motives to apply to it labour-saving devices,
and apart from the influence of scientific inquiry for the improve-
ment of methods and processes. As cotton came to the front,
just at the time when machine-spinning and power-loom weaving
were being introduced, the result was that in many localities
where flax crops had been grown for ages, the culture gradually
drooped and ultimately ceased. The linen manufacture by
degrees ceased to be a domestic industry, and began to centre
in and become the characteristic factory employment of special
localities, which depended, however, for their supply of raw
material primarily on the operations of small growers, working,
for the most part, on the poorer districts of remote thinly
populated countries. The cultivation of the plant and the
preparation of the fibre have therefore, even at the present day,
not come under the influence (except in certain favoured localities)
of scientific knowledge and experience.
estivation. The approximate number of acres (1905) under
cultivation in the principal flax-growing countries is as
follows:
1-32
10-70
6-02
2-37
7I-50
9-41
FLAX
Russia
Caucasia
Austria
Italy
Poland
Rumania
Germany
France
Belgium
Hungary
Ireland
Holland
3,500,000 acres.
450,000
175,000
120,000
95,000
80,000
75,000
65,000
53,ooo
50,000
46,000
38,000
Although the amount grown in Russia exceeds considerably
the combined quantity grown in the rest of the above-mentioned
countries, the quality of the fibre is inferior. The fibre is culti-
vated in the Russian provinces of Archangel, Courland, Esthonia,
Kostroma, Livonia, Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Vyatka,
Vitebsk, Vologda and Yaroslav or Jaroslav, while the bulk of the
material is exported through the Baltic ports. Riga and St
Petersburg (including Cronstadt) are the principal ports, but
flax is also exported from Revel, Windau, Pernau, Libau,
Narva and Konigsberg. Sometimes it is exported from
Archangel, but this port is frost-bound for a great period
of the year; moreover, most of the districts are nearer to the
Baltic.
The raw flax is almost invariably known by the same name as
the district in which it is grown, and it is further classified by
The marks in the Crown flaxes have the following signification:
K means Crown and is usually the base mark.
H Light and represents a rise of about
P Picked
G Grey
S Superior
W White
Z Zins
Each additional mark means a rise in the price, but it must be
understood that it is quite possible for a quality denoted by two
letters to be more valuable than one indicated by three or more,
since every mark has not the same value.
If we take 25 as the value of the base mark, the value per ton for
the different groups would be:
K . . . 25 HSPK . . . 33
HK . . . 26 GSPK . . . 35
PK . . . 28 WSPK . . 36
HPK ... 229 ZK . . . 35
GPK . . . 31 HZK . . . 36
SPK . . . 32 GZK . . . 38, &c.
The Hoffs flaxes are reckoned in a similar way. Here H is for
Hoffs, D for Drieband, P for picked, F for fine, S for superior, and
R for Risten. In addition to these marks, an X may appear before,
after or in both places. With 20 as base mark we have:
HD . . . 20 per ton.
PHD . . . 23
FPHD . . . 26
SFPHD . . . 29
XHDX . . . 32
XRX . . . 35
The following Prices, taken from the Dundee Year Books, show the Change in Price of a few well-known Varieties.
Dec. 1897.
Dec. 1898.
Dec. 1899.
Dec. 1900.
Dec. 1901.
Dec. 1902.
Dec. 1903.
Dec. 1904.
Dec. 1905.
Dec. 1906.
Riga
SPK . .
23i
21 to 22
28 to 32
42
28 to 32
32
39
33
35
32
XHDX . .
27
26i
32 i to 33
43i
34
35
42
34
36
33
W . .
16 to i6J
15! to 16
22j to 24
31
18 to 19
22
29
23
24
24
St Petersburg
Bajetsky .
28 to 29
26 to 27
32 to 32 J
46
37
33
49
36
42
38
Jaropol .
24 to 25
23 to 23*
30
42
32
30
42
33
35
33
Tows
Mologin .
Novgorod
24 to 24}
'23! to24i
23 to23i
'23
24$ to 25
1 26 to 26J
31}
33
Si
Si
42
41
Si
34
37
32*
34}
Archangel
J and J tow .
25
24 to 24!
26 to 27
32
31
32
41
3ii
32}
31
2nd Codilla .
25
24 to24i
25J tO 26
32
31
32
41
32
33
3i
special marks. The following names amongst others are given to
the fibre: Archangel, Bajetsky, Courish, Dorpat, Drogobusher,
Dunaberg, Fabrichnoi, Fellin, Gjatsk, Glazoff, Griazourtz,
Iwashkower, Jaransk, Janowitz, Jaropol, Jaroslav, Kama,
Kashin, Konigsberg, Kostroma, Kotelnitch, Kowns, Krasno-
holm, Kurland (Courland), Latischki, Livonian Crowns, Mal-
muish, Marienberg, Mochenetz, Mologin, Newel, Nikolsky,
Nolinsk, Novgorod, Opotchka, Ostroff, Ostrow, Otbornoy,
Ouglitch, Pernau, Pskoff, Revel, Riga, Rjeff, St Petersburg,
Seretz, Slanitz, Slobodskoi, Smolensk, Sytcheffka, Taroslav,
Tchesna, Totma, Twer, Ustjuga, Viatka, Vishni, Vologda,
Werro, Wiasma, Witebsk.
These names indicate the particular district in which the flax
has been grown, but it is more general to group the material
into classes such as Livonian Crowns, Rija Crowns, Hoffs,
Wracks, Drieband, Zins, Ristens, Pernau, Archangel, &c.
The quotations for the various kinds of flaxes are made with one
or other special mark termed a base mark; this usually, but not
necessarily, indicates the lowest quality. The September-October
1906 quotations appeared as under:
Livonian . . . basis K 26 to 27 per ton.
Hoffs HD 21 to '
Pernau . . . D 28 to
Dorpat D 32 to
cleaned.
It will, of course, be understood that the base mark is subject to
variation, the ruling factors being the amount of crop, quality and
demand.
1 8 and 2, which means 80 % of one quality and 20 % of
another. Sometimes other proportions obtain, while it is not
unusual to have quotations for flaxes containing four different
kinds.
Of the lower qualities of Riga flax the following may be named :
W, Wrack flax.
WPW, White picked wrack.
D, Dreiband (Threeband).
LD, Livonian Dreiband.
SD, Slanitz Dreiband.
PW, Picked wrack flax.
GPW, Grey picked wrack flax.
PD, Picked Dreiband flax.
PLD, Picked Livonian Dreiband.
PSD, Picked Slanitz Dreiband.
The last-named (SD and PSD) are dew-retted qualities shipped
from Riga either as Lithuanian Slanitz, Wellish Slanitz or
Wiasma Slanitz, showing from what district they come, as there
are differences in the quality of the produce of each district. The
lowest quality of Riga flax is marked DW, meaning Dreiband
Wrack.
Another Russian port from which a large quantity of flax is im-
ported is Pernau, where the marks in use are comparatively few.
The leading marks are:
LOD, indicating Low Ordinary Dreiband (Threeband).
OD, Ordinary Dreiband.
D,
HD,
R,
G,
M,
Dreiband.
Light Dreiband.
Risten.
Cut.
Marienburg.
Pernau flax is shipped as Livonian and Fellin sorts, the latter being
the best.
Both dew-retted and water-retted flax are exported fromSt Peters-
burg, the dew-retted or Slanitz flax being marked 1st, 2nd, 3rd
and 4th Crown, also Zebrack No. I and Zebrack No. 2, while all the
Archangel flax is dew-retted. ,
Some idea of the extent of the Russian flax trade may be gathered
from the fact that 233,000 tons were exported in 1905. Out of this
quantity a little over 53,000 tons came to the United Kingdom.
The chief British ports for the landing of flax are : Belfast, Dundee,
Leith, Montrose, London and Arbroath, the two former being the
chief centres of the flax industry.
The following table, taken from ths annual report of the Belfast
Flax Supply Association, shows the quantities received from all
sources into the different parts of the United Kingdom :
FLAXMAN
489
Year.
Imports to
the United
Kingdom.
Imports to
Ireland.
Imports to
England and
Scotland.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
1895
102,622
33.506
67,116
1896
95.199
36,650
58,549
.1897
98,802
37,715
61,087
1898
97,253
34,44
62,813
1899
99,052
40,145
58.907
1900
7L586
31,563
40,023
1901
75,565
28,785
46,780
1902
73.6II
29,727
43,884
1903
94,701
38,168
56,533
1904
74.917
33,024
41.893
1905
90,098
40,063
50,035
The extent of flax cultivation in Ireland is considerable, but the
acreage has been gradually diminishing during late years. In 1864
it reached the maximum, 301,693 acres; next year it fell to 251,433.
After 1869 it declined, there being 229,252 acres in flax crop that
year, and only 122,003 in 1872. From this year to 1889 it fluctuated
considerably, reaching 157,534 acres in 1880 and dropping to
89,225 acres in 1884. Then for five successive years the acreage
was above 108,000. From 1890 to 1905 it only once reached 100,000,
while the average in 1903, 1904 and 1905 was a little over 45,000
acres. (T. Wo.)
FLAXMAN, JOHN (1755-1826), English sculptor and draughts-
man, was born on the 6th of July 1755, during a temporary
residence of his parents at York. The name John was hereditary
in the family, having been borne by his father after a forefather
who, according to the family tradition, had fought on the side of
parliament at Naseby, and afterwards settled as a carrier or
farmer, or both, in Buckinghamshire. John Flaxman, the father
of the sculptor, carried on with repute the trade of a moulder
and seller of plaster casts at the sign of the Golden Head, New
Street, Covent Garden, London. His wife's maiden name was
See, and John was their second son. Within six months of his
birth the family returned to London, and in his father's back
shop he spent an ailing childhood. His figure was high-shouldered
and weakly, the head very large for the body. His mother
having died about his tenth year, his father took a second wife,
of whom all we know is that her maiden name was Gordon, and
that she proved a thrifty housekeeper and kind stepmother.
Of regular schooling the boy must have had some, since he is
reputed as having remembered in after life the tyranny of some
pedagogue of his youth; but his principal education he picked
up for himself at home. He early took delight in drawing and
modelling from his father's stock-in-trade, and early endeavoured
to understand those counterfeits of classic art by the light of
translations from classic literature.
Customers of his father took a fancy to the child, and helped
him with books, advice, and presently with commissions. The
two special encouragers of his youth were the painter Romney,
and a cultivated clergyman, Mr Mathew, with his wife, in whose
house in Rathbone Place the young Flaxman used to meet the
best " blue-stocking " society of those days, and, among
associates of his own age, the artists Blake and Stothard, who
became his closest friends. Before this he had begun to work
with precocious success in clay as well as in pencil. At twelve
years old he won the first prize of the Society of Arts for a medal,
and became a public exhibitor in the gallery of the Free Society
of Artists; at fifteen he won a second prize from the Society of
Arts and began to exhibit in the Royal Academy, then in the
second year of its existence. In the same year, 1770, he entered
as an Academy student and won the silver medal. But all these
successes were followed by a discomfiture. In the competition
for the gold medal of the Academy in 1772, Flaxman, who had
made sure of victory, was defeated, the prize being adjudged
by the president, Sir Joshua Reynolds, to another competitor
named Engleheart. But this reverse proved no discouragement,
and indeed seemed to have had a wholesome effect in curing
the successful lad of a tendency to conceit and self-sufficiency
which made Thomas Wedgwood say of him in 1775: "It is but
a few years since he was a most supreme coxcomb."
He continued to ply his art diligently, both as a student in the
schools and as an exhibitor in the galleries of the Academy,
occasionally also attempting diversions into the sister art of
painting. To the Academy he contributed a wax model of
Neptune (1770); four portrait models in wax (1771); a terra-
cotta bust, a wax figure of a child, a figure of History (1772);
a figure of Comedy, and a relief of a Vestal (1773). During these
years he received a commission from a friend of the Mathew
family, for a statue of Alexander. But by heroic and ideal work
of this class he could, of course, make no regular livelihood. The
means of such a livelihood, however, presented themselves in
his twentieth year, when he first received employment from
Josiah Wedgwood and his partner Bentley, as a modeller of
classic and domestic friezes, plaques, ornamental vessels and
medallion portraits, in those varieties of " jasper " and " basalt "
ware which earned in their day so great a reputation for the
manufacturers who had conceived and perfected the invention.
In the same year, 1775, John Flaxman the elder moved from
New Street, Covent Garden, to a more commodious house in
the Strand (No. 420). For twelve years, from his twentieth to
his thirty-second (1775-1787), Flaxman subsisted chiefly by his
work for the firm of Wedgwood. It may be urged, of the minute
refinements of figure outline and modelling which these manu-
facturers aimed at in their ware, that they were not the qualities
best suited to such a material; or it may be regretted that the
gifts of an artist like Flaxman should have been spent so long
upon such a minor and half-mechanical art of household decora-
tion; but the beauty of the product it would be idle to deny, or
the value of the training which the sculptor by this practice
acquired in the delicacies and severities of modelling in low
relief and on a minute scale.
By 1780 Flaxman had begun to earn something in another
branch of his profession, which was in the future to furnish
his chief source of livelihood, viz. the sculpture of monuments for
the dead. Three of the earliest of such monuments by his hand
are those of Chatterton in the church of St Mary Redcliffe at
Bristol (1780), of Mrs Morley in Gloucester cathedral (1784),
and of the Rev. T. and Mrs Margaret Ball in the cathedral at
Chichester (1785). During the rest of Flaxman's career memorial
bas-reliefs of the same class occupied a principal part of his
industry; they are to be found scattered in many churches
throughout the length and breadth of England, and in them the
finest qualities of his art are represented. The best are admirable
for pathos and simplicity, and for the alliance of a truly Greek
instinct for rhythmical design and composition with that spirit
of domestic tenderness and innocence which is one of the secrets
of the modern soul.
In 1782, being twenty-seven years old, Flaxman was married
to Anne Denman, and had in her the best of helpmates until
almost his life's end. She was a woman of attainments in letters
and to some extent in art, and the devoted companion of her
husband's fortunes and of his travels. They set up house at first
in Wardour Street, and lived an industrious life, spending their
summer holidays once and again in the house of the hospitable
poet Hayley, at Eartham in Sussex. After five years, in 1787,
they found themselves with means enough to travel, and set out
for Rome, where they took up their quarters in the Via Felice.
Records more numerous and more consecutive of Flaxman's
residence in Italy exist in the shape of drawings and studies than
in the shape of correspondence. He soon ceased modelling
himself for Wedgwood, but continued to direct the work of other
modellers employed for the manufacture at Rome. He had
intended to return after a stay of a little more than two years,
but was detained by a commission for a marble group of a Fury
of Athamas, a commission attended in the sequel with circum-
stances of infinite trouble and annoyance, from the notorious
Comte-Evfique, Frederick Hervey, earl of Bristol and bishop of
Derry. He did not, as things fell out, return until the summer
of 1794, after an absence of seven years, having in the meantime
executed another ideal commission (a " Cephalus and Aurora ")
for Mr Hope, and having sent home models for several sepulchral
monuments, including one in relief for the poet Collins in
Chichester cathedral, and one in the round for Lord Mansfield
in Westminster Abbey.
490
FLAXMAN
But what gained for Flaxman in this interval a general and
European fame was not his work in sculpture proper, but those
outline designs to the poets, in which he showed not only to what
purpose he had made his own the principles of ancient design
in vase-paintings and bas-reliefs, but also by what a natural
affinity, better than all mere learning, he was bound to the
ancients and belonged to them. The designs for the Iliad and
Odyssey were commissioned by Mrs Hare Naylor; those for
Dante by Mr Hope; those for Aeschylus by Lady Spencer;
they were all engraved by Piroli, not without considerable loss
of the finer and more sensitive qualities of Flaxman's own lines.
During their homeward journey the Flaxmans travelled
through central and northern Italy. On their return they took
a house, which they never afterwards left, in Buckingham Street,
Fitzroy Square. Immediately afterwards we find the sculptor
publishing a spirited protest against the scheme already enter-
tained by the Directory, and carried out five years later by
Napoleon, of equipping at Paris a vast central museum of art
with the spoils of conquered Europe.
The record of Flaxman's life is henceforth an uneventful record
of private affection and contentment, and of happy and tenacious
industry, with reward not brilliant but sufficient, and repute not
loud but loudest in the mouths of those whose praise was best
worth having Canova, Schlegel, Fuseli. He took for pupil a
son of Hayley's, who presently afterwards sickened and died.
In 1 797 he was made an associate of the Royal Academy. Every
year he exhibited work of one class or another: occasionally a
public monument in the round, like those of Paoli (1798), or
Captain Montague (1802) for Westminster Abbey, of Sir William
Jones for St Mary's, Oxford (1797-1801), of Nelson or Howe for
St Paul's; more constantly memorials for churches, with symbolic
Acts of Mercy or illustrations of Scripture texts, both commonly
in low relief [Miss Morley, Chertsey (1797), Miss Cromwell,
Chichester (1800), Mrs Knight, Milton, Cambridge (1802), and
many more]; and these pious labours he would vary from time
to time with a classical piece like those of his earliest predilection.
Soon after his election as associate, he published a scheme, half
grandiose, half childish, for a monument to be erected on Green-
wich Hill, in the shape of a Britannia 200 ft. high, in honour of
the naval victories of his country. In 1800 he was elected full
Academician. During the peace of Amiens he went to Paris to
see the despoiled treasures collected there, but bore himself
according to the spirit of protest that was in him. The next
event which makes any mark in his life is his appointment to a
chair specially created for him by the Royal Academy the
chair of Sculpture: this took place in 1810. We have ample
evidence of his thoroughness and judiciousness as a teacher in
the Academy schools, and his professorial lectures have been
often reprinted. With many excellent observations, and with
one singular merit that of doing justice, as in those days
justice was hardly ever done, to the sculpture of the medieval
schools these lectures lack point and felicity of expression,
just as they are reported to have lacked fire in delivery, and are
somewhat heavy reading. The most important works that
occupied Flaxman in the years next following this appointment
were the monument to Mrs Baring in Micheldever church, the
richest of all his monuments in relief (1805-1811); that for the
Worsley family at Campsall church, Yorkshire, which is the next
richest; those to Sir Joshua Reynolds for St Paul's (1807);
to Captain Webbe for India (1810); to Captains Walker and
Beckett for Leeds (1811); to Lord Cornwallis for Prince of
Wales's Island (1812); and to Sir John Moore for Glasgow (1813).
At this time the antiquarian world was much occupied with the
vexed question of the merits of the Elgin marbles, and Flaxman
was one of those whose evidence before the parliamentary
commission had most weight in favour of the purchase which
was ultimately effected in 1816.
After his Roman period he produced for a good many years
no outline designs for the engraver except three for Cowper's
translations of the Latin poems of Milton (1810). Other sets
of outline illustrations drawn about the same time, but not
published, were one to the Pilgrim's Progress, and one to a
Chinese tale in verse, called " The Casket," which he wrote to
amuse his womenkind. In 1817 we find him returning to his
old practice of classical outline illustrations and publishing the
happiest of all his series in that kind, the designs to Hesiod,
excellently engraved by the sympathetic hand of Blake. Im-
mediately afterwards he was much engaged designing for the
goldsmiths a testimonial cup in honour of John Kemble, and
following that, the great labour of the famous and beautiful
(though quite un-Homeric) " Shield of Achilles." Almost at the
same time he undertook a frieze of " Peace, Liberty and Plenty,"
for the duke of Bedford's sculpture gallery at Woburn, and an
heroic group of Michael overthrowing Satan, for Lord Egremont's
house at Petworth. His literary industry at the same time is
shown by several articles on art and archaeology contributed
to Rees's Encyclopaedia (1819-1820).
In 1820 Mrs Flaxman died, after a first warning from paralysis
six years earlier. Her younger sister, Maria Denman, and the
sculptor's own sister, Maria Flaxman, remained in his house,
and his industry was scarcely at all relaxed. In 1822 he
delivered at the Academy a lecture in memory of his old friend
and generous fellow-craftsman, Canova, then lately dead;
in 1823 he received from A. W. von Schlegel a visit of which
that writer has left us the record. From an illness occurring
soon after this he recovered sufficiently to resume both work
and exhibition, but on the 3rd of December 1826 he caught cold
in church, and died four days later, in his seventy-second year.
Among a few intimate associates, he left a memory singularly
dear; having been in companionship, although susceptible and
obstinate when his religious creed a devout Christianity with
Swedenborgian admixtures was crossed or slighted, yet in other
things genial and sweet-tempered beyond most men, full of
modesty and playfulness and withal of a homely dignity, a true
friend and a kind master, a pure and blameless spirit.
Posterity will doubt whether it was the fault of Flaxman or
of his age, which in England offered neither training nor much
encouragement to a sculptor, that he is weakest when he is
most ambitious, and most inspired when he makes the least
effort; but so it is. Not merely does he fail when he seeks to
illustrate the intensity of Dante, or to rival the tumultuousness
of Michelangelo to be intense or tumultuous he was never
made; but he fails, it may almost be said, in proportion as his
work is elaborate and far carried, and succeeds in proportion as
it is partial and suggestive. Of his completed ideal sculptures,
the " St Michael " at Petworth is the best, and is indeed admirably
composed from all points of view; but it lacks fire and force,
and it lacks the finer touches of the chisel; a little bas-relief like
the diploma piece of the " Apollo " and " Marpessa " in the Royal
Academy compares with it favourably. This is one of the very
few things which he is recorded to have executed in the marble
entirely with his own hand; ordinarily he entrusted the finishing
work of the chisel to the Italian workmen in his employ, and
was content with the smooth mechanical finish which they
imitated from the Roman imitations (themselves often reworked
at the Renaissance) of Greek originals. Of Flaxman's com-
plicated monuments in the round, such as the three in West-
minster Abbey and the four in St Paul's, there is scarcely one
which has not something heavy and infelicitous in the arrange-
ment, and something empty and unsatisfactory in the surface
execution. But when we come to his simple monuments in
relief, in these we find almost always a far finer quality. The
truth is that he did not thoroughly understand composition on
the great scale and in the round, but he thoroughly understood
relief, and found scope in it for his remarkable gifts of harmonious
design, and tender, grave and penetrating feeling. But if we
would see even the happiest of his conceptions at their best,
we must study them, not in the finished marble but rather in
the casts from his studio sketches ("marred though they have been
by successive coats of paint intended for their protection) of
which a comprehensive collection is preserved in the Flaxman
gallery at University College. And the same is true of his
happiest efforts in the classical and poetical vein, like the well-
known relief of " Pandora conveyed to Earth by Mercury." Nay.
FLEA FLECHIER
491
going farther back still among the rudiments and first concep-
tions of his art, we can realize the most essential charm of his
genius in the study, not of his modelled work at all, but of his
sketches in pen and wash on paper. Of these the principal
public collections are at University College, in the British
Museum, and the Victoria & Albert Museum; many others are
dispersed in public and private cabinets. Every one knows the
excellence of the engraved designs to Homer, Dante, Aeschylus
and Hesiod, in all cases save when the designer aims at that which
he cannot hit, the terrible or the grotesque. To know Flaxman
at his best it is necessary to be acquainted not only with the
original studies for such designs as these (which, with the excep-
tion of the Hesiod series, are far finer than the engravings), but
still more with those almost innumerable studies from real life
which he was continually producing with pen, tint or pencil.
These are the most delightful and suggestive sculptor's notes in
existence; in them it was his habit to set down the leading and
expressive lines, and generally no more, of every group that
struck his fancy. There are groups of Italy and London,
groups of the parlour and the nursery, of the street, the
garden and the gutter; and of each group the artist knows
how to seize at once the structural and the spiritual secret,
expressing happily the- value and suggestiveness, for his art
of sculpture, of the contacts, intervals, interlacements and
balancings of the various figures in any given group, and not
less happily the charm of the affections which link the figures
together and inspire their gestures.
The materials for the life of Flaxman are scattered in various bio-
graphical and other publications; the principal are the following:
An anonymous sketch in the EuropeanMagazine for 1823; an anony-
mous " Brief Memoir," prefixed to Flaxman' s Lectures (ed. 1829, and
reprinted in subsequent editions) ; the chapter in Allan Cunningham's
Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters, &c., vol. iii. ; notices in
the Life of Nollekens, by John Thomas Smith ; in the Life of Josiah
Wedgwood, by Miss G. Meteyard (London, 1865); in the Diaries and
Reminiscences of H. Crabbe Robinson (London, 1869), the latter an
authority of great importance ; in the Livesol Stothard, by Mrs Bray,
of Constable, by Leslie, of Watson, by Dr Lonsdale, and of Blake, by
Messrs Gilchrist and Rossetti ; a series of illustrated essays, princi-
pally on the monumental sculpture of Flaxman, in the Art Journal
for 1867 and 1868, by Mr G. F. Teniswood; Essays in English Art,
by Frederick Wedmore ; The Drawings of Flaxman, in 32 plates,
with Descriptions, and an Introductory Essay on the Life and Genius
of Flaxman, by Sidney Colvin (London, 1876); and the article
" Flaxman " in the Dictionary of National Biography. (S. C.)
FLEA (O. Enj. fleah, or flea, cognate with flee, to run away
from, to take flight), a name typically applied to Pulex irritans,
a well-known blood-sucking insect-parasite of man and other
mammals, remarkable for its powers of leaping, and nearly
cosmopolitan. In ordinary language the name is used for any
species of Siphonaptera (otherwise known as Aphaniptera) ,
which, though formerly regarded as a suborder of Diptera
(q.v.), are now considered to be a separate order of insects. All
Siphonaptera, of which more than 100 species are known, are
parasitic on mammals or birds. The majority of the species
belong to the family Pulicidae, of which P. irritans may be taken
as the type; but the order also includes the Sarcopsyllidae, the
females of which fix themselves firmly to their host, and the
Ceralopsyllidae, or bat-fleas.
Fleas are wingless insects, with a laterally compressed body,
small and indistinctly separated head, and short thick antennae
situated in cavities somewhat behind and above the simple eyes,
which are always minute and sometimes absent. The structure
of the mouth-parts is different from that seen in any other insects.
The actual piercing organs are the mandibles, while the upper
lip or labrum forms a sucking tube. The maxillae are not pierc-
ing organs, and their function is to protect the mandibles and
labrum and separate the hairs or feathers of the host. Maxillary
and labial palpi are also present, and the latter, together with
the labrum or lower lip, form the rostrum.
Fleas are oviparous, and undergo a very complete metamor-
phosis. The footless larvae are elongate, worm-like and very
active; they feed upon almost any kind of waste animal matter,
and when full-grown form a silken cocoon. The human flea is
considerably exceeded in size by certain other species found
upon much smaller hosts; thus the European Hyslrichopsylla
talpae, a parasite of the mole, shrew and other small mammals,
attains a length of sJ millimetres; another large species infests
the Indian porcupine. Of the Sarcopsyllidae the best known
species is the " jigger " or " chigoe " (Dermatophilus penetrans),
indigenous in tropical South America and introduced into West
Africa during the second half of last century. Since then this
pest has spread across the African continent and even reached
Madagascar. The impregnated female jigger burrows into the
feet of men and dogs, and becomes distended with eggs until
its abdomen attains the size and appearance of a small pea.
If in extracting the insect the abdomen be ruptured, serious
trouble may ensue from the resulting inflammation. At least
four species of fleas (including Pulex irritans) which infest the
common rat are known to bite man, and are believed to be the
active agents in the transmission of plague from rats to human
beings. (E. E. A.)
FLECHE (French for " arrow "), the term generally used in
French architecture for a spire, but more especially employed
to designate the timber -spire covered with lead, which was
erected over the intersection of the roofs over nave and transepts;
sometimes these were small and unimportant, but in cathedrals
they were occasionally of large dimensions, as in the fleche of
Notre-Dame, Paris, where it is nearly 100 ft. high; this, however,
is exceeded by the example of Amiens cathedral, which measures
148 ft. from its base on the cresting to its finial.
FLECHIER, ESPRIT (1632-1710), French preacher and author,
bishop of Nlmes, was born at Pernes, department of Vaucluse,
on the loth of June 1632. He was brought up at Tarascon by
his uncle, Hercule Audiffret, superior of the Congregation des
Doctrinaires, and afterwards entered the order. On the death of
his uncle, however, he left it, owing to the strictness of its rules,
and went to Paris, where he devoted himself to writing poetry.
His French poems met with little success, but a description in
Latin verse of a tournament (carrousel, circus regius), given
by Louis XIV. in 1662, brought him a great reputation. He
subsequently became tutor to Louis Urbain Lefevre de Cau-
martin, afterwards intendant of finances and counsellor of state,
whom he accompanied to Clermont-Ferrard (q.v.), where the
king had ordered the Grands Jours to be held (1665), and where
Caumartin was sent as representative of the sovereign. There
Flechier wrote his curious Memoires sur les Grand Jours tenus a
Clermont, in which he relates, in a half romantic, half historical
form, the proceedings of this extraordinary court of justice.
In 1668 the duke of Montausier procured for him the post of
lecleur to the dauphin. The sermons of Flechier increased his
reputation, which was afterwards raised to the highest pitch
by his funeral orations. The most important are those on
Madame de Montausier (1672), which gained him the membership
of the Academy, the duchesse d'Aiguillon (1675), and, above all,
Marshal Turenne (1676). He was now firmly established in the
favour of the king, who gave him successively the abbacy of St
Severin, in the diocese of Poitiers, the office of almoner to the
dauphiness, and in 1685 the bishopric of Lavaur, from which
he was in 1687 promoted to that of Nimes. The edict of Nantes
had been repealed two years before; but the Calvinists were still
very numerous at Nlmes. Flechier, by his leniency and tact,
succeeded in bringing over some of them to his views, and even
gained the esteem of those who declined to change their faith.
During the troubles in the Cevennes (see HUGUENOTS) he softened
to the utmost of his power the rigour of the edicts, and showed
himself so indulgent even to what he regarded as error, that his
memory was long held in veneration amongst the Protestants of
that district. It is right to add, however, that some authorities
consider the accounts of his leniency to have been greatly
exaggerated, and even charge him with going beyond what the
edicts permitted. He died at Montpellier on the 1 6th of February
1710. Pulpit eloquence is the branch of belles-lettres in which
Flechier excelled. He is indeed far below Bossuet, whose robust
and sublime genius had no rival in that age; he does not equal
Bourdaloue in earnestness of thought and vigour of expression;
nor can he rival the philosophical depth or the insinuating and
492
FLECKEISEN FLEET PRISON
impressive eloquence of Massillon. But he is always ingenious,
often witty, and nobody has carried farther than he the harmony
of diction, sometimes marred by an affectation of symmetry
and an excessive use of antithesis. His two historical works,
the histories of Theodosius and of Ximenes, are more remarkable
for elegance of style than for accuracy and comprehensive
insight.
The last complete edition of Flechier's works is by J. P. Migne
(Paris, 1856) ; the Memoires sur les Grands Jours was first published
in 1844 by B. Gonod (2nd ed. as Mem. sur les Gr. J. d'Auvergne, with
notice by Sainte-Beuve and an appendix by_M. Cheruel, 1862). His
chief works are : Histoire de Theodose le Grand, Oraisons funebres,
Histoire du Cardinal Ximenes, Sermons de morale, Panegyriquss des
saints. He left a portrait or caractere of himself, addressed to one of
his friends. The Life of Theodosius has been translated into English
by F. Manning (1603), and the " Funeral Oration of Marshal
Turenne " in H. C. Fish's History and Repository of Pulpit Eloquence
(ii., 1857). On Flechier generally see Antonin V. D. Fabre, La
JeunessK de Flechier (1882), and Adolphe Fabre, Flechier, orateur
(1886) ; A. Delacroix, Hist, de Flechier (1865).
FLECKEISEN, CARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM ALFRED
(1820-1899), German philologist and critic, was born at Wolfen-
buttel on the 23rd of September 1820. He was educated at the
Helmstedt gymnasium and the university of Gottingen. After
holding several educational posts, he was appointed in 1861 to
the vice-principalship of the Vitzthum'sches Gymnasium at
Dresden, which he held tvll his retirement in 1889. He died on
the 7th of August 1899. Fleckeisen is chiefly known for his
labours on Plautus and Terence; in the knowledge of these
authors he was unrivalled, except perhaps by Ritschl, his life-
long friend and a worker in the same field. His chief works are:
Exercitationes Plautinae (1842), one of the most masterly pro-
ductions on the language of Plautus; " Analecta Plautina,"
printed in PhUologus, ii. (1847); Plauti Comoediae, i., ii. (1850-
1851, unfinished), introduced by an Epistula critica ad F.
Ritschelium; P. Terenti Afri Comoediae (new ed., 1898). In
his editions he endeavoured to restore the text in accordance
with the results of his researches on the usages of the Latin
language and metre. He attached great importance to the ques-
tion of orthography, and his short treatise Funfzig Artikel (1861)
is considered most valuable. Fleckeisen also contributed largely
to the Jahrbiicher fur Philologie, of which he was for many years
editor.
See obituary notice by G. Gotz in C. Bursian's Biographisches
Jahrbuchfur Altertumskunde (xxiii., 1901), and article by H. Usener
in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic (where the date of birth is given
as the 2Oth of September). .
FLECKNOE, RICHARD (c. 1600-1678?), English dramatist
and poet, the object of Dryden's satire, was probably of English
birth, although there is no corroboration of the suggestion of
J. Gillow (Bibliog. Diet, of the Eng. Catholics, vol. ii., 1885), that
he was a nephew of a Jesuit priest, William Flecknoe, or more
properly Flexney, of Oxford. The few known facts of his life
are chiefly derived from his Relation of Ten Years' Travels in
Europe, Asia, A/rique and America (1655?), consisting of letters
written to friends and patrons during his travels. The first of
these is dated from Ghent (1640), whither he had fled to escape
the troubles of the Civil War. In Brussels he met Beatrix de
Cosenza, wife of Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, who sent him
to Rome to secure the legalization of her marriage. There in
1645 Andrew Marvell met him, and described his leanness and
his rage for versifying in a witty satire, " Flecknoe, an English
Priest at Rome." He was probably, however, not in priest's
orders. He then travelled in the Levant, and in 1648 crossed
the Atlantic to Brazil, of which country he gives a detailed
description. On his return to Europe he entered the household
of the duchess of Lorraine in Brussels. In 1645 he went back
to England. His royalist and Catholic convictions did not
prevent him from writing a book in praise of Oliver Cromwell,
The Idea of His Highness Oliver . . . (1659), dedicated to Richard
Cromwell. This publication was discounted at the restoration
by the Heroick Portraits (1660) of Charles II. and others of the
Stuart family. John Dryden used his name as a stalking horse
from behind which to assail Thomas Shadwell in Mac Flecknoe
(1682). The opening lines run:
" All human things are subject to decay,
And, when fate summons, monarchs must obey.
This Flecknoe found, who, like Augustus, young
Was called to empire, and had governed long;
In prose and verse was owned, without dispute,
Throughout the realms of nonsense, absolute."
Dryden's aversion seems to have been caused by Flecknoe's
affectation of contempt for the players and his attacks on
the immorality of the English stage. His verse, which hardly
deserved his critic's sweeping condemnation, was much of it
religious, and was chiefly printed for private circulation. None
of his plays was acted except Love's Dominion, announced as a
" pattern for the reformed stage " (1654), that title being altered
in 1664 to Love's Kingdom, with a Discourse of the English Stage.
He amused himself, however, by adding lists of the actors whom
he would have selected for the parts, had the plays been staged.
Flecknoe had many connexions among English Catholics, and
is said by Gerard Langbaine, to have been better acquainted
with the nobility than with the muses. He died probably about
1678.
A Discourse of the English Stage, was reprinted in W. C. Hazlitt's
English Drama and Stage (Roxburghe Library, 1869); Robert
Southey, in his Omniana (1812), protested against the wholesale
depreciation of Flecknoe's works. See also " Richard Flecknoe "
(Leipzig, 1905, in Munchener Beitrage zur . . . Philologie), by A.
Lohr, who has given minute attention to his life and works.
FLEET, a word in all its significances, derived from the root
of the verb " to fleet," from O. Eng. fleotan, to float or flow,
which ultimately derives from an Indo-European root seen in
Gr. irXeetc, to sail, and Lat. pluere, to rain ; cf . Dutch vliessen, and
Ger. fliessen. In English usage it survives in the name of many
places, such as Byfleet and Northfleet, and in the Fleet, a stream
in London that formerly ran into the Thames between the
bottom of Ludgate Hill and the present Fleet Street. From
the idea of " float " comes the application of the word to ships,
when in company, and particularly to a large number of warships
under the supreme command of a single officer, with the
individual ships, or groups of ships, under individual and sub-
ordinate command. The distinction between a fleet and a
squadron is often one of name only. In the British navy the
various main divisions are or have been called fleets and
squadrons indifferently. The word is also frequently used of
a company of fishing vessels, and in fishing is also applied to a
row of drift-nets fastened together. From the original meaning
of the word " flowing " comes the adjectival use of the word,
swift, or speedy; so also " fleeting," of something evanescent
or fading away, with the idea of the fast-flowing lapse of time.
FLEET PRISON, an historic London prison, formerly situated
on the east side of Farringdon Street, and deriving its name from
the Fleet stream, which flowed into the Thames. Concerning
its early history little is known, but it certainly dated back to
Norman times. It came into particular prominence from being
used as a place of reception for persons committed by the Star
Chamber, and, afterwards, for debtors, and persons imprisoned
for contempt of court by the court of chancery. It was burnt
down in the great fire of 1666; it was rebuilt, but was destroyed
in the Gordon riots of 1780 and again rebuilt in 1781-1782.
In pursuance of an act of parliament (5 & 6 Viet. c. 22, 1842),
by which the Marshalsea, Fleet, and Queen's Bench prisons were
consolidated into one under the name of Queen's prison, it was
finally closed, and in 1844 sold to the corporation of the city of
London, by whom it was pulled down. The head of the prison
was termed " the warden," who was appointed by patent. It
became a frequent practice of the holder of the patent to " farm
out " the prison to the highest bidder. It was this custom which
made the Fleet prison long notorious for the cruelties inflicted
on prisoners. One purchaser of the office was of particularly
evil repute, by name Thomas Bambridge, who in 1728 paid,
with another, the sum of 5000 to John Huggins for the warden-
ship. He was guilty of the greatest extortions upon prisoners,
and, in the words of a committee of the House of Commons
appointed to inquire into the state of the gaols of the kingdom,
" arbitrarily and unlawfully loaded with irons, put into dungeons,
FLEETWOOD, C. FLEETWOOD, W.
493
and destroyed prisoners for debt, treating them in the most
barbarous and cruel manner, in high violation and contempt of
the laws of this kingdom." He was committed to Newgate, and
an act was passed to prevent his enjoying the office of warden
or any other office whatsoever. The liberties or rules of the
Fleet were the limits within which particular prisoners were
allowed to reside outside the prison walls on observing certain
conditions.
Fleet Marriages. By the law of England a marriage was
recognized as valid, so long as the ceremony was conducted by
a person in holy orders, even if those orders were not of the
Church of England. Neither banns nor licence were necessary,
and the time and place were alike immaterial. Out of this
state of the marriage law, in the period of laxness which succeeded
the Commonwealth, resulted innumerable clandestine marriages.
They were contracted at first to avoid the expenses attendant
on the public ceremony, but an act of 1696, which imposed a
penalty of 100 on any clergyman who celebrated, or permitted
another to celebrate, a marriage otherwise than by banns or
licence, acted as a considerable check. To clergymen imprisoned
for debt in the Fleet, however, such a penalty had no terrors,
for they had " neither liberty, money nor credit to lose by any
proceedings the bishop might institute against them." The
earliest recorded date of a Fleet marriage is 1613, while the
earliest recorded in a Fleet register took place in 1674, but it
was only on the prohibition of marriage without banns or licence
that they began to be clandestine. Then arose keen competition,
and " many of the Fleet parsons and tavern-keepers in the
neighbourhood fitted up a room in their respective lodgings or
houses as a chapel," and employed touts to solicit custom for
them. The scandal and abuses brought about by these clan-
destine marriages became so great that they became the object
of special legislation. In 1753 Lord Hardwicke's Act (26 Geo. ii.
c. 33) was passed, which required, under pain of nullity, that banns
should be published according to the rubric, or a licence obtained,
and that, in either case, the marriage should be solemnized in
church; and that in the case of minors, marriage by licence must
be by the consent of parent or guardian. This act had the effect
of putting a stop to these clandestine marriages, so far as England
was concerned, and henceforth couples had to fare to Gretna
Green (</..).
The Fleet Registers, consisting of " about two or three hundred
large registers " and about a thousand rough or " pocket " books,
eventually came into private hands, but were purchased by the
government in 1821, and are now deposited in the office of the
registrar-general, Somerset House. Their dates range from 1686
to 1754. In 1840 they were declared not admissible as evidence
to prove a marriage.
AUTHORITIES. J. S. Burn, The Fleet Registers; comprising the
History of Fleet Marriages, and some Account of the Parsons and
Marriage-house Keepers, &c. (London, 1833); J. Ashton, The Fleet:
its River, Prison and Marriages (London, 1888).
FLEETWOOD, CHARLES (d. 1692), English soldier and
politician, third son of Sir Miles Fleetwood of Aldwinkle,
Northamptonshire, and of Anne, daughter of Nicholas Luke of
Woodend, Bedfordshire, was admitted into Gray's Inn on the
30th of November 1 638. At the beginning of the Great Rebellion,
like many other young lawyers who afterwards distinguished
themselves in the field, he joined Essex's life-guard, was wounded
at the first battle of Newbury, obtained a regiment in 1644 and
fought at Naseby. He had already been appointed receiver of
the court of wards, and in 1646 became member of parliament
for Marlborough. In the dispute between the army and parlia-
ment he played a chief part, and was said to have been the
.principal author of the plot to seize King Charles at Holmby,
but he did not participate in the king's trial. In 1649 he was
appointed a governor of the Isle of Wight, and in 1650, as
lieutenant-general of the horse , took part in Cromwell's campaign
in Scotland and assisted in the victory of Dunbar.
year he was elected a member of the council of state, and being
recalled from Scotland was entrusted with the command of the
forces in England, and played a principal part in gaming the
final triumph at Worcester. In 1652 he married 1 Cromwell's
daughter, Bridget, widow of Ireton, and was made commander-
in-chief in Ireland, to which title that of lord deputy was added.
The chief feature of his administration, which lasted from
September 1652 till September 1655, was the settlement of the
soldiers on the confiscated estates and the transplantation o'f
the original owners, which he carried out ruthlessly. He showed
also great severity in the prosecution of the Roman Catholic
priests, and favoured the Anabaptists and the extreme Puritan
sects to the disadvantage of the moderate Presbyterians, exciting
great and general discontent, a petition being finally sent in for
his recall.
Fleetwood was a strong and unswerving follower of Cromwell's
policy. He supported his assumption of the protectorate and
his dismissal of the parliaments. In December 1654 he became
a member of the council, and after his return to England in 1655
was appointed one of the major-generals. He approved of the
" Petition and Advice," only objecting to the conferring of the
title of king on Cromwell; became a member of the new House
of Lords; and supported ardently Cromwell's foreign policy in
Europe, based on religious divisions, and his defence of the
Protestants persecuted abroad. He was therefore, on Cromwell's
death, naturally regarded as a likely successor, and it is said
that Cromwell had in fact so nominated him. He, however,
gave his support to Richard's assumption of office, but allowed
subsequently, if he did not instigate, petitions from the army
demanding its independence, and finally compelled Richard
by force to dissolve parliament. His project of re-establishing
Richard in close dependence upon the army met with failure,
and he was obliged to recall the Long Parliament on the 6th of
May 1659. He was appointed immediately a member of the
committee of safety and of the council of state, and one of the
seven commissioners for the army, while on the 9th of June
he was nominated commander-in-chief. In reality, however, his
power was undermined and was attacked by parliament, which
on the nth of October declared his commission void. The next
day he assisted Lambert in his expulsion of the parliament
and was reappointed commander-in-chief. On Monk's approach
from the North, he stayed in London and maintained order.
.While hesitating with which party to ally his forces, and while on
the point of making terms with the king, the army on the 24th
of December restored the Rump, when he was deprived of his
command and ordered to appear before parliament to answer
for his conduct. The Restoration therefore took place without
him. He was included among the twenty liable to penalties
other than capital, and was finally incapacitated from holding
any office of trust. His public career then closed, though he
survived till the 4th of October 1692.
FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM (1656-1723), English divine, was
descended of an ancient Lancashire family, and was born in the
Tower of London on New Year's Day 1656. He received his
education at Eton and at King's College, Cambridge. About
the time of the Revolution he took orders, and was shortly
afterwards made rector of St Austin's, London, and lecturer of
St Dunstan's in the West. He became a canon of Windsor in
1702, and in 1708 he was nominated to the see of St Asaph, from
which he was translated in 1714 to that of Ely. He died at
Tottenham, Middlesex, on the 4th of August 1723. Fleetwood
was regarded as the best preacher of his time. He was accurate
in learning, and effective in delivery, and his character stood
deservedly high in general estimation. In episcopal administra-
tion he far excelled most of his contemporaries. He was a
zealous Hanoverian, and a favourite with Queen Anne in spite
of his Whiggism. His opposition to the doctrine of non-resistance
brought him into conflict with the tory ministry of 1712 and with
Swift, but he never entered into personal controversy.
His principal writings are An Essay on Miracles (1701) ; Chroni-
cum preciosum (an account of the English coinage, 1707) ; and Free
Sermons (1712), containing discourses on the death of Queen Mary,
'He had lost his first wife, Frances Smith; and later he had a
third wife, Mary, daughter of Sir John Coke and widow of Sir Edward
Hartopp.
494
the duke of Gloucester and King William. The preface to this las
was condemned to public burning by parliament, but, as No. 38.
of The Spectator, circulated more widely than ever. A collectec
edition of his works, with a biographical preface, was published in
1737-
FLEETWOOD, a seaport and watering-place in the Blackpoo
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, at the mouth o:
the Wyre, 230 m. N.W. by N. from London, the terminus of a
joint branch of the London & North- Western and Lancashire
& Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891) 9274; (1901) 12,082. It
dates its rise from 1836, and takes its name from Sir Peter
Hesketh Fleetwood, by whom it was laid out. The seaward
views, especially northward over Morecambe Bay, are fine,
but the neighbouring country is flat and of little interest. The
two railways jointly are the harbour authority. The dock is
provided with railways and machinery for facilitating traffic,
including a large grain elevator. The shipping traffic is chiefly
in the coasting and Irish trade. Passenger steamers serve
Belfast and Londonderry regularly, and the Isle of Man and other
ports during the season. The fisheries are important, and there
are salt-works in the neighbourhood. There is a pleasant
promenade, with other appointments of a watering-place.
There are also barracks with a military hospital and a rifle
range. Rossall school, to the S.W., is one of the principal public
schools in the north of England. Rossall Hall was the seat of Sir
Peter Fleetwood, but was converted to the uses of the school
on its foundation in 1844. The school is primarily divided
into classical and modern sides, with a special department for
preparation for army, navy or professional examinations. A
number of entrance scholarships and leaving scholarships
tenable at the universities are offered annually. The number
of boys is about 350.
FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT (1855-1886), German traveller
in West Africa, was born on the ist of October 1855 at Wilna,
Russia. After receiving a commercial education he obtained in
1875 a position in Lagos, West Africa. In 1879 he ascended
the Benue river some 125 m. above the farthest point hitherto
reached. His careful survey of the channel secured him a
commission from the German African Society to explore the
whole Benue district. In 1880 he went up the Niger to Gomba,
and then visited Sokoto, where he obtained a safe-conduct
from the sultan for his intended expedition to Adamawa. This
expedition was undertaken in 1882, and on the i8th of August
in that year Flegel discovered the source of the Benue at
Ngaundere. In 1883-1884 he made another journey up the
Benue, crossing for the second time the Benue-Congo watershed.
After a short absence in Europe Flegel returned to Africa in
April 1885 with a commission from the German African Company
and the Colonial Society to open up the Niger-Benue district
to German trade. This expedition had the support of Prince
Bismarck, who endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to obtain for
Germany this region, already secured as a British sphere of
influence by the National African Company (the Royal Niger
Company). Flegel, despite a severe illness, ascended the Benue
to Yola, but was unable to accomplish his mission. He returned
to the coast and died at Brass, at the mouth of the Niger, on the
nth of September 1886. (See further GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE.)
Flegel wrote Lose Blatter aus dent Tagebuche meiner Haussaajreunde
(Hamburg, 1885), and Vom Niger-Benue. Brief e aus Afrika (edited
by K. Flegel, Leipzig, 1890).
FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT (1801-1888), German
Orientalist, was born at Schandau, Saxony, on the 2ist of
February 1801. From 1819 to 1824 he studied theology and
oriental languages at Leipzig, subsequently continuing his
studies in Paris. In 1836 he was appointed professor of oriental
languages at Leipzig University, and retained this post till his
death. His most important works were editions of Abulfeda's
Historia ante-I slamica (1831-1834), and of Beidhawi's Com-
mentary on the Koran (1846-1848). He compiled a catalogue
of the oriental MSS. in the royal library at Dresden (1831);
published an edition and German translation of Ali's Hundred
Sayings (1837); the continuation of Babicht's edition of The
Thousand and One Nights (vols. ix.-xii., 1842-1843); and an
FLEETWOOD FLEMING, SIR S.
edition of Mahommed Ibrihim's Persian Grammar (1847). He
also wrote an account of the Arabic, Turkish and Persian MSS.
at the town library in Leipzig. He died there on the loth of
February 1888. Fleischer was one of the eight foreign members
of the French Academy of Inscriptions and a knight of the
German Ordre pour le merite.
FLEMING, PAUL (1609-1640), German poet, was born at
Hartenstein in the Saxon Erzgebirge, on the 5th of October
1609, the son of the village pastor. At the age of fourteen he was
sent to school at Leipzig and subsequently studied medicine
at the university. Driven away by the troubles of the Thirty
Years' War, he was fortunate enough to become attached to an
embassy despatched in 1634 by Duke Frederick of Holstein-
Gottorp to Russia and Persia, and to which the famous traveller
Adam Olearius was secretary. In 1639 the mission returned
to Reval, and here Fleming, having become betrothed, determined
to settle as a physician. He proceeded to Leiden to procure a
doctor's diploma, but died suddenly at Hamburg on his way
home on the 2nd of April 1640.
Though belonging to the school of Martin Opitz, Fleming
is distinguished from most of his contemporaries by the ring of
genuine feeling and religious fervour that pervades his lyric
poems, even his occasional pieces. In the sonnet, his favourite
form of verse, he was particularly happy. Among his religious
poems the hymn beginning " In alien meinen Taten lass ich den
Hochsten raten " is well known and widely sung.
Fleming's Teutsche Poemata appeared posthumously in 1642;
they are edited by J. M. Lappenberg, in the Bibliothek des littera-
rischen Vereins (2 vols., 1863; a third volume, 1866, contains
Fleming's Latin poems). Selections have been edited by J. Tittmann
in the second volume of the series entitled Deutsche Dichter des sieb-
zehnten Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1870), and by H. Osterley (Stuttgart,
.. .,, lemings Leben und Orientreise (1892); L. G. Wysocky,
Pauli Flemingi Germanice scriptis et ingenio (Paris, 1892).
FLEMING, RICHARD (d. 1431), bishop of Lincoln, and
Founder of Lincoln College, Oxford, was born at Crofton in
Yorkshire. He was descended from a good family, and was
educated at University College, Oxford. Having taken his
degrees, he was made prebendary of York in 1406, and the next
year was junior proctor of the university. About this time he
jecame an ardent Wycliffite, winning over many persons, some
of high rank, to the side of the reformer, and incurring the
censure of Archbishop Arundel. He afterwards became one of
Wycliffe's most determined opponents. Before 1415 he was
nstituted to the rectory of Boston in Lincolnshire, and in 1420
le was consecrated bishop of Lincoln. In 1428-1429 he attended
:he councils of Pavia and Siena, and in the presence of the pope,
Martin V., made an eloquent speech in vindication of his native
country, and in eulogy of the papacy. It was probably on this
occasion that he was named chamberlain to the pope. To
Bishop Fleming was entrusted the execution of the decree of
he council for the exhumation and burning of Wycliffe's
remains. The see of York being vacant, the pope conferred it on
Fleming; but the king (Henry V.) refused to confirm the
appointment. In 1427 Fleming obtained the royal licence
mpowering him to found a college at Oxford for the special
purpose of training up disputants against Wycliffe's heresy.
le died at Sleaford, on the 26th of January 1431. Lincoln
'ollege was, however, completed by his trustees, and its endow-
ments were afterwards augmented by various benefactors.
FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD (1827- ), Canadian engineer
and publicist, was born at Kirkcaldy, Scotland, on the 7th of
anuary 1827, but emigrated to Canada in 1845. Great powers
if work and thoroughness in detail brought him to 'the front,
and he was from 1867 to 1880 chief engineer of the Dominion
government. Under his control was constructed the Inter-
olonial railway, and much of the Canadian Pacific. After his
etirement in 1880 he devoted himself to the study of Canadian
and Imperial problems, such as the unification of time reckoning
hroughout the world, and the construction of a state-owned
ystem of telegraphs throughout the British empire. After
FLEMING, SIR T. FLEMISH LITERATURE
495
years of labour he saw the first link forged in the chain, in the
opening in 1902 of the Pacific Cable between Canada and
Australia. Though not a party man he strongly advocated
Federation in 1864-1867, and in 1891 vehemently attacked the
Liberal policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States.
He took the deepest interest in education, and in 1880 became
chancellor of Queen's University, Kingston.
He published The Intercolonial: a History (Montreal and London,
1876) ; England and Canada (London, 1884) ; and numerous brochures
and magazine articles on scientific, social and political subjects.
FLEMING, SIR THOMAS (1544-1613), English judge, was
born at Newport, Isle of Wight, in April 1544, and was called
to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1574. He represented Winchester
in parliament from 1584 to 1601, when he was returned for
Southampton. In 1594 he was appointed recorder of London,
and in 1595 was chosen solicitor-general in preference to Bacon.
This office he retained under James I. and was knighted in 1603.
In 1604 he was created chief baron of the exchequer and presided
over many important state trials. In 1607 he was promoted
to the chief justiceship of the king's bench, and was one of the
judges at the trial of the post-nati in 1608, siding with the majority
of the judges in declaring that persons born in Scotland after
the accession of James I. were entitled to the privileges of
natural-born subjects in England. He was praised by his
contemporaries, more particularly Coke, for his " great judg-
ments, integrity and discretion." He died on the 7th of August
1613 at his seat, Stoneham Park, Hampshire.
See Foss, Lives of the Judges.
FLEMISH LITERATURE. The older Flemish writers are
dealt with in the article on DUTCH LITERATURE; after the
separation of Belgium, however, from the Netherlands in 1830
there was a great revival of Flemish literature. The immediate
result of the revolution was a reaction against everything
associated with Dutch, and a disposition to regard the French
language as the speech of liberty and independence. The
provisional government of 1830 suppressed the official use of the
Flemish language, which was relegated to the rank of a patois.
For some years before 1830 Jan Frans Willems 1 (1793-1846)
had been advocating the claims of the Flemish language. He
had done his best to allay the irritation between Holland and
Belgium and to prevent a separation. As archivist of Antwerp
he made use of his opportunities by writing a history of Flemish
letters. After the revolution his Dutch sympathies had made
it necessary for him to live in seclusion, but in 1835 he settled
at Ghent, and devoted himself to the cultivation of Flemish.
He edited old Flemish classics, Reinaert de Vos (1836), the
rhyming Chronicles of Jan van Heelu and Jan le Clerc, &c.,
and gathered round him a band of Flemish enthusiasts, the
chevalier Philipp Blommaert (1809-1871), Karel Lodewijk
Ledeganck (1805-1847), Fr. Rens (1805-1874), F. A. Snellaert
(1809-1872), Prudens van Duyse (1804-1859), and others.
Blommaert, who was born at Ghent on the 27th of August 1809,
founded in 1834 in his native town the Nederduitsche letteroefen-
ingen, a review for the new writers, and it was speedily followed
by other Flemish organs, and by literary societies for the promo-
tion of Flemish. In 1851 a central organization for the Flemish
propaganda was provided by a society, named after the father
of the movement, the " Willemsfonds." The Catholic Flemings
founded in 1874 a rival " Davidsfonds," called after the energetic
J. B. David (1801-1866), professor at the university of Louvain,
and the author of a Flemish history of Belgium ( V ' aderlandsche
historic, Louvain, 1842-1866). As a result of this propaganda
the Flemish language was placed on an equality with French in
law, and in administration, in 1873 and 1878, and in the schools
in 1883. Finally in 1886 a Flemish Academy was established
by royal authority at Ghent, where a course in Flemish literature
had been established as early as 1854.
The claims put forward by the Flemish school were justified
by the appearance (1837) of In't Wonder jaar 1566 (In the Wonder-
^ee Max Rooses, Keus van DicM- en Prozawerken van J. F.
Willems, and his Brieven in the publications of the Willemsfonds
(Ghent, 1872-1874).
ful year) of Hendrik Conscience (q.v.), who roused national
enthusiasm by describing the heroic struggles of the Flemings
against the Spaniards. Conscience was eventually to make his
greatest successes in the description of contemporary Flemish
life, but his historical romances and his popular history of
Flanders helped to give a popular basis to a movement which
had been started by professors and scholars.
The first poet of the new school was Ledeganck, the best
known of whose poems are those on the " three sister cities "
of Bruges, Ghent and Antwerp (Die drie zusterstcden, vader-
landsche trilogie, Ghent, 1846), in which he makes an im-
passioned protest against the adoption of French ideas, manners
and language, and the neglect of Flemish tradition. The book
speedily took its place as a Flemish classic. Ledeganck, who
was a magistrate, also translated the French code into Flemish.
Jan Theodoor van Rijswijck (1811-1849), after serving as a
volunteer in the campaign of 1830, settled down as a clerk in
Antwerp, and became one of the hottest champions of the
Flemish movement. He wrote a series of political and satirical
songs, admirably suited to his public. The romantic and
sentimental poet, Jan van Beers (q.v.), was typically Flemish
in his sincere and moral outlook on life. Prudens van Duyse,
whose most ambitious work was the epic Arlavelde (1859), is
perhaps best remembered by a collection (1844) of poems for
children. Peter Frans Van Kerckhoven (1818-1857), a native
of Antwerp, wrote novels, poems, dramas, and a work on the
Flemish revival (De Vlaemsche Beweging, 1847).
Antwerp produced a realistic novelist in Jan Lambrecht
Damien Sleeckx (1818-1901). An inspector of schools by
profession, he was an indefatigable journalist and literary critic.
He was one of the founders in 1844 of the Vlaemsch Belgi'e, the
first daily paper in the Flemish interest. His works include a
long list of plays, among them Jan Steen (1852), a comedy;
Gretry, which gained a national prize in 1861; De Visschers
van Blankenberg (1863); and the patriotic drama of Zannekin
(1865). His talent as a novelist was diametrically opposed to
the idealism of Conscience. He was precise, sober and concrete
in his methods, relying for his effect on the accumulation of
carefully observed detail. He was particularly successful in
describing the life of the shipping quarter of his native town.
Among his novels are: In' I Schipperskwartier (1856), Dirk Meyer
(1860), TybaerlsenKi'^Sfy^KunslenLiefdeC' Art and Love,"
1870), and Vesalius in Spanje (1895). His complete works were
collected in 17 vols. (1877-1884).
Jan Renier Snieders (1812-1888) wrote novels dealing with
North Brabant; his brother, August Snieders (b. 1825), began by
writing historical novels in the manner of Conscience, but his
later novels are satires on contemporary society. A more original
talent was displayed by Anton Bergmann (1835-1874), who,
under the pseudonym of " Tony," wrote Ernest Staas, Advocat,
which gained the quinquennial prize of literature in 1874. In
the same year appeared the Novellen of the sisters Rosalie (1834-
1875) and Virginie Leveling (b. 1836). These simple and
touching stories were followed by a second collection in 1876.
The sisters had published a volume of poems in 1870. Virginie
Loveling's gifts of fine and exact observation soon placed her in
the front rank of Flemish novelists. Her political sketches,
In onze Vlaamsche gewesten (1877), were published under the
name of " W. G. E. Walter." Sophie (1885), Een dure Red
(1892), and Het Land der Verbeelding (1896) are among the more
famous of her later works. Reimond Styns (b. 1850) and Isidoor
Teirlinck (b. 1851) produced in collaboration one very popular
novel, Arm Vlaanderen (1884), and some others, and have since
written separately. Cyril Buysse, a nephew of Mme Leveling,
is a disciple of Zola. Het Recht van den Sterkste (" The Right of
the Strongest," 1893) is a picture of vagabond life in Flanders;
Schoppenboer (" The Knave of Spades," 1898) deals with
brutalized peasant life; and Sursum corda (1895) describes the
narrowness and religiosity of village life.
In poetry Julius de Geyter (b. 1830), author of a rhymed
translation of Reinaert (1874), an epic poem on Charles V. (1888),
&c., produced a social epic in three parts, Drie menschen van in
49 6
FLENSBURG FLETCHER, ANDREW
de wieg tot in het graf (" Three Men from the Cradle to the Grave,"
1861), in which he propounded radical and humanitarian views.
The songs of Julius Vuylsteke (1836-1903) are full of liberal and
patriotic ardour; but his later life was devoted to politics rather
than literature. He had been the leading spirit of a students'
association at Ghent for the propagation of " fiamingant " views,
and the " Willemsfonds " owed much of its success to his
energetic co-operation. His Uit het studenten letien appeared in
1868, and his poems were collected in 1881. The poems of
Mme van Ackere (1803-1884), nee Maria Doolaeghe, were
modelled on Dutch originals. Joanna Courtmans (1811-1890),
nee Berchmans, owed her fame rather to her tales than her
poems; she was above all a moralist, and her fifty tales are
sermons on economy and the practical virtues. Other poets
were Emmanuel Hiel (q.v.), author of comedies, opera libretti
and some admirable songs; the abbe Guido Gezelle (1830-1899),
who wrote religious and patriotic poems in the dialect of West
Flanders; Lodewijk de Koninck (b. 1838), who attempted a
great epic subject in Menschdon Veriest (1872); J. M. Dautzen-
berg (1808-1869), author of a volume of charming V ' olksliederen.
The best of Dautzenberg's work is contained in the posthumous
volume of 1869, published by his son-in-law, Frans de Cort
(1834-1878), who was himself a song-writer, and translated songs
from Burns, from Jasmin and from the German. The Makamen
en Ghazelen (1866), adapted from Riickert's version of Hariri,
and other volumes by " Jan Ferguut " (J. A. van Droogen-
broeck, b. 1835) show a growing preoccupation with form, and
with the work of Theodoor Antheunis (b. 1840), they prepare
the way for the ingenious and careful workmanship of the
younger school of poets, of whom Charles Polydore de Mont is
the leader. He was born at Wambeke in Brabant in 1857, and
became professor in the academy of the fine arts at Antwerp.
He introduced something of the ideas and methods of con-
temporary French writers into Flemish verse; and explained
his theories in 1898 in an Inleiding tot de Poezie. Among Pol
de Mont's numerous volumes of verse dating from 1877 onwards
are Claribella (1893), and Iris (1894), which contains amongst
other things a curious " Uit de Legende van Jeschoea-ben-Jossef,"
a version of the gospel story from a Jewish peasant.
Mention should also be made of the history of Ghent (Gent
ran den vroegsten Tijd lot heden, 1882-1889) of Frans de Potter
(b. 1834), and of the art criticisms of Max Rooses (b. 1839),
curator of the Plantin museum at Antwerp, and of Julius Sabbe
(b. 1846).
See Ida van Duringsfeld, Von der Schelde bis zur Maas. Das
geistige Leben dsr Vlamingen (Leipzig, 3 yols., 1861); J. Stecher,
Histoire de la litterature neerlandaise en Belgique (1886) ; Geschiedenis
der Vlaamsche Letterkunde van het jaar 1830 tot heden (1899), by
Theodoor Coopman and L. Scharpe; A. de Koninck, Bibliographie
nationale (3 vols., 1886-1897); and Histoire politique et litteraire du
mouvement flamand (1894), by Paul Hamelius. The Vlaamsche
Bibliographie, issued by the Flemish Academy of Ghent, by Frans
de Potter, contains a list of publications between 1830 and 1890;
and there is a good deal of information in the excellent Biographisch
woordenboeck der Noord- en Zuid - Nederlandscke Letterkunde (1878)
of Dr W. J. A. Huberts and others. (E. G.)
FLENSBURG (Danish, Flensborg), a seaport of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, at the head of the
Flensburg Fjord, 20 m. N.W. from Schleswig, at the junction
of the main line Altona-Vamdrup (Denmark), with branches
to Kiel and Gliicksburg. Pop. (1905) 48,922. The principal
public buildings are the Nikolai Kirche (built 1390, restored
1894), with a spire 295 ft. high; the Marienkirche, also a medieval
church, with a lofty tower; the law courts; the theatre and the
exchange. There are two gymnasia, schools of marine engWer-
ing, navigation, wood-carving and agriculture. The cemetery
contains the remains of the Danish soldiers who fell at the battle
of Idstedt (2$th of July 1850), but the colossal Lion monument,
erected by the Danes to commemorate their victory, was removed
to Berlin in 1864. Flensburg is a busy centre of trade and
industry, and is the most important town in what was formerly
the duchy of Schleswig. It possesses excellent wharves, does a
large import trade in coal, and has shipbuilding yards, breweries,
distilleries, cloth and paper factories, glass-works, copper-works,
soap-works and rice mills. Its former extensive trade with the
West Indies has lately -suffered owing to the enormous develop-
ment of the North Sea ports, but it is still largely engaged in the
Greenland whale and the oyster fisheries.
Flensburg was probably founded in the I2th century. It
attained municipal privileges in 1284, was frequently pillaged
by the Swedes after 1643, and in 1848 became the capital, under
Danish rule, of Schleswig.
See Holdt, Flensburg fruher undjetzt (1884).
FLERS, a manufacturing town of 'north-western France, in
the arrondissement of Domfront, and department of Orne, on
the Vere, 41 m. S. of Caen on the railway to Laval. Pop. (1906)
1 1, 1 88. A modern church in the Romanesque style and a
restored chateau of the i$th century are its principal buildings.
There is a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
a communal college and a branch of the Bank of France. Flers
is the centre of a cotton and linen-manufacturing region which
includes the towns of Conde-sur-Noireau and La Ferte-Mace.
Manufactures are very important, and include, besides cotton
and linen fabrics, of which the annual value is about 1,500,000,
drugs and chemicals; there are large brick and tile works, flour
mills and dyeworks.
FLETA, a treatise, with the sub-title seu Commentarius juris
Anglicani, on the common law of England. It appears, from
internal evidence, to have been written in the reign of Edward
I., about the year 1290. It is for the most part a poor imitation
of Bracton. The author is supposed to have written it during
his confinement in the Fleet prison, hence the name. It has
been conjectured that he was one of those judges who were im-
prisoned for malpractices by Edward I. Fleta was first printed
by J. Selden in 1647, with a dissertation (2nd edition, 1685).
FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM (1845- ), American
ethnologist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1845. She
studied the remains of Indian civilization in the Ohio and
Mississippi valleys, became a member of the Archaeological
Institute of America in 1879, and worked and lived with the
Omahas as a representative of the Peabody Museum of American
Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. In 1883 she
was appointed special agent to allot lands to the Omaha tribes,
in 1884 prepared and sent to the New Orleans Exposition an
exhibit showing the progress of civilization among the Indians of
North America in the quarter-century previous, in 1886 visited
the natives of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands on a mission
from the commissioner of education, and in 1887 was United
States special agent in the distribution of lands among the
Winnebagoes and Nez Perces. She was made assistant in
ethnology at the Peabody Museum in 1882, and received the
Thaw fellowship in 1891; was president of the Anthropological
Society of Washington and of the American Folk-Lore Society,
and vice-president of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science; and, working through the Woman's National
Indian Association, introduced a system of making small loans
to Indians, wherewith they might buy land and houses. In
1888 she published Indian Education and Civilization, a special
report of the Bureau of Education. In 1898 at the Congress
of Musicians held at Omaha during the Trans-Mississippi Ex-
position she read " several essays upon the songs of the North
American Indians ... in illustration of which a number of
Omaha Indians . . . sang their native melodies." Out of this
grew her Indian Story and Song from North America (1900),
illustrating " a stage of development antecedent to that in which
culture music appeared."
FLETCHER, ANDREW, of Saltoun (1655-1716), Scottish
politician, was the son and heir of Sir Robert Fletcher (1625-
1664), and was born at Saltoun, the modern Salton, in East
Lothian. Educated by Gilbert Burnet, afterwards bishop of
Salisbury, who was then the parish minister of Saltoun, he
completed his education by spending some years in travel and
study, entering public life as member of the Scottish parliament
which met in 1681. Possessing advanced political ideas, Fletcher
was a fearless and active opponent of the measures introduced
by John Maitland, duke of Lauderdale, the representative of
FLETCHER, GILES
497
Charles II. in Scotland, and his successor, the duke of York,
afterwards King James II.; but he left Scotland about 1682,
subsequently spending some time in Holland as an associate
of the duke of Monmouth and other malcontents.
Although on grounds of prudence Fletcher objected to the
rising of 1685, he accompanied Monmouth to the west of England,
but left the army after killing one of the duke's trusted advisers.
This incident is thus told by Sir John Dairy mple:
" Being sent upon an expedition, and not esteeming times of
danger to be times of ceremony, he had seized for his own riding the
horse of a country gentleman (the mayor of Lynne) which stood
ready equipt for its master. The master hearing this ran in a passion
to Fletcher, gave him opprobrious language, shook his cane and
attempted to strike. Fletcher, though rigid m the duties of morality,
yet having been accustomed to foreign services both by sea and
land in which he had acquired high ideas of the honour of a soldier
and a gentleman and of the affront of a cane, pulled out his pistol
and shot him dead on the spot. The action was unpopular in
countries where such refinements were not understood. A clamour
was raised against it among the people of the country: in a body
they waited upon the duke with their complaints; and he was forced
to desire the only soldier and almost the only man of parts in his
army, to abandon him."
Another, but less probable account, represents Fletcher as
quitting the rebel army because he disapproved of the action of
Monmouth in proclaiming himself king.
His history during the next few years is rather obscure.
He probably travelled in Spain, and fought against the Turks
in Hungary; and having in his absence lost his estates and been
sentenced to death, he joined William of Orange at the Hague,
and returned to Scotland in 1689 in consequence of the success
of the Revolution of 1688. His estates were restored to him;
and he soon became a leading member of the " club," an organiza-
tion which aimed at reducing the power of the crown in Scotland,
and in general an active opponent of the English government.
In 1703, at a critical stage in the history of Scotland, Fletcher
again became a member of the Scottish parliament. The failure
of the Darien expedition had aroused a strong feeling of resent-
ment against England, and Fletcher and the national party
seized the opportunity to obtain a greater degree of independence
for their country.
His attitude in this matter, and also to the proposal for the
union of the two crowns, is thus described by a writer in the third
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica:
" The thought of England's domineering over Scotland was what
his generous soul could not endure. The indignities and oppression
which Scotland lay under galled him to the heart, so that in his
learned and elaborate discourses he exposed them with undaunted
courage and pathetical eloquence. In that great event, the Union,
he performed essential service. He got the act of security passed,
which declared that the two crowns should not pass to the same head
till Scotland was secured in her liberties civil and religious. There-
fore Lord Godolphin was forced into the Union, to avoid a civil war
after the queen's demise. Although M r Fletcher disapproved of some
of the articles, and indeed of the whole frame of the Union, yet, as
the act of security was his own work, he had all the merit of that
important transaction."
Soon after the passing of the Act of Union Fletcher retired
from public life. Employing his abilities in another direction,
he did a real, if homely, service to his country by introducing
from Holland machinery for sifting grain. He died unmarried
in London in September 1716.
Contemporaries speak very highly of Fletcher's integrity, but
he was also choleric and impetuous. Burnet describes him as
" a Scotch gentleman of great parts and many virtues, but a
most violent republican and extremely passionate." In appear-
ance he was " a low, thin man, of a brown complexion; full of
fire; with a stern, sour look." Fletcher was a fine scholar and
a graceful writer, and both his writings and speeches afford
bright glimpses of the manners and state of the country in his
time. His chief works are: A Discourse of Government relating
to Militias (1698); 'Two Discourses concerning the. A/airs of
Scotland (1698); and An Account of a Conversation concerning
a right regulation of Governments for the common good of Mankind
(1704). In Two Discourses he suggests that the numerous
vagrants who infested Scotland should be brought into com-
pulsory and hereditary servitude; and in An Account of a
Conversation occurs his well-known remark, " I knew a very
wise man so much of Sir Christopher's (Sir C. Musgrave) senti-
ment, that he believed if a man were permitted to make all the
ballads, he need not care who should make the laws of a nation."
The Political Works of Andrew Fletcher were published in London
in 1737. See D. S. Erskine, nth earl of Buchan Essay on the Lives
of Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet Thomson (1792); J. H. Burton,
History of Scotland, vol. viii. (Edinburgh, 1905) ; and A. Lang,
History of Scotland, vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1907).
FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1548-1611), English author, son of
Richard Fletcher, vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, and father of the
poets Phineas and Giles Fletcher, was born in 1548 or 1549.
He was educated at Eton and at King's College, Cambridge,
taking his B. A. degree in 1569. He was a fellow of his college, and
was made LL.D. in 1581. In 1580 he had married Joan Sheafe
of Cranbrook. In that year he was commissary to Dr Bridg-
water, chancellor of Ely, and in 1585 he sat in parliament for
Winchelsea. He was employed on diplomatic service in Scotland,
Germany and Holland, and in 1588 was sent to Russia to the
court of the czar Theodore with instructions to conclude an
alliance between England and- Russia, to restore English trade,
and to obtain better conditions for the English Russia Company.
The factor of the company, Jerome Horsey, had already obtained
large concessions through the favour of the protector, Boris
Godunov, but when Dr Fletcher reached Moscow in 1588 he
found that Godunov's[interest was alienated, and that the Russian
government was contemplating an alliance with Spain. The
envoy was badly lodged, and treated with obvious contempt,
and was not allowed to forward letters to England, but the
English victory over the Armada and his own indomitable
patience secured among other advantages for English traders
exclusive rights of trading on the Volga and their security from
the infliction of torture. Fletcher's treatment at Moscow was
later made the subject of formal complaint by Queen Elizabeth.
He returned to England in 1389 in company with Jerome
Horsey, and in 1591 he published OJ the Russe Commonwealth,
Or Maner of Government by the Russe Etnperour (commonly called
The Emperour of Moskovia) with the manners and fashions of the
people of that Countrey. In this comprehensive account of
Russian geography, government, law, methods of warfare,
church and manners, Fletcher, who states that he began to
arrange his material during the return journey, doubtless
received some assistance from the longer experience of his
travelling companion, who also wrote a narrative of his travels,
published in Pwchas his Pilgrimes (1626). The Russia Company
feared that the freedom of Fletcher's criticisms would give
offence to the Muscovite authorities, and accordingly damage
their trade. The book was consequently suppressed, and was
not reprinted in its entirety until 1856, when it was edited from
a copy of the original edition for the Hakluyt Society, with an
introduction by Mr Edward A. Bond.
Fletcher was appointed " Remembrancer " to the city of
London, and an extraordinary master of requests in 1596, and
became treasurer of St Paul's in 1597. He contemplated a
history of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and in a letter to Lord
Burghley he suggested that it might be well to begin with an
account from the Protestant side of the marriage of Henry VIII.
and Ann Boleyn. But personal difficulties prevented the execu-
tion of this plan. He had become security to the exchequer for
the debts of his brother, Richard Fletcher, bishop of London,
who died in 1596, and was only then saved from imprison-
ment by the protection of the earl of Essex. He was actually
in prison in 1601, when he addressed a somewhat ambiguous
letter to Burghley from which it may be gathered that his prime
offence had been an allusion to Essex's disgrace as being the work
of Sir Walter Raleigh. Fletcher was employed in 1610 to
negotiate with Denmark on behalf of the " Eastland
Merchants," and he died next year, and was buried on the nth
of March in the parish of St Catherine Colman, London.
The Russe Commonwealth was issued in an abridged form in
Hakluyt's Principal Navigations, Voyages, &c. (vol. i. p. 473, ed. of
1598), a somewhat completer version in Purchas his Pilgrimes
(pt. iii. ed. 1625), also as History of Rrtssia in 1643 and 1657.
498
FLETCHER, GILES FLETCHER, P.
Fletcher also wrote De literis antiquae Britanniae (ed. by Phineas
Fletcher, 1633), a treatise on " The Tartars," printed in Israel Redux
(ed. by S(amuel) L(ee), 1677), to prove that they were the ten lost
tribes of Israel, Latin poems published in various miscellanies, and
Licia, or Poemes of Love in Honour of the admirable and singular
vertues of his Lady, to the imitation of the best Latin Poets . . . where-
unto is added the Rising to the Crowne of Richard the third (1593).
This series of love sonnets, followed by some other poems, was pub-
lished anonymously. Most critics, with the notable exception of
Alexander Dyce (Beaumont and Fletcher, Works, i. p. xvi., 1843)
have accepted it as the work of Dr Giles Fletcher on the evidence
afforded in the first of the Piscatory Eclogues of his son Phineas, who
represents his father (Thelgon), as having " raised his rime to sing
of Richard's climbing."
See E. A. Bond's Introduction to the Hakluyt Society's edition;
also Dr A. B. Grosart's prefatory matter to Licia (Fuller Worthies
Library, Miscellanies, vol. iii., 1871), and to the works (1869) of
Phineas Fletcher in the same series. Fletcher's letters relative to
the college dispute with the provost, Dr Roger Goad, are preserved
in the Lansdowne MSS. (xxiii. art. 18 et seq.), and are translated in
Grosart's edition.
FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1584-1623), English poet, younger
son of the preceding, was born about 1 584. Fuller in his Worthies
of England says that he was a native of London, and was educated
at Westminster school. From there he went to Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in 1606, and became
a minor fellow of his college in 1608. He was reader in Greek
grammar (1615) and in Greek language (1618). In 1603 he con-
tributed a poem on the death of Queen Elizabeth to Sorrow's
Joy. His great poem of Christ's Victory appeared in 1610, and
in 1612 he edited the Remains of his cousin Nathaniel Pownall.
It is not known in what year he was ordained, but his sermons at
St Mary's were famous. Fuller tells us that the prayer before
the sermon was a continuous allegory. He left Cambridge about
1618, and soon after received, it is supposed from Francis Bacon,
the rectory of Alderton, on the Suffolk coast, where " his clownish
and low-parted parishioners . . . valued not their pastor
according to his worth; which disposed him to melancholy
and hastened his dissolution." (Fuller, Worthies of England,
ed. 181 1, vol. ii. p. 82). His last work, The Reward of the Faithful,
appeared in the year of his death (1623).
The principal work by which Giles Fletcher is known is
Christ's Victorie and Triumph, in Heaven, in Earth, over and
after Death (1610). An edition in 1640 contains seven full-page
illustrative engravings by George Tate. It is in four cantos
and is epic in design. The first canto, " Christ's Victory in
Heaven," represents a dispute in heaven between Justice and
Mercy, assuming the facts of Christ's life on earth; the second,
" Christ's Victory on Earth," deals with an allegorical account
of the Temptation; the third, " Christ's Triumph over Death,"
treats of the Passion; and the fourth, " Christ's Triumph after
Death," treating of the Resurrection and Ascension, concludes
with an affectionate eulogy of his brother Phineas Fletcher
(q.v.) as " Thyrsilis." The metre is an eight-line stanza owing
something to Spenser. The first five lines rhyme ababb, and
the stanza concludes with a rhyming triplet, resuming the conceit
which nearly every verse embodies. Giles Fletcher, like his
brother Phineas, to whom he was deeply attached, was a close
follower of Spenser. In his very best passages Giles Fletcher
attains to a rich melody which charmed the ear of Milton, who
did not hesitate to borrow very considerably from the Christ's
Victory and Triumph in his Paradise Regained. Fletcher lived
in an age which regarded as models the poems of Marini and
Gongora, and his conceits are sometimes grotesque in connexion
wilh the sacredness of his subject. But when he is carried away
by his theme and forgets to be ingenious, he attains great
solemnity and harmony of style. His descriptions of the Lady
of Vain Delight, in the second canto, and of Justice and of
Mercy in the first, are worked out with much beauty of detail
into separate pictures, in the manner of the Faerie Queene.
Giles Fletcher's poem was edited (1868) for the Fuller Worthies
Library, and (1876) for the Early English Poets by Dr A. B. Grosart.
It is also reprinted for The Ancient and Modern Library of Theo-
logical Literature (1888), and in R. Cattermole's and H. Stebbing's
Sacred Classics (1834, &c.) vol. 20. In the library of King's College,
Cambridge, is a MS. Aegidii Fletcherii versio poetica Lamentationum
Jeremiae.
FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM (17^0-1785), English divine,
was born at Nyon in Switzerland on the i2th of September
1729, his original name being DE LA FLECHIERE. He was
educated at Geneva, but, preferring an army career to a clerical
one, went to Lisbon and enlisted. An accident prevented his
sailing with his regiment to Brazil, and after a visit to Flanders,
where an uncle offered to secure a commission for him, he went
to England, picked up the language, anj in 1752 became tutor
in a Shropshire family. Here he came under the influence of
the new Methodist preachers, and in 1757 took orders, being
ordained by the bishop of Bangor. He often preached with
John Wesley and for him, and became known as a fervent
supporter of the revival. Refusing the wealthy living of Dunham,
he accepted the humble one of Madeley, where for twenty-five
years (1760-1785) he lived and worked with unique devotion and
zeal. Fletcher was one of the few parish clergy who understood
Wesley and his work, yet he never wrote or said anything
inconsistent with his own Anglican position. In theology he
upheld the Arminian against the Calvinist position, but always
with courtesy and fairness; his resignation on doctrinal grounds
of the superintendency (1768-1771) of the countess of Hunting-
don's college at Tre vecca left no unpleasantness. The outstanding
feature of his life was a transparent simplicity and saintliness
of spirit, and the testimony of his contemporaries to his godliness
is unanimous. Wesley preached his funeral sermon from the
words " Mark the perfect man." Southey said that " no age
ever provided a man of more fervent piety or more perfect
charity, and no church ever possessed a more apostolic minister."
His fame was not confined to his own country, for it is said
that Voltaire, when challenged to produce a character as perfect
as that of Christ, at once mentioned Fletcher of Madeley. He
died on the i4th of August 1785.
Complete editions of his works were published in 1803 and 1836.
The chief of them, written against Calvinism, are Five Checks to
Antinomianism, Scripture Scales to weigh the Gold of Gospel Truth,
and the Portrait of St Paul. See lives by J. Wesley (1786); L.
Tyerman (1882); F. W. Macdonald (1885); J. Maratt (1902); also
C. J. Ryle, Christian Leaders of the i8th Century, pp. 384-423 (1869).
FLETCHER, PHINEAS (1582-1650), English poet, elder son
of Dr Giles Fletcher, and brother of Giles the younger, noticed
above, was born at Cranbrook, Kent, and was baptized on the
8th of April 1582. He was admitted a scholar of Eton, and in
1600 entered King's College, Cambridge. He graduated B.A.
in 1604, and M.A. in 1608, and was one of the contributors to
Sorrow's Joy (1603). His pastoral drama, Sicelides or Piscatory
(pr. 1631) was written (1614) for performance before James I.,
but only produced after the king's departure at King's College.
He had been ordained priest and before 1611 became a fellow
of his college, but he left Cambridge before 1616, apparently
because certain emoluments were refused him. He became
chaplain to Sir Henry Willoughby, who presented him in 1621
to the rectory of Hilgay, Norfolk, where he married and spent
the rest of his life. In 1627 he published Locustae, vel Pietas
Jesuitica. The Locusts or Apollyonists, two parallel poems in
Latin and English furiously attacking the Jesuits. Dr Grosart
saw in this work one of the sources of Milton's conception of
Satan. Next year appeared an erotic poem, Brittains Ida,
with Edmund Spenser's name on the title-page. It is certainly
not by Spenser, and is printed by Dr Grosart with the works
of Phineas Fletcher. Sicelides, a play acted at King's College
in 1614, was printed in 1631. In 1632 appeared two theological
prose treatises, The Way to Blessedness and Joy in Tribulation,
and in 1633 his magnum opus, The Purple Island. The book was
dedicated to his friend Edward Benlowes, and included his
Piscatorie Eclogs and other Poetical Miscellanies. He died in
1650, his will being proved by his widow on the I3th of December
of that year. The Purple Island, or the Isle of Man, is a poem
in twelve cantos describing in cumbrous allegory the physiological
structure of the human body and the mind of man. The in-
tellectual qualities are personified, while the veins are rivers,
the bones the mountains of the island, the whole analogy being
worked out with great ingenuity. The manner of Spenser is
preserved throughout, but Fletcher never lost sight of his moral
FLEURANGES FLEURUS
499
aim to lose himself in digressions like those of the Faerie Queene.
What he gains in unity of design, however, he more than loses
in human interest and action. The chief charm of the poem
lies in its descriptions of rural scenery. The Piscatory Eclogues
are pastorals the characters of which are represented as fisher
boys on the banks of the Cam, and are interesting for the light
they cast on the biography of the poet himself (Thyrsil) and
his father (Thelgon). The poetry of Phineas Fletcher has not
the sublimity sometimes reached by his brother Giles. The
mannerisms are more pronounced and the conceits more far-
fetched, but the verse is fluent, and lacks neither colour nor
music.
A complete edition of hi? works (4 vols.) was privately printed
by Dr A. B. Grosart (Fuller Worthies Library, 1869).
FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK, SEIGNEUR
DE (1491-1537), marshal of France and historian, was the son
of Robert II. de la Marck, duke of Bouillon, seigneur of Sedan
and Fleuranges, whose uncle was the celebrated William de
la Marck, " The Wild Boar of the Ardennes." A fondness for
military exercises displayed itself in his earliest years, and at
the age of ten he was sent to the court of Louis XII., and placed
in charge of the count of Angouleme, afterwards King Francis I.
In his twentieth year he married a niece of the cardinal d' Amboise,
but after three months he quitted his home to join the French
army in the Milanese. With a handful of troops he threw himself
into Verona, then besieged by the Venetians; but the siege was
protracted, and being impatient for more active service, he
rejoined the army. He then took part in the relief of Mirandola,
besieged by the troops of Pope Julius II., and in other actions
of the campaign. In 1512 the French being driven from Italy,
Fleuranges was sent into Flanders to levy a body of 10,000 men,
in command of which, under his father, he returned to Italy
in 1513, seized Alessandria, and vigorously assailed Novara.
But the French were defeated, and Fleuranges narrowly escaped
with his life, having received more than forty wounds. He was
rescued by his father and sent to Vercellae, and thence to Lyons.
Returning to Italy with Francis I. in 1515, he distinguished
himself in various affairs, and especially at Marignano, where
he had a horse shot under him, and contributed so powerfully
to the victory of the French that the king knighted him with
his own hand. He next took Cremona, and was there called
home by the news of his father's illness. In 1519 he was sent
into Germany on the difficult errand of inducing the electors
to give their votes in favour of Francis I.; but in this he failed.
The war in Italy being rekindled, Fleuranges accompanied the
king thither, fought at Pavia (1525), and was taken prisoner
with his royal master. The emperor, irritated by the defection
of his father, Robert II. de la Marck, sent him into confinement
in Flanders, where he remained for some years. During this
imprisonment he was created marshal of France. He employed
his enforced leisure in writing his Histoire des chases memorables
advenues du regne de Louis XII et de Francois I, dcpuis 1499
jusqu'en Van 1521. In this work he designates himself Jeune
Adventureux. Within a small compass he gives many curious
and interesting details of the time, writing only of what he had
seen and in a very simple but vivid style. The book was first
published in 1735, by Abbe Lambert, who added historical and
critical notes; and it has been reprinted in several collections.
The last occasion on which Fleuranges was engaged in active
service was at the defence of Peronne, besieged by the count of
Nassau in 1536. In the following year he heard of his father s
death, and set out from Amboise for his estate of La Marck:
but he was seized with illness at Longjumeau, and died there in
December 1537.
See his own book in the Nouvette Collection des memotres pour
servir A I'histoire de France (edited by J. F. Michaud and J. J. K
Poujoulat, series i. vol. v. Paris, 1836 seq.).
FLEUR-DE-LIS (Fr. " lily flower "), an heraldic device, very
widespread in the armorial bearings of all countries, but more
particularly associated with the royal house of France,
conventional fleur-de-lis, as Littre says, represents very im-
perfectly three flowers of the white lily (Lihum) joined together,
the central one erect, and each of the other two curving outwards.
The fleur-de-lis is a common device in ancient decoration, notably
in India and in Egypt,where it was the symbol of life and resur-
rection, the attribute of the god Horus. It is common also in
Etruscan bronzes. It is uncertain whether the conventional
fleur-de-lis was originally meant to represent the lily or white
iris the flower-de-luce of Shakespeare or an arrow-head, a
spear-head, an amulet fastened on date-palms to ward off the
evil eye, &c. In Roman and early Gothic architecture the
fleur-de-lis is a frequent sculptured ornament. As early as
1 1 20 three fleurs-de-lis were sculptured on the capitals of the
Chapelle Saint-Aignan at Paris. The fleur-de-lis was first
definitely connected with the French monarchy in an ordonnance
of Louis le Jeune (c. 1147), and was first figured on a seal of
Philip Augustus in 1180. The use of the fleur-de-lis in heraldry
dates from the izth century, soon after which period it became
a very common charge in France, England and Germany, where
every gentleman of coat-armour desired to adorn his shield
Middle Ages. I7th century. i8th and igth centuries.
with a loan from the shield of France, which was at first d'azur,
semi defleurs de Us d 'or. In February 1376 Charles V. of France
reduced the number of fleurs-de-lis to three in honour of the
Trinity and the kings of France thereafter bore d'azur, a trois
fleurs de Us d'or. Tradition soon attributed the origin of the
fleur-de-lis to Clovis, the founder of the Prankish monarchy,
and explained that it represented the lily given to him by an
angel at his baptism. Probably there was as much foundation
for this legend as for the more rationalistic explanation of William
Newton (Display of Heraldry, p. 145), that the fleur-de-lis was
the figure of a reed or flag in blossom, used instead of a sceptre
at the proclamation of the Prankish kings. Whatever be the
true origin of the fleur-de-lis as a conventional decoration, it
is demonstrably far older than the Frankish monarchy, and
history does not record the reason of its adoption by the royal
house of France, from which it passed into common use as an
heraldic charge in most European countries. An order of the
Lily, with a fleur-de-lis for badge, was established in the Roman
states by Pope Paul III. in 1546; its members were pledged
to defend the patrimony of St Peter against the enemies of the
church. Another order of the Lily was founded by Louis XVIII.
in 1816, in memory of the silver fleurs-de-lis which the comte
d'Artois had given to the troops in 1814 as decorations; it was
abolished by the revolution of 1830.
FLEURUS, a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau,
5 m. N.E. of Charleroi, famous as the scene of several battles.
The first of these was fought on August 19/29, 1622, between
the forces of Count Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick and
the Spaniards under Cordovas, the latter being defeated. The
second is described below, and the thi r d and fourth, incidents
of Jourdan's campaign of 1794, under FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
WARS. The ground immediately north-east of Fleurus forms
the battlefield of Ligny (June 16, 1815), for which see WATERLOO
CAMPAIGN.
The second battle was fought on the ist of July 1690 between
45,000 French under Francois-Henri de Montgomery-Bouteville,
duke of Luxemburg, and 37,000 allied Dutch, Spaniards and
Imperialists under George Frederick, prince of Waldeck. The
latter had formed up his army between Heppignies and St
Amand in what was then considered an ideal position; a double
barrier of marshy brooks was in front, each flank rested on a
village, and the space between, open upland, fitted his army
exactly. But Luxemburg, riding up with his advanced guard
from Velaine, decided, after a cursory survey of the ground, to
5
FLEURY FLEURY, A. H. DE
attack the front and both flanks of the Allies' position at once
a decision which few, if any, generals then living would have dared
to make, and which of itself places Luxemburg in the same rank
as a tactician as his old friend and commander Conde. The
left wing of cavalry was to move under cover of woods, houses
and hollows to gain Wangenies, where it was to connect with the
frontal attack of the French centre from Fleurus and to envelop
Waldeck's right. Luxemburg himself with the right wing of
cavalry and some infantry and artillery made a wide sweep
round the enemy's left by way of Ligny and Les Trois Burettes,
concealed by the high-standing corn. At 8 o'clock the frontal
attack began by a vigorous artillery engagement, in which
the French, though greatly outnumbered in guns, held their
own, and three hours later Waldeck, whose attention had been
absorbed by events on the front, found a long line of the enemy
FLEURUS 1690
French Camp
French positions In the battle..
Allies'first position
Second position of left mi ng Bi
already formed up in his rear. He at once brought his second
line back to oppose them, but while he was doing so the French
leader filled up the gap between himself and the frontal assailants
by posting infantry around Wagnelee, and also guns on the
neighbouring hill whence their fire enfiladed both halves of the
enemy's army up to the limit of their ranging power. At i P.M.
Luxemburg ordered a general attack of his whole line. He him-
self scattered the cavalry opposed to him and hustled the Dutch
infantry into St Amand, where they were promptly surrounded.
The left and centre of the French army were less fortunate, and
in their first charge lost their leader, Lieutenant-General Jean
Christophe, comte de Gournay, one of the best cavalry officers
in the service. But Waldeck, hoping to profit by this momentary
success, sent a portion of his right wing towards St Amand,
where it merely shared the fate of his left, and the day was decided.
Only a quarter of the cavalry and 14 battalions of infantry
(English and Dutch) remained intact, and Waldeck could do no
more, but with these he emulated the last stand of the Spaniards
at Rocroi fifty years before. A great '.square was formed of the
infantry, and a handful of cavalry joined them the French
cavalry, eager to avenge Gournay, had swept away the rest.
Then slowly and in perfect order, they retired into the broken
ground above Mellet, where they were in safety. The French
slept on the battlefield, and then returned to camp with their
trophies and 8000 prisoners. They had lost some 2500 killed,
amongst them Gournay and Berbier du Metz, the chief of artillery,
the Allies twice as many, as well as 48 guns, and Luxemburg
was able to send 150 colours and standards to decorate Notre-
Dame. But the victory was not followed up, for Louis XIV.
rdered Luxemburg to keep in line with other French armies
which were carrying on more or less desultory wars of manoeuvre
on the Meuse and Moselle.
FLEURY [ABRAHAM JOSEPH BENARD] (1750-1822), French
actor, was born at Chartres on the 26th of October 1750, and
began his stage apprenticeship at Nancy, where his father was
at the head of a company of actors attached to the court of King
Stanislaus. After four years in the provinces, he came to Paris
in 1778, and almost immediately was made societaire at the
Comedie Franchise, although the public was slow to recognize
him as the greatest comedian of his time. In 1793 Fleury, like
the rest of his fellow-players, was arrested in consequence of
the presentation of Laya's L' Ami des lois, and, when liberated,
appeared at various theatres until, in 1799, he rejoined the
rehabilitated Comedie Francaise. After forty years of service
he retired in 1818, and died on the 3rd of March 1822. He was
notoriously illiterate, and it is probable that the interesting
Memoire de Fleury owes more to its author, Lafitte, than to the
subject whose " notes and papers " it is said to contain.
FLEURY, ANDR6 HERCULE DE (1653-1743), French
cardinal and statesman, was born at Lodeve (Herault) on the
22nd of June 1653, the son of a collector of taxes. Educated
by the Jesuits in Paris, he entered the priesthood, and became
in 1679, through the influence of Cardinal Bonzi, almoner to
Maria Theresa, queen of Louis XIV., and in 1698 bishop of
Frejus. Seventeen years of a country bishopric determined
him to seek a position at court. He became tutor to the king's
great-grandson and heir, and in spite of an apparent lack of
ambition, he acquired over the child's mind an influence which
proved to be indestructible. On the death of the regent Orleans
in 1723 Fleury, although already seventy years of age, deferred
his own supremacy by suggesting the appointment of Louis
Henri, duke of Bourbon, as first minister. Fleury was present
at all interviews between Louis XV. and his first minister, and
on Bourbon's attempt to break through this rule Fleury retired
from court. Louis made Bourbon recall the tutor, who on the
nth of July 1726 took affairs into his own hands, and secured
the exile from court of Bourbon and of his mistress Madame
de Prie. He refused the title of first minister, but his elevation
to the cardinalate in that year secured his precedence over the
other ministers. He was naturally frugal and prudent, and
carried these qualities into the administration, with the result
that in 1738-1739 there was a surplus of 1 5,000,000 livres instead
of the usual deficit. In 1 7 26 he fixed the standard of the currency
and secured the credit of the government by the regular payment
thenceforward of the interest on the debt. By exacting forced
labour from the peasants he gave France admirable roads, though
at the cost of rousing angry discontent. During the seventeen
years of his orderly government the country found time to
recuperate its forces after the exhaustion caused by the extra-
vagances of Louis XIV. and of the regent, and the general
prosperity rapidy increased. Internal peace was only seriously
disturbed by the severities which Fleury saw fit to exercise
against the Jansenists. He imprisoned priests who refused to
accept the bull Unigenitus, and he met the opposition of the
parlement of Paris by exiling forty of its members.
In foreign affairs his chief preoccupation was the maintenance
of peace, which was shared by Sir Robert Walpole, and therefore
led to a continuance of the good understanding between France
and England. It was only with reluctance that he supported
the ambitious projects of Elizabeth Farnese, queen of Spain,
in Italy by guaranteeing in 1729 the succession of Don Carlos
to the duchies of Parma and Tuscany. Fleury had economized
in the army and navy, as elsewhere, and when in 1733 war was
forced upon him he was hardly prepared. He was compelled
by public opinion to support the claims of Louis XV.'s father-in-
law Stanislaus Leszczynski, ex-king of Poland, to the Polish
crown on the death of Frederick Augustus I., against the Russo-
Austrian candidate; but the despatch of a French expedition
of 1 500 men to Danzig only served to humiliate France. Fleury
was driven by Chauvelin to more energetic measures; he con-
cluded a close alliance with the Spanish Bourbons and sent
two armies against the Austrians. Military successes on the
FLEURY, C. FLIEDNER
Rhine and in Italy secured the favourable terms of the treaty
of Vienna (1735-1738). France had joined with the other
powers in guaranteeing the succession of Maria Theresa under
the Pragmatic sanction, but on the death of Charles VI. in 1740
Fleury by a diplomatic quibble found an excuse for repudiating
his engagements, when he found the party of war supreme
in the king's counsels. After the disasters of the Bohemian
campaign he wrote in confidence a humble letter to the Austrian
general Konigsegg, who immediately published it. Fleury dis-
avowed his own letter, and died a few days after the French
evacuation of Prague on the 29th of January 1743. He had
enriched the royal library by many valuable oriental MSS., and
was a member of the French Academy, of the Academy of Science,
and the Academy of Inscriptions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. J. Bataille, loge historique de M. le Cardinal
A. H. de Fleury (Strassburg, 1737); C. Frey de Neuville, Oraison
funebre de S.E. Mgr. le Cardinal A. H. Flsury (Paris, 1743); P.
Vicaire, Oraison funebre du Cardinal A. H. de Fleury (Caen, 1743);
M. van Hoey, Lettres el negotiations pour servir a I'histoire de la vie
du Cardinal de Fleury (London, 1743); Leben des Cardinals A. H.
Fleury (Freiburg, 1743); F. Morenas, Parallele du ministere du
Cardinal Richelieu et du Cardinal de. Fleury (Avignon, 1743); Nach-
richten von dem Leben und der Verwaltung des Cardinals Fleury
(Hamburg, 1744).
FLEURY, CLAUDE (1640-1 7 23), French ecclesiastical historian,
was born at Paris on the 6th of December 1640. Destined for
the bar, he was educated at the aristocratic college of Clermont
(now that of Louis-le-Grand). In 1658 he was nominated an
advocate to the parlement of Paris, and for nine years followed
the legal profession. But he had long been of a religious disposi-
tion, and in 1667 turned from lav/ to theology. He had been
some time in orders when Louis XIV., in 1672, selected him as
tutor of the princes of Conti, with such success that the king
next entrusted to him the education of the count of Vermandois,
one of his natural sons, on whose death in 1683 Fleury received
for his services the Cistercian abbey of Loc-Dieu, in the diocese
of Rhodez. In 1689 he was appointed sub-preceptor of the dukes
of Burgundy, of Anjou, and of Beny, and thus became intimately
associated with Fenelon, their chief tutor. In 1696 he was
elected to fill the place of La Bruyere in the French Academy;
and on the completion of the education of the young princes
the king bestowed upon him the rich priory of Argenteuil, in the
diocese of Paris (1706). On assuming this benefice he resigned,
with rare disinterestedness, that of the abbey of Loc-Dieu.
About this time he began his great work, the first of the kind in
France, and one for which he had been collecting materials
for thirty years the Hisloire ecdeslaslique. Fleury's evident
intention was to write a history of the church for all classes of
society; but at the time in which his great work appeared it
was less religion than theology that absorbed the attention of
the clergy and the educated public; and his work accordingly
appealed to the student rather than to the popular reader,
dwelling as it does very particularly on questions of doctrine,
of discipline, of supremacy, and of rivalry between the priest-
hood and the imperial power. Nevertheless it had a great success.
The first edition, printed at Paris in 20 volumes 410, 1691, was
followed by many others, among which may be mentioned that
of Brussels, in 32 vols. 8vo, 1692, and that of Nismes, in 25 vols.
8vo, 1778 to 1780. The work of Fleury only comes down to the
year 1414. It was continued by J. Claude Fabre and Goujet
down to 1595, in 16 vols. 4to. In consulting the work of Fleury
and its supplement, the general table of contents, published
by Rondel, Paris, 1758, i vol. 4to. will be found very useful.
Translations have been made of the entire work into Latin,
German and Italian. The Latin translation, published at
Augsburg, 1758-1759, 85 vols. 8vo, carries the work down to
1684. Fleury, who had been appointed confessor to the young
king Louis XV. in 1716, because, as the duke of Orleans said,
he was neither Jansenist nor Molinist, nor Ultramontanist, but
Catholic, died on the i4th of July 1723. His great learning was
equalled by the modest simplicity of his life and the uprightness
of his conduct.
Fleury left many works besides his Hisloire ecclesiastique. The
following deserve special mention: Histoire du droit franfois (1674,
501
I2mo); Masurs des Israelites (1681, I2mo); Masurs des Chretiens
(1682, I2mo); Traite du choix et de la methode des etudes (1686,
2 vols. I2mo); Les Devoirs des maitres et des domestiques (1688,
I2mo). A number of the smaller works were published in one volume
at Pans in 1807. The Roman Congregation of the Index condemned
his Catechisme historique (1679) and the Institution du droit ecclesi-
astique (1687).
See C. Ernst Simonetti, Der Character tints Geschichlsschreibers
in dem Leben und aus den Schriften des Abts C. Fleury (Gottingen,
1746, 410); C. F. P. Jaeger, Notice sur C. Fleury, considers comme
hislonen de I'eglise (Strassburg, 1847, 8vo); Reichlin-Meldegg,
Ceschichte des Christentums, \.
FLIEDNER, THEODOR (1800-1864), German Protestant
divine, was born on the 2ist of January 1800 at Epstein (near
Wiesbaden), the small village in which his father was pastor.
He studied theology at the universities of Giessen and Gottingen,
and at the theological seminary of Herborn, and at the age of
twenty he passed his final examination. After a year spent
in teaching and preaching, in 1821 he accepted a call from the
Protestant church at Kaiserswerth, a little town on the Rhine,
a few miles below Diisseldorf. To help his people and to provide
an endowment for his church, he undertook journeys in 1822
through part of Germany, and then in 1823 to Holland and
England. He met with considerable success, and had oppor-
tunities of observing what was being done towards prison reform;
in England he made the acquaintance of the philanthropist
Elizabeth Fry. The German prisons were then in a very bad
state. The prisoners were huddled together in dirty rooms,
badly fed, and left in complete idleness. No one dreamed of
instructing them, or of collecting statistics to form the basis
of useful legislation on the subject. Fliedner, at first singly,
undertook the work. He applied for permission to be imprisoned
for some time, in order that he might look at prison life from the
inside. This petition was refused, but he was allowed to hold
fortnightly services in the Diisseldorf prison, and to visit the
inmates individually. Those interested in the subject banded
themselves together, and on the i8th of June 1826 the first
Prison Society of Germany (Rheinisch-Westfalischer Ccfangnis-
verein) was founded. In 1833 Fliedner opened in his own
parsonage garden at Kaiserswerth a refuge for discharged
female convicts. His circle of practical philanthropy rapidly
increased. The state of the sick poor had for some time ex-
cited his interest, and it seemed to him that hospitals might be
best served by an organized body of specially trained women.
Accordingly in 1836 he began the first deaconess house, and
the hospital at Kaiserswerth. By their ordination vows the
deaconesses devoted themselves to the care of the poor, the sick
and the young; but their engagements were not final they
might leave their work and return to ordinary life if they chose.
In addition to these institutions Fliedner founded in 1835 an
infant school, then a normal school for infant school mistresses
(1836), an orphanage for orphan girls of the middle class (1842),
and an asylum for female lunatics (1847). Moreover, he assisted
at the foundation and in the management of similar institutions,
not only in Germany, but in various parts of Europe.
In 1849 he resigned his pastoral charge, and from 1849 to 1851
he travelled over a large part of Europe, America and the East
the object of his journeys being to found " mother houses,"
which were to be not merely training schools for deaconesses, but
also centres whence other training establishments might arise.
He established a deaconess house in Jerusalem, and after his
return assisted by counsel and money in the erection of establish-
ments at Constantinople, Smyrna, Alexandria and Bucharest.
Among his later efforts may be mentioned the Christian house of
refuge for female servants in Berlin (connected with which other
institutions soon arose) and the " house of evening rest " for
retired deaconesses at Kaiserswerth. In 1855 Fliedner received
the degree of doctor in theology from the university of Bonn, in
recognition rather of his practical activity than of his theological
attainments. He died on the 4th of October 1864, leaving behind
him over 100 stations attended by 430 deaconesses; and these
by 1876 had increased to 150 with an attendance of 600.
Fliedner's son FRITZ FLIEDNER (1845-1901), after studying
in Halle and Tubingen, became in 1870 chaplain to the embassy in
502
FLIGHT AND FLYING
Madrid. He followed in his father's footsteps by founding
several philanthropic institutions in Spain. He was also the
author of a number of books, amongst which was an auto-
biography, Aus meinem Leben. Erinnerungen und Erfahrungen
(1901).
Theodor Fliedner's writings are almost entirely of a practical
character. He edited a periodical, Der Armen und Kranken Freund,
which contained information regarding the various institutions, and
also the yearly almanac of the Kaiserswerth institution. Besides purely
educational and devotional works, he wrote Buck der Mdrtyrer (1852) ;
Kurze Geschichte der Enlstehung der ersten evang. Liebesanstalten zu
Kaiserswerth (1856); Nachricht ilber das Diakonissen-Werk in der
Christ. Kirche (5th ed., 1867); Die evangel. Mdrtyrer Ungarns und
Siebenbiirgens; and Beschreibung der Reise nach Jerusalem und
Constantinopel. All were published at Kaiserswerth. There is a
translation of the German life by C. Winkworth (London, 1867).
See also G. Fliedner, Theodor Fliedner, kurzer Abriss seines Lebens
und Wirkens (3rd ed., 1892). See also on Fliedner and his work
Kaiserswerth Deaconesses (London, 1857); Dean John S. Howson's
Deaconesses (London, 1862); The Service of the Poor, by E. C.
Stephen (London, 1871); W. F. Stevenson's Praying and Working
(London, 1865).
FLIGHT and FLYING. Of the many scientific problems of
modern times, there are few possessing a wider or more enduring
interest than that of aerial navigation (see also AERONAUTICS)
To fly has always been an object of ambition with man; nor
will this occasion surprise when we remember the marvellous
freedom enjoyed by volant as compared with non- volant animals.
The subject of aviation is admittedly one of extreme difficulty.
To tread upon the air (and this is what is really meant) is, at
first sight, in the highest degree Utopian; and yet there are
thousands of living creatures which actually accomplish this
feat. These creatures, however varied in form and structure,
all fly according to one and the same principle; and this is a
significant fact, as it tends to show that the air must be attacked
in a particular way to ensure flight. It behoves us then at the
outset to scrutinize very carefully the general configuration of
flying animals, and in particular the size, shape and movements
of their flying organs.
Flying animals differ entirely from sailing ships and from
balloons, with which they are not unfrequently though errone-
ously compared; and a flying machine constructed upon proper
principles can have nothing in common with either of those
creations. The ship floats upon water and the balloon upon air;
but the ship differs from the balloon, and the ship and the balloon
differ from the flying creature and flying machine. The water
and air, moreover, have characteristics of their own. The
analogies which connect the water with the air, the ship with the
balloon, and the ship and the balloon with the flying creature
and flying machine are false analogies. A sailing ship is sup-
ported by the water and requires merely to be propelled; a
flying creature and a flying machine constructed on the living
type require to be both supported and propelled. This arises
from the fact that water is much denser than air, and because
water supports on its surface substances which fall through air.
While water and air are both fluid media, they are to be dis-
tinguished from each other in the following particulars. Water
is comparatively very heavy, inelastic and incompressible;
air, on the other hand, is comparatively very light, elastic and
compressible. If water be struck with violence, the recoil
obtained is great when compared with the recoil obtained from
air similarly treated. In water we get a maximum recoil with a
minimum of displacement; in air, on the contrary, we obtain a
minimum recoil with a maximum of displacement. Water and
air when unconfined yield readily to pressure. They thus form
movable fulcra to bodies acting upon them. In order to meet
these peculiarities the travelling organs of aquatic and flying
animals (whether they be feet, fins, flippers or wings) are made
not of rigid but of elastic materials. The travelling organs,
moreover, increase in size in proportion to the tenuity of the fluid
to be acted upon. The difference in size of the travelling organs
of animals becomes very marked when the land animals are
contrasted with the aquatic, and the aquatic with the aerial,
as in figs, i, 2 and 3.
The peculiarities of water and air as supporting media are well
illustrated by a reference to swimming, diving and flying birds.
A bird when swimming extends its feet simultaneously or alter-
nately in a backward direction, and so obtains a forward recoil.
The water supports the bird, and the feet simply propel. la
this case the bird is lighter than the water, and the long axis of
the body is horizontal (a of fig. 4). When the bird dives, or flies
under water, the long axis of the body is inclined obliquely down-
wards and forwards, and the bird forces itself into and beneath the
water by the action of its feet, orwings, or both. In divingorsub-
aquatic flight the feet strike upwards and backwards, the wings
downwards and backwards (b of fig. 4) . In aerial flying everything
FIG. i. Chillingham Bull (Bos Scoticus). Small travelling ex-
tremities adapted For land, r, s, t, u, figure-of-8 described by the
feet in walking.
FIG. 2. The Turtle (Chelonia imbricata). Enlarged travelling
extremities (flippers) adapted for water.
FIG. 3. The Bat (Phyllocina gracilis). Greatly expanded
travelling extremities adapted for air.
is reversed. The long axis of the bird is inclined obliquely
upwards and forwards, and the wings strike, not downwards
and backwards, but downwards a.nd forwards (c of fig. 4). These
changes in the direction of the long axis of the bird in swimming,
diving and flying, and in the direction of the stroke of the wings
in sub-aquatic and aerial flight, are due to the fact that the bird
is heavier than the air and lighter than the water.
The physical properties of water and air explain in a great
measure how the sailing ship differs from the balloon, and how
the latter differs from the flying creature and flying machine
constructed on the natural type. The sailing ship is, as it were,
immersed in two oceans, viz. an ocean of water and an ocean
of air the former being greatly heavier and denser than the
latter. The ocean of water buoys or floats the ship, and the
ocean of air, or part of it in motion, swells the sails which propel
the ship. The moving air, which strikes the sails directly, strikes
the hull of the vessel indirectly and forces it through the water,
which, as explained, is a comparatively dense fluid. When the
FLIGHT AND FLYING
503
ship is in motion it can be steered either by the sails alone, or by
the rudder alone, or by both combined. A balloon differs from
a sailing ship in being immersed in only one ocean, viz. the ocean
of air. It resembles the ship in floating upon the air, as the ship
FIG. 4. The King Penguin in the positions assumed by a bird in (a) swimming,
diving, and (c) flying.
floats upon the water; in other words, the balloon is lighter than
the air, as the ship is lighter than the water. But here all analogy
ceases. The ship, in virtue of its being immersed in two fluids
having different densities, can be steered and made to tack about
in a horizontal plane in any given direction. This in the case of
the balloon, immersed in one fluid, is impossible. The balloon
in a calm can only rise and fall in a vertical line. Its horizontal
movements, which ought to be the more important, are accidental
movements due to air currents, and cannot be controlled; the
balloon, in short, cannot be guided. One might as well attempt
to steer a boat carried along by currents of water in the absence
of oars, sails and wind, as to steer a balloon carried along by
currents of air. The balloon has no hold upon the air, and this
consequently cannot be employed as a fulcrum for regulating
its course. The balloon, because of its vast size and from its
being lighter than the air, is completely at the mercy of the wind.
It forms an integral part, so to speak, of the wind for the time
being, and the direction of the wind in every instance determines
the horizontal motion of the balloon. The force required to
propel a balloon against even a moderate breeze would result in its
destruction. The balloon cannot be transferred with any degree
of certainty from one point of the earth's surface to another,
and hence the chief danger in its employment. It may, quite as
likely as not, carry its occupants out to sea. The balloon is a
mere lifting machine and is in no sense to be regarded as a flying
machine. It resembles the flying creature only in this, that it is
immersed in the ocean of air in which it sustains itself. The mode
of suspension is wholly different. The balloon floats because it
is lighter than the air; the flying creature floats because it extracts
from the air, by the vigorous downward action of ks wings,
a certain amount of upward recoil. The balloon is passive; the
flying creature is active. The balloon is controlled by the wind;
the flying creature controls the wind. The balloon in the absence
of wind can only rise and fall in a vertical line; the flying creature
can fly in a horizontal plane in any given direction. The balloon
is inefficient because of its levity; the flying creature is efficient
because of its weight.
Weight, however paradoxical it may appear, is necessary to
flight. Everything which flies is vastly heavier than the air.
The inertia of the mass of the flying creature enables it to control
and direct its movements in the air. Many are of opinion that
flight is a mere matter of levity and power. This is quite a mis-
take. No machine, however light and powerful, will ever fly
whose travelling surf aces are not properly fashioned and properly
applied to the air.
It was supposed at one time that theairsacsof birds contributed
in some mysterious way to flight, but
this is now known to be erroneous.
The bats and some of the best-flying
birds have no air sacs. Similar re-
marks are to be made of the heated
air imprisoned within the bones of
certain birds. 1 Feathers even are not
necessary to flight. Insects and bats
have no feathers, and yet fly well.
The only facts in natural history
which appear even indirectly to
countenance the flotation theory are
the presence of a swimming bladder
in some fishes, and the existence of
membranous expansions or pseudo-
wings in certain animals, such as
the flying fish, flying dragon and
flying squirrel. As, however, the
animals referred to do not actually
fly, but merely dart into the air and
there sustain themselves for brief
intervals, they afford no real support
to the theory. The so-called floating
animals are depicted at figs. s,6and 7.
It has been asserted, and with some
degree of plausibility, that a fish
lighter than the water might swim, and that a bird lighter
than the air might fly: it ought, however, to be borne in mind
FIG. 5. The Red-throated Dragon FIG. 6. The Flying Colugo
(Draco haemalopogon). (Caleopithecus volans) ; also called
flying lemur and flying squirrel.
FIG. 7. The Flying Fish (Exocoetus exiliens).
that, in point of fact, a fish lighter than the water could not hold
its own if the water were in the least perturbed, and that a bird
Lighter than the air would be swept into space by even a moderate
1 According to Dr Crisp, the swallow, martin, snipe and many birds
of passage have no air in their bones. Proc. Zool. Soc. Land, part
xxv., 1857, p. 13.
504
FLIGHT AND FLYING
breeze without hope of return. Weight and power are always
associated in living animals, and the fact that living animals are
made heavier than the medium they are to navigate may be
regarded as a conclusive argument in favour of weight being
necessary alike to the swimming of the fish and the flying of the
bird. It may be stated once for all that flying creatures are for
the most part as heavy, bulk for bulk, as other animals, and that
flight in every instance is the product, not of superior levity,
but of weight and power directed upon properly constructed
flying organs.
This fact is important as bearing on the construction of flying
machines. It shows that a flying machine need not necessarily
be a light, airy structure exposing an immoderate amount of
surface. On the contrary, it favours the belief that it should
be a compact and moderately heavy and powerful structure,
which trusts for elevation and propulsion entirely to its flying
appliances whether actively moving wings, or screws, or aero-
planes wedged forward by screws. It should attack and subdue
the air, and never give the air an opportunity of attacking or
subduing it. It should smite the air intelligently and as a master,
and its vigorous well-directed thrusts should in every instance
elicit an upward and forward recoil. The flying machine must be
multum in panio. It must launch itself in the ocean of air, and
must extract from that air, by means of its travelling surfaces
however fashioned and however applied the recoil or resistance
necessary to elevate and carry it forward. Extensive inert
surfaces indeed are contra-indicated in a flying machine, as they
approximate it to the balloon, which, as has been shown, cannot
maintain its position in the air if there are air currents. A flying
machine which could not face air currents would necessarily be
a failure. To obviate this difficulty we are forced to fall back
upon weight, or rather the structures and appliances which weight
represents. These appliances as indicated should not be un-
necessarily expanded, but when expanded they should, wherever
practicable, be converted into actively moving flying surfaces,
in preference to fixed or inert dead surfaces.
The question of surface is a very important one in aviation:
it naturally resolves itself into one of active and passive surface.
As there are active and passive surfaces in the flying animal,
so there are, or should be, active and passive surfaces in the flying
machine. Art should follow nature in this matter. The active
surfaces in flying creatures are always greatly in excess of the
passive ones, from the fact that the former virtually increase in
proportion to the spaces through which they are made to travel.
Nature not only distinguishes between active and passive surfaces
in flying animals, but she strikes a just balance between them,
and utilizes both. She regulates the surfaces to the strength and
weight of the flying creature and the air currents to which the
surfaces are to be exposed and upon which they are to operate.
In her calculations she never forgets that her flying subjects are
to control and not to be controlled by the air. As a rule she
reduces the passive surfaces of the body to a minimum; she
likewise reduces as Tar as possible the actively moving or flying
surfaces. While, however, diminishing the surfaces of the flying
animal as a whole, she increases as occasion demands the active
or wing surfaces by wing movements, and the passive or dead
surfaces by the forward motion of the body in progressive
flight. She knows that if the wings are driven with sufficient
rapidity they practically convert the spaces through which they
move into solid bases of support; she also knows that the body
in rapid flight derives support from all the air over which it passes.
The manner in which the wing surfaces are increased by the
wing movements will be readily understood from the accompany-
ing illustrations of the blow-fly with its wings at rest and in
motion (figs. 8 and 9). In fig. 8 the surfaces exposed by the body
of the insect and the wings are, as compared with those of fig. o,
trifling. The wing would have much less purchase on fig. 8 than
on fig. 9, provided the surfaces exposed by the latter were passive
or dead surfaces. But they are not dead surfaces: they represent
the spaces occupied by the rapidly vibrating wings, which are
actively moving flying organs. As, moreover, the wings travel at
a much higher speed than any wind that blows, they are superior
to and control the wind; they enable the insect to dart through
the wind in whatever direction it pleases.
The reader has only to imagine figs. 8 and 9 cut out in paper to
realize that extensive, inert, horizontal aeroplanes 1 in a flying
machine would be a mistake. It is found to be so practically,
as will be shown by and by. Fig. 9 so cut out would be heavier
than fig. 8, and if both were exposed to a current of air, fig. 9
would be more blown about than fig. 8.
It is true that in beetles and certain other insects there are the
elytra or wing cases thin, light, horny structures inclined
FIG. 8. Blow-fly (Musca vomitoria) FIG. 9. Blow-fly with its wings
with its wings at rest. in motion as in flight.
slightly upwards which in the act of flight are spread out
and act as sustainers or gliders. The elytra, however, are com-
paratively long narrow structures which occupy a position in
front of the wings, of which they may be regarded as forming
the anterior parts. The elytra are to the delicate wings of some
insects what the thick anterior margins are to stronger wings.
The elytra, moreover, are not wholly passive structures. They
can be moved, and the angles made by their under surfaces with
the horizon adjusted. Finally, they are not essential to flight,
as flight in the great majority of instances is performed without
them. The elytra serve as protectors to the wings when the
wings are folded upon the back of the insect, and as they are
extended on either side of the body more or less horizontally when
the insect is flying they contribute to flight indirectly, in virtue
of their being carried forward by the body in motion.
Natural Flight. The manner in which the wings of the insect
traverse the air, so as practically to increase the basis of support,
raises the whole subject of natural flight. It is necessary, there-
fore, at this stage to direct the attention of the reader somewhat
fully to the subject of flight, as witnessed in the insect, bird and
bat, a knowledge of natural flight preceding, and being in some
sense indispensable to, a knowledge of artificial flight. The
bodies of flying creatures are, as a rule, very strong, compara-
tively light and of an elongated form, the bodies of birds being
specially adapted for cleaving the air. Flying creatures, however,
are less remarkable for their strength, shape and comparative
levity than for the size and extraordinarily rapid and complicated
movements of their wings. Prof. J. Bell Pettigrew first satis-
factorily analysed those movements, and reproduced them by
the aid of artificial wings. This physiologist in 1867" showed
that all natural wings, whether of the insect, bird or bat, are
screws structurally, and that they act as screws when they are
made to vibrate, from the fact that they twist in opposite
directions during the down and up strokes. He also explained
that all wings act upon a common principle, and that they
present oblique, kite-like surfaces to the air, through which they
pass much in the same way that an oar passes through water
in sculling. He further pointed out that the wings of flying
creatures (contrary to received opinions, and as has been already
indicated) strike downwards and forwards during the down
strokes, and upwards and forwards during the up strokes. Lastly
he demonstrated that the wings of flying creatures,' when the
1 By the term aeroplane is meant a thin, light, expanded structure
inclined at a slight upward angle to the horizon intended to float or
rest upon the air, and calculated to afford a certain amount of support
to any body attached to it.
2 " On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics,"
by J. Bell Pettigrew, Proc. Roy. Inst., 1867; " On the Mechanical
Appliances by which Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom,"
by the same author, Trans. Linn. Soc., 1867.
FLIGHT AND FLYING
505
bodies of said creatures are fixed, describe figure-of-8 tracks in
space the figure-of-8 tracks, when the bodies are released and
advancing as in rapid flight, being opened out and converted
into waved tracks.
It may be well to explain here that a claim has been set up by his
admirers for the celebrated artist, architect and engineer, Leonardo
da Vinci, to be regarded as the discoverer of the principles and
practice of flight (see Theodore Andrea Cook, Spirals in Nature and
Art, 1903). The claim is, however, unwarranted; Leonardo's chief
work on flight, bearing the title Codice sul Volo degli Uccelli e Varie
Altre Materie, written in 1505, consists of a short manuscript of
twenty-seven small quarto pages, with simple sketch illustrations
interspersed in the text. In addition he makes occasional references
to flight in his other manuscripts, which are also illustrated. In
none of Leonardo's manuscripts, however, and in none of his figures,
is the slightest hint given of his having any knowledge of the spiral
movements made by the wing in flight or of the spiral structure of the
wing itself. It is claimed that Leonardo knew the direction of the
stroke of the wing, as revealed by recent researches and proved by
modern instantaneous photography. As a matter of fact, Leonardo
gives a wholly inaccurate account of the direction of the stroke of
the wing. He states tha't the wing during the down stroke strikes
downwards and backwards, whereas in reality it strikes downwards
and forwards. In speaking of artificial flight Leonardo says: "The
wings have to row downwards and backwards to support the machine
on high, so that it moves forward." In speaking of natural flight he
remarks: " If in its descent the bird rows backwards with its wings
the bird will move rapidly; this happens because the wings strike
the air which successively runs behind the bird to fill the void
whence it comes." There is nothing in Leonardo's writings to show
that he knew either the anatomy or physiology of the wing in the
modern sense.
Pettigrew's discovery of the figure-of-8 and waved movements
made by the wing in stationary and progressive flight was con-
firmed some two years after it was made by Prof. E. J. Marey
of Paris 1 by the aid of the "sphygmograph." 2 The movements
in question are now regarded as fundamental, from the fact
that they are alike essential to natural and artificial flight.
The following is Pettigrew's description of wings and wing
movements published in 1867:
" The wings of insects and birds are, as a rule, more or less tri-
angular in shape, the base of the triangle being directed towards the
body, its sides anteriorly and posteriorly. They are also conical on
section from within outwards and from before backwards, this shape
converting the pinions.into delicately graduated instruments balanced
with the utmost nicety to satisfy the requirements of the muscular
system on the one hand and the resistance and resiliency of the air
on the other. While all wings are graduated as explained, innumer-
able varieties occur as to their general contour, some being falcated
or scythe-like, others oblong, others rounded or circular, some lanceo-
late and some linear. The wings of insects may consist either of one
or two pairs the anterior or upper pair, when two are present,
being in some instances greatly modified and presenting a corneous
condition. They are then known as elytra, from the Gr. tXvrpov,
a sheath. Both pairs are composed of a duplicature of the integu-
ment, or investing membrane, and are strengthened in various direc-
tions by a system of hollow, horny tubes, known to entomologists as
the neurae or nervures. These nervures taper towards the extremity
of the wing, and are strongest towards its root and anterior margin,
where they supply the place of the arm in birds and bats. The neurae
are arranged at the axis of the wing after the manner of a fan or
spiral stair the anterior one occupying a higher position than that
farther back, and so of the others. As this arrangement extends also
to the margins, the wings are more or less twisted upon themselves
and present a certain degree of convexity on their superior or upper
surface, and a corresponding concavity on their inferior or under
surface their free edges supplying those fine curves which act with
such efficacy upon the air in obtaining the maximum of resistance
and the minimum of displacement. As illustrative examples of the
form of wings alluded to, those of the beetle, bee and fly may be citi
the pinions in those insects acting as helices; or twisted levers, and
1 Revue des cours scientifiques de la France el del' Stranger, 1 869.
8 The sphygmograph, as its name indicates, is a recording instru-
ment. It consists of a smoked cylinder revolving by means of clock-
work at a known speed, and a style or pen which inscribes its surface
by scratching or brushing away the lampblack The movements
be registered are transferred to the style or pen by one or more levers,
and the pen in turn transfers them to the cylinder, where they appear
as legible tracings. In registering the movements of the wings i thi
tips and margins of the pinions were, by an ingenious modification,
employed as the styles or pens. By this arrangement the different
parts of the wings were made actually to record their own movements
As will be seen from this account the figure-of-8 or wave theory of
stationary and progressive flight has been made the subject
rigorous experimentum crucis.
elevating weights much greater than the area of the wings would seem
to warrant " (figs. 10 and u). . . . " To confer on the wings the
multiplicity of movements which they require, they are supplied
with double hinge or compound joints, which enable them to move
not only in an upward, downward, forward and backward direction,
but also at various intermediate degrees of obliquity. An insect with
winjjs thus hinged may, as far as steadiness of body is concerned, be
not inaptly compared to a compass set upon gimbals, where the uni-
versality of motion in one direction ensures comparative fixedness
in another." ..." All wings obtain their leverage by presenting
oblique surfaces to
the air, the degree
of obliquity gradu-
ally increasing in a
direction from be-
hind, forwards and
downwards, during
extension when the
sudden or effective
stroke is being given, FIG. JO. Right Wing of the Beetle (Goliathui
and gradually de- micans) when at rest ; seen from above,
creasing in an oppo-
site direction during
flexion, or when the
wing is being more
slowly recovered pre- FJG lr ._ Ri ht wing of the Bect i c (Co/J -.
paratory to making a//mi OTtVanj) b when in b motion; xen from
a second stroke The behind This figure shows how the wing twists
?nicts Ve and Hib and untwists w *" en in action ' and how !t forms
holds S 'true also of a true screw>
birds, is therefore delivered downwards and forwards, and not, as the
majority of writers believe, vertically, or even slightly backwards . . .
The wing in the insect is more flattened than in the bird ; and advan-
tage is taken on some occasions of this circumstance, particularly in
heavy-bodied, small-winged, quick-flying insects, to reverse the pinion
more or less completely during the down and up strokes." ... This
is effected in the following manner. The posterior margin of
the wing is made to rotate, during the down stroke, in a direction
from above downwards and from behind forwards the anterior
margin travelling in an opposite direction and reciprocating.
The wing may thus be said to attack the air by a screwing
movement from above. During the up or return stroke, on the other
hand, the posterior margin rotates in a direction from below upwards
and from before backv/ards, so that by a similar but reverse screwing
motion the pinion attacks the air from beneath." . . ." A figure-of-8,
compressed laterally and placed obliquely with its long axis running
from left to right of the spectator, represents the movements in
question. The down and up strokes, as will be seen from this account,
cross each other, the wing smiting the air during its descent from
above, as in the bird and bat, and during its ascent from below as
in the flying fish and boy's kite " (fig. 12).
FIG. 12 shows the figure-of-8 made by the margins of the wing in
extension (continuous line), and flexion (dotted line). As the tip of
the wing is mid-way between its margins, a line between the continu-
ous and dotted lines gives the figure-of-8 made by the tip. The
arrows indicate the reversal of the planes of the wing, and show how
the down and up strokes cross each other.
..." The figure-of-8 action of the wing explains how an insect
or bird may fix itself in the air, the backward and forward recipro-
cating action of the pinion affording support, but no propulsion.
In the^e instances the backward and forward strokes are made to
counterbalance each other. Although the figure-of-8 represents with
considerable fidelity the twisting of the wing upon its axis during
extension and flexion, when the insect is playing its wings before an
object, or still better when it is artificially fixed, it is otherwise when
the down stroke is added and the insect is fairly on the wing and pro-
gressing rapidly. In this case the wing, in virtue of its being carried
Forward by the body in motion, describes an undulating or spiral
course, as shown in ng. 13."
..."The down and up strokes are compound movements
the termination of the down stroke embracing the beginning of the
up stroke, and the termination of the up stroke including the begin-
ning of the down stroke. This is necessary in order that the down
and up strokes may glide into each other in such a manner as to
prevent jerking and unnecessary retardation." * ...
8 This continuity of the down into the up stroke and the converse
is greatly facilitated by the elastic ligaments at the root and in the
FLIGHT AND FLYING
" The wing of the bird, like that of the insect, is concavo-convex,
and more or less twisted upon itself when extended, so that the anterior
or thick margin of the pinion presents a different degree of curvature
to that of the posterior or thm margin. This twisting is in a great
measure owing to the manner in which the bones of the wing are
twisted upon themselves, and the spiral nature of their articular
surfaces the long axes of the joints always intersecting each other
-
FIG. 13. Wave track made by the wing in progressive flight, a, b,
Crests of the wave; c, d, e, up strokes; x, x, down strokes; /, point
corresponding to the anterior margin of the wing, and forming a centre
for the downward rotation of the wing (a, g) ; g, point corresponding
to the posterior margin of the wing, and forming a centre for the
upward rotation of the wing (d, f).
at right angles, and the bones of the elbow and wrist making a quarter
of a turn or so during extension and the same amount during flexion.
As a result of this disposition of the articular surfaces, the wing .may
be shot out or extended, and retracted or flexed in nearly the same
plane, the bones composing the wing rotating on their axes during
either movement (fig. 14). The secondary action, or the revolving of
Extension (elbow).
Flexion (wrist).
Flexion (elbow).
Extension (wrist).
FIG. 15.-
legged Partridge (Perdix rubra). Dorsal wa Y.
aspect as seen from above.
FIG. 14. a, b, line along which the wing travels during extension
and flexion. The arrows indicate the direction in which the wing is
spread out in extension and closed or folded in flexion.
the component bones on their own axes, is of the greatest importance
in the movements of the wing, as it communicates to the hand and
forearm, and consequently to the primary and secondary feathers
which they bear, the precise angles necessary for flight. It in fact
ensures that the wing, and the curtain or fringe of the wing which
the primary and secondary feathers form, shall be screwed into and
down upon the wind in extension, and unscrewed or withdrawn
from the wind during flexion. The wing of the bird may therefore
be compared to a huge gimlet or auger, the axis of the gimlet repre-
senting the bones of the wing, the flanges or spiral thread of the gimlet
the primary and secondary
feathers " (figs. 15 and 16).
..." From this descrip-
tion it will be evident that
by the mere rotation of the
bones of the forearm and
hand the maximum and
minimum of resistance is
-Right Wing of the Red- secured much in the same
way that this object is
attained by the alternate
dipping and feathering of
an oar." ..." The wing, both when at rest and when in motion,
may not inaptly be compared to the blade of an ordinary screw
propeller as employed in navigation. Thus the general outline of
the wing corresponds closely
with the outline of the
propeller (figs. II, 16 and
18), and the track described
by the wing in space is
twisted upon itself propeller
FIG. 16. Right Wing of the Red- fashion 1 (figs. 12, 20, 21,
legged Partridge (Perdix rubra). Dorsal 22, 23). The great velocity
and ventral aspects as seen from be- w 'th which the wing is
hind; showing auger-like conformation driven converts the impres-
of wing. Compare with figs. II and 18. ? lon or D . lur made by it
into what is equivalent to a
solid for the time being, in the same way that the spokes of a wheel
in violent motion, as is well understood, more or less completely
substance of the wing. These assist in elevating, and, when necessary,
in flexing and elevating it. They counteract in some measure what
may be regarded as the dead weight of the wing, and are especially
useful in giving it continuous play.
1 " The importance of the twisted configuration or screw-like form
cannot be over-estimated. That this shape is intimately associated
with flight is apparent from the fact that the rowing feathers of the
wing of the bird are every one of them distinctly spiral in their
nature ; in fact, one entire rowing feather is equivalent morpho-
logically and physiologically to one entire insect wing. In the
occupy the space contained within the rim or circumference of the
wheel " (figs. 9, 20 and 21).
..." The wing of the bat bears a considerable resemblance to
that of the insect, inasmuch as it consists of a delicate, semi-trans-
parent, continuous
membrane, supported in
divers directions, par-
ticularly towards its
anterior margin, by a
system of osseous stays
or stretchers which con-
fer upon it the degree
of rigidity requisite for
flight. It is, as a rule,
deeply concave on its FIG. 17. Right Wing of the Bat (Phyl-
under or ventral surface, locina gracilis). Dorsal aspect as seen from
and in this respect re- above,
sembles the wing of the
heavy-bodied birds. The movement of the bat's wing in extension
is a spiral one, the spiral running alternately from below upwards
and forwards and from above downwards and backwards. The
action of the wing of the bat, and the movements of its component
bones, are essentially
the same as in the bird '
(figs. 17 and 18).
. . . "The wing strikes
the air precisely as a
boy's kite would if it
were Jerked by its string, FlG l8 ._ R ; ht W ; of the Bat (ph ,_
Ih * & ^rence being i ocina graciUs} . Dorsal and ventral aspects,
that the kite is putted as see s n ^ behind These h ^ h ^
forwards upon the wind screw . like configuration of the wing, and
by the string and the also how the wi twists and untwists
hand, whereas in the during its action.
insect, bird and bat
the wing is pushed forwards on the wind by the weight of the body
and the power residing in the pinion itself " (fig. 2
FIG. 19. The Cape Barn-owl (Strix capensis), showing the kite-
like surfaces presented by the ventral aspect of the wings and body
in flight.
The figure-of-8 and kite-like action of the wing referred to
lead us to explain how it happens that the wing, which in many
instances is a comparatively small and delicate organ, can yet
attack the air with such vigour as to extract from it the recoil
necessary to elevate and propel the flying creature. The accom-
panying figures from one of Pettigrew's later memoirs 3 will
serve to explain the rationale (figs. 20, 21, 22 and 23).
As will be seen from these figures, the wing during its vibration
sweeps through a comparatively very large space. This space,
as already explained, is practically a solid basis of support for
the wing and for the flying animal. The wing attacks the air
in such a manner as virtually to have no slip this for two
reasons. The wing reverses instantly and acts as a kite during
nearly the entire down and up strokes. The angles, moreover,
made by the wing with the horizon during the down and up
strokes are at no two intervals the same, but (?.nd this is a
wing of the martin, where the bones of the pinion are short, and in
some respects rudimentary, the primary and secondary feathers are
greatly developed, and banked up in such a manner that the wing
as a whole presents the same curves as those displayed by the
insect's wing, or by the wing of the eagle, where the bones, muscles
and feathers have attained a maximum development. The con-
formation of the wing is such that it presents a waved appearance
in every direction the waves running longitudinally, transversely
and obliquely. The greater portion of the wing may consequently
be removed without essentially altering either its form or its func-
tions. This is proved by making sections in various directions,
and by finding that in some instances as much as two-thirds of the
wing may be lopped off without materially impairing the power of
flight." -Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. xxyi. pp. 325, 326.
" On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics,"
Prpc. Roy. Inst., 1867; " On the Mechanical Appliances by which
Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom," Trans. Linn. Soc.,
1867, 26.
3 " On the Physiology of Wings; being an analysis of the move-
ments by which flight is produced in the Insect, Bat and Bird,"
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. 26.
FLIGHT AND FLYING
remarkable circumstance) they are always adapted to the speed
at which the wing is travelling for the time being. The increase
and decrease in the angles made by the wing as it hastens to
and fro are due partly to the resistance offered by the air, anc
partly to the mechanism and mode of application of the wing
to the air. The wing, during its vibrations, rotates upon two
. separate centres, the tip rotating round the root of the wing as
an axis (short axis of wing), the posterior margin rotating arounc
FIG. 20.
FIG. 21.
FIG. 22. FIG. 23.
FIGS. 20, 21, 22 and 23 show the area mapped out by the left wing
of the Wasp when the insect is fixed and the wing made to vibrate.
These figures illustrate the various angles made by the wing with the
horizon as it hastens to and fro, and show how the wing reverses and
reciprocates, and how it twists upon itself in opposite directions, and
describes a figure-of-8 track in space. Figs. 20 and 22 represent the
forward or down stroke (a b c d ef g), figs. 21 and 23 the backward
or up stroke (g h ij k I a). The terms forward and back strokes are
here employed with reference to the head of the insect, x, x', line
to represent the horizon. If fig. 22, representing the down or forward
stroke, be placed upon fig. 23, representing the up or backward
stroke, it will be seen that the wing crosses its own track more or less
completely at every stage of the down and up strokes.
the anterior margin (long axis of wing). The wing is really
eccentric in its nature, a remark which applies also to the rowing
feathers of the bird's wing. The compound rotation goes on
throughout the entire down and up strokes, and is intimately
associated with the power which the wing enjoys of alternately
seizing and evading the air.
The compound rotation of the wing is greatly facilitated by
the wing being elastic and flexible. It is this which causes the
wing to twist and untwist diagonally on its long axis when it is
made to vibrate. The twisting referred to is partly a vital and
partly a mechanical act; that is, it is occasioned in part by
the action of the muscles and in part by the greater resistance
experienced from the air by the tip and posterior margin of the
wing as compared with the root and anterior margin, the re-
sistance experienced by the tip and posterior margin causing
them to reverse always subsequently to the root and anterior
margin, which has theeffect of throwing the anterior and posterior
margins of the wing into figure-of-8 curves, as shown at figs.
9, n, 12, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22 and 23.
The compound rotation of the wing, as seen in the bird, is
represented in fig. 24.
Not the least curious feature of the wing movements is the
remarkable power which the wing possesses of making and
utilizing its own currents. Thus, when the wing descends it
draws after it a strong current, which, being met by the wing
during its ascent, greatly increases the efficacy of the up stroke.
Similarly and conversely, when the wing ascends, it creates an
upward current, which, being met by the wing when it descends,
powerfully contributes to the efficiency of the down stroke.
This statement can be readily verified by experiment both with
natural and artificial wings. Neither the up nor the down strokes
are complete in themselves.
The wing to act efficiently must be driven at a certain speed,
and in such a manner that the down and up strokes shall glide
into each other. It is only in this way that the air can be made
to pulsate, and that the rhythm of the wing and the air waves
can be made to correspond. The air must be seized and let go
in a certain order and at a certain speed to extract a maximum
recoil. The rapidity of the wing movements is regulated by the
size of the wing, small wings being driven at a very much higher
speed than larger ones. The different parts of the wing, more-
over, travel at different degrees of velocity the tip and posterior
margin of the wing always rushing through a much greater
space, in a given time, than the root and anterior margin.
..--' k
/ p]"' ~k J *
FIG. 24. Wing of the Bird with its root (a, b) cranked forwards.
a, b, Short axis of the wing (axis their long axis (they are
for tip of wing, h). eccentrics) enables them
c, d, Long axis (axis for posterior to open or separate during
margin of wing, h, i, j, k, I). the up, and close or come
m, n, Short axis of rowing together during the down
feathers of wing. strokes.
r, s, Long axis of rowing feathers ef, g p, concave shape presented
of wing. The rotation of by the under surface of the
the rowing feathers on wing.
The rapidity of travel of the insect wing is in some cases
enormous. The wasp, for instance, is said to ply its wings at
the rate of no, and the common house-fly at the rate of 330
beats per second. Quick as are the vibrations of natural wings,
the speed of certain parts of the wing is amazingly increased.
Wings as a rule are long and narrow. As a consequence, a
comparatively slow and very
limited movement at the root
confers great range and im-
mense speed at the tip, the
speed of each portion of the
wing increasing as the root of
the wing is receded from. This
is explained on a principle well
understood in mechanics, viz.
that when a wing or rod
hinged at one end is made to
move in a circle, the tip or
free end of the wing or rod
describes a much wider circle
in a given time than a portion ^^ te WS g W $!%%
of the wing or rod nearer the different degrees of speed. In this
hinge (fig. 25). figure the rod a, b, hinged at x,
One naturally inquires why represents the wing. When the
the hieh soeed of wines and Wlng IS madc to Vlbrate . lts several
1 wings, ai 1 portions travel through the spaces
why the progressive increase d b f, j k I, g h i, and e a c in
of speed at their tips and exactly the same interval of time,
posterior margins? The Tlie P art of the W ' n 8 marked 6,
answer is not far tn sppt Tf wl "ch corresponds with the tip,
1 consequently travels very much
the wings were not driven at mor e rapidly than the part marked
a high speed, and if they were o, which corresponds with the root,
not eccentrics made to revolve m n < P< curves made by the wing
upon two separate axes, they at ^ e end of .*. he u P, and - down
... * strokes; r, position of the wing at
would of necessity be large the middle of the stroke,
cumbrous structures; but
large heavy wings would be difficult to work, and what is
worse, they would (if too large), instead of controlling the
air, be controlled by it, and so cease to be flying organs.
There is, however, another reason why wings should be made
to vibrate at high speeds. The air, as explained, is a very light,
thin, elastic medium, which yields on the slightest pressure, and
unless the wings attacked it with great violence the necessary
recoil or resistance could not be obtained. The atmosphere,
)ecause of its great tenuity, mobility and comparative imponder-
ability, presents little resistance to bodies passing through it at
ow velocities. If, however, the speed be greatly accelerated,
FLIGHT AND FLYING
\/t
the action of even an ordinary cane is sufficient to elicit a recoil.
This comes of the action and reaction of matter, the resistance
experienced varying according to the density of the atmosphere
and the shape, extent and velocity of the body acting upon it.
While, therefore, scarcely any impediment is offered to the pro-
gress of an animal in motion in the air, it is often exceedingly
difficult to compress the air with sufficient rapidity and energy
to convert it into a suitable fulcrum for securing the necessary
support and forward impetus. This arises from the fact that
bodies moving in air experience a minimum of resistance and
occasion a maximum of displacement. Another and very obvious
difficulty is traceable to the great disparity in the weight of air
as compared with any known solid, and the consequent want of
buoying or sustaining power which that disparity involves. If
we compare air with water we find it is nearly 1000 times lighter.
To meet these peculiarities the insect, bird and bat are furnished
with extensive flying surfaces in the shape of wings, which they
apply with singular velocity and power to the air, as levers of
the third order. In this form of lever the power is applied
between the fulcrum and the weight to be raised. The power
is represented by the wing, the fulcrum by the air, and the
weight by the body of the flying animal. Although the third
order of lever is particularly inefficient when the fulcrum is rigid
and immobile, it possesses singular advantages when these
conditions are reversed, that is, when the fulcrum, as happens
with the air, is elastic and yielding. In this instance a very slight
movement at the root of the pinion, or that end of the lever
directed towards the body,
is followed by an immense
sweep of the extremity of
the wing, where its elevat-
^^^\ ' n an< ^ P ro P e l un g power
/ ^^^> ,--'"' is greatest this arrange-
ment ensuring that the
large quantity of air
necessary for support and
propulsion shall be com-
pressed under the most
favourable conditions.
In this process the
weight of the body per-
forms an important part,
by acting upon the in-
clined planes formed by
the wings in the plane of
progression. The power
and the weight may thus
be said to reciprocate, the
two sitting as it were side
by side and blending their
peculiar influences to pro-
duce a common result, as
indicated at fig. 26.
When the wings descend
they elevate the body, the
wings being active and
the body passive; when
the body descends it con-
tributes to the elevation of
the wings, 1 the body being
active and the wings more or less passive. It is in this way that
weight forms a factor in flight, the wings and the weight of the body
reciprocating and mutually assisting and relieving each other.
This is an argument for employing four wings in artificial flight,
the wings being so arranged that the two which are up shall
always by their fall mechanically elevate the two which are
down. Such an arrangement is calculated greatly to conserve
the driving power, and as a consequence, to reduce the weight.
1 The other forces which assist in elevating the wings are (a) the
elevator muscles of the wings, (6) the elastic properties of the wings,
and (c) the reaction of the compressed air on the under surfaces of
the wings.
u
w
?IG. 26. In this figure/, /'represent
the movable fulcra furnished by the
air, p p' the power residing in the wing,
and 6 the body to be moved. In order
to make the problem of flight more in-
telligible, the lever formed by the wing
is prolonged beyond the body (6), and
to the root of the wing so extended the
weight (w, w') is attached ; x represents
the universal joint by which the wing
is attached to the body. When the
wing ascends as shown at p, the air
(fulcrum /) resists its upward passage,
and forces the body (6) or its repre-
sentative (ID) slightly downwards.
When the wing descends as shown at
p', the air (fulcrum/') resists its down-
ward passage, and forces the body (b)
or its representative (w') slightly up-
wards. From this it follows that when
the wing rises the body falls, and vice
versa the wing describing the arc of
a large circle (//'), the body (b), or the
weights (w, w') representing it, describ-
ing the arc of a small circle.
That the weight of the body plays an important part in the
production of flight may be proved by a very simple experiment.
If two quill feathers are fixed in an ordinary cork, and so arranged
that they expand and arch
above it (fig. 27), it is found
that if the apparatus be
dropped from a vertical
height of 3 yds. it does I \e
not fall vertically down-
wards, but downwards and
forwards in a curve, the
forward travel amounting
in some instances to a yard
and a half. Here the cork,
in falling, acts upon the
feathers (which are to all
intents and purposes wings),
and these in turn act upon
the air, in such a manner as
to produce a horizontal
transference.
In order to utilize the air
ie
FIG. 27. a, b, quill feathers; c,
cork ; d, e, f, g, downward and for-
ward curved trajectory made by the
feathers and cork before reaching the
ground (h, i).
as a means of transit, the body in motion, whether it moves
in virtue of the life it possesses, or because of a force super-
added, must be heavier than air. It must tread with its
wings and rise upon the air as a swimmer upon the water,
or as a kite upon the wind. This is necessary for the simple
reason that the body must be active, the air passive. The
flying body must act against gravitation, and elevate and
carry itself forward at the expense of the air and of the force
which resides in it, whatever that may be. If it were other-
wise if it were rescued from the law of gravitation on the
one hand, and bereft of independent movement on the other,
it would float about uncontrolled and uncontrollable like an
ordinary balloon.
In flight one of two things is necessary. Either the wings must
attack the air with great violence, or the air in rapid motion must
attack the wings: either suffices. If a bird attempts to fly in a
calm, the wings must be made to smite the air after the manner
of a boy's kite with great vigour and at a high speed. In this
case the wings fly the bird. If, however, the bird is fairly
launched in space and a stiff breeze is blowing, all that is required
in many instances is to extend the wings at a slight, upward
angle to the horizon so that the under parts of the wings present
kite-like surfaces. In these circumstances the rapidly moving
air flies the bird. The flight of the albatross supplies the necessary
illustration. If by any chance this magnificent bird alights
upon the sea he must flap and beat the water and air with his
wings with tremendous energy until he gets fairly launched.
This done he extends his enormous pinions 2 and sails majestically
along, seldom deigning to flap his wings, the breeze doing the
work for him. A familiar illustration of the same principle may
be witnessed any day when children are engaged in the pastime
of kite-flying. If two boys attempt to fly a kite in a calm, the
one must hold up the kite and let go when the other runs. In
this case the under surface of the kite is made to strike the still
air. If, however, a stiff autumn breeze be blowing, it suffices if
the boy who formerly ran when the kite was let go stands still.
In this case the air in rapid motion strikes the under surface
of the kite and forces it up. The string and the hand are to the
kite what the weight of the flying creature is to the inclined
planes formed by its wings.
The area of the insect, bird and bat, when the wings are fully
expanded, is greater than that of any other class of animal,
their weight being proportionally less. As already stated,
however, it ought never to be forgotten that even the lightest
insect, bird or bat is vastly heavier than the air, and that no
fixed relation exists between the weight of body and expanse
of wing in any of the orders. We have thus light-bodied and
2 The wings of the albatross, when fully extended, measure across
the back some 14 ft. They are exceedingly narrow, being sometimes
under a foot in width.
FLIGHT AND FLYING
509
large- winged insects and birds, as the butterfly and heron; and
others with heavy bodies and small wings, as the beetle and
partridge. Similar remarks are to be made of bats. Those
apparent inconsistencies in the dimensions of the body and wings
are readily explained by the greater muscular development
of the heavy-bodied, small-winged insects, birds and bats, and
the increased power and rapidity with which the wings in them
are made to oscillate. This is of the utmost importance in the
science of aviation, as showing that flight may be attained by a
heavy powerful animal with comparatively small wings, as well
as by a lighter one with greatly enlarged wings. While, therefore,
there is apparently no correspondence between the area of the
wing and the animal to be raised, there is, except in the case of
sailing insects, birds and bats, an unvarying relation as to the
weight and number of oscillations; so that the problem of flight
would seem to resolve itself into one of weight, power, velocity
and small surfaces, versus buoyancy, debility, diminished speed
and extensive surfaces weight in either case being a sine qua
non.
That no fixed relation exists between the area of the wings and
the size and weight of the body to
be elevated is evident on comparing
the dimensions of the wings and
bodies of the several orders of insects,
bats and birds. If such comparison
be made, it will be found that the
pinions in some instances diminish
while the bodies increase, and the
converse. No practical good can
therefore accrue to aviation from
elaborate measurements of the wings
and body of any flying thing; neither
can any rule be laid down as to the
extent of surface required for sus-
taining a given weight in the air.
The statements here advanced are
borne out by the fact that the wings
of insects, bats and birds may be
materially reduced without impair-
ing their powers of flight. In such
cases the speed with which the
wings are driven is increased in
the direct ratio of the mutilation.
The inference to be deduced from the foregoing is plainly this,
that even in large-bodied, small-winged insects and birds the
wing-surface is greatly in excess, the surplus wing area supplying
this we have a partial explanation of the buoyancy of insects,
and the great lifting power possessed by birds and bats, the
bats carrying their young without inconvenience, the birds elevat-
ing surprising quantities of fish, game, carrion, &c. (fig. 28).
While as explained, no definite relation exists between the
weight of a flying animal and the size of its flying surfaces, there
being, as stated, heavy-bodied and small-winged insects, birds
and bats, and the converse, and while, as has been shown, flight
is possible within a wide range, the wings being, as a rule, in
excess of what are required for the purposes of flight. still it
appears from the researches of L. de Lucy that there is a general
law, to the effect that the larger the volant animal, the smaller,
by comparison, are its flying surfaces. The existence of such
a law is very encouraging so far as artificial flight is concerned,
for it shows that the flying surfaces of a large, heavy, powerful
flying machine will be comparatively small, and consequently
comparatively compact and strong. This is a point of very
considerable importance, as the object desiderated in a flying
machine is elevating capacity.
De Lucy tabulated his results as under:
INSECTS.
BIRDS.
Flying Surface
referred to the
Names.
Kilogramme
= 2 IbSoz. 3dwt.
Names.
Flying Surface
referred to the
2 er. avoird.
Kilogramme.
= 2 10307.4-428
dr. troy.
yds. ft. in.
sq.
yds. ft. in.
Gnat
II 8 92
Swallow ....
i i 104}
Dragon-fly (small)
Coccinella (Lady-bird) .
7 2 56
5 13 87
Sparrow ....
Turtle-dove
o 5 142!
o 4 100}
Dragon-fly (common)
Tipula.or Daddy-long-legs
5 2 89
35"
Pigeon ....
Stork
2 113
02 20
Bee
i 2 74*
Vulture ...
o i 116
Meat-fly .
i 3 54*
Crane of Australia .
o o 130
Drone (blue)
I 2 20
Cockchafer ....
I 2 50
{ Stag-beetle {
T T IQi
(female) )
I 1 oV2
Stag-beetle )
(male) \
o 8 33
Rhinoceros-beetle
o 6 122!
FIG. 28. Hawk and Pigeon.
that degree of elevating and sustaining power which is necessary
to prevent undue exertion on the part of the volant animal. I
" It is easy, by the aid of this table, to follow the order, always
decreasing, of the surfaces, in proportion as the winged animal in-
creases in size and weight. Thus, in comparing the insects with one
another, we find that the gnat, which weighs 460 times less than the
stag-beetle, has 14 times more of surface. The lady-bird weighs
150 times less than the stag-beetle, and possesses 5 times more of
surface, &c. It is the same with the birds. The sparrow weighs
about 10 times less than the pigeon, and has twice as much surface.
The pigeon weighs about 8 times less than the stork, and has twice
as much surface. The sparrow weighs 339 times less than the
Australian crane, and possesses 7 times more surface, &c. If now
we compare the insects and the birds, the gradation will become
even much more striking. The gnat, for example, weighs 97,000
times less than the 1 pigeon, and has 40 times more surface; it weighs
three millions of times less than the crane of Australia, and possesses
140 times more of surface than this latter, the weight of which is
about 9 kilogrammes 500 grammes (25 Ib 5 oz. 9 dwt. troy, 20 Ib 15 oz.
2} dr. avoirdupois).
The Australian crane, the heaviest bird weighed, is that which has
the smallest amount of surface, for, referred to the kilogramme, it
does not give us a surface of more than 899 square centimetres (139
sq. in.), that is to say, about an eleventh part of a square metre.
But every one knows that these grallatorial animals are excellent
birds of flight. Of all travelling birds they undertake the longest
and most remote journeys. They are, in addition, the eagle excepted,
the birds which efevate themselves the highest, and the flight of which
is the longest maintained." 1
The way in which the natural wing rises and falls on the air,
and reciprocates with the body of the flying creature, has a very
obvious bearing upon artificial flight. In natural flight the body
of the flying creature falls slightly forward in a curve when the
1 On the Flight of Birds, nf Bats and of Insects, in reference to the
subject of Aerial Locomotion, by L. de Lucy (Paris).
FLIGHT AND FLYING
wing ascends, and is slightly elevated in a curve when the wing
descends. The wing and body are consequently always playing
at cross purposes, the wing rising when the body is falling and
vice versa. The alternate rise and fall of the body and wing of
the bird are well seen when contemplating the flight of the gull
FIG. 29 shows how in progressive flight the wing and the body
describe waved tracks, the crests of the waves made by the wing
(a, c, e, g, i) being placed opposite the crests of the waves made by
the body I, 2, 3, 4, 5).
from the stern of a steamboat, as the bird is following in the wake
of the vessel. The complementary movements referred to are
indicated at fig. 29, where the continuous waved line represents
the trajectory made by the wing, and the dotted waved line that
made by the body. As will be seen from this figure, the wing
advances both when it rises and when it falls. It is a peculiarity
of natural wings, and of artificial wings constructed on the
principle of living wings, that when forcibly elevated ordepressed,
even in a strictly vertical direction, they inevitably dart forward.
If, for instance, the wing is suddenly depressed in a vertical
direction, as at a b of fig. 29, it at once darts downwards and
forwards in a double curve (see continuous line of figure) to c,
thus converting the vertical down stroke into a down, oblique,
forward stroke. If, again, the wing be suddenly elevated in a
strictly vertical direction, as at c d, the wing as certainly darts
upwards and forwards in a double curve to e, thus converting
the vertical up strokes into an upward, oblique, forward stroke.
The same thing happens when the wing is depressed from e to /
and elevated from g to h, the wing describing a waved track as at
eg, si-
There are good reasons why the wings should always be in
advance of the body. A bird when flying is a body in motion;
but a body in motion tends to fall not vertically downwards,
but downwards and forwards. The wings consequently must
be made to strike forwards and kept in advance of the body of the
bird if they are to prevent the bird from falling downwards and
forwards. If the wings were to strike backwards in aerial flight,
the bird would turn a forward somersault.
That the wings invariably strike forwards during the down and
up strokes in aerial flight is proved alike by observation and
experiment. If any one watches a bird rising from the ground
or the water, he cannot fail to perceive that the head and body
are slightly tilted upwards, and that the wings are made to
descend with great vigour in a downward and forward direction.
The dead natural wing and a properly constructed artificial
wing act in precisely the same way. If the wing of a gannet,
just shot, be removed and made to flap in what the operator
believes to be a strictly vertical downward direction, the tip of
the wing, in spite of him, will dart forwards between 2 and 3 ft.
the amount of forward movement being regulated by the
rapidity of the down stroke. This is a very striking experiment.
The same thing happens with a properly constructed artificial
wing. The down stroke with the artificial as with the natural
wing is invariably converted into an oblique, downward and
forward stroke. No one ever saw a bird in the air flapping its
wings towards its tail. The old idea was that the wings during
the down stroke pushed the body of the bird in an upward and
forward direction; in reality the wings do not push but pull, and
in order to pull they must always be in advance of the body to
be flown. If the wings did not themselves fly forward, they could
not possibly cause the body of the bird to fly forward. It is the
wings which cause the bird to fly.
It only remains to be stated that the wing acts as a true kite,
during both the down and the up strokes, its under concave
or biting surface, in virtue of the forward travel communicated
to it by the body of the flying creature, being closely applied
to the air, during both its ascent and its descent. This explains
how the wing furnishes a persistent buoyancy alike when it rises
and when it falls (fig. 30).
The natural kite formed by the wing differs from the artificial
kite only in this, that the former is capable of being moved in
all its parts, and is more or less flexible and elastic, whereas the
latter is comparatively rigid. The flexibility and elasticity of
the kite formed by the natural wing are rendered necessary by
the fact that the wing, as already stated, is practically hinged
at its root and along its anterior margin, an arrangement which
necessitates its several parts travelling at different degrees of
speed, in proportion as they are removed from the axes of
rotation. Thus the tip travels at a higher speed than the root,
and the posterior margin than the anterior margin. This begets a
twisting diagonal movement of the wing on its long axis, which, but
for the elasticity referred to, would break the wing into fragments.
The elasticity contributes also to the continuous play of the wing,
and ensures that no two parts of it shall reverse at exactly the
same instant. If the wing was inelastic, every part of it would
reverse at precisely the same moment, and its vibration would be
characterized by pauses or dead points at the end of the down
and up strokes which would be fatal to it as a flying organ.
n
FIG. 30 shows the kite-like action of the wing during the down and
up strokes, how the angles made by the wing with the horizon (a, b)
vary at every stage of these strokes, and how the wing evades the
superimposed air during the up stroke, and seizes the nether air
during the down stroke. In this figure the 'spaces between the double
dotted lines (c g, i b) represent the down strokes, the single dotted line
(h, i) representing the up stroke. The kite-like surfaces and angles
made by the wing with the horizon (a, b) during the down strokes
are indicated a.tcdefg,jkl m, those made during the up strokes
being indicated at g h i. As the down and up strokes run into each
other, and the convex surface of the wing is always directed upwards
and the concave surface downwards, it follows that the upper surface
of the wing evades in a great measure the upper air, while the under
surface seizes the nether air. It is easy to understand from this
figure how the wing always flying forwards furnishes a persistent
buoyancy.
The elastic properties of the wing are absolutely essential, when
the mechanism and movements of the pinion are taken into
account. A rigid wing can never be an effective flying instru-
ment.
The kite-like surfaces referred to in natural flight are those
upon which the constructors of flying machines very properly
ground their hopes of ultimate success. These surfaces may be
conferred on artificial wings, aeroplanes, aerial screws or similar
structures; and these structures, if we may judge from what
we find in nature, should be of moderate size and elastic. The power
of the flying organs will be increased if they are driven at a com-
paratively high speed, and particularly if they are made to
reverse and reciprocate, as in this case they will practically
create the currents upon which they are destined to rise and
advance. The angles made by the kite-like surfaces with the
horizon should vary according to circumstances. They should
be small when the speed is high, and vice versa. This, as stated,
is true of natural wings. It should also be true of artificial wings
and their analogues.
Artificial Flight. We are now in a position to enter upon a
consideration of artificial .wings and wing movements, and of
artificial flight and flying machines.
We begin with artificial wings. The first properly authenti-
cated account of an artificial wing was given by G. A. Borelli
in 1670. This author, distinguished alike as a physiologist,
mathematician and mechanician, describes and figures a bird
with artificial wings, each of which consists of a rigid rod in front
and flexible feathers behind. The wings are represented as striking
vertically downwards, as the annexed duplicate of Borelli 's figure
shows (fig. 31).
Borelli wasof opinion that flight resulted from the application
of an inclined plane, which beats the air, and which has a wedge
FLIGHT AND FLYING
p IG
action. He, in fact, endeavours to prove that a bird wedges
itself forward upon the air by the perpendicular vibration of its
wings, the wings during their action forming a wedge, the base of
which (c b e) is directed to-
wards the head of the bird,
the apex (a /) being directed
towards the tail (d). In the
ip6th proposition of his work
(De motu animalium, Leiden,
1685) he states that
" If the expanded wings of a
bird suspended in the air shall
strike the undisturbed air be-
neath it with a motion perpen-
dicular to the horizon, the bird
will fly with a transverse motion
Borelli's bird with artificial wings, in a plane parallel with the
r e, Anterior margin of the right horizon." ' If," he adds, " the
wing.consistingofarigidrod. wings of the bird be expanded,
o a, Posterior margin of the right ai }d the under surfaces of the
wing, consisting of flexible wings be struck by the air
feathers. ascending perpendicularly to the
be, Anterior; and horizon with such a force as
/, Posterior margins of the left shall prevent the bird gliding
wing same as the right. downwards (i.e. with a tend-
d, Tail of the bird. en cy to glide downwards) from
r g, d h, Vertical direction of the falling, it will be urged in a
down stroke of the wing. horizontal direction."
The same argument is re-
stated in different words as under: " If the air under the wings be
struck by the flexible portions of the wings (flabella, literally fly
flaps or small fans) with a motion perpendicular to the horizon, the
sails (vela) and flexible portions of the wings (flabella) will yield in
an upward direction and form a wedge, the point of which is
directed towards the tail. Whether, therefore, the air strikes the
wings from below, or the wings strike the air from above, the result
is the same, the posterior or flexible margins of the wings yield
in an upward direction, and in so doing urge the bird in a hori-
zontal direction."
There are three points in Borelli's argument to which it is
necessary to draw attention: (i) the direction of the down
stroke: it is stated to be vertically downwards; (2) the construc-
tion of the anterior margin of the wing: it is stated to consist
of a rigid rod; (3) the function delegated to the posterior margin
of the wing: it is said to yield in an upward direction during the
down stroke.
With regard to the first point. It is incorrect to say the wing
strikes vertically downwards, for, as already explained, the body
of a flying bird is a body in motion; but as a body in motion
tends to fall downwards and forwards, the wing must strike
downwards and forwards in order effectually to prevent its fall.
Moreover, in point of fact, all natural wings, and all artificial
wings constructed on the natural type, invariably strike down-
wards and forwards.
With regard to" the second point, viz. the supposed rigidity
of the anterior margin of the wing, it is only necessary to examine
the anterior margins of natural wings to be convinced that they
are in every case flexible and elastic. Similar remarks apply to
properly constructed artificial wings. If the anterior margins of
natural and artificial wings were rigid, it would be impossible
to make them vibrate smoothly and continuously. This is a
matter of experiment. If a rigid rod, or a wing with a rigid
anterior margin, be made to vibrate, the vibration is characterized
by an unequal jerky motion, at the end of the down and up
strokes, which contrasts strangely with the smooth, steady
fanning movement peculiar to natural wings.
As to the third point, viz. the upward bending of the posterior
margin of the wing during the down stroke, it is necessary to
remark that the statement is true if it means a slight upward
bending, but that it is untrue if it means an extensive upward
bending.
Borelli does not state the amount of upward bending, but one
of his followers, E. J. Marey, maintains that during the down
stroke the wing yields until its under surface makes a backward
angle with the horizon of 45. Marey further states that during
the up stroke the wing yields to a corresponding extent in an
opposite direction the posterior margin of the wing, according
to him, passing through an angle of po, plus or minus according
to circumstances, every time the wing rises and falls.
That the posterior margin of the wing yields to a slight extent
during both the down and up strokes will readily be admitted,
alike because of the very delicate and highly elastic properties
of the posterior margins of the wing, and because of the com-
paratively great force employed in its propulsion; but that it
does not yield to the extent stated by Marey is a matter of
absolute certainty. This admits of direct proof. If any one
watches the horizontal or upward flight of a large bird he will
observe that the posterior or flexible margin of the wing never
rises during the down stroke to a perceptible extent, so that the
under surface of the wing, as a whole, never looks backwards.
On the contrary, he will perceive that the under surface of the
wing (during the down stroke) invariably looks forwards and
forms a true kite with the horizon, the angles made by the kite
varying at every part of the down stroke, as shown more
particularly at c d efg, ij k I m of fig. 30.
The authors who have adopted Borelli's plan of artificial wing,
and who have endorsed his mechanical views of the wing's action
most fully, are J. Chabrier, H. E. G. Strauss-Durckheim and
Marey. Borelli's artificial wing, it will be remembered, consists
of a rigid rod in front and a flexible sail behind. It is also made
to strike vertically downwards. According to Chabrier, the wing
has only one period of activity. He believes that if the wing be
suddenly lowered by the depressor muscles, it is elevated solely
by the reaction of the air. There is one unanswerable objection
to this theory: the birds and bats, and some if not all the insects,
have distinct elevator muscles, and can elevate their wings at
pleasure when not flying and when, consequently, the reaction
of the air is not elicited. Strauss-Durckheim agrees with Borelli
both as to the natural and the artificial wing. He is of opinion
that the insect abstracts from the air by means of the inclined
plane a component force (composant) which it employs to support
and direct itself. In his theology of nature he describes a sche-
matic wing as consisting of a rigid ribbing in front, and a flexible
sail behind. A membrane so constructed will, according to him,
be fit for flight. It will suffice if such a sail elevates and lowers
itself successively. It will of its own accord dispose itself as an
inclined plane, and receiving obliquely the reaction of the air,
it transfers into tractile force a part of the vertical impulsion it
has received. These two parts of the wing, moreover, are equally
indispensable to each other.
Marey repeats Borelli and Durckheim with very trifling
modifications, so late as 1869. He describes two artificial wings,
the one composed of a rigid rod and sail the rod representing
the stiff anterior margin of the wing; the sail, which is made of
paper bordered with cardboard, the flexible posterior margin.
The other wing consists of a rigid nervure in front and behind of
thin parchment which supports fine rods of steel. He states that
if the wing only elevates and depresses itself, " the resistance of
the air is sufficient to produce all the other movements. In
effect (according to Marey) the wing of an insect has not the power
of equal resistance in every part. On the anterior margin the
extended nervures make it rigid, while behind it is fine and
flexible. During the vigorous depression of the wing, the nervure
has the power of remaining rigid, whereas the flexible portion,
being pushed in an upward direction on Account of the resistance
it experiences from the air, assumes an oblique position which
causes the upper surface of the wing to look forwards." The
reverse of this, in Marey's opinion, takes place during the eleva-
tion of the wing the resistance of the air from above causing
the upper surface of the wing to look backwards. ..." At first,"
he says, " the plane of the wing is parallel with the body of the
animal. It lowers itself the front part of the wing strongly
resists, the sail which follows it being flexible yields. Carried by
the ribbing (the anterior margin of the wing) which lowers itself,
the sail or posterior margin of the wing being raised meanwhile
by the air, which sets it straight again, the sail will take an inter-
mediate position and incline itself about 45 plus or minus accord-
ing to circumstances. . . . The wing continues its movements
of depression inclined to the horizon ; but the impulse of the air,
FLIGHT AND FLYING
which continues its effect, and naturally acts upon the surface
which it strikes, has the power of resolving itself into two forces,
a vertical and a horizontal force; the first suffices to raise the
animal, the second to move it along." 1 Marey, it will be
observed, reproduces Borelli's artificial wing, and even his text,
at a distance of nearly two centuries.
The artificial wing recommended by Pettigrew is a more exact
imitation of nature than either of the foregoing. It is of a more
or less triangular form, thick at the root and anterior margin,
and thin at the tip and posterior margin. No part of it is rigid.
It is, on the contrary, highly elastic and flexible throughout.
It is furnished with springs at its root to contribute to its con-
tinued play, and is applied to the air by a direct piston action
in such a way that it descends in a downward and forward
direction during the down stroke, and ascends in an upward and
forward direction during the up stroke. It elevates and propels
both when it rises and falls. It, moreover, twists and untwists
during its action and describes figure-of-8 and waved tracks in
space, precisely as the natural wing does. The twisting is most
marked at the tip and posterior margin, particularly that half of
the posterior margin next the tip. The wing when in action may
be divided into two portions by a line running diagonally between
the tip of the wing anteriorly and the root of the wing posteriorly.
The tip and posterior parts of the wing are more active than the
root and anterior parts, from the fact that the tip and posterior
parts (the wing is an eccentric) always travel through greater
spaces, in a given time, than the root and anterior parts.
FlG. 32. Elastic Spiral Wing, which twists and untwists during
its action, to form a mobile helix or screw. This wing is made to
vibrate by a direct piston action, and by a slight adjustment can be
propelled vertically, horizontally or at any degree of obliquity.
a b. Anterior margin of wing, to
which the neurae or ribs
are affixed.
c d, Posterior margin of wing
crossing anterior one.
x, Ball-and-socket joint at root
of wing, the wing being
attached to the side of the
cylinder by the socket.
/, Cylinder.
r r, Piston, with cross heads
(w, w) and piston head (s).
o o, Stuffing boxes.
e, f. Driving chains.
m, Superior elastic band, which
assists in elevating the
wing.
Inferior elastic band, which
antagonizes m. The alter-
nate stretching of ' the
superior and inferior elastic
bands contributes to the
continuous play of the wing,
by preventing dead points
at the end of the down and
up strokes. The wing is
free to move in a vertical
and horizontal direction
and at any degree of
obliquity.
The wing is so constructed that the posterior margin yields
freely in a downward direction during the up stroke, while it
yields comparatively little in an upward direction during the
down stroke; and this is a distinguishing feature, as the wing
is thus made to fold and elude the air more or less completely
during the up stroke, whereas it is made to expand and seize
the air with avidity during the down stroke. The oblique line
referred to as running diagonally across the wing virtually divides
the wing into an active and a passive part, the former elevating
and propelling, the latter sustaining.
It is not possible to determine with exactitude the precise
function discharged by each part of the wing, but experiment
tends to show that the tip of the wing elevates, the posterior
margin propels, and the root sustains.
The wing and this is important is driven by a direct piston
1 E. J. Marey, Revue des cours scientifiques de la France el die
I'ttranger (1869).
action with an irregular hammer-like movement, the pinion
having communicated to it a smart click at the beginning of
every down stroke the up stroke being more uniform. The
following is the arrangement (fig. 32). If the artificial wing here
represented (fig. 32) be compared with the natural wing as
depicted at fig. 33, it will be seen that there is nothing in the one
which is not virtually reproduced in the other. In addition to
the foregoing, Pettigrew recommended a double elastic wing to
be applied to the air like a steam-hammer, by being fixed to the
FIG. 33 shows the Spiral Elastic Wings of the Gull. Each
wing forms a mobile helix or screw.
o 6, Anterior margin of left wing.
c d, Posterior margin of ditto.
d g, Primary or rowing feathers
of left wing.
g a, Secondary feathers ditto.
x, Root of right wing with ball-
and-socket joint.
I, Elbow joint.
m, Wrist joint.
n,o, Hand and finger joints.
head of the piston. This wing, like the single wing described,
twists and untwists as it rises and falls, and possesses all the
characteristics of the natural wing (fig. 34).
He also recommends an elastic aerial screw consisting of two
blades, which taper and become thinner towards the tips and
-m
FIG. 34. Double Elastic Wing driven by direct piston action.
During the up stroke of the piston the wing is very decidedly convex
on its upper surface (abed, A A') ; its under surface (efgh, A A')
being deeply concave and inclined obliquely upwards and forwards.
It thus evades, to a considerable extent, the air during the up stroke.
During the down stroke of the piston the wing is flattened out in every
direction, and its extremities twisted in such a manner as to form
two screws, as seen at a' V c' d', e' f g' h', B, B'. The active area of
the wing is by this arrangement considerably diminished during
the up stroke, and considerably augmented during the down stroke;
the wing seizing the air with greater avidity during the down than
during the up stroke, i, j, k, elastic band to regulate the expansion
of the wing; /.piston; m, piston head; n, cylinder.
posterior margins. When the screw is made to rotate, the blades,
because of their elasticity, assume a great variety of angles, the
angles being least where the speed of the blades is greatest and
vice versa. The pitch of the blades is thus regulated by the
speed attained (fig. 35).
The peculiarity of Pettigrew's wings and screws consists in
their elasticity, their twisting action, and their great comparative
length and narrowness. They offer little resistance to the air
when they are at rest, and when in motion the speed with which
they are driven is such as to ensure that the comparatively
large spaces through which they travel shall practically be
converted into solid bases of support.
After Pettigrew enunciated his views (1867) as to the screw
configuration and elastic properties of natural wings, and more
especially after his introduction of spiral, elastic artificial wings,
and elastic screws, a great revolution took place in the construc-
tion of flying models. Elastic aeroplanes were advocated by
FLIGHT AND FLYING
D. S. Brown, 1 elastic aerial screws by J. Armour, 2 and elastic
aeroplanes, wings and screws by Alphonse Penaud.'
Penaud's experiments are alike interesting and instructive.
He constructed models to fly by three different methods:
(a) by means of screws acting vertically upwards; (ft) by aero-
planes propelled horizontally by screws; and (c) by wings which
FlG. 35. Elastic Aerial Screw with twisted blades resembling
wings (abed, efg h).
x, End of driving shaft.
v, w, Sockets in which the roots
of the blades of the screw
rotate, the degree of rota-
tion being limited by steel
springs (z, s).
ab,ef, tapering elastic rods form-
ing anterior or thick
margins of blades of screw.
d c, h g, Posterior or thin elastic
margins of blades of screw.
The arrows m, n, o, p, q, r
indicate the direction of
travel.
flapped in an upward and downward direction. An account of
his helicoptere or screw model appeared in the Aeronaut for
January 1872, but before giving a description of it, it may be well
to state very briefly what is known regarding the history of the
screw as applied to the air.
The first suggestion on this subject was given by A. J. P.
Paucton in 1768. This author, in his treatise on the Theorie
de la vis d' Archimede, describes a machine provided with two
screws which he calls a " pterophores." In 1796 Sir George
FIG. 36. Cayley's Flying Model.
Cayley gave a practical illustration of the efficacy of the screw
as applied to the air by constructing a small machine, consisting
of two screws made of quill feathers, a representation of which
we annex (fig. 36). Sir George writes as under:
" As it may be an amusement to some of your readers to see a
machine rise in the air by mechanical means, I will conclude my
present communication by describing an instrument of this kind,
which any one can construct at the expense of ten minutes labour.
1 " The Aero-bi-plane, or First Steps to Flight," Ninth Annual
Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, 1874.
1 " Resistance to Falling Planes on a Path of Translation, Ninth
Annual Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, 1874.
3 The Aeronaut for January 1872 and February 1875.
" a and 6, fig. 36, are two corks, into each of which are inserted
four wing feathers from any bird, so as to be slightly inclined like
the sails of a windmill, but in opposite directions in each set. A
round shaft is fixed in the cork a, which ends in a sharp point. At
the upper part of the cork b is fixed a whalebone bow, having a small
pivot hole in its centre to receive the point of the shaft. The bow is
then to be strung equally on each side to the upper portion of the
shaft, and the little machine is completed. Wind up the string by
turning the flyers different ways, so that the spring of the bow may
unwind them with their anterior edges ascending; then place the
cork with the bow attached to it upon a table, and with a finger on
the upper cork press strong enough to prevent the string from un-
winding, and, taking it away suddenly, the instrument willrise to the
ceiling. '
Cayley's screws were peculiar, inasmuch as they were super-
imposed and rotated in opposite directions. He estimated that
if the area of the screws was increased to 200 sq. ft., and
moved by a man, they would elevate him. His interesting
experiment is described at length, and the apparatus figured
in Nicolson's Journal, 1800, p. 172.
Other experimenters, such as J. Degen in 1816 and Ottoris
Sard in 1823, followed Cayley at moderate intervals, constructing
flying models on the vertical screw principle. In 1842 W. H.
Phillips succeeded, it is stated, in elevating a steam model by
the aid of revolving fans, which according to his account flew
across two fields after having attained a great altitude; and in
1859 H. Bright took out a patent for a machine to be sustained
by vertical screws. In 1863 the subject of aviation by vertical
screws received a fresh impulse from the experiments of Gustave
de Ponton d'Am6court, G. de la Landelle, and A. Nadar, who
exhibited models driven by clock-work springs, which ascended
with graduated weights a distance of from 10 to 12 ft. These
models were so fragile that they usually broke in coming in contact
with the ground in their descent. Their flight, moreover, was
unsatisfactory, from the fact that it only lasted a few seconds.
X. 17
FIG. 37. De la Landelle's Flying-machine, m, n, o, p; a, r, s, t,
Screws arranged on vertical axes to act vertically upwards. The
vertical axes are surmounted by two parachutes, and the body of the
machine is furnished with an engine, propeller, rudders and an exten-
sive aeroplane.
Stimulated by the success of his spring models, Ponton
d'Am6court had a small steam model constructed. This model,
which was shown at the exhibition of the Aeronautical Society
of Great Britain at the Crystal Palace in 1868, consisted of two
superposed screws propelled by an engine, the steam for which
was generated (for lightness) in an aluminium boiler. This
steam model proved a failure, inasmuch as it only lifted a third
of its own weight. Fig. 37 embodies de la Landelle's ideas.
5
FLIGHT AND FLYING
All the models referred to (Cayley's excepted 1 ) were provided
with rigid screws. In 1872 Penaud discarded the rigid screws
in favour of elastic ones, as Pettigrew had done some years before.
Penaud also substituted india-rubber under torsion for the
whalebone and clock springs of the smaller models, and the steam
of the larger ones. His helicoptere or screw-model is remarkable
for its lightness, simplicity and power. The accompanying
sketch will serve to illustrate its construction (fig. 38). It con-
FIG. 38. H61icopt6re or Screw-Model, by PSnaud.
sists of two superposed elastic screws (a a,bb), the upper of which
(a a) is fixed in a vertical frame (c), which is pivoted in the central
part (d) of the under screw. From the centre of the under
screw an axle provided with a hook (e), which performs the part
of a crank, projects in an upward direction. Between the hook
or crank (e) and the centre of the upper screw (a a), the india-
rubber in a state of torsion (/) extends. By fixing the lower
screw and turning the upper one a sufficient number of times
the requisite degree of torsion and power is obtained. The
apparatus when liberated flies into the air sometimes to a height
of 50 ft., and gyrates in large circles for a period varying from
15 to 30 seconds.
Penaud next directed his attention to the construction of a
model, to be propelled by a screw and sustained by an elastic
aeroplane extending horizontally. Sir George Cayley proposed
such a machine in 1810, and W. S. Henson constructed and
patented a similar machine in 1 842. Several inventors succeeded
in making models fly by the aid of aeroplanes and screws, as,
e.g. ]. Stringfellow in 1847," and F. du Temple in 1857. These
models flew in a haphazard sort of a way, it being found exceed-
ingly difficult to confer on them the necessary degree of stability
fore and aft and laterally. Penaud succeeded in overcoming
the difficulty in question by the invention of what he designated
an automatic rudder. This consisted of a small elastic aeroplane
placed aft or behind the principal aeroplane which is also elastic.
The two elastic aeroplanes extended horizontally and made a
slight upward angle with the horizon, the angle made by the
smaller aeroplane (the rudder) being slightly in excess of that
made by the larger. The motive power was india-rubber in the
condition of torsion; the propeller, a screw. The reader will
understand the arrangement by a reference to the accompanying
drawing (fig. 39).
Models on the aeroplane screw type may be propelled by two
screws, one fore and one aft, rotating in opposite directions;
and in the event of only one screw being employed it may be
placed in front of or behind the aeroplane.
When such a model is wound up and let go it descends about
2 ft., after which, having acquired initial velocity, it rises and
flies in a forward direction at a height of from 8 to 10 ft. from
1 Cayley's screws, as explained, were made of feathers, and con-
sequently elastic. As, however, no allusion is made in his writings
to the superior advantages possessed by elastic over rigid screws, it is
to be presumed that feathers were employed simply for convenience
and lightness. Pettigrew, there is reason to believe, was the first to
advocate the employment of elastic screws for aerial purposed
* Stringfellow constructed a second model, which is described and
figured further on (fig. 44).
the ground for a distance of from MO to 130 ft. It flies this
distance in from 10 to 1 1 seconds, its mean speed being something
like 1 2 ft. per second. From experiments made with this model,
Penaud calculates that one horse-power would elevate and
support 85 ft.
D. S. Brown also wrote (1874) in support of elastic aero-
biplanes. His experiments proved that two elastic aeroplanes
united by a central shaft or shafts, and separated by a wide
FIG. 39. Aeroplane Model with Automatic Rudder.
a a, Elastic aeroplane.
6 b, Automatic rudder.
Aerial screw centred at /.
Frame supporting aeroplane,
rudder and screw.
India-rubber, in a state of
c c,
d.
e,
torsion, attached to hook
or crank at /. By holding
the aeroplane (a a) and
turning the screw (c c) the
necessary power is obtained
by torsion. (Pe'naud.)
interval, always produce increased stability. The production
of flight by the vertical flapping of wings is in some respects
the most difficult, but this also has been attempted and achieved.
Penaud and A. H. de Villeneuve each constructed winged
models. Marey was not so fortunate. He endeavoured to
construct an artificial insect on the plan advocated by Borelli,
Strauss-Durckheim and Chabrier, but signally failed, his insect
never having been able to lift more than a third of its own
weight.
De Villeneuve and Penaud constructed their winged models
on different types, the former selecting the bat, the latter the bird.
FIG. 40. P6naud's Artificial Flying Bird.
abed, a' b' c' d', Elastic wings,
which twist and untwist
when made to vibrate.
a b, a' b', Anterior margins of
wings.
c d, c' d'. Posterior margins of
wings.
C, c', Inner portions of wings
attached to central shaft of
model by elastic bands at e.
f, India-rubber in a state of
torsion, which provides the
motive power, by .causing
the crank situated between
the vertical wing supports
(g) to rotate; as the crank
revolves the wings are made
to vibrate by means of two
rods which extend between
the crank and the roots of
the wings.
h, Tail of artificial bird.
De Villeneuve made the wings of his artificial bat conical in
shape and comparatively rigid. He controlled the movements
of the wings, and made them strike downwards and forwards
in imitation of natural wings. His model possessed great power
of rising. It elevated itself from the ground with ease, and flew
in a horizontal direction for a distance of 24 ft., and at a velocity
of 20 m. an hour. P6naud's model differed from de Villeneuve's
in being provided with elastic wings, the posterior margins
of which in addition to being elastic were free to move round the
FLIGHT AND FLYING
anterior margins as round axes (see fig. 24). India-rubber
springs were made to extend between the inner posterior parts
of the wings and the frame, corresponding to the backbone of
the bird.
A vertical movement having been communicated by means
of india-rubber in a state of torsion to the roots of the wings,
the wings themselves, in virtue of their elasticity, and because
of the resistance experienced from the air, twisted and untwisted
and formed reciprocating screws, precisely analogous to those
originally described and figured by Pettigrew in 1867. Penaud's
arrangement is shown in fig. 40.
If the left wing of Penaud's model (a b, c d of fig. 40) be com-
pared with the wing of the bat (fig. 18), or with Pettigrew's
artificial wing (fig. 32), the identity of principle and application
is at once apparent.
In Penaud's artificial bird the equilibrium is secured by the
addition of a tail. The model cannot raise itself from theground,
but on being liberated from the hand it descends 2 ft. or so, when,
having acquired initial velocity, it flies horizontally for a distance
of 50 or more feet, and rises asitfliesfrom 7 togft. Thefollowing
are the measurements of the model in question: length of wing
from tip to tip, 32 in.; weight of wing, tail, frame, india-rubber,
&c., 73 grammes (about 2^ ounces). (J. B. P.)
Flying Machines. Henson's flying machine, designed in
1843, was the earliest attempt at aviation on a great scale.
Henson was one of the first to combine aerial screws with exten-
sive supporting structures occupying a nearly horizontal position.
The accompanying illustration explains the combination (fig. 41).
FIG. 41. Henson's Aerostat.
" The chief feature of the invention was the very great expanse
of its sustaining planes, which were larger in proportion to the weight
it had to carry than those of many birds. The machine advanced
with its front edge a little raised, the effect of which was to present
its under surface to the air over which it passed, the resistance of
which, acting upon it like a strong wind on the sails of a windmill,
prevented the descent of the machine and its burden. The sustaining
of the whole, therefore, depended upon the speed at which it travelled
through the air, and the angle at which its under surface impinged
on the air in its front The machine, fully prepared for flight,
was started from the top of an inclined plane, m descending which :t
attained a velocity necessary to sustain it in its further progress.
That velocity would be gradually destroyed by the resistance of the
air to the forward flight; it was, therefore, the office of the steam-
engine and the vanes it actuated simply to repair the loss of velocity ;
it was made, therefore, only of the power and weight necessary for
that small effect." The editor of Newton s Journal of Arts and
Sciences speaks of it thus:" The apparatus consists of a car con-
taining the goods, passengers, engines, fuel, &c., to which a n
angular frame, made of wood or bamboo cane, and covered with canvas
or oiled silk, is attached. This frame extends on either side of the car
in a similar manner to the outstretched wings of a bird ; but with th
difference, that the frame is immovable. Behind the wings are two
vertical fan wheels, furnished with oblique vanes, which are intended
to propel the apparatus through the air. The rainbow-like circular
wheels are the propellers, answering to the wheels of * steam-boat
and acting upon the air after the manner of a windmill. These wheels
receive motions from bands and pulleys from a steam or other engine
contained in the car. To an axis at the stern of the car a triangular
frame is attached, resembling the tail of a bird, which is also covered
with canvas or oiled silk. This may be expanded or contracted at
pleasure, and is moved up and down for the purpose of causing th
machine to ascend or descend. Beneath the tail is a "*&'<"?
ing the course of the machine to the right or to the left and I to
facilitate the steering a sail is stretched between two masts which rise
from the car. The amount of canvas or oiled silk ^^ " rh
ing up the machine is stated to be equal to one square foot for each
half pound of weight."
F. H. Wenham, thinking to improve upon Henson, invented
in 1866 what he designated his aeroplanes. 1 These were thin,
light, long, narrow structures, arranged above each other in
tiers like so many shelves. They were tied together at a slight
upward angle, and combined strength and lightness. The idea
was to obtain great sustaining area in comparatively small space
with comparative ease of control. It was hoped that when the
aeroplanes were wedged forward in the air by vertical screws,
or by the body to be flown, each aeroplane would rest or float
upon a stratum of undisturbed air, and that practically the
aeroplanes would give the same support as if spread out horizon-
tally. The accompanying figures illustrate Wenham's views
(figs. 42 and 43).
Stringfellow, who was originally associated with Henson,
and built a successful flying model in 1847, made a second model
FIG. 42. Wenham's system of Aeroplanes designed to carry a man.
a, a, Thin planks, tapering at each
end, and attached to a
triangle.
6, Similar plank for supporting
the aeronaut.
c, c, Thin bands of iron with truss
planks a, a, and
d, d, Vertical rods. Between
these are stretched five
bands of Holland 15 in. broad
and 16 ft. long, the total
length of the web being
80 ft. This apparatus
when caught by a gust of
wind, actually lifted the
aeronaut.
in 1868, in which Wenham's aeroplanes were combined with
aerial screws. This model was on view at the exhibition of the
Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, held at the Crystal Palace,
FIG. 43. A similar system, planned by Wenham.
a, a. Main spar 16 ft. long;
6, b. Panels, with base board for
aeronaut attached to main
spar.
e, e, Thin tie-band of steel with
struts starting from main
aeroplanes, consisting of six
webs of thin Holland 15 in.
broad. The aeroplanes are
kept in parallel plane by
vertical divisions of holland
2 ft. wide.
spar. | This forms a strong c, c', Wing propellers driven by
light framework for the
the feet.
London, in 1868. It was remarkably compact, elegant and
light, and obtained the 100 prize of the exhibition for its engine,
which was the lightest and most powerful so far constructed.
The illustration below (fig. 44), drawn from a photograph, gives a
FIG. 44. Stringfellow 's Flying Machine.
very good idea of the arrangement a, b, c representing the
superimposed aeroplanes, d the tail, e, / the screw propellers.
The superimposed aeroplanes (a, b, c) in this machine contained
a sustaining area of 28sq.ft.,inadditiontothetail(d). Itsengine
represented a third of a horse power, and the weight of the
whole (engine, boiler, water, fuel, superimposed aeroplanes and
111 On Aerial Locomotion," Aeronautical Society's Report for 1 867.
S i6
FLIGHT AND FLYING
propellers) was under 12 Ib. Its sustaining area, if that of the
tail (d) be included, was something like 36 sq. ft., i.e. 3 sq. ft. for
every pound. The model was forced by its propellers along a
wire at a great speed, but so far as an observer could determine,
failed to lift itself, notwithstanding its extreme lightness and
the comparatively very great power employed. Stringfellow,
however, stated that it occasionally left the wire and was sus-
tained by its aeroplanes alone.
The aerial steamer of Thomas Moy (fig. 45), designed in 1874,
consisted of a light, powerful, skeleton frame resting on three
wheels; a very effective light engine constructed on a new
principle, which dispensed with the old-fashioned, cumbrous
boiler; two long, narrow, horizontal aeroplanes; and two
comparatively very large aerial screws. The idea was to get
up the initial velocity by a preliminary run on the ground. This
accomplished it was hoped that the weight of the machine
would gradually be thrown upon the aeroplanes in the same way
that the weight of certain birds the eagle, e.g. is thrown upon
FIG. 45. Moy's Aerial Steamer.
the wings after a few hops and leaps. Once in the air the aero-
planes, it was believed, would become effective in proportion to
the speed attained. The machine, however, did not realize
the high expectations formed of it, and like all its predecessors
it was doomed to failure.
Two of the most famous of the next attempts to solve the
problem of artificial flight, by means of aeroplanes, were those
of Prof. S. P. Langley and Sir Hiram S. Maxim, who began
their aerial experiments about the same time (1880-1890). By
1893-1894 both had embodied their views in models and large
flying machines.
Langley, who occupied the position of secretary to the
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A., made many small
flying models and one large one. These he designated " aero-
dromes." They were all constructed on a common principle,
and were provided with extensive flying surfaces in the shape of
rigid aeroplanes inclined at an upward angle to the horizon, and
more or less fixed on the plan advocated by Henson. The
cardinal idea was to force the aeroplanes (slightly elevated at
their anterior margins) forwards, kite-fashion, by means of power-
ful vertical screw propellers driven at high speed the greater
the horizontal speed provided by the propellers, the greater, by
implication, the lifting capacity of the aerodrome. The bodies,
frames and aeroplanes of the aerodromes were strengthened
by vertical and other supports, to which were attached aluminium
wires to ensure absolute rigidity so far as that was possible.
Langley aimed at great lightness of construction, and in this he
succeeded to a remarkable extent. His aeroplanes were variously
shaped, and were, as a rule, concavo-convex, the convex surface
being directed upwards. He employed a competent staff of
highly trained mechanics at the Smithsonian Institution, and
great secrecy was observed as to his operations. He flew his
smallest models in the great lecture room of the National Museum,
and his larger ones on the Potomac river about 40 m. below
Washington.
While Langley conducted his preliminary experiments in
1889, he did not construct and test his steam-driven flying
models until 1893. These were made largely of steel and
aluminium, and one of them in 1896 made the longest flight
then recorded for a flying machine, namely, fully half a mile
on the Potomac river. The largest aerodrome, intended to carry
passengers and to be available for war purposes, was built to
the order and at the expense of the American government,
which granted a sum of fifty thousand dollars for its construction.
Langley's machine shown in fig. 46 was a working model, not
intended to carry passengers. In configuration the body-portion
FIG. 46. Langley's Flying Machine, a, Large aeroplane;
b, Small aeroplane ; c, Propelling screws.
closely resembled a mackerel. The backbone was a light but very
rigid tube of aluminium steel, 15 ft. in length, and a little more than
2 in. in diameter. The engines were located in the portion of the
framework corresponding to the head of the fish; they weighed
60 oz. and developed one horse-power. There were four boilers made
of thin hammered copper and weighing a little more than 7 Ib each ;
these occupied the middle portion of the fish. The fuel used was
refined gasoline, and the extreme end of the tail of the fish was
utilized for a storage tank with a capacity of one quart. There were
twin screw propellers, which could be adjusted to different angles in
practice, to provide for steering, and made 1700 revolutions a minute.
The wings, or aeroplanes, four in number, consisted of light frames
of tubular aluminium steel covered with china silk. The pair in front
were 42 in. wide and 40 ft. from tip to tip. They could be adjusted at
different angles. The machine required to be dropped from a height,
or a preliminary forward impetus had to be given to it, before it could
be started. Fixity of all the parts was secured by a tubular mast
extending upwards and downwards through about the middle of the
craft, and from its extremities ran stays of aluminium wire to the tips
of the aeroplanes and the end of the tubular backbone. By this
trussing arrangement the whole structure was rendered exceedingly
stiff.
In the larger aerodrome (fig. 47) the aeroplanes were concavo-
convex, narrow, greatly elongated and square at their free extremities,
FIG. 47. Langley's Aerodrome in flight.
the two propellers, which were comparatively very large, being placed
amidships, so to speak. At the first trial of this machine, on the 7th
of October 1903, just as it left the launching track it was jerked
violently down at the front (being caught, as subsequently appeared,
by the falling ways), and under the full power of its engine was pulled
into the water, carrying with it its engineer. When the aerodrome
rose to the surface, it was found that while the front sustaining
surfaces had been broken by their impact with the water, yet the rear
ones were comparatively uninjured. At the second and last attempt,
on the 8th of December 1903, another disaster, again due to the
launching ways, occurred as the machine was leaving the track. This
time the back part of the machine, in some way still unexplained,
was caught by a portion of the launching car, which caused the rear
sustaining surface to break, leaving the rear entirely without support,
FLIGHT AND FLYING
5*7
and it came down almost vertically into the water. Darkness had
come before the engineer, who had been in extreme danger, could aid
in the recovery of the aerodrome. The boat and machine had drifted
apart, and one of the tugs in its zeal to render assistance had fastened
a rope to the frame of the machine in the reverse position from what
it should have been attached, and had broken the frame entirely in
two. Owing to lack of funds further trials were abandoned (see
Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1904, p. 122).
Sir Hiram S. Maxim, like Langley, employed a staff of highly
skilled workmen. His machine (fig. 48) consisted of a platform, on
which stood a large water-tube boiler, a number of concavo-convex
aeroplanes arranged in tiers like shelves, each making a slight upward
angle with the horizon, two very large vertical screws placed aft and
propelled by steam engines, tanks for the storage of water, naphtha,
&c. The boiler was especially noteworthy. The water was contained
in about 2000 bent copper tubes, only f in. in external diameter,
heated by over 7000 gas jets arranged in rows. The fuel was naphtha
or gasoline. Steam could be got up in the short space of half a minute.
The steam-generating appliances, which weighed only 1000 ft in
all, were placed in the front of the machine. The motive power was
FIG. 48. Sir H. Maxim's Flying Machine.
provided by a pair of two-cylinder, compound engines, poised about
8 ft. from the ground, and about 6 ft. apart. Each of them was in-
dependently governed, and furnished together 363 horse-power in
actual effect, an amount which, considering that their total weight
was only 600 Ib, gave the extraordinary efficiency of over I horse-
power for every 2 ft> weight. The high and the low pressure cylinders
were 5 and 8 in. in diameter respectively, and the stroke was 12 in.
When going at full speed these engines conferred 425 revolutions per
minute on the two gigantic propellers that drove the machine along.
These were in appearance like two-bladed marine propellers except
that they were square instead of rounded at the ends, and were broad
and thin. They were built from overlapping strips of American pine,
planed smooth and covered with glued canvas. They weighed
135 ft each, the length of each blade being close upon 9 ft. and the
width at the ends 5j ft. The pitch was 1 6 ft. They were carefully
stayed by steel wires to their shafts, or the first revolution would have
snapped them off short. The material of which the framework was
built was thin steel tubing, exceedingly light. All the wires and ties
were of the best steel, capable of standing a strain of 100 tons to the
square inch. The body of the machine was oblong in shape, with the
fore-part cut away like a water-chute boat, and a long counter at the
stern over which the propellers revolved. It had canvas stretched all
over it. High overhead, like a gigantic awning, was the slightly
concavo-convex main aeroplane, tilted towards the front at an
imperceptible angle, and stretched taut. Its area was 1400 sq. ft.,
increased by side wings to 2700 sq. ft. There were also side aeroplanes
arranged in tiers, and large aeroplanes in front, which were pivoted
and served for vertical steering. The machine was strengthened in
every direction by vertical and other supports and securely wired
together at all points. It was furnished with four strong flanged
wheels and ran along a light broad-gauge (9 ft.) railway track,
1800 ft. long, in the hope that when the speed reached a certain
point it would leave the rails, but it was prevented from rising more
than an inch or so by four arms, or outriggers, furnished with wheels,
which projected from its sides and ran under an inverted wooden
upper or safety track outside the railway track proper.
At a trial carried out in 1894 at Bexley, Kent, only the main aero-
plane, the fore and aft rudders, and the top and bottom side planes
were in position. After everything had been got in readiness, careful
observers were stationed along the track, and the machine was con-
nected to a dynamometer. The engines were then started and the
pump set so as to deliver over 5000 Ib of water per hour into the boiler.
The gas was then carefully turned on until the pressure amounted
to 310 ft per sq. in., and the dynamometer showed a thrust of more
than 2100 Ib. A small safety-valve placed in the steam pipe had
been adjusted so as to blow off slightly at 310 ft and with a strong
blast at 320 ft. The signal being given to let go, the machine darted
forward at a terrific pace, and the safety-valve ceased to blow. More
gas was instantly turned on, and before the machine had advanced
300 ft., the steam had mounted to 320 ft per sq. in., and the safety-
valve was blowing off a steady blast. When the machine had
travelled only a few hundred feet, all four of the small outrigger
wheels were fully engaged, which showed that the machine was
lifting at least 8000 ft. The speed rapidly increased until when the
machine had run about 900 ft. one of the rear axletrees, which were
of 2 in. steel tubing, doubled up and set the rear end of the machine
completely free. When the machine had travelled about 1000 ft.,
the left-hand forward wheel became disengaged from the safety
track, and shortly after this the right-hand wheel broke the upper
track 3 in. by 9 in. Georgia pine and a plank became entangled
in the framework of the machine. Steam had already been shut off,
and the machine coming to rest fell directly to the ground, all four
of its wheels sinking deeply into the turf without leaving other
marks. Before making this run the wheels which were to engage the
upper track were painted, and the paint left by them on the upper
track indicated the exact point where the machine lifted. The area
of the aeroplanes was very nearly 4000 sq. ft. and the total lifting
effect was fully 10,000 ft. The planes therefore lifted 2-5 ft per
sq. ft., and 5 ft for each pound thrust. Nearly half of the power of
the engines was lost in the screw slip. This showed that the diameter
of the screws was not great enough ; it should have been at least 22 ft.
In 1897 M. C. Ader, who had already tested, with indifferent
results, two full-sized flying machines, built a third apparatus
with funds furnished by the French government. This repro-
duced the structure of a bird with almost servile imitation, save
that traction was obtained by two screw-propellers. The steam
engine weighed about 7 Ib per horse-power, but the equilibrium
of the apparatus was defective.
Largely with the view of studying the problem of maintaining
equilibrium, several experimenters, including Otto Lilienthal,
Percy Pilcher and Octave Chanute, cultivated gliding flight
by means of aeroplanes capable of sustaining a man. They
depended mainly on the utilization of natural air currents, trust-
ing for stability and balance to movements in their own bodies,
or in portions of their machines which they could control. They
threw themselves from natural or artificial elevations, or, facing
the wind, they ran or were dragged forwards against it until
they got under way and the wind caught hold of their aeroplanes.
To Lilienthal in Germany belongs the double credit of demon-
strating the superiority of arched over flat surfaces, and of
reducing gliding flight to regular practice. He made over 2000
glides safely, using gravity as his motive power, with concave,
batlike wings, in some cases with superposed surfaces (fig. 49).
FIG. 49. Lilienthal's Gliding Machine.
It was with a machine of the latter type that he was upset by
a sudden gust of wind and killed in 1896. Pilcher in England
improved somewhat on Lilienthal's apparatus, but used the same
general method of restoring the balance, when endangered, by
shifting the weight of the operator's body. He too made several
hundred glides in safety, but finally was thrown over by a gust
of wind and killed in 1899. Chanute in America confined his
endeavours to the production of automatic stability, and made
the surfaces movable instead of the man. He used several
different forms of apparatus, including one with five superposed
pairs of wings and a tail (fig. 50) and another with two continuous
aeroplanes, one above the other (fig. 51). He made over 1000
glides without accident.
Similar experiments were meanwhile conducted by Wilbur
and Orville Wright of Dayton, Ohio, in whose hands the glider
developed into a successful flying machine. These investigators
began their work in 1900, and at an early stage introduced two
characteristic features a horizontal rudder in front for steering
in the vertical plane, and the flexing or bending of the ends of
5 i8
FLIGHT AND FLYING
the main supporting aeroplanes as a means of maintaining the
structure in proper balance. Their machines to begin with were
merely gliders, the operator lying upon them in a horizontal
position, but in 1903 a petrol motor was added, and a flight
lasting 59 seconds was performed. In 1905 they made forty-five
flights, in the longest of which they remained in the air for half
FIG. 50. Chanute's Multiple Gliding Machine.
an hour and covered a distance of 243 m. The utmost secrecy,
however, was maintained concerning their experiments, and in
consequence their achievements were regarded at the time with
doubt and suspicion, and it was hardly realized that their suc-
cess would reach the point later achieved.
Thanks, however, to the efforts of automobile engineers, great
improvements were now being effected in the petrol engine, and,
although the certainty and trustworthiness of its action still
left something to be desired, it provided the designers of flying
machines with what they had long been looking for a motor
FIG. 51. Chanute's Biplane Gliding Machine.
very powerful in proportion to its weight. Largely in consequence
of this progress, and partly no doubt owing to the stimulus
given by the activity of builders of dirigible balloons, the con-
struction of motor-driver, aeroplanes began to attract a number
of workers, especially in France. In 1906 A. Santos Dumont,
after a number of successful experiments with dirigible cigar-
shaped gas balloons, completed an aeroplane flying machine.
It consisted of the following parts: (a) A system of aeroplanes
arranged like the capital letter T at a certain upward angle to
the horizon and bearing a general resemblance to box kites;
(6) a pair of very light propellers driven at a high speed; and
(c) an exceedingly light and powerful petrol engine. The driver
occupied a position in the centre of the arrangement, which is
shown in fig. 52. The machine was furnished with two wheels
and vertical supports which depended from the anterior parts
of the aeroplanes and supported it when it touched the ground
FIG. 52. Santos Dumont's Flying Machine.
on either side. With this apparatus he traversed on the I2th
of November 1906 a distance of 220 metres in 21 seconds.
About a year later Henry Farman made several short flights
on a machine of the biplane type, consisting of two main sup-
porting surfaces one above the other, with a box-shaped vertical
rudder behind and two small balancing aeroplanes in front.
The engine was an eight-cylinder Antoinette petrol motor,
developing 49 horse-power at iioo revolutions a minute, and
driving directly a single metal screw propeller. On the 27th of
October 1906 he flew a distance of nearly half a mile at Issy-les-
Molineaux, and on the i3th of January 1908 he made a circular
flight of one kilometre, thereby winning the Deutsch-Archdeacon
prize of 2000. In March he remained in the air for 35 minutes,
covering a distance of ij m.; but in the following month a rival,
Leon Delagrange, using a machine of the same type and con-
structed by the same makers, Messrs Voisin, surpassed this
performance by flying nearly 25 m. in 65 minutes. In July
Farman remained in the air for over 20 minutes; on the 6th of
September Delagrange increased the time to nearly 30 minutes,
and on the 29th of the same month Farman again came in front
with a flight lasting 42 minutes and extending over nearly 245 m.
But the best results were obtained by the Wright brothers-
Orville Wright in America and Wilbur Wright in France. . On
the 9th of September 1908 the former, at Fort Myer, Virginia,
made three notable flights; in the first he remained in the air
575 minutes and in the second i hour 3 minutes, while in the third
he took with him a passenger and covered nearly 4 m. in 6 minutes.
Three days later he made a flight of 45 m. in i hour 14^ minutes,
but on the i7th he had an accident, explained as being due to one
of his propellers coming into contact with a stay, by which his
machine was wrecked, he himself seriously injured, and Lieu-
tenant Selfridge, who was with him, lulled. Four days afterwards
Wilbur Wright at Le Mans in France beat all previous records
with a flight lasting i hour 31 minutes 25$ seconds, in which he
covered about 56 m.; and subsequently, on the nth of October,
he made a flight of i hour 9 minutes accompanied by a passenger.
On the 3ist of December he succeeded in remaining in the air
for 2 hours 20 minutes 23 seconds.
Wilbur Wright's machine (fig. 53), that used by his brother
being essentially the same, consisted of two slightly arched
supporting surfaces, each 12^ metres long, arranged parallel
one above the other at a distance of if metres apart. As they
were each about 2 metres wide their total area was about 50 sq.
metres. About 3 metres in front of them was arranged a pair
of "smaller horizontal j aeroplanes, shaped like a long narrow
ellipse, which formed the rudder that effected changes of eleva-
tion, the driver being able by means of a lever to incline them up
or down according as he desired to ascend or descend. The rudder
for lateral steering was placed about 25 metres behind the main
surfaces and was formed of two vertical pivoted aeroplanes.
The lever by which they were turned was connected with the
device by which the ends of the main aeroplanes could be flexed
simultaneously though in opposite directions; i.e. if the ends of
the aeroplanes on one side were bent downwards, those on the
FLIGHT AND FLYING
PLATE I.
_*-
Zl t
1
FIG. i. PAULHAN FLYING ON FARMAN BIPLANE.
1'hoto, Topical Press.
X. 518-
FIG. 2. WRIGHT BIPI.AM..
Photo, Topical Press.
PLATE II.
FLIGHT AND FLYING
FIG. 3. BLERIOT MONOPLANE.
Pltolo, Topical Press.
FIG. 4. A. V. ROE'S TRIPLANE.
Pholo. Topical Press.
FLINCK
other were bent upwards. By the aid of this arrangement the
natural cant of the machine when making a turn could be
checked, if it became excessive. The four-cylinder petrol engine
was placed on the lower aeroplane a little to the right of the
central line, being counterbalanced by the driver (and passenger
FIG. 53. Wright Flying Machine ; diagrammatic sketch.
A, B, Main supporting surfaces. F, Vertical rudder.
C, D, Aeroplanes of horizontal rudder G, Motor,
with fixed semilunar fin E. H, Screws.
if one was carried), who sat a little to the left of the same line.
Making about 1200 revolutions a minute, it developed about 24
horse-power, and was connected by chain gearing to two wooden
propellers, 2 metres in diameter and 3! metres apart, the
speed of which was about 450 revolutions a minute. The whole
machine, with aeronaut, weighed about noo Ib, the weight of
the motor being reputed to be 200 Ib.
A feature of the year 1909 was the success obtained with
monoplanes having only a single supporting surface, and it was
on a machine of this type that the Frenchman Bleriot on July
2 $th flew across the English Channel from Calais to Dover in
31 minutes. Hubert Latham all but performed the same feat on
an Antoinette monoplane. The year saw considerable increases
in the periods for which aviators were able to remain in the air,
and Roger Sommer's flight of nearly 25 hours on August yth
was surpassed by Henry Farman on November 3rd, when he
covered a distance estimated at 1371 m. in 4 hr. 17 min. 53 sec.
In both these cases biplanes were employed. Successful aviation
meetings were held, among other places, at Reims, Juvisy,
Doncaster and Blackpool; and at Blackpool a daring flight was
made in a wind of 40 m. an hour by Latham. This aviator also
proved the possibility of flying at considerable altitudes by
attaining on December ist a height of over 1500 ft., but this
record was far surpassed in the following January by L. Paulhan,
who on a biplane rose to a height of 1383 yds. at Los Angeles.
In the course of the year three aviators were killed Lefevbre
and Ferber in September and Fernandez in December; and
four men perished in September by the destruction of the French
airship " Republique," the gas-bag of which was ripped open by
a broken propeller. In January 1910 Delagrange was killed
by the fracture of one of the wings of a monoplane on which
he was flying. On April 27th-28th, 1910, Paulhan successfully
flew from London to Manchester, with only one stop, within
24 hours, for the Daily Mail's 10,000 prize.
The progress made by all these experiments at aviation
had naturally created widespread interest, both as a matter of
sport and also as indicating a new departure in the possibilities of
machines of war. And in 1909 the British government appointed
a scientific committee, with Lord Rayleigh as chairman, as a con-
sultative body for furthering the development of the science in
England.
The table below gives some details, approximately correct,
of the principal experiments made with flying machines up to
1908.
REFERENCES. Some of the books mentioned under AERONAUTICS
contain details of flying machines; seeH. W.L. Moedebeck./l Pocket-
book of Aeronautics, trans, by W. Mansergh Varley (London, 1907);
Sir Hiram S. Maxim, Artificial and Natural Flight (London, 1908);
F. W. Lanchester, Aerodynamics and Aerodonetics (London, 1907 and
1908); C. C. Turner, Aerial Navigation of To-day (London, 1909);
also two papers on "Aerial Navigation" read by Colonel G. O.
Fullerton before the Royal United Service Institution in 1892 and
1906; papers read by Major B. F. S. Baden-Powell and E. S. Bruce
before the Society of Arts, London, in April 1907 and December 1908
respectively; Cantor Lectures by F. W. Lanchester (Society of
Arts, 1909); and the Proceedings of the Aeronautical Society
(founded 1865), &c.
FLINCK, GOVERT (1615-1660), Dutch painter, born at Cleves
in 1615, was apprenticed by his father to a silk mercer, but
having secretly acquired a passion for drawing, was sent to
Leuwarden, where he boarded in the house of Lambert Jacobszon,
a Mennonite, better known as an itinerant preacher than as a
painter. Here Flinck was joined by Jacob Backer, and the
companionship of a youth determined like himself to be an artist
only confirmed his passion for painting. Amongst the neighbours
of Jacobszon at Leuwarden were the sons and relations of
Rombert Ulenburg, whose daughter Saske married Rembrandt
in 1634. Other members of the same family lived at Amsterdam,
cultivating the arts either professionally or as amateurs. The
pupils of Lambert probably gained some knowledge of Rembrandt
by intercourse with the Ulenburgs. Certainly J. von Sandrart,
who visited Holland in 1637, found Flinck acknowledged as
one of Rembrandt's best pupils, and living habitually in the house
of the dealer Hendrik Ulenburg at Amsterdam. For many years
Flinck laboured on the lines of Rembrandt, following that master's
style in all the works which he executed between 1636 and 1648;
then he fell into peculiar mannerisms by imitating the swelling
forms and grand action of Rubens's creations. Finally he sailed
with unfortunate complacency into the Dead Sea of official
and diplomatic painting. Flinck's relations with Cleves became
in time very important. He was introduced to the court of the
Great Elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg, who married
in 1646 Louisa of Orange. He obtained the patronage of John
Maurice of Orange, who was made stadtholder of Cleves in 1649.
In i&52a citizen of Amsterdam, Flinck married in 1656 an heiress,
daughter of Ver Hoeven, a director of the Dutch East India
Company. Hewas already well known even then in the patrician
circles over which the burgomasters De Graef and the Echevin
Six presided; he was on terms of intimacy with the poet Vondel
and the treasurer Uitenbogaard. In his house, adorned with
antique casts, costumes, and a noble collection of prints, he often
Year.
Experimenter.
Tip
to
Tip.
Surface.
Weight.
Pounds
per
sq. ft.
Speed
per
hour.
Maximum
Flight.
Motor.
Horse-
power.
Pounds
sustained
per h.p.
1879
18851
1889 \
I8O1
Tatin
Hargrave (No. 16)
Phillips
Ft.
6-2
5-5
22-O
Sq. ft.
7'5
26-0
136-0
B>.
3-85
5-00
402-00
0-51
0-19
3-00
Mis.
18
10
28
Ft.
IOO?
343
500?
Compressed
air
Steam
0-03
0-06
5-6
no?
79
72?
1894
1896
1897
1897
1895
1896
1896
1906
1908
Maxim *
Langley
Tatin and Richet
Ader* .
Lilienthal*
Pilcher*
Chanute*
S. Dumont*
W. Wright*
50-0
12-0
21-0
49-0
23-0
23-0
16-0
39
41
4000-0
70-0
86-0
270-0
151-0
170-0
135'
560
650
8000-00
30-00
72-00
IIOO-OO
220-00
200-00
178-00
550
1 100
2-5
o-43
0-83
4-00
1-46
1-17
i-3i
0-98
i'7
36
24
40
50?
23
25
22
22-26
37
300?
4,000
460
IOO?
1,200
900
360
2,900
295,000
Gravity
Petrol
Petrol
i
363-00
I -00
1-33
40-00
2-OO
2-OO
2-OO
50
24
28
30
55
27
no
IOO
89
23
46
"The apparatus marked thus * carried a man or men.
520
FLINDERS
received the stadtholder John Maurice, whose portrait is still
preserved in the work of the learned Barleius.
The earliest of Flinck's authentic pieces is a likeness of a lady,
dated 1636, in the gallery of Brunswick. His first subject picture
is the " Blessing of Jacob," in the Amsterdam museum (1638).
Both are thoroughly Rembrandtesque in effect as well as in
vigour of touch and warmth of flesh tints. The four " civic
guards " of 1642, and " the twelve musketeers " with their
president in an arm-chair (1648), in the town-hall at Amsterdam,
are fine specimens of composed portrait groups. But the best
of Flinck's productions in this style is the peace of Minister in
the museum of Amsterdam, a canvas with 19 life-size figures full
of animation in the faces, " radiant with Rembrandtesque
colour," and admirably distributed. Flinck here painted his
own likeness to the left in a doorway. The mannered period of
Flinck is amply illustrated in the " Marcus Curius eating Turnips
before the Samnite Envoys," and " Solomon receiving Wisdom,"
in the palace on the Dam at Amsterdam. Here it is that Flinck
shows most defects, being faulty in arrangement, gaudy in tint,
flat and shallow in execution, and partial to whitened flesh that
looks as if it had been smeared with violet powder and rouge.
The chronology of Flinck's works, so far as they are seen in
public galleries, comprises, in addition to the foregoing, the
" Grey Beard " of 1639 at Dresden, the " Girl " of 1641 at the
Louvre, a portrait group of a male and female (1646) at Rotter-
dam, a lady (1651) at Berlin. In November 1659 the burgo-
master of Amsterdam contracted with Flinck for 12 canvases to
represent four heroic figures of David and Samson and Marcus
Curius and Horatius Codes, and scenes from the wars of the
Batavians and Romans. Flinck was unable to finish more than
the sketches. In the same year he received a flattering acknow-
ledgment from the town council of Cleves on the completion of a
picture of Solomon which was a counterpart of the composition
at Amsterdam. This and other pictures and portraits, such as
the likenesses of Frederick William of Brandenburg and John
Maurice of Nassau, and the allegoryof " Louisaof Orange attended
by Victory and Fame " and other figures at the cradle of the
first-born son of the elector, have disappeared. Of several
pictures which were painted for the Great Elector, none are
preserved except the " Expulsion of Hagar " in the Berlin
museum. Flinck died at Amsterdam on the 22nd of February
1660.
FLINDERS, MATTHEW (1774-1814), English navigator,
explorer, and man of science, was born at Donington, near
Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the i6th of March 1774. Matthew
was at first designed to follow his father's profession of surgeon,
but his enthusiasm in favour of a life of adventure impelled him
to enter the royal navy, which he did on the 23rd of October
1789. After a voyage to the Friendly Islands and West Indies,
and after serving in the " Bellerophon " during Lord Howe's
" glorious first of June " (1794) off Ushant, Flinders went out
in 1795 as midshipman in the " Reliance " to New South Wales.
For the next few years he devoted himself to the task of accurately
laying down the outline and bearings of the Australian coast,
and he did his work so thoroughly that he left comparatively
little for his successors to do. With his friend George Bass, the
surgeon of the " Reliance," in the year of his arrival he explored
George's river; and, after a voyage to Norfolk Island, again in
March 1796 the two friends in the same boat, the "Tom Thumb,"
only 8 ft. long, and with only a boy to help them, explored a
stretch of coast to the south of Port Jackson. After a voyage
to the Cape of Good Hope, when he was promoted to a lieutenancy,
Flinders was engaged during February 1798 in a survey of the
Furneaux Islands, lying to the north of Tasmania. His delight
was great when, in September of the same year, he was com-
missioned along with Bass, who had already explored the sea
between Tasmania and the south coast to some extent and
inferred that it was a strait, to proceed in the sloop " Norfolk "
(25 tons) to prove conclusively that Van Diemen's Land was an
island by circumnavigating it. In the same sloop, in the summer
of next year, Flinders made an exploration to the north of Port
Jackson, the object being mainly to survey Glasshouse Bay
(Moreton Bay) and Hervey's Bay. Returning to England he
was appointed to the command of^an expedition for the thorough
exploration of the coasts of Terra Australis, as the southern
continent was still called, though Flinders is said to have been
the first to suggest for it the name Australia. On the i8th of
July 1801 the sloop " Investigator " (334 tons), in which the
expedition sailed, left Spithead, Flinders being furnished with
instructions and with a passport from the French government
to all their officials in the Eastern seas. Among the scientific
staff was Robert Brown, one of the most eminent English
botanists; and among the midshipmen was Flinders's relative,
John Franklin, of Arctic fame. Cape Leeuwin, on the south-
west coast of Australia, was reached on November 6, and King
George's sound on the pth of December. Flinders sailed round
the Great Bight, examining the islands and indentations on the
east side, noting the nature of the country, the people, products,
&c., and paying special attention to the subject of the variation
of- the compass. Spenser and St Vincent Gulfs were discovered
and explored. On the 8th of April 1802, shortly after leaving
Kangaroo Islands, at the mouth of St Vincent Gulf, Flinders
fell in with the French exploring ship, " Le Geographe," under
Captain Nicolas Baudin, in the bay now known as Encounter
Bay. In the narrative of the French expedition published in
1807 (when Flinders was a prisoner in the Mauritius) by M.
Peron, the naturalist to the expedition, much of the land west
of the point of meeting was claimed as having been discovered
by Baudin, and French names were extensively substituted for
the English ones given by Flinders. It was only in 1814, when
Flinders published his own narrative, that the real state of the
case was fully exposed. Flinders continued his examination
of the coast along Bass's Strait, carefully surveying Port Phillip.
Port Jackson was reached on the 9th of May 1802.
After staying at Port Jackson for about a couple of months,
Flinders set out again on the 22nd of July to complete his
circumnavigation of Australia. The Great Barrier Reef was
examined with the greatest care in several places. The north-
east entrance of the Gulf of Carpentaria was reached early in
November; and the next three months were spent in an examina-
tion of the shores of the gulf, and of the islands that skirt them.
An inspection of the " Investigator " showed that she was in so
leaky a condition that only with the greatest precaution could
the voyage be completed in her. Flinders completed the survey
of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and after touching at the island of
Timor, the " Investigator " sailed round the west and south of
Australia, and Port Jackson was reached on the 9th of June
1803. Much suffering was endured by nearly all the members
of the expedition: a considerable proportion of the men suc-
cumbed to disease, and their leader was so reduced by scurvy
that his health was greatly impaired.
Flinders determined to proceed home in H.M.S. " Porpoise "
as a passenger, submit the results of his work to the Admiralty,
and obtain, if possible, another vessel to complete his exploration
of the Australian coast. The " Porpoise " left Port Jackson on
the loth of August, accompanied by the H.E.I.C.'s ship " Bridge-
water " (750 tons) and the " Cato " (450 tons) of London. On the
night of the i7th the " Porpoise " and " Cato " suddenly struck
on a coral reef and were rapidly reduced to wrecks. The officers
and men encamped on a small sandbank near, 3 or 4 ft. above
high-water, a considerable quantity of provisions, with many
of the papers and charts, having been saved from the wrecks.
The reef was in about 22 n' S. and 155 E., and about 800 m.
from Port Jackson. Flinders returned to Port Jackson in a
six-oared cutter in order to obtain a vessel to rescue the party.
The reef was again reached on the 8th of October, and all the
officers and men having been satisfactorily disposed of, Flinders
on the nth left for Jones Strait in an unsound schooner of 29
tons, the " Cumberland," with ten companions, and a valuable
collection of papers, charts, geological specimens, &c. On the
I5th of December he put in at Mauritius, when he discovered
that France and England were at war. The passport he possessed
from the French government was for the " Investigator ";
still, though he was now on board another ship, his mission was
FLINSBERG FLINT
essentially the same, and the work he was on was simply a con-
tinuation of that commenced in the unfortunate vessel. Never-
theless, on her arrival at Port Louis the " Cumberland " was
seized by order of the governor-general de Caen. Flinders's
papers were taken possession of, and he found himself virtually
a prisoner. We need not dwell on the sad details of this un-
justifiable captivity, which lasted to June 1810. But there can
be no doubt that the hardships and inactivity Flinders was com-
pelled to endure for upwards of six years told seriously on his
health, and brought his life to a premature end. He reached
England in October 1810, after an absence of upwards of nine
years. The official red-tapeism of the day barred all promotion
to the unfortunate explorer, who set himself to prepare an
account of his explorations, though unfortunately an important
part of his record had been retained by de Caen. The results of
his labours were published in two large quarto volumes, entitled
A Voyage to Terra Australis, with a folio volume of maps. The
very day (July 19, 1814) on which his work was published
Flinders died, at the early age of forty. The great work is a
model of its kind, containing as it does not only a narrative of
his own and of previous voyages, but masterly statements of
the scientific results, especially with regard to magnetism,
meteorology, hydrography and navigation. Flinders paid great
attention to the errors of the compass, especially to those caused
by the presence of iron in ships. He is understood to have been
the first to discover the source of such errors (which had scarcely
been noticed before), and after investigating the laws of the
variations, he suggested counter-attractions, an invention for
which Professor Barlow got much credit many years afterwards.
Numerous experiments on ships' magnetism were conducted at
Portsmouth by Flinders, by order of the admiralty, in 1812.
Besides the Voyage, Flinders wrote Observations on the Coast
of Van Diemen's Land, Bass's Strait, &c., and two papers
in the Phil. Trans. one on the " Magnetic Needle " (1805),
and the other, " Observations on the Marine Barometer "
(1806). (J.S. K.)
FLINSBERO, a village and watering-place of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Silesia, on the Queis, at the foot of the
Iserkamm, 1450 ft. above the sea, 5 m. W. of Friedeberg, the
terminus station of the railway from Greiffenberg. Pop. (1000)
1957. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church,
and has some manufactures of wooden wares. Flinsberg is
celebrated for its chalybeate waters, specific in cases of feminine
disorders, and used both for bathing and drinking. It is also
a climatic health resort of some reputation, and the visitors
number about 8500 annually.
See Adam, Bad Flinsberg als klimatischer Kurort (Gorlitz, 1891).
FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886), American physician, was born
at Petersham, Massachusetts, on the 2oth of October 1812,
and graduated at the medical department of Harvard University
in 1833. From 1847 to 1852 he was professor of the theory and
practice of medicine in Buffalo Medical College, of which he was
one of the founders, and from 1852 to 1856 he filled the same
chair in the university of Louisville. From 1861 to 1886 he was
professor of the principles and practice of medicine and clinical
medicine in Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York. He
wrote many text-books on medical subjects, among these being
Diseases of the Heart (1859-1870); Principles and Practice of
Medicine (1866); Clinical Medicine (1879); and Physical
Exploration of the Lungs by means of Auscultation and Percussion
(1882). He died in New York on the I3th of March 1886.
His son, AUSTIN FLINT, junr., who was born at Northampton,
Massachusetts, on the 28th of March 1836, after studying at
Harvard and at the university of Louisville, graduated at the
Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, in 1857. He then became
professor of physiology at the university of Buffalo (1858) and
subsequently at other centres, his last connexion being with the
Cornell University Medical College (1898-1906). He was better
known as a teacher and writer on physiology than as a practi-
tioner, and his Text-book of Human Physiology (1876) was
for many years a standard book in American medical colleges.
He also published an extensive Physiology of Man (5 vols., 1866-
1874), Chemical Examination of the Urine in Disease (1870),
Effects of Severe and Protracted Muscular Exercise (1871), Source
of Muscular Power (1878), and Handbook of Physiology (1905).
In 1896 he became a consulting physician to the New York State
Hospital for the Insane.
FLINT, ROBERT ( 1 838- ) , Scottish divine and philosopher,
was born near Dumfries and educated at the university of
Glasgow. After a few years of pastoral service, first in Aberdeen
and then at Kilconquhar, Fife, he was appointed professor of
moral philosophy and political economy at St Andrews in 1864.
From 1876 to 1903 he was professor of divinity at Edinburgh.
He contributed a number of articles to the 9th edition of the
Encyclopaedia Brilannica. His chief works are Christ's Kingdom
upon Earth (Sermons, 1865); Philosophy of History in Europe
(1874; partly rewritten with reference to France and Switzerland,
1894); Theism and Anti-theislic Theories (2 vols., being the
Baird Lectures for 1876-1877; often reprinted); Socialism
(1894); Sermons and Addresses (1899); Agnosticism (1903).
FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840), American clergyman and
writer, was born in Reading, Massachusetts, on the nth of July
1780. He graduated at Harvard in 1800, and in 1802 settled as
a Congregational minister in Lunenburg, Mass. , where he pursued
scientific studies with interest; and his labours in his chemical
laboratory seemed so strange to the people of that retired region,
that some persons supposed and asserted that he was engaged in
counterfeiting. This, together with political differences, led to
disagreeable complications, which resulted in his resigning his
charge (1814) and becoming a missionary (1815) in the valley of
the Mississippi. He was also for a short period a teacher and a
farmer. His observations on the manners and character of the
settlers of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys were recorded in a
picturesque work called Recollections of the Last Ten Years passed
in the Valley of the Mississippi (1826; reprinted in England
and translated into French), the first account of the western
states which brought to light the real life and character of the
people. The success which this work met with, together with the
failing health of the writer, led him to relinquish his more active
labours for literary pursuits, and, besides editing the Western
Review in Cincinnati from 1825 to 1828 and Knickerbocker's
Magazine (New York) in 1833, he published a number of books,
including Francis Berrian, or the Mexican Patriot (1826), his best
novel; A Condensed Geography and History of the Western States,
or the Mississippi Valley (2 vols., 1828); Arthur Clenning (1828),
a novel; and Indian Wars in the West (1833). His style is vivid,
plain and forcible, and his matter interesting; and his works on
the western states are of great value. He died in Salem, Mass.,
on the i6th of August 1840.
FLINT, 'a city and the county-seat of Genesee county, Michigan,
U.S.A., on Flint river, 68 m. (by rail) N.W. of Detroit. Pop.
(1800) 9803; (1900) 13,103, of whom 2165 were foreign-born;
(1910, census) 33,550. It is served by the Grand Trunk and
the Pe're Marquette railways, and by an electric line, the
Detroit United railway, connecting with Detroit. The city has a
fine court-house (1004), a federal building (1908), a city hall
(1908) and a public library. The Michigan school for the deaf,
established in 1854, and the Oak Grove hospital (private) for the
treatment of mental and nervous diseases, are here. Flint has
important manufacturing interests, its chief manufactures being
automobiles, wagons, carriages Flint is called " the vehicle
city," flour, woollen goods, iron goods, cigars, beer, and bricks
and tiles; and its grain trade is of considerable importance.
In 1904 the total value of the city's factory product was
$6,177,170, an increase of 31-1 % over that of 1900. The settle-
ment of the place, then called the Grand Traverse of the Flint,
began in 1820, but Flint's growth was very slow until 1831,
when it was platted as a village; it was chartered as a city in
1855-
FLINT, or FLINTSHIRE (sir Gallestr), a county of North Wales,
the smallest in the country, bounded N. by the Irish Sea and the
Dee estuary, N.E. by the Dee, E. by Cheshire, and S.W. by
Denbighshire. Area, 257sq.m. Included in Flint is the detached
hundred of Maelor, lying 8 m. S.E. of the main part of the county,
522
FLINT
and shut in by Cheshire on the N. and N.E., by Shropshire
on the S., and by Denbighshire on the W. and N.W. The Clwyd
valley is common to Flint and Denbigh. Those of the Alyn and
Wepre (from Ewloe Castle to the Dee) are fine. The Dee, entering
the county near Overton, divides Maelor from Denbigh on the
W., passes Chester and bounds most of the county on the N.
The Clwyd enters Flint near Bodfary, and joining the Elwy near
Rhuddlan, reaches the Irish Sea near Rhyl. The Alyn enters the
county under Moel Fammau, passes Cilcen and Mold (y Wydd-
grug), runs underground near Hesb-Alyn (Alyn's drying-up),
bends south to Caergwrle, re-enters Denbighshire and joins the
Dee. Llyn Helyg (willow-pool), near Whitford, is the chief lake.
Both for their influence upon the physical features and for their
economic value the carboniferous rocks of Flintshire are the most
important. From Prestatyn on the coast a band of carboniferous
limestone passes close by Holy well and through Caerwen; it forms
the Halkin Mountain east of Halkin, whence it continues past Mold
to beyond the county boundary. The upper portion of this series
is cherty in the north the chert is quarried for use in the potteries
of Staffordshire but traced southward it passes into sandstones and
grits; above these beds come the Holywell shales, possibly the
equivalent of the Pendleside series of Lancashire and Derbyshire,
while upon them lies the Gwespyr sandstone, which has been thought
to correspond to the Gannister coal measures of Lancashire, but may
be a representative of the Millstone Grit. Farther to the east, the
coal measures, with valuable coals, some oil shale, and with fireclays
and marls which are used for brick and tile-making, extend from
Talacre through Flint, Northop, Hawarden and Broughton to Hope.
The carboniferous rocks appear again through the intervention of a
fault, in the neighbourhood of St Asaph. Silurian strata, mostly of
Wenlock age, lie below the carboniferous limestone on the western
border of the county. Triassic red beds of the Bunter fill the Clwyd
valley and appear again on the coal measures S.E. of Chester. Lead
and zinc ores have been worked in the lower carboniferous rocks in
the north of the county, and caves in the same formation, at Caer
Gwyn and Ffynnon Beuno, have yielded the remains of Pleistocene
mammals along with palaeolithic implements. Much glacial drift
obscures the older rocks on the east and north and in the vale of
Clwyd. Short stretches of blown sand occur on the coast near Rhyl
and Talacre.
The London & North- Western railway follows the coast-line.
Other railways which cross the county are the Great Western,
and the Wrexham, Mold & Connah's Qua'y, acquired by the
Great Central company. For pasture the vale of Clwyd is well
known. Oats, turnips and swedes are the chief crops. Stock
and dairy farming prospers, native cattle being crossed with
Herefords and Downs, native sheep with Leicesters and South-
downs, while in the thick mining population a ready market is
found for meat, cheese, butter, &c. The population (81,700 in
1901) nearly doubled in the igth century, and Flintshire to-day
is one of the most densely populated counties in North Wales.
The area of the ancient county is 164,744 acres, and that of
the administrative county 163,025 acres. The collieries begin at
Llanasa, run through Whitford, Holywell, Flint, Halkin (Halcyn),
Northop, Buckley, Mold and Hawarden (Penarlag). At Halkin,
Mold, Holywell, Prestatyn and Talacre lead is raised, and is
sometimes sent to Bagillt, Flint or Chester to be smelted. Zinc,
formerly only worked at Dyserth, has increased in output, and
copper mines also exist, as at Talargoch, together with smelting
works, oil, vitriol, potash and alkali manufactories. Potteries
around Buckley send their produce chiefly to Connah's Quay,
whence a railway crosses the Dee to the Birkenhead (Cheshire)
district. Iron seams are now thin, but limestone quarries yield
building stone, lime for burning and small stone for chemical
works. Fisheries are unproductive and textile manufactures
small.
The county returns one member to parliament. The parlia-
mentary borough district (returning one member), consists of
Caergwrle, Caerwys, Flint, Holywell, Mold, Overton, St Asaph
and Rhuddlan. In addition, there is a small part of the Chester
parliamentary borough. There is one municipal borough,
Flint (pop. 4625). The other urban districts are: Buckley
(5780), Connah's Quay (3369), Holywell (2652), Mold (4263),
Prestatyn (1261) and Rhyl (8473). Flint is in the North Wales
and Chester circuit, assizes being held at Mold. The Flint
borough has a separate commission of the peace, but no separate
court of quarter sessions. The ancient county, which is in the
dioceses of Chester, Lichfield and St Asaph, contains forty-six
entire ecclesiastical parishes and districts, with parts of eleven
others.
Among sites of antiquarian or historical interest, besides the
fragmentary ruin of Flint Castle, the following may be mentioned :
Caerwys, near Flint, still shows traces of Roman occupation.
Bodfary (Bodfari) was traditionally occupied by the Romans.
Moel y gaer (bald hill of the fortress), near Northop, is a re-
markably perfect old British post. Maes y Garmon (perhaps
for Meusydd Garmon, as y, the article, has no significance before
a proper name, and so to be translated, battlefields of Germanus).
A mile from Mold is the reputed scene of une victoire sans larmes,
gagnfe non par les armes, mais par la foi (E. H. Vollet). The
Britons, says the legend, were threatened by the Picts and
Saxons, at whose approach the Alleluia of that Easter (A.D. 430)
was sung. Panic duly seized the invaders, but the victor, St
Germanus, confessor and bishop of Auxerre (A.D. 380-448), had
to return to the charge in 446. He has, under the name Garmon,
a great titular share in British topography. At Bangor Iscoed,
" the great high choir in Maelor," was the monastery, destroyed
with over 2000 monks, by ^Ethelfred of Northumberland in 607,
as (by a curious coincidence) its namesake Bangor in Ireland
was sacked by the Danes in the gth century. Bede says (ii. 2)
that Bangor monastery was in seven sections, with three hundred
(working) monks. The supposed lines of direction of Watt's and
Offa's dykes were: Basingwerk, Halkin, Hope, Alyn valley,
Oswestry (Croes Oswallt, " Oswald's cross "), for Watt's, and
Prestatyn, Mold, Minera, across the Severn (Hafren, or Sabrina)
for Offa's. Owain Gwynedd (Gwynedd or Venedocia, is North
Wales) defeated Henry II. at Coed Ewloe (where is a tower)
and at Coleshill (Cynsylll). Near Pant Asa (pant is a bottom)
is the medieval Maen Achwynfan (achwyn, to complain, maen,
stone), and tumuli, menhirs (meini hirion) and inscribed stones
are frequent throughout the county. There is a 14th-century
cross in Newmarket churchyard. Caergwrle Castle seems early
Roman, or even British; but most of the castles in the county
date from the early Edwards.
See H. Taylor, Flint (London, 1883).
FLINT, a municipal borough and the county town of the
above; a seaport and contributory parliamentary borough, on
the south of the Dee estuary, 192 m. from London by the London
& North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4265. The seat of
great alkali manufactures, it imports chiefly sulphur and other
chemicals, exporting coal, soda, potash, copper, &c. The county
gaol here, as at Haverfordwest, occupied an angle of the castle,
was removed to Mold, and is now Chester Castle (jointly with
Cheshire.)
Flint Castle was built on a lonely rock by the riverside by
Edward I. Here met Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. Edward
III. bestowed its constableship upon the earls of Chester, and
here Richard II. surrendered to Bolingbroke. It was twice
taken, after siege, by the parliamentarians, and finally dismantled
in 1647. There remain a square court (with angle towers),
round tower and drawbridge, all three entrusted to a constable,
appointed by the crown under the Municipal Corporations
Reforms Act. Made a borough by Edward I., Flint was chartered
by Edward III., and by Edward the Black Prince, as earl of
Chester.
FLINT (a word common in Teutonic and Scandinavian
languages, possibly cognate with the Gr. TrXipflos, a tile), in
petrology, a dark grey or dark brown crypto-crystalline substance
which has an almost vitreous lustre, and when pure appears
structureless to the unaided eye. In the mass it is dark and
opaque, but thin plates or the edges of splinters are pale yellow
and translucent. Its hardness is greater than that of steel, so
that a knife blade leaves a grey metallic streak when drawn
across its surface. Its specific gravity is 2-6 or only a little
less than that of crystalline quartz. It is brittle, and when
hammered readily breaks up into a powder of angular grains.
The fracture is perfectly conchoidal, so that blows with a hammer
detach flakes which have convex, slightly undulating surfaces.
At the point of impact a bulb of percussion, which is a somewhat
FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS
523
elevated conical mark, is produced. This serves to distinguish
flints which have been fashioned by human agencies from those
which have been split merely by the action of frost and the
weather. The bulb is evidence of a direct blow, probably
intentionally made, and is a point of some importance to
archaeologists investigating Palaeolithic implements. With
skill and experience a mass of flint can be worked to any simple
shape by well directed strokes, and further trimming can be
effected with pressure by a pointed stone in a direction slightly
across the edge of the weapon. The purest flints have the
most perfect conchoidal fracture, and prehistoric man is known
to have quarried or mined certain bands of flint which were
specially suitable for his purposes.
Silica forms nearly the whole substance of flint; calcite and
dolomite may occur in it in small amounts, and analysis has also
detected minute quantities of volatile ingredients, organic com-
pounds, &c., to which the dark colour is ascribed by some authorities.
These are dispelled by heat and the flint becomes white and duller
in lustre. Microscopic sections show that flint is very finely crystal-
line and consists of quartz or chalcedonic silica; colloidal or amorph-
ous silica may also be present but cannot form any considerable part
of the rock. Spicules of sponges and fragments of other organisms,
such as molluscs, polyzoa, foraminifera and brachiopods, often occur
in flint, and may be partly or wholly silicified with retention of their
original structure. Nodules of flint when removed from the chalk
which encloses them have a white dull rough surface, and exposure
to the weather produces much the same appearance on broken flints.
At first they acquire a bright and very smooth surface, but this is
subsequently replaced by a dull crust, resembling white or yellowish
porcelain. It has been suggested that this change is due to the re-
moval of the colloidal silica in solution, leaving behind the fibres
and grains of more crystalline structure. This process must be a
very slow one as, from its chemical composition, flint is a material
of great durability. Its great hardness also enables it to resist
attrition. Hence on beaches and in rivers, such as those of the south-
east of England, flint pebbles exist in vast numbers. Their surfaces
often show minute crescentic or rounded cracks which are the edges
of small conchoidal fractures produced by the impact of one pebble
on another during storms or floods.
Flint occurs primarily as concretions, veins and tabular masses in
the white chalk of such localities as the south of England (see CHALK).
It is generally nodular, and forms rounded or highly irregular masses
which may be several feet in diameter. Although the flint nodules
often lie in bands which closely follow the bedding, they were not
deposited simultaneously with the chalk; very often the flint bands
.cut across the beds of the limestone and may traverse them at right
angles. Evidently the flint has accumulated along fissures, such as
bedding planes, joints and other cracks, after the chalk had to some
extent consolidated. The silica was derived from the tests of
radiolaria and the spicular skeletons of sponges. It has passed into
solution, filtered through the porous matrix, and has been again
precipitated when the conditions were suitable. Its formation is
consequently the result of " concretionary action." Where the flints
lie the chalk must have been dissolved away ; we have in fact a kind
of metasomatic replacement in which a siliceous rock has slowly
replaced a calcareous one. The process has been very gradual and
the organisms of the original chalk often have their outlines preserved
in the flint. Shells may become completely silicified, or may have
their cavities occupied by flint with every detail of the interior of the
shell preserved in the outer surface of the cast. Objects of this kind
are familiar to all collectors of fossils in chalk districts.
Chert is a coarser and less perfectly homogeneous substance of the
same nature and composition as flint. It is grey, black or brown, and
commonly occurs in limestone (e.g. the Carboniferous Limestone) in
the same way as flint occurs in chalk. Some cherts contain tests of
radiolaria, and correspond fairly closely to the siliceous radiolarian
oozes which are gathering at the present day at the bottom of some
of the deepest parts of the oceans. Brownish cherts are found in the
English Greensand ; these often contain remains of sponges.
The principal uses to which flint has been put are the fabrica-
tion of weapons in Palaeolithic and Neolithic times. Other
materials have been employed where flint was not available,
e.g. obsidian, chert, chalcedony, agate and quartzite, but to
prehistoric man (see FLINT IMPLEMENTS below) flint must have
been of great value and served many of the uses to which steel
is put at the present day. Flint gravels are widely employed
for dressing walks and roads, and for rough-cast work in archi-
tecture. For road-mending flint, though very hard, is not
regarded with favour, as it is brittle and pulverizes readily;
binds badly, yielding a surface which breaks up with heavy
traffic and in bad weather; and its fine sharp-edged chips do
much damage to tires of motors and cycles. Seasoned flints
from the land, having been long exposed to the atmosphere,
are preferred to flints freshly dug from the chalk pits. Formerly
flint and steel were everywhere employed for striking a light;
and gun flints were required for fire-arms. A special industry
in the shaping of gun flints long existed at Brandon in Suffolk.
In 1870 about thirty men were employed. Since then the trade
has become almost extinct as gun flints are in demand only in
semi-savage countries where modern fire-arms are not obtainable.
Powdered flint was formerly used in the manufacture of glass,
and is still one of the ingredients of many of the finer varieties
of pottery. (J. S. F.)
FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS. The excavation of
these remains of the prehistoric races of the globe in river-drift
gravel-beds has marked a revolution in the study of Man's
history (see ARCHAEOLOGY). Until almost the middle of the igth
century no suspicion had arisen in the minds of British and
European archaeologists that the momentous results of the
excavations then proceeding in Egypt and Assyria would be
dwarfed by discoveries at home which revolutionized all previous
ideas of Man's antiquity. It was in 1841 that Boucher de Perthes
observed in some sand containing mammalian remains, at
Menchecourt near Abbeville, a flint, roughly worked into a cutting
implement. This " find " was rapidly followed by others, and
Boucher de Perthes published his first work on the subject,
Antiquites celtiques et antediluviennes: memoire sur I' Industrie
primitive et les arts d leur origin (1847), in which he proclaimed
his discovery of human weapons in beds unmistakably belonging
to the age of the Drift. It was not until 1859 that the French
archaeologist convinced the scientific world. An English mission
then visited his collection and testified to the great importance
of his discoveries. The " finds " at Abbeville were followed
by others in many places in England, and in fact in every
country where siliceous stones which are capable of being flaked
and fashioned into implements are to be found. The implements
occurred in beds of rivers and lakes, in the tumuli and ancient
burial-mounds; on the sites of settlements of prehistoric man in
nearly every land, such as the shell-heaps and lake-dwellings;
but especially embedded in the high-level gravels of England
and France which have been deposited by river-floods and long
left high and dry above the present course of the stream. These
gravels represent the Drift or Palaeolithic period when man
shared Europe with the mammoth and woolly-haired rhinoceros.
The worked flints of this age are, however, unevenly distributed;
for while the river-gravels of south-eastern England yield them
abundantly, none has been found in Scotland or the northern
English counties. On the continent the same partial distribution
is observable: while they occur plentifully in the north-western
area of France, they are not discovered in Sweden, Norway or
Denmark. The association of these flints, fashioned for use by
chipping only, with the bones of animals either extinct or no
longer indigenous, has justified their reference to the earlier
period of the Stone Age, generally called Palaeolithic. Those flint
implements, which show signs of polishing and in many cases
remarkably fine workmanship, and are found in tumuli, peat-bogs
and lake-dwellings mixed with the bones of common domestic
animals, are assigned to the Neolithic or later Stone Age. The
Palaeolithic flints are hammers, flakes, scrapers, implements
worked to a cutting edge at one side, implements which resemble
rude axes, flat ovoid implements worked to an edge all round,
and a great quantity of spear and arrow heads. None of these
is ground or polished. The Neolithic flints, on the other hand,
exhibit more variety of design, are carefully finished, and the
particular use of each weapon can be easily detected. Man has
reached the stage of culture when he could socket a stone into
a wooden handle, and fix a flaked flint as a handled dagger or
knife. The workmanship is superior to that shown in any of the
stone utensils made by savage tribes of historic times. The
manner of making flint implements appears to have been in all
ages much the same. Flint from its mode of fracture is the only
kind of stone which can be chipped or flaked into almost any
shape, and thus forms the principal material of these earliest
weapons. The blows must be carefully aimed or the flakes
524
FLOAT FLOE
dislodged will be shattered: a gun-flint maker at Brandon,
Suffolk, stated that it took him two years to acquire the art.
For accounts of the gun-flint manufacture at Brandon, and
detailed descriptions of ancient flint-working, see Sir John Evans,
Ancient Stone Implements (1897), Lord Avebury's Prehistoric Times
(1865, 1900) ; also Thomas Wilson, " Arrow-heads, Spear-heads and
Knives of Prehistoric Times," in Smithsonian Report for 1897; and
W. K. Moorehead, Prehistoric Implements (1900).
FLOAT (in O. Eng.flot znAflota, in the verbal form fltotan; the
Teutonic root is flul-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf.
" fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. TrXew, to sail, Lat. pluere, to
rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connected), the
action of moving on the surface of water, or through the air.
The word is used also of a wave, or the flood of the tide, river,
backwater or stream, and of any object floating in water, as
a mass of ice or weeds; a movable landing-stage, a flat-bottomed
boat, or a raft, or, in fishing, of the cork or quill used to support
a baited line or fishing-net. It is also applied to the hollow or
inflated organ by means of which certain animals, such as the
" Portuguese man-of-war," swim, to a hollow metal ball or piece
of whinstone, &c., used to regulate the level of water in a tank or
boiler, and to a piece of ivory in the cistern of a barometer.
" Float " is also the name of one of the boards of a paddle-wheel
or water-wheel. In a theatrical sense, it is used to denote the
footlights. The word is also applied to something broad, level
and shallow, as a wooden frame attached to a cart or wagon
for the purpose of increasing the carrying capacity; and to a
special kind of low, broad cart for carrying heavy weights, and
to a platform on wheels used for shows in a procession. The term
is applied also to various tools, especially to many kinds of trowels
used in plastering. It is also used of a dock where vessels may
float, as at Bristol, and of the trenches used in " floating " land.
In geology and mining, loose rock or ore brought down by water
is known as " float," and in tin-mining it is applied to a large
trough used for the smelted tin. In weaving the word is used of
the passing of weft threads over part of the warp without being
woven in with it, also of the threads so passed. In the United
States a voter not attached to any particular party and. open to
bribery is called a " float " or " floater."
FLOCK, i. (A word found in Old English and Old Norwegian,
from which come the Danish and Swedish words, and not in
other Teutonic languages), originally a company of people, now
mainly, except in figurative usages, of certain animals when
gathered together for feeding or moving from place to place.
For birds it is chiefly used of geese; and for other animals most
generally of sheep and goats. It is from the particular applica-
tion of the word to sheep that " flock " is used of the Christian
Church in its relation to the " Good Shepherd," and also of
a congregation of worshippers in its relation to its spiritual
head.
2. (Probably from the Lat. floccus, but many Teutonic
languages have the same word in various forms), a tuft of wool,
cotton or similar substance. The name " flock " is given to a
material formed of wool or cotton refuse, or of shreds of old
woollen or cotton rags, torn by a machine known as a " devil."
This material is used for stuffing mattresses or pillows, and also
in upholstery. The name is also applied to a special kind of
wall-paper, which has an appearance almost like cloth, or, in
the more expensive kinds, of velvet. It is made by dusting on a
specially prepared adhesive surface finely powdered fibres of
cotton or silk. The word " flocculent " is used of many substances
which have a fleecy or " flock "-like appearance, such as a
precipitate of ferric hydrate.
FLODDEN, or FLODDEN FIELD, near the village of Branxton,
in Northumberland, England (10 m. N.W. of Wooler), the scene
of a famous battle fought on the 9th of September 1513 between
the English and the Scots. On the 22nd of August a great
Scottish army under King James IV. had crossed the border.
For the moment the earl of Surrey (who in King Henry VIII. 's
absence was charged with the defence of the realm) had no
organized force in the north of England, but James wasted much
precious time among the border castles, and when Surrey
appeared at Wooler, with an army equal in strength to his own,
which was now greatly weakened by privations and desertion,
he had not advanced beyond Ford Castle. The English com-
mander promptly sent in a challenge to a pitched battle, which
the king, in spite of the advice of his most trusted counsellors,
accepted. On the 6th of September, however, he left Ford and
took up a strong position facing south, on Flodden Edge. Surrey's
reproaches for the alleged breach of faith, and a second challenge
to fight on Millfield Plain were this time disregarded. The
English commander, thus foiled, executed a daring and skilful
march round the enemy's flank, and on the gth drew up for battle
in rear of the hostile army. It is evident that Surrey was con-
fident of victory, for he placed his own army, not less than the
enemy, in a position where defeat would involve utter ruin.
On his appearance the Scots hastily changed front and took
post on Branxton Hill, facing north. The battle began at 4 P.M.
Surrey's archers and cannon soon gained the upper hand, and the
Scots, unable quietly to endure their losses, rushed to close
quarters. Their left wing drove the English back, but Lord
Dacre's reserve corps restored the fight on this side. In all other
parts of the field, save where James and Surrey were personally
opposed, the English gradually gained ground. The king's
corps was then attacked by Surrey in front, and by Sir Edward
Stanley in flank. As the Scots were forced back, a part of Dacre's
force closed upon the other flank, and finally Dacre himself,
boldly neglecting an almost intact Scottish division in front of
him, charged in upon the rear of King James's corps. Sur-
rounded and attacked on all sides, this, the remnant of the
invading army, was doomed. The circle of spearmen around
the king grew less and less, and in the end James and a few of his
nobles were alone left standing. Soon they too died, fighting to
the last man. Among the ten thousand Scottish dead were all
the leading men in the kingdom of Scotland, and there was no
family of importance that had not lost a member in this great
disaster. The " King's Stone," said to mark the spot where
James was killed, is at some distance from the actual battlefield.
" Sybil's Well," in Scott's Marmion, is imaginary.
FLODOARD (894-966), French chronicler, was born at
Epernay, and educated at Reims in the cathedral school which
had been established by Archbishop Fulcon (822-900). As
canon of Reims, and favourite of the archbishops Herivaeus
(d. 922) and Seulfus (d. 925), he occupied while still young an
important position at the archiepiscopal court, but was twice
deprived of his benefices by Heribert, count of Vermandois, on
account of his steady opposition to the election of the count's
infant son to the archbishopric. Upon the final triumph of
Archbishop Artold in 947, Flodoard became for a time his chief
adviser, but withdrew to a monastery in 952, and spent the
remaining years of his life in literary and devotional work. His
history of the cathedral church at Reims (Historia Remensis
Ecclesiae) is one of the most remarkable productions of the loth
century. Flodoard had been given charge of the episcopal
archives, and constructed his history out of the original texts,
which he generally reproduces in full; the documents for the
period of Hincmar being especially valuable. The Annales
which Flodoard wrote year by year from 919 to 966 are doubly
important, by reason of the author's honesty and the central
position of Reims in European affairs in his time. Flodoard's
poetical works are of hardly less historical interest. The long
poem celebrating the triumph of Christ and His saints was called
forth by the favour shown him by Pope Leo VII., during whose
pontificate he visited Rome, and he devotes fourteen books to
the history of the popes.
Flodoard's works were published in full by J. P. Migne (Patrologia
Latino,, vol. 135) ; a modern edition of the Annales is the one edited
by P. Lauer (Paris, 1906). For bibliography see A. Molinier, Sources
de I'histoire de France (No. 932).
FLOE (of uncertain derivation; cf. Norse flo, layer, level
plain), a sheet of floating ice detached from the main body of
polar ice. It is of less extent than the field of " pack " ice,
which is a compacted mass of greater depth drifting frequently
under the influence of deep currents, while the floating floe is
driven by the wind.
FLOOD, H.
525
FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791), Irish statesman, son of Warden
Flood, chief justice of the king's bench in Ireland, was born
in 1732, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and after-
wards at Christ Church, Oxford, where he became proficient in
the classics. His father was a man of good birth and fortune,
and he himself married a member of the influential Beresford
family, who brought him a large fortune. In his early years
he was handsome, witty, good-tempered, and a brilliant con-
versationalist. His judgment was sound, and he had a natural
gift of eloquence which had been cultivated and developed by
study of classical oratory and the practice of elocution. Flood
therefore possessed every personal advantage when, in 1759,
he entered the Irish parliament as member for Kilkenny in his
twenty-seventh year. There was at that time no party in the
Irish House of Commons that could truly be called national,
and until a few years before there had been none that deserved
even the name of an opposition. The Irish parliament was still
constitutionally subordinate to the English privy council; it
had practically no powers of independent legislation, and none
of controlling the policy of the executive, which was nominated
by the ministers in London (see GRATTAN, HENRY). Though
the great majority of the people were Roman Catholics, no
person of that faith could either enter parliament or exercise the
franchise; the penal code, which made it almost impossible for
a Roman Catholic to hold property, to follow a learned profession,
or even to educate his children, and which in numerous particulars
pressed severely on the Roman Catholics and subjected them to
degrading conditions, was as yet unrepealed, though in practice
largely obsolete; the industry and commerce of Ireland were
throttled by restrictions imposed, in accordance with the
economic theories of the period, in the interest of the rival trade
of Great Britain. Men like Anthony Malone and Hely-Hutchison
fully realized the necessity for far-reaching reforms, and it only
needed the ability and eloquence of Flood in the Irish House of
Commons to raise up an independent party in parliament, and
to create in the country a public opinion with definite intelligible
aims.
The chief objects for which Flood strove were the shortening
of the duration of parliament which had then no legal limit
in Ireland except that of the reigning sovereign's life, the
reduction of the scandalously heavy pension list, the establish-
ment of a national militia, and, above all, the complete legislative
independence of the Irish parliament. For some years little
was accomplished; but in 1768 the English ministry, which
had special reasons at the moment for avoiding unpopularity
in Ireland, allowed an octennial bill to pass, which was the first
step towards making the Irish House of Commons in some
measure representative of public opinion. It had become the
practice to allow crown patronage in Ireland to be exercised by
the owners of parliamentary boroughs in return for their under-
taking to manage the House in the government interest. But
during the viceroyalty of Lord Townsend the aristocracy, and
more particularly these " undertakers " as they were called,
were made to understand that for the future their privileges in
this respect would be curtailed. When, therefore, an opportunity
was taken by the government in 1768 for reasserting the con-
stitutional subordination of the Irish parliament, these powerful
classes were thrown into temporary alliance with Flood. In the
following year, in accordance with the established procedure,
a money bill was sent over by the privy council in London for
acceptance by the Irish House of Commons. Not only was it
rejected, but contrary to custom a reason for this course was
assigned, namely, that the bill had not originated in the Irish
House. In consequence parliament was peremptorily prorogued,
and a recess of fourteen months was employed by the government
in securing a majority by the most extensive corruption. 1 Never-
theless when parliament met in February 1771 another money
bill was thrown out on the motion of Flood; and the next year
Lord Townsend, the lord lieutenant whose policy had provoked
this conflict, was recalled. The struggle was the occasion of a
publication, famous in its day, called Baratariana, to which
1 Walpole's George III., iv. 348.
Flood contributed a series of powerful letters after the
manner of Junius, one of his collaborators being Henry
Grattan.
The success which had thus far attended Flood's efforts had
placed him in a position such as no Irish politician had previously
attained. He had, as an eminent historian of Ireland observes,
" proved himself beyond all comparison the greatest popular
orator that his country had yet produced, and also a consummate
master of parliamentary tactics. Under parliamentary conditions
that were exceedingly unfavourable, and in an atmosphere
charged with corruption, venality and subserviency, he had
created a party before which ministers had begun to quail, and
had inoculated the Protestant constituencies with a genuine
spirit of liberty and self-reliance. " ' Lord Harcourt, who
succeeded Townsend as viceroy, saw that Flood must be con-
ciliated at any price " rather than risk the opposition of so
formidable a leader." Accordingly, in 1775, Flood was offered
and accepted a seat in the privy council and the office of vice-
treasurer with a salary of 3500 a year. For this step he has
been severely criticized. The suggestion that he acted corruptly
in the matter is groundless; and although it is true that he lost
influence from the moment he became a minister of the crown,
Flood may reasonably have held that he had a better prospect
of advancing his policy by the leverage of a ministerial position
than by means of any opposition party he could hope to muster
in an unreformed House of Commons. 3 The result, however,
was that the leadership of the national party passed from Flood
to Grattan, who entered the Irish parliament in the same session
that Flood became a minister.
Flood continued in office for nearly seven years. During this
long period he necessarily remained silent on the subject of the
independence of the Irish parliament, and had to be content
with advocating minor reforms as occasion offered. He was
thus instrumental in obtaining bounties on the export of Irish
corn to foreign countries and some other trifling commercial
concessions. . On the other hand he failed to procure the passing
of a Habeas Corpus bill and a bill for making the judges irre-
movable, while his support of Lord North's American policy
still more gravely injured his popularity and reputation. But
an important event in 1778 led indirectly to his recovering to
some extent his former position in the country; this event was
the alliance of France with the revolted American colonies.
Ireland was thereby placed in peril of a French invasion, while
the English government could provide no troops to defend the
island. The celebrated volunteer movement was then set on
foot to meet the emergency; in a few weeks more than 40,000
men, disciplined and equipped, were under arms, officered by
the country gentry, and controlled by the wisdom and patriotism
of Lord Charlemont. This volunteer force, in which Flood was
a colonel, while vigilant for the defence of the island, soon
made itself felt in politics. A Volunteer Convention, formed
with all the regular organization of a representative assembly,
but wielding the power of an army, began menacingly to demand
the removal of the commercial restrictions which were destroying
Irish prosperity. Under this pressure the government gave way;
the whole colonial trade was in 1779 thrown open to Ireland for
the first time, and other concessions were also extorted. Flood,
who had taken an active though not a leading part in this move-
ment, now at last resigned his office to rejoin his old party. He
found to his chagrin that his former services had been to a great
extent forgotten, and that he was eclipsed by Grattan. When
in a debate on the constitutional question in 1779 Flood com-
plained of the small consideration shown him in relation to a
subject which he had been the first to agitate, he was reminded
that by the civil law " if a man should separate from his wife,
and abandon her for seven years, another might then take her
and give her his protection." But though Flood had lost
control of the movement for independence of the Irish parliament,
the agitation, backed as it now was by the Volunteer Convention
1 W. E. H. Lecky, Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland (enlarged
edition, 2 vols., 1003), i. 48.
' See Hardy's Life of Charlemont, i. 356.
526
FLOOD FLOOD PLAIN
and by increasing signs of popular disaffection, led at last in
1782 to the concession of the demand, together with a number
of other important reforms (see GRATTAN, HENRY).
No sooner, however, was this great success gained than a
question arose known as the Simple Repeal controversy
as to whether England, in addition to the repeal of the Acts on
which the subordination of the Irish parliament had been based,
should not be required expressly to renounce for the future all
claim to control Irish legislation. The chief historical importance
of this dispute is that it led to the memorable rupture of friendship
between Flood and Grattan, each of whom assailed the other with
unmeasured but magnificently eloquent invective in the House of
Commons. Flood's view prevailed for a Renunciation Act such
as he advocated was ungrudgingly passed by the English parlia-
ment in 1783 and for a time he regained popularity at the
expense of his rival. Flood next (28th of November 1783)
introduced a reform bill, after first submitting it to the Volunteer
Convention. The bill, which contained no provision for giving
the franchise to Roman Catholics a proposal which Flood
always opposed was rejected, ostensibly on the ground that the
attitude of the volunteers threatened the freedom of parliament.
The volunteers were perfectly loyal to the crownand the connexion
with England. They carried an address to the king, moved by
Flood, expressing the hope that their support of parliamentary
reform might be imputed to nothing but " a sober and laudable
desire to uphold the constitution . . . and to perpetuate the
cordial union of both kingdoms." The convention then dissolved,
though Flood had desired, in opposition to Grattan, to continue
it as a means of putting pressure on parliament for the purpose
of obtaining reform.
In 1776 Flood had made an attempt to enter the English House
of Commons. In 1783 he tried again, this time with success.
He purchased a seat for Winchester from the duke of Chandos,
and for the next seven years he was a member at the same time
of both the English and Irish parliaments. He reintroduced,
but without success, his reform bill in the Irish House in 1784;
supported the movement for protecting Irish industries; but
short-sightedly opposed Pitt's commercial propositions in 1785.
He remained a firm opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation,
even defending the penal laws on the ground that after the
Revolution they " were not laws of persecution but of political
necessity "; but after 1786 he does not appear to have attended
the parliament in Dublin. In the House at Westminster, where
he refused to enrol himself as a member of either political party,
he was not successful. His first speech, in opposition to Fox's
India Bill on the 3rd of December 1783, disappointed the ex-
pectations aroused by his celebrity. His speech in opposition
to the commercial treaty with France in 1787 was, however,
most able; and in 1790 he introduced a reform bill which Fox
declared to be the best scheme of reform that had yet been
proposed, and which in Burke's opinion retrieved Flood's reputa-
tion. But at the dissolution in the same year he lost his seat in
both parliaments, and he then retired to Farmley, his residence
in county Kilkenny, where he died on the 2nd of December 1791.
When Peter Burrowes, notwithstanding his close personal
friendship with Grattan, declared that Flood was " perhaps the
ablest man Ireland ever produced, indisputably the ablest man
of his own times," he expressed what was probably the general
opinion of Flood's contemporaries. Lord Charlemont, who knew
him intimately though not always in agreement with his policy,
pronounced him to be " a man of consummate ability." He also
declared that avarice made no part of Flood's character. Lord
Mountmorres, a critic by no means partial to Flood, described
him as a pre-eminently truthful man, and one who detested
flattery. Grattan, who even after the famous quarrel never lost
his respect for Flood, said of him that he was the best tempered and
the most sensible man in the world. In his youth he was genial,
frank, sociable and witty; but in later years disappointment
made him gloomy and taciturn. As an orator he was less polished,
less epigrammatic than Grattan; but a closer reasoner and a
greater master of sarcasm and invective. Personal ambition
often governed his actions, but his political judgment was usually
sound; and it was the opinion of Bentham that Flood would have
succeeded in carrying a reform bill which might have preserved
Irish parliamentary independence, if he had been supported by
Grattan and the rest of his party in keeping alive the Volunteer
Convention in 1783. Though he never wavered in loyalty to the
British crown and empire, Ireland never produced a more sincere
patriot than Henry Flood.
See Warden Flood, Memoirs of Henry Flood (London, 1838);
Henry Grattan, Memoirs of the Life and Times of the Right Hon. H.
Grattan (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); Charles Phillips, Recollections
of Curran and some of his Contemporaries (London, 1822) ; The Irish
Parliament 1775, from an official and contemporary manuscript,
edited by Wilham Hunt (London, 1907); W. J. O'Neill Daunt,
Ireland and her Agitators; Lord Mountmorres, History of the Irish
Parliament (2 vols., London, 1792); W. E. H. Lecky, History of
England in the Eighteenth Century (8 vols., London, 1878-1890);
and Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland (enlarged edition, 2 vols.,
London, 1903) ; J. A. Froude, The English in Ireland, vols. ii. and iii.
(London, 1881) ; Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George III.
(4 vols., London, 1845, 1894); Sir Jonah Barrington, Rise and Fall
of the Irish Nation (London, 1833) ; Francis Plowden, Historical
Review of the State of Ireland (London, 1803); Alfred Webb, Com-
pendium of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1878); F. Hardy, Memoirs of
Lord Charlemont (London, 1812), especially for the volunteer move-
ment, on which see also Proceedings of the Volunteer Delegates of
Ireland 1784 (Anon. Pamphlet, Brit. Mus.); also The Charlemont
Papers, and Irish Parl. Debates, vols. i.-iv.). (R. J. M.)
FLOOD (in 0. Eng.flod, a word common to Teutonic languages,
cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow,"
" float "), an overflow of water, an expanse of water submerging
land, a deluge, hence " the flood," specifically, the Noachian deluge
of Genesis, but also any other catastrophic submersion recorded
in the mythology of other nations than the Hebrew (see DELUGE,
THE). In the sense of " flowing water," the word is applied to
the inflow of the tide, as opposed to " ebb."
FLOOD PLAIN, the term in physical geography for a plain
formed of sediment dropped by a river. When the slope down
which a river runs has become very slight, it is unable to carry
the sediment brought from higher regions nearer its source,
and consequently the lower portion of the river valley becomes
filled with alluvial deposits; and since in times of flood the rush
of water in the high regions tears off and carries down a greater
quantity of sediment than usual, the river spreads this also over
the lower valley where the plain is flooded, because the rush of
water is checked, and the stream in consequence drops its extra
load. These flood plains are sometimes of great extent. That
of the Mississippi below Ohio has a width of from 20 to 80 m.,
and its whole extent has been estimated at 50,000 sq. m. Flood
plains may be the result of planation, with aggradation, that is,
they may be due to a graded river working in meanders from side
to side, widening its valley by this process and covering the
widened valley with sediment. Or the stream by cutting into
another stream (piracy), by cutting through a barrier near its
head waters, by entering a region of looser or softer rock, and by
glacial drainage, may form a flood plain simply by filling up
its valley (alluviation only). Any obstruction across a river's
course, such as a band of hard rock, may form a flood plain behind
it, and indeed anything which checks a river's course and causes
it to drop its load will tend to form a flood plain; but it is most
commonly found near the mouth of a large river, such as the
Rhine, the Nile, or the Mississippi, where there are occasional
floods and the river usually carries a large amount of sediment.
" Levees " are formed, inside which the river usually flows,
gradually raising its bed above the surrounding plain. Occasional
breaches during floods cause the overloaded stream to spread in
a great lake over the surrounding country, where the silt covers
the ground in consequence. Sections of the Missouri flood plain
made by the United States geological survey show a great variety
of material of varying coarseness, the stream bed being scoured
at one place, and filled at another by currents and floods of varying
swiftness, so that sometimes the deposits are of coarse gravel,
sometimes of fine sand, or of fine silt, and it is probable that any
section of such an alluvial plain would show deposits of a similar
character. The flood plain during its formation is marked by
meandering, or anastomosing streams, ox-bow lakes and bayous,
FLOOR FLOR, ROGER DI
527
marshes or stagnant pools, and is occasionally completely covered
with water. When the drainage system has ceased to act or is
entirely diverted owing to any cause, the flood plain may become
a level area of great fertility, similar in appearance to the floor of
an old lake. The flood plain differs, however, inasmuch as it is
not altogether flat. It has a gentle slope down-stream, and often
for a distance from the sides towards the centre.
FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic
languages, cf . Dutch iiloer, and Ger. Flur, a. field, in the feminine,
and a floor, masculine), generally the lower horizontal surface of
a room, but specially employed for one covered with boarding
or parquetry. The various levels of rooms in a house are desig-
nated as " ground-floor," " first-floor," " mezzanine-floor," &c.
The principal floor is the storey which contains the chief apart-
ments whether on the ground- or first-floor; in Italy they are
always on the latter and known as the " piano nobile." The
storey below the ground-floor is called the " basement-floor,"
even if only a little below the level of the pavement outside ; the
storey in a roof is known as the " attic-floor." The expressions
one pair, two pair, &c., apply to the storeys above the first
flight of stairs from the ground (see also CARPENTRY).
FLOORCLOTH, a rough flannel cloth used for domestic
cleaning; also a generic term applied to a variety of materials
used in place of carpets for covering floors, and known by such
trade names as kamptulicon, oil-cloth, linoleum, corticinc, cork-
carpet, &c. Kamptulicon (xa/iTrros, flexible, oiiXos, thick) was
patented in 1844 by E. Galloway, but did not attract much
attention till about 1862. It was essentially a preparation of
indiarubber masticated up with ground cork, and rolled out
into sheets between heavy steam-heated rollers, sometimes
over a backing of canvas. Owing to its expensiveness, it has
given place to cheaper materials serving the same purpose.
Oil-cloth is a coarse canvas which has received a number of
coats of thick oil paint, each coat being rubbed smooth with
pumice stone before the application of the next. Its surface
is ornamented with patterns printed in oil colours by means of
wooden blocks. Linoleum (linum, flax, oleum, oil), patented by
F. Walton in 1860 and 1863, consists of oxidized linseed oil and
ground cork. These ingredients, thoroughly incorporated with
the addition of certain gummy and resinous matters, and of
pigments such as ochre and oxide of iron as required, are pressed
on to a rough canvas backing between steam-heated rollers.
Patterns may be printed on its surface with oil paint, or by an
improved method may be inlaid with coloured composition
so that the colours are continuous through the thickness of the
linoleum, instead of being on the surface only, and thus do not dis-
appear with wear. Lincrusta- Walton is a similar material to lino-
leum, also having oxidized linseed oil as its base, which is stamped
out in embossed patterns and used as a covering for walls.
FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS (1828-1896), French states-
man, was born at St Jean-Pied-de-Port (Basses- Pyrenees) on
the 2nd of October 1828. He studied law in Paris, and was
called to the bar in 1851. The coup d'etat of that year aroused
the strenuous opposition of Floquet, who had, while yet a student,
given proof of his republican sympathies by taking part in the
fighting of 1848. He made his name by his brilliant and fearless
attacks on the government in a series of political trials, and at
the same time contributed to the Temps and other influential
journals. When the tsar Alexander II. visited the Palais de
Justice in 1867, Floquet was said to have confronted him with
the cry " Vive la Pologne, monsieur! " He delivered a scathing
indictment of the Empire at the trial of Pierre Bonaparte for
killing Victor Noir in 1870, and took a part in the revolution
of the 4th of September, as well as in the subsequent defence
of Paris. In 1871 he was elected to the National Assembly
by the department of the Seine. During the Commune he formed
the Ligue d'union republicaine des droits de Paris to attempt a
reconciliation with the government of Versailles. When his
efforts failed, he left Paris, and was imprisoned by order of Thiers,
but soon released. He became editor of the Rtpublique Franfaise,
was 'chosen president of the municipal council, and in 1876 was
elected deputy for the eleventh arrondissement. He took a
prominent place among the extreme radicals, and became
president of the group of the " Union republicaine." In 1882
he held for a short time the post of prefect of the Seine. In
1885 he succeeded M. Brisson as president of the chamber.
This difficult position he filled with such tact and impartiality
that he was re-elected the two following years. Having
approached the Russian ambassador in such a way as to remove
the prejudice existing against him in Russia since the incident
of 1867, he rendered himself eligible for office; and on the fall
of the Tirard cabinet in 1888 he became president of the council
and minister of the interior in a radical ministry, which pledged
itself to the revision of the constitution, but was forced to combat
the proposals of General Boulanger. Heated debates in the
chamber culminated on the I3th of July in a duel between Floquet
and Boulanger in which the latter was wounded. In the following
February the government fell on the question of revision, and
in the new chamber of November Floquet was re-elected to
the presidential chair. The Panama scandals, in which he was
compelled to admit his implication, dealt a fatal blow to his
career: he lost the presidency of the chamber in 1892, and his
seat in the house in 1893, but in 1894 was elected to the senate.
He died in Paris on the i8th of January 1896.
See Discours et opinions de M. Charles Floquet, edited by Albert
Faivre (1885).
FLOR, ROGER DI, a military adventurer of the I3th-i4tk
century, was the second son of a falconer in the service of the
emperor Frederick II., who fell at Tagliacozzo (1268), and when
eight years old was sent to sea in a galley belonging to the
Knights Templars. He entered the order and became com-
mander of a galley. At the siege of Acre by the Saracens in
1291 he was accused and denounced to the pope as a thief and
an apostate, was degraded from his rank, and fled to Genoa,
where he began to play the pirate. The struggle between the
kings of Aragon and the French kings of Naples for the possession
of Sicily was at this time going on; and Roger entered the
service of Frederick, king of Sicily, who gave him the rank of
vice-admiral. At the close of the war, in 1302, as Frederick was
anxious to free the island from his mercenary troops (called
Almtigavares) , whom he had no longer the means of paying,
Roger induced them under his leadership to seek new adventures
in the East, in fighting against the Turks, who were ravaging
the empire. The emperor Andronicus II. accepted his offer of
service; and in September 1303 Roger with his fleet and army
arrived at Constantinople. He was adopted into the imperial
family, was married to a grand-daughter of the emperor, and
was made grand duke and commander-in-chief of the army and
the fleet. After some weeks lost in dissipation, intrigues and
bloody quarrels, Roger and his men were sent into Asia, and after
some successful encounters with the Turks they went into winter
quarters at Cyzicus. In May 1304 they again took the field,
and rendered the important service of relieving Philadelphia,
then invested and reduced to extremities by the Turks. But
Roger, bent on advancing his own interests rather than those
of the emperor, determined to found in the East a principality
for himself. He sent his treasures to Magnesia, but the people
slew his Catalans and seized the treasures. He then formed the
siege of the town, but his attacks were repulsed, and he was
compelled to retire. Being recalled to Europe, he settled his
troops in Gallipoli and other towns, and visited Constantinople
to demand pay for the Almugavares. Dissatisfied with the small
sum granted by the emperor, he plundered the country and
carried on intrigues both with and against the emperor, receiving
reinforcements all the while from all parts of southern Europe.
Roger was now created Caesar, but shortly afterwards the young
emperor Michael Palaeologus, not daring to attack the fierce
and now augmented bands of adventurers, invited Roger to
Adrianople, and there contrived his assassination and the
massacre of his Catalan cavalry (April 4, 1306). His death was
avenged by his men in a fierce and prolonged war against the
Greeks.
See Moncada, Expedition de los Catalanes y Aragoneses centre
Turcos y Griegos (Paris, 1840).
528
FLORA FLORENCE
FLORA, in Roman mythology, goddess of spring-time and
flowers, later identified with the Greek Chloris. Her festival
at Rome, the Floralia, instituted 238 B.C. by order of the
Sibylline books and at first held irregularly, became annual
after 173. It lasted six days (April 28-May 3) , the first day being
the anniversary of the foundation of her temple. It included
theatrical performances and animal hunts in the circus, and
vegetables were distributed to the people. The proceedings
were characterized by excessive merriment and licentiousness.
According to the legend, her worship was instituted by Titus
Tatius, and her priest, the flamen Floralis, by Numa. In art
Flora was represented as a beautiful maiden, bedecked with
flowers (Ovid, Fasti, v. 183 ff.; Tacitus, Annals, ii. 49).
The term " flora " is used in botany collectively for the plant-
growth of a district; similarly " fauna " is used collectively
for the animals.
FLOKE AND BLANCHEFLEUR, a 13th-century romance.
This tale, generally supposed to be of oriental origin, relates the
passionate devotion of two children, and their success in over-
coming all the obstacles put in the way of their love. The
romance appears in differing versions in French, English, German,
Swedish, Icelandic, Italian, Spanish, Greek and Hungarian.
The various forms of the tale receive a detailed notice in E.
Hausknecht's version of the 13th-century Middle English poem
.of " Floris and Blauncheflur " (Samml. eng. Denkmaler, vol. v.
Berlin, 1885). Nothing definite can be stated of the origin of
the story, but France was in the I2th and i3th centuries the
chief market of romance, and the French version of the tale,
F loire et Blanchefleur, is the most widespread. Floire, the son
of a Saracen king of Spain, is brought up in constant companion-
ship with Blanchefleur, the daughter of a Christian slave of
noble birth. Floire's parents, hoping to destroy this attachment,
send the boy away at fifteen and sell Blanchefleur to foreign
slave-merchants. When Floire returns a few days later he is
told that his companion is dead, but when he threatens to kill
himself, his parents tell him the truth. He traces her to the
tower of the maidens destined for the harem of the emir of
Babylon, into which he penetrates concealed in a basket of
flowers. The lovers are discovered, but their constancy touches
the hearts of their judges. They are married, and Floire returns
to his kingdom, when he and all his people adopt Christianity.
Of the two 12th-century French poems (ed. Edelestand du
M6ril, Paris, 1856), the one contains the love story with few
additions, the other is a romance of chivalry, containing the
usual battles, single combats, &c. Two lyrics based on episodes
of the story are printed by Paulin Paris in his Romancero
franfais (Paris, 1883). The English poem renders the French
version without amplifications, such as are found in other
adaptations. Its author has less sentiment than his original,
and less taste for detailed description. Among the other forms
of the story must be noted the prose romance (c. 1340) of
Boccaccio, II FUocolo, and the 14th-century Leggenda della
reina Rosana e di Rosana sua figliuola (pr. Leghorn, 1871). The
similarity between the story of Floire and Blanchefleur and
Chanle-fable of Aucassin et Nicolete 1 has been repeatedly pointed
out, and they have even been credited with a common
source.
See also editions by I. Bekker (Berlin, 1844) and E. Hausknecht
(Berlin, 1885) ; also H. Sundmacher, Die altfr. und mittelhochdeutsche
Bearbeitung der Sage von Flore et Blanscheflur (Gottingen, 1872);
H. Herzog, Die beiden Sagenkreise von Flore und Blanscheflur (Vienna,
1884); Zeitschrift fur deut. Altertum (vol. xxi.) contains a Rhenish
version; the Scandinavian Flares Saga ok Blankiflur, ed. E. Kolbing
(Halle, 1896) ; the 13th-century version of Konrad Fleck, Flore und
Blanscheflur, ed. E. Somraer (Leipzig, 1846) ; the Swedish by G. E.
Klemming (Stockholm, 1844). The English poem was also edited
by Hartschorne (English Metrical Tales, 1829), by Laing (Abbotsford
Club,U82Q), and by Lumly (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1866, re-edited
G. H. McKnight, 1901). J. Reinhold (Floire et Blanchefleur, Paris,
1906) suggests a parallelism with the story of Cupid and Psyche as
1 Ed. H. Suchier (Paderborn, 1878, 5th ed. 1903) ; modern French
by,;G. Michaut, with preface by J. Bedier (Tours, 1901); English
by Andrew Lang (1887), by F. W. Bourdillon (Oxford, 1896), and
by Laurence Housman (1902).
told by Apuleius ; also that the oriental setting does not necessarily
imply a connexion with Arab tales, as the circumstances might with
small alteration have been taken from the Vulgate version of the
book of Esther.
FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN (1831-1891), American
actor, of Irish descent, whose real name was Bernard Conlin,
was born on the 26th of July 1831 at Albany, N.Y., and first
attracted attention as an actor at Brougham's Lyceum in 1851.
Two years later he married Mrs Malvina Pray Lit tell (d. 1906), in
association with whom, until her retirement in 1889, he won all
his successes, notably in Benjamin Woolf's The Mighty Dollar,
said to have been presented more than 2500 times. In 1856
they had a successful London season, Mrs Florence being one of
the first American actresses to appear on the English stage.
In 1889 Florence entered into partnership with Joseph Jefferson,
playing Sir Lucius O'Trigger to his Bob Acres and Mrs John
Drew's Mrs Malaprop on a very successful tour. His last
appearance was with Jefferson on the i4th of November 1891,
as Ezekiel Homespun in The Heir-at-law, and he died on the i8th
of November in Philadelphia.
FLORENCE OF WORCESTER (d. 1118), English chronicler,
was a monk of Worcester, who died, as we learn from his con-
tinuator, on the 7th of July 1118. Beyond this fact nothing is
known of his life. He compiled a chronicle called Chronicon
ex chronicis which begins with the creation and ends in 1117.
The basis of his work was a chronicle compiled by Marianus
Scotus, an Irish recluse, who lived first at Fulda, afterwards at
Mainz. Marianus, who began his work after 1069, carried it up
to 1082. Florence supplements Marianus from a lost version
of the English Chronicle, and from Asser. He is always worth
comparing with the extant English Chronicles; and from 1106
he is an independent annalist, dry but accurate. Either Florence
or a later editor of his work made considerable borrowings from
the first four books of Eadmer's Historia novorum. Florence's
work is continued, up to 1141, by a certain John of Worcester,
who wrote about 1150. John is valuable for the latter years
of Henry I. and the early years of Stephen. He is friendly to
Stephen, but not an indiscriminate partisan.
The first edition of these two writers is that of 1592 (by William
Howard). The most accessible is that of B. Thorpe (Eng. Hist. Soc.,
2 vols., 1848-1849) ; but Thorpe's text of John's continuation needs
revision. Thorpe gives, without explanations, the insertions of an
ill-informed Gloucester monk who has obscured the accurate chrono-
logy of the original. Thorpe also prints a continuation by John
Taxter (died c. 1295), a 13th-century writer and a monk of Bury St
Edmunds. Florence and John of Worcester are translated by J.
Stevenson in his Church Historians of England, vol. ii. pt. i. (London,
'853) ; T. Forester's translation in Bohn's Antiquarian Library
(London, 1854) gives the work of Taxter also. (H. W. C. D.)
FLORENCE, the county-seat of Lauderdale county, Alabama,
U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Tennessee river, at the foot of
Muscle Shoals Canal, and about 560 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1880) 1359; (1890) 6012; (1900) 6478 (1952 negroes); (1910)
6689. It is served by the Southern, the Northern Alabama
(controlled by the Southern), and the Louisville & Nashville
railways, and by electric railway to Sheffield and Tuscumbia,
and the Tennessee river is here navigable. Florence is situated
in the fertile agricultural lands of the Tennessee river valley on
the edge of the coal and iron districts of Alabama, and has
various manufactures, including pig-iron, cotton goods, wagons,
stoves, fertilizers, staves and mercantile supplies. At Florence
are the state Normal College, the Florence University for
Women, and the Burrell Normal School (for negroes; founded
in 1903 by the American Missionary Association). Florence
was founded in 1818, Andrew Jackson, afterwards president
of the United States, and ex-president James Madison being
among the early property holders. For several years Florence
and Nashville, Tennessee, were commercial rivals, being situated
respectively at the head of navigation on the Tennessee and
Cumberland rivers. The first invasion of Alabama by Federal
troops in the Civil War was by a gunboat raid up the Tennessee
to Florence on the 8th of February 1862. On the nth of April
1863 another Federal gunboat raid was attempted, but the vessels
were repulsed by a force under Gen. S. A. Wood. On the 26th
FLORENCE
529
of May following, Federal troops entered Florence, and destroyed
cotton mills and public and private property; but they were
driven back by Gen. Philip D. Roddy (1820-1897). On the
nth of December 1863 the town was again raided, but the
Federals did not secure permanent possession. Florence was
chartered as a city in 1889.
FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florenlia), formerly the capital
of Tuscany, now the capital of a province of the kingdom of
Italy, and the sixth largest city in the country. It is situated
43 46' N., n 14' E., on both banks of the river Arno, which at
this point flows through a broad fertile valley enclosed between
spurs of the Apennines. The city is 165 ft. above sea-level, and
occupies an area of 3 sq. m. (area of the commune, 165 sq. m.).
The geological formation of the soil belongs to the Quaternary
and Pliocene period in its upper strata, and to the Eocene and
Cretaceous in the lower. Pietra forte of the Cretaceous period
is quarried north and south of the city, and has been used for
centuries as paving stone and for the buildings. Pietra serena
or macigno, a stone of a firm texture also used for building
purposes, is quarried at Monte Ceceri below Fiesole. The soil
is very fertile; wheat, Indian corn, olives, vines, fruit trees of
many kinds cover both the plain and the surrounding hills;
the chief non-fruit-bearing trees are the stone pine, the cypress,
the ilex and the poplar, while many other varieties are repre-
sented. The gardens and fields produce an abundance of
flowers, which justify the city's title of la citta dei jiori.
Climate and Sanitary Conditions. The climate of Florence
is very variable, ranging from severe cold accompanied by high
winds from the north in winter to great heat in the summer,
while in spring-time sudden and rapid changes of temperature
are frequent. At the same time the climate is usually very
agreeable from the end of February to the beginning of July,
and from the end of September to the middle of November.
The average temperature throughout the year is about 57
Fahr.; the maximum heat is about 96-8, and the minimum
36- 5, sometimes sinking to 2 1. The longest day is 1 5 hours and
33 minutes, the shortest 8 hours and 50 minutes/ The average
rainfall is about 37^ inches. Epidemic diseases -are rare and
children's diseases mild; cholera has visited Florence several
times, but the city has been free from it for many years.
Diphtheria first appeared in 1868 and continued as a severe
epidemic until 1872, since when it has only occurred at rare inter-
vals and in isolated cases. Typhoid, pneumonia, tuberculosis,
measles and scarlatina, and influenza are the commonest illnesses.
The drainage system is still somewhat imperfect, but the water
brought from the hills or from the Arno in pipes is fairly good,
and the general sanitary conditions are satisfactory.
Public Buildings. Of the very numerous Florentine churches
the Duomo (Santa Maria del Fieri) is the largest and most
Churches important, founded in 1298 on the plans of Arnolfo
di Cambio, completed by Brunelleschi, and consecrated
in 1436; the facade, however, was not finished until the igth
century it was begun in 1875 on the designs of de Fabris and
unveiled in 1888. Close by the Duomo is the no less famous
Campanile built by Giotto, begun in 1332, and adorned with
exquisite bas-reliefs. Opposite is the Baptistery built by Arnolfo
di Cambio in the 1 3th century on the site of an earlier church,
and adorned with beautiful bronze doors by Ghiberti in the isth
century. The Badia, Santo Spirito, Santa Maria Novella, are
a few among the many famous and beautiful churches of Florence.
The existence of these works of art attracts students from all
countries, and a German art school subsidized by the imperial
government has been instituted.
The streets and piazze of the city are celebrated for their
splendid palaces, formerly, and in many cases even to-day the
residences of the noble families of Florence. Among others we
may mention the Palazzo Vecchio, formerly the seat of the govern-
ment of the Republic and now the town hall, the Palazzo Riccardi,
the residence of the Medici and now the prefecture, the palaces of
the Strozzi, Antinori (one of the most perfect specimens of
Florentine quattrocento architecture), Corsini, Davanzati, Pitti
(the royal palace), &c. The palace of the Arte della Lana or
gild of wool merchants, tastefully and intelligently restored, is
the headquarters of the Dante Society. The centre of Florence,
which was becoming a danger from a hygienic point of View,
was pulled down in 1880-1890, but, unfortunately, sufficient care
was not taken to avoid destroying certain buildings of historic
and artistic value which might have been spared without im-
pairing the work of sanitation, while the new structures erected
in their place, especially those in the Piaza Vittorio Emanuele,
are almost uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping with
Florentine architecture. The question aroused many polemics
at the time both in Italy and abroad. After the new centre was
built, a society called the Societd per la difesa di Firenze antica
was formed by many prominent citizens to safeguard the ancient
buildings and prevent them from destruction, and a spirit of
intelligent conservatism seems now to prevail in this connexion.
The city is growing in all directions, and a number of new quarters
have sprung up where the houses are more sanitary than in the
older parts, but unfortunately few of them evince much aesthetic
feeling. The viali or boulevards form pleasant residential streets
with gardens, and the system of building separate houses for
each family (villini) instead of large blocks of flats is becoming
more and more general.
Florence possesses four important libraries besides a number
of smaller collections. The Biblioteca Nazionale, originally
founded by Antonio Magliabecchi in 1747, enjoys the ubraries
right, shared by the Vitlorio Emanuele library of
Rome, of receiving a copy of every work printed in Italy, since
1870 (since 1848 it had enjoyed a similar privilege with regard
to works printed in Tuscany). It contains some 500,^00 printed
volumes, 700,000 pamphlets, over 9000 prints and drawings
(including 284 by Albert Diirer), nearly 20,000 MSS., and 40,000
letters. The number of readers in 1904 was over 50,000. Un-
fortunately, however, the confusion engendered by a defective
organization has long been a byword among the people; there
is no printed catalogue, quantities of books are buried in packing-
cases and unavailable, the collection of foreign books is very poor,
hardly any new works being purchased, and the building itself
is quite inadequate and far from safe; but the site of a new
one has now been purchased and the plans are agreed upon,
so that eventually the whole collection will be transferred to
more suitable quarters. The Biblioteca Marucelliana, founded in
1752, contains 150,000 books, including 620 incunabula, 17,000
engravings and 1500 MSS.; it is well managed and chiefly
remarkable for its collection of illustrated works and art publica-
tions. The Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana, founded in 1571,
has its origin in the library of Cosimo de' Medici the Elder, and
was enlarged by Piero, Giovanni and above all by Lorenzo the
Magnificent. Various princes and private persons presented it
with valuable gifts and legacies, among the most important of
which was thecollectionoieditionesprincipes given by Count d'Elci,
in 1841, and the Ashburnham collection of MSS. purchased by
the Italian Government in 1885. It contains nearly 10,000 MSS.,
including many magnificent illuminated missals and Bibles and a
number of valuable Greek and Latin texts, 242 incunabula and
n,ooo printed books, chiefly dealing with palaeography; it is
in some ways the most important of the Florentine libraries.
The Biblioteca Riccardiana, founded in the i6th century by
Romolo Riccardi, contains nearly 4000 MSS., over 32,000 books
and 650 incunabula, chiefly relating to Florentine history. The
state archives are among the most complete in Italy, and contain
over 450,000 filze and regislri and 1 26,000 charters, covering the
period from 726 to 1856.
Few cities are as rich as Florence in collections of works of
artistic and historic interest, although the great majority of
them belong to a comparatively limited period from aalieries
the i3th to the i6th century. The chief art galleries of Floe
are the Uffizi, the Pitti and Accademia. The two Arts ""*
former are among the finest in the world, and are
filled with masterpieces by Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Perugino,
Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, the Lippi, and many other Florentine,
Umbrian, Venetian, Dutch and Flemish artists, as well as numer-
ous admirable examples of antique, medieval and Renaissance
530
FLORENCE
sculpture. The Pitti collection is in the royal palace (formerly
the residence of the grand dukes), and a fine new stairway
and vestibule have been constructed by royal munificence.
In the Uffizi the pictures are arranged in strict chronological
order. In the Accademia, which is rich in early Tuscan
masters, the Botticelli and Perugino rooms deserve special
mention. Other pictures are scattered about in the churches,
monasteries and private palaces. Of the monasteries, that of
St Mark should be mentioned, as containing many works of
Fra Angelico, besides relics of Savonarola, while of the private
collections the only one of importance is that of Prince Corsini.
There is a splendid museum of medieval and Renaissance
antiquities in the Bargello, the ancient palace of the Podesta,
itself one of the finest buildings in the city; among its many
treasures are works of Donatello, Ghiberti, Verrochio and other
sculptors, and large collections of ivory, enamel and bronze
ware. The Opera del Duomo contains models and pieces of
sculpture connected with the cathedral; the Etruscan and
Egyptian museum, the gallery of tapestries, the Michelangelo
museum, the museum of natural history and other collections
are all important in different ways.
The total population of Florence in 1905, comprising foreigners
and a garrison of 5500 men, was 220,879. I n J 86i it was 114,363;
_ it increased largely when the capital of Italy was in
ttoa. " Florence (1865-1872), but decreased or increased very
slightly after the removal of the capital to Rome, and
increased at a greater rate from 1881 onwards. At present the
rate of increase is about 22 per 1000, but it is due to immigration,
as the birth rate was actually below the death rate down to 1903,
since when there has been a slight increase of the former and a
decrease of the latter.
Florence is the capital of a province of the same name, and the
central government is represented by a prefect (prefetto), while
^ OCa ^ 8 overnment ' s carried on by a mayor (sindaco)
anc ^ an elective town council (consiglio comunale).
The city is the seat of a court of cassation (for civil
cases only), of a court of appeal, besides minor tribunals. It is
the headquarters of an army corps, and an archiepiscopal see.
There are 22 public elementary schools for boys and 1 8 for girls
(education being compulsory and gratuitous), with about 20,000
Education P u pi' s > an d 56 private schools with 5700 pupils. Secondary
education is provided by one higher and four lower
technical schools with 1375 pupils, three ginnasii or lower classical
schools, and three licei or higher classical schools, with 1000
pupils, and three training colleges with over 700 pupils. Higher
education is imparted at the university (Istituto di studii superiors
e di perfezionamento) , with 600 to 650 students; although only
comprising the faculties of literature, medicine and natural science,
it is, as regards the first-named faculty, one of the most
important institutions in Italy. The original Studio Fiorentino
was founded in the I4th century, and acquired considerable fame
as a centre of learning under the Medici, enhanced by the presence in
Florence of many learned Greeks who had fled from Constantinople
after its capture by the Turks (1453). Although in 1472 some of the
faculties and several of the professors were transferred to Pisa, it
still retained importance, and in the 1 7th and 1 8th centuries it
originated a number of learned academies. In 1859 after the annexa-
tion of Tuscany to the Italian kingdomitwasrevivedandreorganized ;
since then it has become to some extent a national centre of learning
and culture, attracting students from other parts of Italy, partly on
account of the fact that it is in Florence that the purest Italian is
spoken. The revival of classical studies on scientific principles in
modern Italy may be said to have begun in Florence, and great
activity has also been displayed in reviving the study of Dante,
Dante lectures being given regularly by scholars and men of letters
from all parts of the country, above the church of Or San Michele
as in the middle ages, under the auspices of the Societd. Dantesca.
Palaeography, history and Romance languages are among the other
subjects to which especial importance is given. Besides the Istitutodi
studii superiori there is the Istituto di scienze sociali " Cesare Alfieri,"
founded by the marchese Alfieri di Sostegno for the education of
aspirants to the diplomatic and consular services, and for students
of economics and social sciences (about 50 students) ; an academy
of fine arts, a conservatoire of music, a higher female training-college
with 150 students, a number of professional and trade schools, and
an academy of recitation. Therearealsomanyacademiesandlearned
societies of different kinds, of which one of the most important is the
Accademia della Crusca for the study of the Italian language, which
undertook the publication of a monumental dictionary.
Several of the Florence hospitals are of great antiquity, the most
important being that of Santa Maria Nuova, which, founded by Folco
Portinari, the father of Dante's Beatrice, has been
thoroughly renovated according to modern scientific ***
principles. There are numerous other hospitals both etc '
general and special, a foundling hospital dating from the I3th century
(Santa Maria degli Innocenti), an institute for the blind, one for the
deaf and dumb, &c. Most of the hospitals and other charitable
institutions are endowed, but the endowments are supplemented by
private contributions.
Florence is the centre of a large and fertile agricultural district,
and does considerable business in wine, oil and grain, and supplies
the neighbouring peasantry with goods of all kinds. There _
are no important industries, except a few flour-mills, some
glass works, iron foundries, a motor car factory, straw f"5
c _ A r_ _ . _ i .. . * * Industry,
hat factories, and power-houses supplying electricity for ladustr y-
lighting and for the numerous tramcars. There are, however, some
artistic industries in and around the city, of which the most important
is the Ginori-Richard porcelain works, and the Cantagalli majolica
works. _ There are many other smaller establishments, and the
Florentine artificer seems to possess an exceptional skill in all kinds
of work in which art is combined with technical ability. Another
very important source of revenue is the so-called " tourist industry,"
which in late years has assumed immense proportions; the city
contains a large number of hotels and boarding-houses which every
year are filled to overflowing with strangers from all parts of the
world. (L. V.*)
HISTORY
Florentia was founded considerably later than Faesulae
(Fiesole), which lies on the hill above it; indeed, as its name
indicates, it was built only in Roman times and probably in
connexion with the construction by C. Flaminius in 187 B.C.
of a road from Bononia to Arretium (which later on formed part
of the Via Cassia) at the point where this road crossed the river
Arnus. We hear very little of it in ancient times; it appears to
have suffered at the end of the war between Marius and Sulla,
and in A.D. 15 (by which period it seems to have been already
a colony) it successfully opposed the project of diverting part of
the waters of the Clanis into the Arno (see CHIANA). Tacitus
mentions it, and Florus describes it as one of the municipia
splendidissima. A bishop of Florence is mentioned in A.D. 313.
A group of Italic cremation tombs a pozzo of the Villanova
period were found under the pavement of the medieval Vicolo
del Campidoglio. This took its name from the Capitolium of
Roman times, the remains of which were found under the Piazza
Luna; the three cellae were clearly traceable. The capitals
of the columns were Corinthian, about 4 ft. in diameter, and it
became clear that this temple had supplied building materials
for S. Giovanni and S. Miniato. Fragments of a fine octagonal
altar, probably belonging to the temple, were found. Remains
of baths have been found close by, while the ancient amphi-
theatre has been found near S. Croce outside the Roman town,
which formed a rectangle of about 400 by 600 yds., with four
gates, the Decumanus being represented by the Via Strozzi and
Via del Corso, and the Cardo by the Via Calcinara, while the
Mercato Vecchio occupied the site of the Forum.
See L. A. Milan!, " Reliquie di Firenze antica," in Monumenti dei
Lincei, vi. (1896), 5 seq. (T. As.)
The first event of importance recorded is the siege of the city
by the Goths, A.D. 405, and its deliverance by the Roman general
Stilicho. Totila besieged Florence in 542, but was repulsed by
the imperial garrison under Justin, and later it was occupied
by the Goths. We find the Longobards in Tuscany in 570, and
mention is made of one Gudibrandus Dux civitatis Florentinorum,
which suggests that Florence was the capital of a duchy (one of
the regular divisions of the Longobard empire). Charlemagne
was in Florence in 786 and conferred many favours on the city,
which continued to grow in importance owing to its situation
on the road from northern Italy to Rome. At the time of the
agitation against simony and the corruption of the clergy, the
head of the movement in Florence was San Giovanni Gualberto,
of the monastery of San Salvi. The simoniacal election of Pietro
Mezzabarba as bishop of Florence (1068) caused serious dis-
turbances and a long controversy with Rome, which ended in the
triumph, after a trial by fire, of the monk Petrus Igneus, champion
of the popular reform movement; this event indicates the
beginnings of a popular conscience among the Florentines.
FLORENCE
Oueiphs
and
Under the Carolingian emperors Tuscany was a March or
margraviate, and the marquises became so powerful as to be
even a danger to the Empire. Under the emperor Otto I. one
Ugo (d. 1001) was marquis, and the emperor Conrad II. (elected
in 1024) appointed Boniface of Canossa marquis of Tuscany,
a territory then extending from the Po to the borders of the
Roman state. Boniface died in 1052, and in the following year
the margraviate passed to his daughter, the famous
countess countess Matilda, who ruled for forty years and played
Matilda. a prominent part in the history of Italy in that period.
In the Wars of the Investitures Matilda was ever on
the papal (afterwards called Guelph) side against the emperor
an d the faction afterwards known as Ghibelline, and
she herself often led armies to battle. It is at this
time that the people of Florence first began to acquire
influence, and while the countess presided at the courts
of justice in the name of the Empire, she was assisted by a group
of great feudal nobles, judges, lawyers, &c., who formed, as
elsewhere in Tuscany, the boni homines or sapientes. As the
countess was frequently absent these boni homines gave judgment
without her, thus paving the way for a free commune. The
citizens found themselves in opposition to the nobility of the
hills around the city, Teutonic feudatories of Ghibelline
sympathies, who interfered with their commerce. Florence
frequently waged war with these nobles and with other cities
on its own account, although in the name of the countess, and
the citizens began to form themselves into groups and associations
which were the germs of the arti or gilds. After the death of
Begin- Countess Matilda in 1115 the grandi or boni homines
nings of continued to rule and administer justice, but in the
tae name of the people a change hardly noticed at first,
commune. bu( . whicn mar fc5 t he foundation of the commune.
After 1138 the boni homines began to be called consults, while
the population was divided into the grandi or delle torri, i.e. the
noble families who had towers, and the arti or trade and merchant
gilds. At first the consults, of whom there seem to have been
twelve, two for each sestiere or ward, were chosen by the men
of the towers, and assisted by a council of 100 boni homines, in
which the arti were predominant; the government thus came to
be in the hands of a few powerful families. The republic now
proceeded to extend its power. In 1 125 Fiesole was sacked and
destroyed, but the feudal nobles of the contado (surrounding
country) , protected by the imperial margraves, were still power-
ful. The early margraves had permitted the Florentines to wage
war against the Alberti family, whose castles they destroyed.
The emperor Lothair when in Italy forced Florence to submit
to his authority, but at his death in 1137 things returned to their
former state and the Florentines fought successfully against the
powerful counts Guidi. Frederick Barbarossa, however, elected
emperor in 1152, made his authority felt in Tuscany, and ap-
pointed one Welf of Bavaria as margrave. Florence and other
cities were forced to supply troops to the emperor for his Lombard
campaigns, and he began to establish a centralized imperial
bureaucracy in Tuscany, appointing a potestas, who resided at
San Miniato (whence the name of " San Miniato al Tedesco "),
to represent him and exercise authority in the contado; this
double authority of the consoli in the town and the potestas or
podestd, outside generated confusion. By 1176 the Florentines
were masters of all the territory comprised in the dioceses of
Florence and Fiesole; but civil commotion within
War wttb the c ; ty broke out between the consoli and the greater
* nobles, headed by the Alberti and strengthened by
the many feudal families who had been forced to leave their
castles and dwell in the city (1177-1180). Intheendthe Alberti,
though not victorious, succeeded in getting occasionally admitted
to the consulship. Florence now formed a league with the chief
cities of Tuscany, made peace with the Guidi, and humbled the
Alberti whose castle of Semifonte was destroyed (1202). Later
we find a potestas within the city, elected for a year
ancl assist^ b y seven councillors and seven rectores
Th
e t*s.
super capitibus artium. This represented the triumph
of the feudal party, which had gained the support of the arti
minori or minor gilds. The potestates subsequently were
foreigners, and in 1 207 the dignity was conferred on Gualf redotto
of Milan; a new council was formed, the consiglio del comune,
while the older senate still survived. The Florentines now
undertook to open the highways of commerce towards Rome,
for their city was already an important industrial and banking
centre.
Discord among the great families broke out again, and the
attempt to put an end to it by a marriage between Buondelmonte
de' Buondelmonti and a daughter of the Amidei; only led to
further strife (1215), although the causes of these broils were
deeper and wider, being derived from the general division between
Guelphs and Ghibellines all over Italy. But the work of crush-
ing the nobles of the contado and of asserting the city's position
among rival communes continued. In 1222 Florence waged war
successfully on Pisa, Lucca and Pistoia, and during the next
few years against the Sienese with varying results; although
the emperor supported the latter as Ghibellines, on his departure
for Germany in 1235 they were forced to accept peace on onerous
terms. During the interregnum (1241-1243) following on the
death of Pope Gregory IX. the Ghibelline cause revived in Tuscany
and imperial authority was re-established. The tumults against
the Paterine heretics (1244-1245), among whom were many
Ghibelline nobles favoured by the podestd Pace di Pesamigola,
indicate a successful Guelphic reaction; but Frederick II,,
having defeated his enemies both in Lombardy and in the Two
Sicilies, appointed his natural son, Frederick of Antioch, imperial
vicar in Tuscany, who, when civil war broke out, entered the
city with 1600 German knights. The Ghibellines now triumphed
completely, and in 1249 the Guelph leaders were driven into
exile the first of many instances in Florentine history of exile
en masse of a defeated party. The attempt to seize Montevarchi
and other castles where the Guelph exiles were congregated
failed, and in 1250 the burghers elected thirty-six caporali di
popolo, who formed the basis of the primo popolo or body of
citizens independent of the nobles, headed by* the capitano
del popolo. The Ghibellines being unable to maintain their
supremacy, the city came to be divided into two
almost autonomous republics, the comune headed by < a a n ^ uae
the podestd, and the popolo headed by the capitano and popolo.
militarily organized into twenty companies; the central
power was represented by twelve anziani or elders. The podestd ,
who was always a foreigner, usually commanded the army, repre-
sented the city before foreign powers, and signed treaties. He
was assisted by the consiglio speciale of 90 and the consiglio
generate e speciale of 300, composed of nobles, while the capitano
del popolo had also two councils composed of burghers, heads of
the gilds, gonfalonieri of the companies, &c. The anziani had a
council of 36 burghers, and then there was the parlamento or
general assembly of the people, which met only on great
occasions. At this time the podesta's palace (the Bargello) was
built, and the gold florin was first coined and soon came to be
accepted as the standard gold piece throughout Europe. But,
although greatly strengthened, the Guelphs, who now may be
called the democrats as opposed to the Ghibelline aristocrats,
were by no means wholly victorious, and in 1251 they had to
defend themselves against a league of Ghibelline cities (Siena,
Pisa and Pistoia) assisted by Florentine Ghibellines; the
Florentine Uberti, who had been driven into exile after their
plot of 1258, took refuge in Siena and encouraged that city in
its hostility to Florence. Fresh disputes about the possession
of Montepulciano and other places having arisen, the Florentines
declared war once more. A Florentine army assisted by Guelphs
of other towns was cunningly induced to believe that Siena
would surrender at the first summons; but it was met by a
Sienese army reinforced by Florentine exiles, including Farinata
degli Uberti and other Ghibellines, and by the cavalry of Manfred
(q.v.) of Sicily, led by Count Giordano and the count Battle or
of Arras, with the result that the Florentines were MontM-
totally routed at Montaperti on the 4th of September i )crtl
1260. Count Giordano entered Florence, appointed
Count Guido Novello podesla, and began a series of persecutions
532
FLORENCE
against the Guelphs. The Ghibellines even proposed to raze the
walls of the city, but Farinata degli Uberti strongly opposed the
idea, saying that " he had fought to regain and not to ruin his
fatherland."
During this new Ghibelline predominance (1260-1266) the
old liberties were abolished, and the popolo was deprived of all
share in the administration. But when Charles I.
Ifitufion (t- v -) f Anjou descended into Italy as champion of
the papacy, and Manfred was defeated and killed
(i 266) , the popolo, who had acquired wealth in trade and industry,
was ready to rise. After some disturbances Guido Novello and
the Ghibellines were expelled, but it was not the popolo who
triumphed; the pope and Charles were the real masters of the
situation, and the Florentines found they had exchanged a
foreign and Ghibelline protector for one who was foreign and
Guelph. Nevertheless much of the old order was restored;
the podesta who represented King Charles was assisted by 12
buoni uomini, and by the council of the 100 buoni uomini del
popolo, " without the deliberation of whom," says Villani, " no
great matter nor expenditure could be undertaken." Other
bodies and magistrates were maintained, and the capitano del
popolo, now called capitano della massa di parle Guelfa, tended
to become a very important person. The property of the
Ghibellines was confiscated, and a commission of six capitani
di parle Guelfa appointed to administer it and in general to
expend it for the persecution of the Ghibellines. The whole
constitution of the republic, although of very democratic
tendencies, seemed designed to promote civil strife and weaken
the central power.
While the constitution was evolving in a manner which seemed
to argue small political ability and no stability in the Florentines,
the people had built up a wonderful commercial
Florentine organization. Each of the seven arti maggiori or
greater gilds was organized like a small state with its
councils, statutes, assemblies, magistrates, &c., and
in times of trouble constituted a citizen militia. Florentine
cloth especially was known and sold all over Europe, and the
Florentines were regarded as the first merchants of the age.
If the life of the city went on uninterruptedly even during the
many changes of government and the almost endemic civil war,
it was owing to the solidity of the gilds, who could carry on the
administration without a government.
After Charles's victory over Conradin in 1268 the Florentines
defeated the Sienese (1269) and made frequent raids into Pisan
territory. As Charles perpetually interfered in their
Latino. affairs, always favouring the grandi or Guelph nobles,
some of the Ghibellines were recalled as a counterpoise,
which, however, only led to further civil strife. Rudolph of
Habsburg, elected king of the Romans in 1273, having come
to terms with Pope Nicholas III., Charles was obliged in 1278
to give up his title of imperial vicar in Tuscany, which he had
held during the interregnum following on the death of Frederick
II. In 1279 Pope Nicholas sent his nephew, the friar preacher
Latino Frangipani Malabranca, whom he had created cardinal
bishop of Ostia the same year, to reconcile the parties in Florence
once more. Cardinal Latino to some extent succeeded, and was
granted a kind of temporary dictatorship. He raised the 12
buoni uomini to 14 (8 Guelphs and 6 Ghibellines), to be changed
every two months; and they were assisted by a council of too.
A force of 1000 men was placed at the disposal of the podestd
and capitano (now both elected by the people) to keep order and
oblige the grandi to respect the law. The Sicilian Vespers (q.v.)
by weakening Charles strengthened the commune, which aimed
at complete independence of emperors, kings and popes. After
1282 the signoria was composed of the 3 (afterwards 6) priori
of the gilds, who ended by ousting the buoni uomini, while a
defensor artificum el artium takes the place of the capitano;
thus the republic became an essentially trading community,
governed by the popolani grassi or rich merchants.
The republic now turned to the task of breaking the power
of the Ghibelline cities of Pisa and Arezzo. In 1289 the Aretini
were completely defeated by the Florentines at Campaldino, a
battle made famous by the fact that Dante took part in it.
War against the Pisans, who had been defeated by the Genoese
in the naval battle of La Meloria in 1284, was Battle ot
carried on in a desultory fashion, and in 1 293 peace was campa/-
made. But the grandi, who had largely contributed "<>
to the victory of Campaldino, especially men like Corso (**')
Donati and Vieri de' Cerchi, were becoming more powerful, and
Charles had increased their number by creating a great many
knights; but their attempts to interfere with the administration
of justice were severely repressed, and new laws were passed to
reduce their influence. Among other internal reforms the aboli-
tion of the last traces of servitude in 1289, and the increase in
the number of arti, first to 12 and then to 21 (7 maggiori and 14
minori) must be mentioned. This, however, was not enough for
the Florentine democracy, who viewed with alarm the increasing
power and arrogance of the grandi, who in spite of their exclusion
from many offices were still influential and constituted inde-
pendent clans within the state. The law obliged each member
of the clan (consorteria) to sodare for all the other members, i.e.
to give a pecuniary guarantee to ensure payment of fines for
offences committed by any one of their number, a provision
made necessary by the fact that the whole clan acted collectively.
But as the laws were not always enforced new and severe ones
were enacted. These were the famous Ordinamenti Ordlaa ,
della Giustizia of 1293, by which all who were not of meati delta
the arti were definitely excluded from the signory. Ohistizia
The priori were to remain in office two months and ( - l29f >-
elected the gonfoloniere, also for two months; there were the
capitudini or councils of the gilds, and two savi for each sestiere,
with looo soldiers at their disposal; the number of the grandi
families was fixed at 38 (later 72). Judgment in matters con-
cerning the Ordinamenti was delivered in a summary fashion
without appeal. The leading spirit of this reform was Giano
della Bella, a noble who by engaging in trade had become a
popolano; the grandi now tried to make him unpopular with the
popolani grassi, hoping that without him the Ordinamenti would
not be executed, and opened negotiations with Pope Boniface
VIII. (elected 1294), who aimed at extending his authority in
Tuscany. A signory adverse to Giano having been elected, he
was driven into exile in 1295. The grandi regained some of their
power by corrupting the podesta and by the favour of the popolo
minuto or unorganized populace; but their quarrels among
themselves prevented them from completely succeeding, while
the arti were solid.
In 1295 a signory favourable to the grandi enacted a law
attenuating the Ordinamenti, but now the grandi split into two
factions, one headed by the Donati, which hoped to The
abolish the Ordinamenti, and the other by the Cerchi, Bianchi
which had given up all hope of their abolition; after-
wards these parties came to be called Neri (Blacks)
and Bianchi (Whites). A plot of the Donati to establish their
influence over Florence with the help of Boniface VIII. having
been discovered (May 1300), serious riots broke out between the
Neri and the Bianchi. The pope's attempt to unite the grandi
having failed, he summoned Charles of Valois to come to his
assistance, promising him the imperial crown; in 1301 Charles
entered Italy, and was created by the pope paciaro or peace-
maker of Tuscany, with instructions to crush the Bianchi and
the popolo and exalt the Neri. On the ist of November Charles
reached Florence, promising to respect its laws; but he permitted
Corso Donati and his friends to attack the Bianchi, and the new
podestd, C^nte dei Gabrielli of Gubbio, who had come with Charles,
punished many of that faction; among those whom he exiled
was the poet Dante (1302). Corso Donati, who for some time
was the most powerful man in Florence, made himself many
enemies by his arrogance, and was obliged to rely on the popolo
grasso, the irritation against him resulting in a rising in which
he was killed (1308). In this same year Henry of Luxemburg
was elected king of the Romans and with the pope's favour he
came to Italy in 1310; the Florentine exiles and all the Ghibel-
lines of Italy regarded him as a saviour and regenerator of the
country, while the Guelphs of Florence on the contrary opposed
and the
Neil.
FLORENCE
533
both him and the pope as dangerous to their own liberties and
accepted the protection of King Robert of Naples, disregarding
Henry's summons to submission. In 1312 Henry was crowned
emperor as Henry VII. in Rome, but instead of the universal
ruler and pacifier which he tried to be, he was forced by circum-
stances into being merely a German kaiser who tried to subjugate
free Italian communes. He besieged Florence without success,
and died of disease in 1313.
The Pisans, fearing the vengeance of the Guelphs now that
Henry was dead, had accepted the lordship of Uguccione della
Fagginola, imperial vicar in Genoa. A brave general
de/itf' " 6 am * an am bitious man, he captured Lucca and defeated
Fagginola the Florentines and their allies from Naples at Monte-
and catini in 1315, but the following year he lost both Pisa
Castruccio an( j L ucca anc j had to fly from Tuscany. A new danger
caot _ now threatened Florence in the person of Castruccio
Castracani degli Antelminelli (q.i.), who made himself
lord of Lucca and secured help from Matteo Visconti, lord of
Milan, and other Ghibellines of northern Italy. Between i32oand
1323 he harried the Florentines and defeated them several times,
captured Pistoia, devastated their territory up to the walls of
the city in spite of assistance from Naples under Raymundo
de Cardona and the duke of Calabria (King Robert's son);
never before had Florence been so humiliated, but while
Castruccio was preparing to attack Florence he died in 1328.
Two months later the duke of Calabria, who had been appointed
protector of the city in 1325, died, and further constitutional
reforms were made. The former councils were replaced by the
consiglio del popolo, consisting of 300 popolani and presided over
by the capitano, and the consiglio del comune of 250 members,
half of them nobles and half popolani, presided over by the
podestd. The priori and other officers were drawn by lot from
among the Guelphs over thirty years old who were declared fit
for public office by a special board of 98 citizens (1329). The
system worked well at first, but abuses soon crept in, and many
persons were unjustly excluded from office; trouble being
expected in 1335 a captain of the guard was created. But the
first one appointed, Jacopo dei Gabrielli of Gubbio, used his
dictatorial powers so ruthlessly that at the end of his year of
office no successor was chosen.
The Florentines now turned their eyes towards Lucca; they
might have acquired the city immediately after Castruccio's
death for 80,000 florins, but failed to do so owing to
Attempt to differences of opinion in the signory; Martino della
Tucc^ Scala, lord of Verona, promised it to them in 1335, but
broke his word, and although their finances were not
then very flourishing they allied themselves with Venice to make
war on him. They were successful at first, but Venice made a
truce with the Scala independently of the Florentines, and by
the peace of 1339 they only obtained a part of Lucchese territory.
At the same time they purchased from the Tarlati the protectorate
over Arezzo for ten years. But misfortunes fell on the city:
Edward III. of England repudiated the heavy debts contracted
for his wars in France with the Florentine banking houses of
Bardi and Peruzzi (1339), which eventually led to their failure
and to that of many smaller firms, and shook Florentine credit
all over the world; Philip VI. of France extorted large sums
from the Florentine merchants and bankers in his dominions
by accusing them of usury; in 1340 plague and famine wrought
terrible havoc in Florence, and riots again broke out between the
grandi and the popolo, partly on account of the late unsuccessful
wars and the unsatisfactory state of the finances. To put an
end to these disorders, Walter of Brienne, duke of
The duke Athens, was elected " conservator " and captain of
the guard in 1342. An astute, dissolute and ambitious
man, half French and half Levantine, he began his
government by a policy of conciliation and impartial justice
which won him great popularity. But as soon as he thought
the ground was secure he succeeded in getting himself acclaimed
by the populace lord of Florence for life, and on the 8th of
September was carried in triumph to the Palazzo della Signoria.
The podestd and the capitano assenting to this treachery, he
dismissed the gonfaloniere, reduced the priori to a position of
impotence, disarmed the citizens, and soon afterwards accepted
the lordship of Arezzo, Volterra, Colle, San Gimignano and
Pistoia. He increased his bodyguard to 800 men, all Frenchmen,
who behaved with the greatest licence and brutality; by his
oppressive taxes, and his ferocious cruelty towards all who
opposed him, and the unsatisfactory treaties he concluded with
Pisa, he accumulated bitter hatred against his rule. The
grandi were disappointed because he had not crushed the
popolo, and the latter because he had destroyed their liberties
and interfered with the organization of the arti. Many unsuccess-
ful plots against him were hatched, and having discovered one
that was conducted by Antonio degli Adimari, the duke summoned
the latter to the palace and detained him a prisoner. He also
summoned 300 leading citizens on the pretext of wishing to
consult them, but fearing treachery they refused to come. On
the 26th of July 1343, the citizens rose in arms, demanded the
duke's abdication, and besieged him in the palace. Help came
to the Florentines from neighbouring cities, the podestd was ex-
pelled, and a balia or provisional government of 14 was elected.
The duke was forced to set Adimari and his other prisoners free,
and several of his men-at-arms were killed by the populace;
three of his chief henchmen, whom he was obliged to surrender,
were literally torn to pieces, and finally on the ist of August he
had to resign his lordship. He departed from Florence under a
strong guard a few days later, and the Fourteen cancelled all
his enactments.
The expulsion of the duke of Athens was followed by several
measures to humble the grandi still further, while the popolo
minuto or artisans began to show signs of discontent
at the rule of the merchants, andthepopulacedestroyed
the houses of many nobles. As soon as order was
restored a balia was appointed to reform the government, in
which task it was assisted by the Sienese and Perugian
ambassadors and by Simone da Battifolle. The priori were
reduced to 8 (2 popolani grassi, 3 mediani and 3 artifici minuli),
while the gonfaloniere was to be chosen in turn from each of those
classes; the grandi were excluded from the administration, but
they were still admitted to the consiglio del comune, the cinque
di mercanzia, and other offices pertaining to the commune; the
Ordinamenti were maintained but in a somewhat attenuated
form, and certain grandi as a favour were declared to be of the
popolo. Florence was now a thoroughly democratic and com-
mercial republic, and its whole policy was mainly dominated by
commercial considerations: its rivalry with Pisa was due to an
ambition to gain secure access to the sea; its strong Guelphism
was the outcome of its determination to secure the bank-business
of the papacy, and its desire to extend its territory in Tuscany
to the necessity for keeping open the land trade routes.
Florentine democracy, however, was limited to the walls of the
city, for no one of the contado nor any citizen of the subject
towns enjoyed political rights, which were reserved for the in-
habitants of Florence alone and not by any means for all of them.
Florence was in the I4th century a city of about 100,000
inhabitants, of whom 25,000 could bear arms; there were no
churches, 39 religious houses; the shops of the arte staattlct
della lana numbered over 200, producing cloth worth
1,200,000 florins; Florentine bankers and merchants were found
all over the world, often occupying responsible positions in the
service of foreign governments; the revenues of the republic,
derived chiefly from the city customs, amounted to some 300,000
florins, whereas its ordinary expenses, exclusive of military
matters and public buildings, were barely 40,000. It was already
a centre of art and letters and full of fine buildings, pictures and
libraries. But now that the grandi were suppressed politically,
the lowest classes came into prominence, " adventurers without
sense or virtue and of no authority for the most part, who had
usurped public offices by illicit and dishonest practices " (Matteo
Villani, iv. 69); this paved the way for tyranny.
In 1347 Florence was again stricken with famine, followed
the next year by the most terrible plague it had ever experienced,
which carried off three-fifths of the population (according to
534
FLORENCE
Milan
Villani). Yet in spite of these disasters the republic was
by no means crushed; it soon regained the suzerainty of
many cities which had broken off all connexion
The Great ^^ ^ a fter the expulsion of the duke of Athens,
(1348). and purchased the overlordship of Prato from Queen
Joanna of Naples, who had inherited it from the
duke of Calabria. In 1351 Giovanni Visconti, lord and archbishop
of Milan, having purchased Bologna and allied himself with
sundry Ghibelline houses of Tuscany with a view to
War with dominating Florence, the city made war on him, and in
violation of its Guelph traditions placed itself under the
protection of the emperor Charles IV. (1355) for his life-
time. This move, however, was not popular, and it enabled
the grandi, who, although excluded from the chief offices, still
dominated the parte Guelfa, to reassert themselves. They had in
1347 succeeded in enacting a very stringent law against all who
were in any way tainted with Ghibellinism, which,they themselves
being above suspicion in that connexion, enabled them to drive
from office many members of the popolo minuto. In 1358 the
parte Guelfa made these enactments still more stringent, punish-
ing with death or heavy fines all who being Ghibellines held
office, and provided that if trustworthy witnesses were forth-
coming condemnations might be passed for this offence without
hearing the accused; even a non-proved charge or an ammonizione
(warning not to accept office) might entail disfranchisement.
Thus the parte, represented by its 6 (afterwards 9) captains,
came to exercise a veritable reign of terror, and no one knew
when an accusation might fall on him. The leader of the parte
was Piero degli Albizzi, whose chief rivals were the Ricci family.
Italy at this time began to be overrun by bands of soldiers
of fortune. The first of these bands with whom Florence came
into contact was the Great Company, commanded by
the count of Lando, which twice entered Tuscany
but was expelled both times by the Florentine troops
(I3S8-I359).
In 1362 we find Florence at war with Pisa on account of
commercial differences, and because the former had acquired
the lordship of Vol terra. The Florentines were successful
until Pisa enlisted Sir John Hawkwood's English company;
the latter won several battles, but were at last defeated at
Cascina, and peace was made in 1364, neither side having gained
much advantage. A fresh danger threatened the republic in
1367 when Charles IV., who had allied himself with Pope Urban
V., Queen Joanna of Naples, and various north Italian despots
to humble the Visconti, demanded that the Florentines should
join the league. This they refused to do and armed themselves
for defence, but eventually satisfied the emperor with a money
payment.
The tyranny of the parte Guelfa still continued unabated,
and the capitani carried an enactment by which no measure
affecting the parte should be even discussed by the
Oueifa. " signory unless previously approved of by them. This
infamous law, however, aroused so much opposition
that some of the very men who had proposed it assembled in secret
to discuss its abolition, and a quarrel between the Albizzi and
the Ricci having weakened the parte, a balla of 56 was agreed
upon. Several of the Albizzi and the Ricci were excluded from
office for five years, and a council called the Ten of Liberty was
created to defend the laws and protect the weak against the
strong. The parte Guelfa and the Albizzi still remained very
influential and the attempts to abolish admonitions failed.
In 1375 Florence became involved in a war which showed
how the old party divisions of Italy had been obliterated. The
papal legate at Bologna, Cardinal Guillaume de Noellet
War with (j. 1394), although the church was then allied to
(1375-78). Florence, was meditating the annexation of the city to
the Holy See; he refused a request of the Florentines
for grain from Romagna, and authorized Hawkwood to devastate
their territory. Although a large part of the people disliked
the idea of a conflict with the church, an alliance with Florence's
old enemy Bernabo Visconti was made, war declared, and a
boMa of 8, the Otto della guerra (afterwards called the " Eight
Saints " on account of their good management) was created
to carry on the campaign. Treaties with Pisa, Siena, Arezzo
and Cortona were concluded, and soon no less than 80 towns,
including Bologna, had thrown off the papal yoke. Pope Gregory
XI. placed Florence under an interdict, ordered the expulsion
of all Florentines from foreign countries, and engaged a ferocious
company of Bretons to invade the republic's territory. The
Eight levied heavy toll on church property and ordered the
priests to disregard the interdict. They turned the tables on
the pope by engaging Hawkwood, and although the Bretons by
order of Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards the anti-pope
Clement VII.) committed frightful atrocities in Romagna,
their captains were bribed by the republic not to molest its
territory. By 1378 peace was made, partly through the media-
tion of St Catherine of Siena, and the interdict was removed
in consideration of the republic's paying a fine of 200,000 florins
to the pope.
During the war the Eight had been practically rulers of the
city, but now the parte Guelfa, led by Lapo da Castiglionchio
and Piero degli Albizzi, attempted to reassert itself
by illicit interference in the elections and by a liberal Satvestrp
use of " admonitions "(ammonizioni). Salvestro de' Medici.
Medici, who had always opposed the parte, having been
elected gonfal'oniere in spite of its intrigues, proposed a law for
the abolition of the admonitions, which was eventually passed
(June 18, 1378), but the people had been aroused, and desired
to break the power of the parte for good. Rioting occurred
on the 2ist of June, and the houses of the Albizzi and other
nobles were burnt. The signory meanwhile created a balla
of 80 which repealed some of the laws promoted by the parte,
and partly enfranchised the ammoniti. The people were still
unsatisfied, the arti minori demanded further privileges, and
the workmen insisted that their grievances against the arti
maggiori, especially the wool trade by whom they were employed,
be redressed. A large body of ciompi (wool carders)
gathered outside the city and conspired to subvert T * e **"* /
,.r, , . the ciompi
the signory and establish a popular government. (t3 -f S ^
Although the plot, in which Salvestro does
not seem to have played a part, was revealed, a good
deal of mob violence occurred, and on the 2ist of July the
populace seized the podesta's palace, which they made their
headquarters. They demanded a share in the government for
the popolo minuto, but as soon as this was granted Tommaso
Strozzi, as spokesman of the ciompi, obliged the signory to
resign their powers to the Eight. Once the people were in
possession of the palace, a ciompo named Michele di Lando
took the lead and put a stop to disorder and pillage. He re-
mained master of Florence for one day, during which he reformed
the constitution, probably with the help of Salvestro de' Medici.
Three new gilds were created, and nine priors appointed, three
from the arti maggiori, three from the minori, and three from
the new ones, while each of these classes in turn was to choose
the gonfaloniere of justice; the first to hold the office was Michele
di Lando. This did not satisfy the ciompi, and the disorders
provoked by them resulted in a new government which reformed
the two councils so as to exclude the lower orders. But to satisfy
the people several of the grandi, including Piero degli Albizzi,
were put to death, on charges of conspiracy, and many others
were exiled. There was perpetual rioting and anarchy, and
interference in the affairs of the government by the working
men, while at the same time poverty and unemployment increased
owing to the timidity of capital and the disorders, until at last
in 1382 a reaction set in, and order was restored by the gild
companies. Again a new constitution was decreed by which
the gonfaloniere and half the priori were to be chosen from the
arti maggiori and the other half from the minori; on several
other boards the former were to be in the majority, and the
three new gilds were abolished. The demagogues were executed
or forced to fly, and Michele di Lando with great ingratitude
was exiled. Several subsequent risings of the ciompi, krgely
of an economic character, were put down, and the Guelph
families gradually regained much of their lost power, of which
FLORENCE
535
they availed themselves to exile their opponents and revive
the odious system of ammonizioni.
Meanwhile in foreign affairs the republic maintained its
position, and in 1383 it regained Arezzo by purchase from the
lieutenant jdf Charles of Durazzo. In 1390 Gian Galeazzo
Visconti, having made himself master of a large part of northern
Italy, intrigued to gain possession of Pisa and Siena. Florence,
alone in resisting him, engaged Hawkwood, who with an army
of 7000 men more than held his own against the powerful lord
of Milan, and in 1392 a peace was concluded which the republic
strengthened by an alliance with Pisa and several north Italian
states. In 1393 Maso degli Albizzi was made gonfaloniere, and
for many years remained almost master of Florence owing to his
influential position in the Arte detta Lana. A severe persecution
was initiated against the Alberti and other families, who were
disfranchised and exiled. Disorders and conspiracies against the
merchant oligarchy continued, and although they were unsuc-
cessful party passion was incredibly bitter, and the exiles caused
the republic much trouble by intriguing against it in foreign
states. In 1397-1398 Florence had two more wars with Gian
Galeazzo Visconti, who, aspiring to the conquest of Tuscany,
acquired the lordship of Pisa, Siena and Perugia. Hawkwood
being dead, Florence purchased aid from the emperor Rupert.
The Imperialists were beaten; but just as the Milanese were about
to march on Florence, Visconti died. His territories were then
divided between his sons and his condotlieri, and Florence,
ever keeping her eye on Pisa, now ruled by Gabriele Maria
Visconti, made an alliance with Pope Boniface IX., who wished
to regain Perugia and Bologna. War broke out once more, and
the allies were successful, but as soon as Boniface had gained his
ends he made peace, leaving the Florentines unsatisfied. In
Attempts I 44 tnelr attempt to capture Pisa single-handed
to acquire failed, and Gabriele Maria placed himself under the
P**" protection of the French king. The Florentines then
(1402-6). mac j e overtures to France, who had supported the
anti-popes all through the great schism, and suggested that they
too would support the then anti-pope, Benedict XIII., in ex-
change for the sale of Pisa. This was agreed to, and in 1405 the
city was sold to Florence for 260,000 florins; and Gino Capponi, 1
the Florentine commissioner, took possession of the citadel,
but a few days later the citizens arose in arms and recaptured
it from the mercenaries. There was great, consternation in
Florence at the news, and every man in the city " determined
that he would go naked rather than not conquer Pisa " (G.
Capponi). The next year that city, then ruled by Giovanni
Gambacorti, was besieged by the Florentines, who blockaded the
mouth of the Arno. After a six months' siege Pisa surrendered
on terms (gth October 1406), and, although it was not sacked,
many of the citizens were exiled and others forced to live in
Florence, a depopulation from which it never recovered. Florence
now acquired a great seaport and was at last able to develop a
direct maritime trade.
Except in connexion with the Pisan question the republic
had taken no definite side in the great schism which had divided
Tbe the church since 1378, but in 1408 she appealed both
council to Pope Gregory XII. and the anti-pope Benedict
of Pisa XIII. as well as to various foreign governments in
(1408). f avour O f a settlement, and suggested a council within
her own territory. Gregory refused, but after consulting a com-
mittee of theologians who declared him to be a heretic, the council
promoted by Cardinal Cossa and other independent prelates
met at Pisa. This nearly led to war with King Ladislas of
Naples, because he had seized Rome, which he could only hold
so long as the church was divided. The council deposed both
popes and elected Pietro Filargi as Alexander V. (26th of June).
But Ladislas still occupied the papal states, and Florence,
alarmed at his growing power and ambition, formed a league with
Siena, Bologna and Louis of Anjou who laid claim to the Nea-
politan throne, to drive Ladislas from Rome. Cortona, Orvietp,
Viterbo and other cities were recovered for Alexander, and in
1 The historian, not to be confounded with the modern historian
and statesman of the same name (j.f.).
January 1410 Rome itself was captured by the Florentines under
Malatesta dei Malatesti. Alexander having died in May before
entering the Eternal City, Cardinal Cossa was elected as John
XXIII.; Florence without offending him made peace with
Ladislas, who had ceased to be dangerous, and purchased
Cortona of the pope. In 1413 Ladislas attacked the papal
states once more, driving John from Rome, and threatened
Florence; but like Henry VII., Gian Galeazzo Visconti, and
other enemies of the republic, he too died most opportunely
(6th of August 1414). John having lost all authority after
leaving Rome, a new council was held at Constance, which put
an end to the schism in 1417 with the election of Martin V.
The new pope came to Florence in 1419 as he had not yet re-
gained Rome, which was held by Francesco Sforza for Queen
Joanna II. of Naples, and remained there until the following
year.
No important changes in the constitution took place during
this period except the appointment of two new councils in 1411
to decide oh questions of peace and war. The aristocratic faction
headed by Maso degli Albizzi, a wise and popular statesman, had
remained predominant, and at Maso's death in 1417 he was
succeeded in the leadership of the party by Niccolo da Uzzano.
In 1421 Giovanni de' Medici was elected gonfaloniere of justice,
an event which marks the beginning of that wealthy family's
power. The same year the republic purchased Leghorn from
the Genoese for 100,000 florins, and established a body of " Con-
suls of the Sea " to superintend maritime trade. Although
11,000,000 florins had been spent on recent wars Florence con-
tinued prosperous and its trade increased.
In 1421 Filippo Maria Visconti, who had succeeded in recon-
quering most of Lombardy, seized Forli; this induced the
Florentines to declare war on him, as they regarded his H CW wttr
approach as a menace to their territory in spite of the w/ta the
opposition of the peace party led by Giovanni de' vi*coati
Medici. The campaign was anything but successful,
and the Florentines were defeated several times, with the result
that their credit was shaken and several important firms failed.
The pope too was against them, but when they induced the
Venetians to intervene the tide of fortune changed, and Visconti
was finally defeated and forced to accept peace on onerous
terms (1427).
The old systems of raising revenue no longer corresponded
to the needs of the republic, and as early as 1336 the various
loans made to the state were consolidated into one
national debt (monte) . Subsequently all extraordinary
expenditure was met by forced loans (prestanze) , but the (1427).
method of distribution aroused discontent among the
lower classes, and in 1427 a general calaslo or assessment of all
the wealth of the citizens was formed, and measures were devised
to distribute the obligations according to each man's capacity,
so as to avoid pressing too hardly on the poor. The catasto was
largely the work of Giovanni de' Medici, who greatly increased
his popularity thereby. He died in 1429.
An attempt to capture Lucca led Florence, in alliance with
Venice, into another costly war with Milan (1432-1433)- The
mismanagement of the campaign brought about a Exlje ana
quarrel between the aristocratic party, led by Rinaldo return of
degli Albizzi, and the popular party, led by Giovanni Cosimo
de' Medici's son Cosimo (1380-1464), although both f/^Jfj^f'
had agreed to the war before it began. Rinaldo was
determined to break the Medici party, and succeeded in getting
Cosimo exiled. The Albizzi tried to strengthen their position by
conferring exceptional powers on the capitano del popolo and
by juggling with the election bags, but the Medici still had a
great hold on the populace. Rinaldo's proposal for a coup d'etat
met with no response from his own party, and he failed to prevent
the election of a pro-Medici signory in 1434. He and other leaders
of the party were summoned to the palace to answer a charge of
plotting against the state, to which he replied by collecting 800
armed followers. A revolution was only averted through the
intervention of Pope Eugenius IV., who was then in Florence.
A parlamento was summoned, and the balia appointed decreed
FLORENCE
Cosltno's
rule.
the return of Cosimo and the exile of Rinaldo degli Albizzi,
Rodolfo Peruzzi, Niccolo Barbadori, and others, in spite of the
feeble attempt of Eugenius to protect them. On the 6th of
October 1434 Cosimo returned to Florence, and for the next
three centuries the history of the city is identified with that of
the house of Medici. 1
Cosimo succeeded in dominating the republic while remaining
nominally a private citizen. He exiled those who opposed him,
and governed by means of the bafte, which, re-elected
every five years, appointed all the magistrates and
acted according to his orders. In 1437 Florence and
Venice were again at war with the Visconti, whose chief captain,
Niccolo Piccinino (q.v.), on entering Tuscany with many Floren-
tine exiles in his train, was signally defeated at Anghiari by the
Florentines under Francesco Sforza (1440); peace was made the
following year. The system of the calasto, which led to abuses,
was abolished, and a progressive income-tax (decima scalata)
was introduced with the object of lightening the burdens of the
poor, who were as a rule Medicean, at the expense of the rich;
but as it was frequently increased the whole community came
to be oppressed by it in the end. Cosimo increased his own
authority and that of the republic by aiding Francesco Sforza
to become duke of Milan (1450), and he sided with him in the
war against Venice (1452-1434). In 1452 the emperor Frederick
III. passed through Florence on his way to be crowned in Rome,
and was received as a friend. During the last years of Cosimo's
life, affairs were less under his control, and the gonfaloniere Luca
Pitti, a vain and ambitious man, introduced many changes, such
as the abasement of the authority of the podesld and of the
capitano, which Cosimo desired but was glad to attribute to
others.
In 1464 Cosimo died and was succeeded, not without some
opposition, by his son Piero, who was very infirm and gouty.
Various plots against him were hatched, the anti-
Medicean faction being called the Del Poggio party
(the because the house of its leader Luca Pitti was on a hill,
Qouty). while the Mediceans were called the Del Piano party
because Piero's house was in the town below; the other opposi-
tion leaders were Dietisalvi Neroni and Agnolo Acciaiuoli. But
Piero's unexpected energy upset the schemes of his enemies.
The death of Sforza led to a war for the succession of Milan,
and the Venetians, instigated by Florentine exiles, invaded
Tuscany. The war ended, after many indecisive engagements,
in 1468, through the intervention of Pope Paul II. Piero died
Lonazo m I 4^> leaving two sons, Lorenzo (1440-1492) and
the Giuliano (1453-1478). The former at once assumed
Magaia- the reins of government and became ruler of Florence
ceat ' in a way neither Cosimo nor Piero had ever attempted ;
he established his domination by means of balie consisting of the
signory, the accoppiatori, and 240 other members, all Mediceans,
to be renewed every five years (1471). In 1472 a quarrel having
arisen with Volterra on account of a dispute concerning the alum
mines, Lorenzo sent an expedition against the city, which was
sacked and many of the inhabitants massacred. Owing to a
variety of causes an enmity arose between Lorenzo and Pope
Sixtus IV., and the latter, if not an accomplice, at all events
had knowledge of the Pazzi conspiracy against the Medici (1478).
The result of the plot was that, although Giuliano was murdered,
Lorenzo strengthened his position, and put to death or exiled
numbers of his enemies. He was excommunicated by Sixtus,
who, together with King Ferdinand of Naples, waged war against
him; no great successes were registered on either side at first, but
eventually the Florentines were defeated at Poggio Imperiale
(near Poggibonsi) and the city itself was in danger. Lorenzo's
position was critical, but by his boldness in going to Naples he
succeeded in concluding a peace with the king, which led to a
reconciliation with the pope (1479-1480). He was received with
enthusiasm on returning to Florence and became absolute master
1 The history of Florence from 1434 to 1737 will be found in greater
detail in the article MEDICI, save for the periods from 1494 to 1512
and from 1527 to 1530, during which the republic was restored. For
the period from 1530 to 1860 see also under TUSCANY.
Savon-
arola.
of the situation. In April 1480 a balia was formed, and its most
important act was the creation at Lorenzo's instance of the
Council of Seventy; it was constituted for five years, but it be-
came permanent, and all its members were Lorenzo's friends.
From that time until his death the city was free from party strife
under a de facto despotism, but after the Rinuccini conspiracy
of that year the Council of Seventy passed a law declaring
attempts on Lorenzo's life to be high treason. Owing to his
political activity Lorenzo had neglected the business interests
of his firm, and in order to make good certain heavy losses he
seems to have appropriated public funds. His foreign policy,
which was magnificent but expensive, rendered further forced
loans necessary, and he also laid hands on the Monte delle Doti,
an insurance institution to provide dowries for girls.
An attempt by the Venetians to seize Ferrara led to a general
Italian war, in which Florence also took part on the side hostile
to Venice, and when peace was made in 1484 the republic
gained some advantages. The following year a revolt of the
Neapolitan barons against King Ferdinand broke out, actively
supported by Pope Innocent VIII. ; Lorenzo remained neutral at
first, but true to his policy of maintaining the balance of power
and not wishing to see Ferdinand completely crushed, he ended
by giving him assistance in spite of the king's unpopularity in
Florence. Peace was made when the pope agreed to come to terms
in 1486, and in 1487 Lorenzo regained Sarzana, which Genoa
had taken from Florence nine years previously. The general dis-
orders and ceaseless intrigues all over Italy required Lorenzo's
constant attention, and he succeeded in making Florence " the
needle of the balance of power in Italy." At this
time the Dominican Fra Girolamo Savonarola (q.v.)
was in Florence and aroused the whole city by his
denunciations of ecclesiastical corruption and also of that
of the Florentines. He opposed Lorenzo's government as the
source of the immorality of the people, and to some extent
influenced public opinion against him. Ill-health now gained on
Lorenzo, and Savonarola, whom he had summoned to his bedside,
refused to give absolution to the destroyer of Florentine liberties.
Lorenzo, during whose rule Florence had become one of the
greatest centres of art and literature in Europe, died in 1492.
^He was succeeded by his son Piero, who had none of his father's
capacity and made a number of political blunders. When
Charles VIII. of France came to Italy to conquer Naples
Piero decided to assist the latter kingdom, although the
traditional sympathies of the people were for the French
king, and when Charles entered Florentine territory and captured
Sarzana, Piero went to his camp and asked pardon for oppos-
ing him. The king demanded the cession of Pisa, Leghorn and
other towns, which Piero granted, but on returning to Florence
on the 8th of November 1494 he found the opposition greatly
strengthened and his popularity forfeited, especially when the
news of his disgraceful cessions to Charles became known. He
was refused admittance to the palace, and the people began to
shout " Popolo e liberta I " in opposition to the Medicean cry of
"Palle, Palle!" (from the Medici arms). With a small escort
he fled from the city, followed soon after by his brother Giovanni.
That same day Pisa rose in revolt against the Floren- Expulsion
tines, and was occupied by Charles. The expulsion of at the
the Medici produced some disorder, but Piero Capponi Media
(q.v.) and other prominent citizens succeeded in (/ '"' <)<
keeping the peace. Ambassadors, one of whom was Savonarola,
were sent to treat with the French king, but no agreement was
arrived at until Charles entered Florence on the I7th
of November at the head of 12,000 men. In spite of
their French sympathies the citizens were indignant at
the seizure of Sarzana, and while they gave the king
a splendid welcome, they did not like his attitude of conqueror.
Charles was impressed with the wealth and refinement of the
citizens, and above all with the solid fortress-like appearance of
their palaces. The signory appointed Piero Capponi, a man of
great ability and patriotism, and experienced in diplomacy,
the gonfaloniere Francesco Valori, the Dominican Giorgio
Vespucci, and the jurisconsult and diplomatist Domenico Bonsi,
Piero de'
Medici.
Florence.
FLORENCE
537
syndics to conduct the negotiations with the French king.
Charles's demands by no means pleased the citizens, and the
arrogance and violence of his soldiers led to riots in which they
were assailed with stones in the narrow streets. When the king
began to hint at the recall of Piero de' Medici, whose envoys had
gained his ear, the signory ordered the citizens to be ready to
fly to arms. The proposal was dropped, but Charles demanded
an immense sum of money before he would leave the city; long
discussions followed, and when at last he presented an insolent
ultimatum the syndics refused to accept it. The king said in
plem a threatening tone, " Then we shall sound our
Capponi. trumpets," whereupon Capponi tore up the document
in his face and replied, " And we shall ring our bells."
The king, realizing what street fighting in Florence would mean,
at once came to terms; he contented himself with 120,000
florins, agreeing to assume the title of " Protector and Restorer
of the liberty of Florence," and to give up the fortresses he had
taken within two years, unless his expedition to Naples should
be concluded sooner; the Medici were to remain banished, but
the price on their heads was withdrawn. But Charles would not
depart, a fact which caused perpetual disturbance in the city,
and it was not until the 28th of November, after an exhortation
by Savonarola whom he greatly respected, that he left Florence.
It was now intended to re-establish the government on the
basis of the old republican institutions, but it was found that
sixty years of Medici rule had reduced them to mere
revived shadows, and the condition of the government, largely
republic. controlled by a balia of 20 accoppialori and frequently
disturbed by the summoning of the parlamento, was
utterly chaotic. Consequently men talked of nothing save of
changing the constitution, but unfortunately there was no longer
an upper class accustomed to public affairs, while the lower class
was thoroughly demoralized. Many proposals were made, none
Savon- f them of practical value, until Savonarola, who had
ania as a already made a reputation as a moral reformer, began
states- his famous series of political sermons. In the prevailing
confusion the people turned to him as their only hope,
and gradually a new government was evolved, each law being
enacted as the result of his exhortations. A Greater Council
empowered to appoint magistrates and pass laws was formed,
to which all citizens netti di specchio (who had paid their taxes)
and beneficiati (i.e. who had sat in one of the higher magistracies
or whose fathers, grandfathers, or great-grandfathers had done
so) were eligible together with certain others. There were 3200
such citizens, and they sat one-third at a time for six months.
The Greater Council was to elect another council of 80 citizens
over forty years old, also to be changed every six months; this
body, which the signory must consult once a week, together
with the colleges and the signory itself, was to appoint
ambassadors and commissaries of war, and deal with other
confidential matters. The system of forced loans was abolished
and a 10% tax on real property introduced in its stead, and a
law of amnesty for political offenders enacted. Savonarola
also proposed a court of appeal for criminal and political crimes
tried by the Otto di guardia e balia; this too was agreed to, but
the right of appeal was to be, not to a court as Savonarola
suggested, but to the Greater Council, a fact-which led to grave
abuses, as judicial appeals became subject to party passions.
The parlamenti were abolished and a monte di pield to advance
money at reasonable interest was created. But in spite of
Savonarola's popularity there was a party called the Bigi
(greys) who intrigued secretly in favour of the return of the
Medici, while the men of wealth, called the Arrabbiati, although
they hated the Medici, were even more openly opposed to the
actual regime and desired to set up an aristocratic oligarchy.
The adherents of Savonarola were called the Piagnoni, or
snivellers, while the Neutrali changed sides frequently.
A league between the pope, the emperor, Venice and Spain
having been made against Charles VIII., the latter was forced
to return to France. On his way back he passed through
Florence, and, although the republic had refused to join the
league, it believed itself in danger, as Piero de' Medici was in the
king's train. Savonarola was again sent to the French camp,
and his eloquence turned the king from any idea he may have
had of reinstating the Medici. At the same time Lea
Charles violated his promise by giving aid to the Pisans against
in their revolt against Florence, and did not restore the Charles
other fortresses. After the French had abandoned vlu '
Italy, Piero de' Medici, encouraged by the league, enlisted a
number of mercenaries and marched on Florence, but the
citizens, fired by Savonarola's enthusiasm, flew to arms and
prepared for an energetic resistance; owing to Piero 's incapacity
and the exhaustion of his funds the expedition came to nothing.
At the sa^ne time the conditions of the city were not prosperous;
its resources were strained by the sums paid to Charles and by
the war; its credit was shaken, its trade paralysed, famine and
plague visited the city, and the war to subjugate Pisa was pro-
ceeding unsatisfactorily. Worse still was the death in 1496 of
one of its ablest and most disinterested statesmen, Piero Capponi.
The league now attacked Florence, for Pope Alexander VI.
hated Savonarola and was determined to destroy >,.
i !! ,.,.. Aiexaoaer
the republic, so as to reinstate the Medici temporarily vi.
and prepare the way for his own sons; the Venetians 'gainst
and Imperialists besieged Leghorn, and there was Ftonace -
great misery in Florence. All this decreased Savonarola's
popularity to some extent, but the enemy having been beaten
at Leghorn and the league being apparently on the point of
breaking up, the Florentines took courage and the friar's party
was once more in the ascendant. Numerous processions were
held, Savonarola's sermons against corruption and vice seemed
to have temporarily transformed the citizens, and the carnival
of 1497 remained famous for the burning of the " vanities " (i.e.
indecent books and pictures and carnival masks and costumes).
The friar's sermons against ecclesiastical corruption, and especi-
ally against the pope, resulted in his excommunication by the
latter, in consequence of which he lost much of his influence
and immorality spread once more. That same year Piero made
another unsuccessful attempt on Florence. New Medici plots
having been discovered, Bernardo del Nero and other prominent
citizens were tried and put to death; but the party hostile
to Savonarola gained ground and had the support of the
Franciscans, who were hostile to the Dominican order. Pulpit
warfare was waged between Savonarola and his opponents, and
the matter ended in his being forbidden to preach and in a pro-
posed ordeal by fire, which, however, never came off. The pope
again and again demanded that the friar be surrendered to him,
but without success, in spite of his threats of an interdict against
the city. The Piagnoni were out of power, and a signory of
Arrabbiati having been elected in 1498, a mob of Savonarola's
opponents attacked the convent of St Mark where he resided,
and he himself was arrested and imprisoned. The commission
appointed to try him on charges of heresy and treason was com-
posed of his enemies, including Doffo Spini, who had Trla , anrf
previously attempted to murder him; many irregu- execution
larities were committed during the three trials, and oisavou-
the prisoner was repeatedly tortured. The outgoing
signory secured the election of another which was of
their way of thinking, and on the 22nd of May 1498 Savonarola
was condemned to death and executed the following day.
The pope having been satisfied, the situation in Florence
was less critical for the moment. The war against Pisa was
renewed, and in 1499 the city might have been taken but for
the dilatory tactics of the Florentine commander Paolo Vitelli,
who was consequently arrested on a charge of treason and put
to death. Louis XII. of France, who now sent an army into
Italy to conquer the Milanese, obtained the support of the
Florentines. Cesare Borgia, who had seized many cities in
Romagna, suddenly demanded the reinstatement of the Medici
in Florence, and the danger was only warded off by appointing
him captain-general of the Florentine forces at a large salary
(1501). The weakness of the government becoming every
day more apparent, several constitutional changes were made,
and many old institutions, such as that of the podestd and
capitano del popolo, were abolished; finally in 1502, in order
538
FLORENCE
Pisa
(W/0).
to give more stability to the government, the office of gonfaloniere,
with the right of proposing laws to the signory, was made a life
appointment. The election fell on Piero Soderini (1448-1522),
an honest public-spirited man of no particular party,
s'oderini but lacking in strength of character. One useful
measure which he took was the institution of a national
militia at the suggestion of Niccolo Machiavelli (1505). In the
meanwhile the Pisan war dragged on without much headway
being made. In 1 503 both Piero de' Medici and Alexander VI.
had died, eliminating two dangers to the republic. Spain, who
was at war with France over the partition of Naples, helped the
Pisans as the enemies of Florence, France's ally (1501-1504),
but when the war was over the Florentines were able to lay
siege to Pisa (1507), and in 1509 the city was driven by famine
to surrender and became a dependency of Florence once more.
Pope Julius II., after having formed the league of Cambrai
with France and Spain against Venice, retired from it in 1510,
Schis- an d ra i se( l the crv f " Fuori Barbari " (out with the
malic barbarians), with a view to expelling the French from
council of Italy. King Louis thereupon proposed an oecumenical
council so as to create a schism in the Church, and
demanded that it be held in Florentine territory. After
some hesitation the republic agreed to the demand,and the council
was opened at Pisa, whereupon the pope immediately placed
Florence under an interdict. At the request of the Florentines
the counol removed to Milan, but this did not save them from
the pope's wrath. A Spanish army under Raymundo de Cardona
and accompanied by Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici and his brother
Giuliano entered the republic's territory and demanded 100,000
florins, the dismissal of Soderini, and the readmission of the
Medici. Soderini offered to resign, but the Greater Council
supported him and preparations for defence were made. In
August the Spaniards took Prato by storm and committed
hideous atrocities on the inhabitants; Florence was in a panic,
a group of the Ottimati, or nobles, forced Soderiri to resign and
leave the city, and Cardona's new terms were accepted, viz.
the readmission of the Medici, a fine of 150,000 florins, and an
alliance with Spain. On the ist of September 1512
the'/ttedia Giuliano and Giovanni de' Medici, and their nephew
(ISI2). Lorenzo, entered Florence with the Spanish troops;
a parlamento was summoned, and a packed balla
formed which abolished the Greater Council and created a con-
stitution similar to that of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Giuliano
became de facto head of the government, but he did not pursue
the usual vindictive policy of his house, although he resorted
to the Laurentian method of amusing the citizens with splendid
festivities. In 1513, on the death of Julius II., Giovanni de'
Medici was elected pope as Leo X., an event which greatly en-
hanced the importance of the house. In March 1514 Giuliano
died, and was succeeded by Lorenzo, who was also created duke
of Urbino. At his death in 1519 Cardinal Giulio de' Medici (son
of the Giuliano murdered in the Pazzi conspiracy) took charge
of the government; he met with some opposition and had to
play off the Ottimati against the Piagnoni, but he did not rule
badly and maintained at all events the outward forms of freedom.
In 1523 he was created pope as Clement VII. and sent his relatives
Ippolito and Alessandro, both minors and bastards, to Florence
under the tutorship of Cardinal Silvio Passerini. Ippolito was
styled the Magnifico and destined to be ruler of the republic,
but Cardinal Passerini's regency proved most unpopular, and the
city was soon seething with discontent. Revolts broke out and
Passerini showed himself quite unequal to coping with the
situation. The Ottimati were mostly anti-Medicean, and by 1527
the position was untenable. When Filippo Strozzi, and above
Second ^ ^' s w ^ e > threw their influence in the scales against
expulsion the Medici, and the magistrates declared for their ex-
otthe pulsion from power, Passerini, Ippolito and Alessandro
left Florence (i7th of May 1527). A Consiglio
degli Scelti was summoned, and a constitution similar
to that of Savonarola's time was established. The Greater
Council was revived and Niccolo Capponi created gonfaloniere
for a year. But Florence was torn by factions the Ottimati
Medici
who desired an oligarchy, the Palleschi or Mediceans who gener-
ally supported them, the Adirati who opposed Capponi for his
moderation, the Arrabbiati who were strongly anti-Medicean,
and the Popolani who opposed the Ottimati. " It is almost
impossible that a state so disorganized and corrupt as Florence
then was should produce men of parts and character, but if by
chance any such should arise they would be hated and perse-
cuted, their dispositions would be soured by indignation, or they
would be hunted from their country or die of grief " (Benedette
Varchi). Capponi did his best to reform the city and save the
situation, and while adopting Savonarola's tone in internal
affairs, he saw the dangers in the foreign situation, realizing that
a reconciliation between the pope and the emperor Charles V.
would prove disastrous for Florence, for Clement would certainly
seize the opportunity to reinstate his family in power. Having
been re-elected gonfaloniere in spite of much opposition in 1528,
Capponi tried to make peace with the pope, but his correspond-
ence with the Vatican resulted in a quite unjustified charge of high
treason, and although acquitted he had to resign office and leave
the city for six months. Francesco Carducci was elected gon-
faloniere in his place, and on the 29th of June 1529 the pope and
the emperor concluded a treaty by which the latter agreed to
re-establish the Medici in Florence. Carducci made preparations
for a siege, but a large part of the people were against him,
either from Medicean sympathies or fear, although the Frateschi,
as the believers in Savonarola's views were called, supported
him strongly. A body called the Nove detta Milizia, of whom
Michelangelo Buonarroti was a member, was charged with the
defence of the city, and Michelangelo (q.v.) himself superintended
the strengthening of the fortifications. A most unfortunate
choice for the chief command of the army was the appointment
of Malatesta Baglioni. In August an imperial army under
Philibert, prince of Orange, advanced on the city. In September
Malatesta surrendered Perugia, and other cities fell before the
Imperialists. All attempts to come to terms with the pope were
unsuccessful, and by October the siege had begun.
Although alone against papacy and empire, the citizens * of
showed the greatest spirit and devotion, and were Florence.
successful in many sorties. The finest figure produced
by these events was that of Francesco Ferruccio (q.v.); by his
defence of Empoli he showed himself a first-class soldier, and
was appointed commissioner-general. He executed many rapid
marches and counter-marches, assaulting isolated bodies of the
enemy unexpectedly, and harassing them continually. But
Malatesta was a traitor at heart and hindered the defence of
the city in every way. Ferruccio, who had recaptured Volterra,
marched to Gavinana above Pistoia to attack the Imperialists in
the rear. A battle took place at that spot on the 3rd of August,
but in spite of Ferruccio's heroism he was defeated and killed;
the prince of Orange also fell in that desperate engagement.
Malatesta contributed to the defeat by preventing a simultaneous
attack by the besieged. The sufferings from famine within the
city were now very great, and an increasingly large part of the
people favoured surrender. The signory, at last realizing that
Malatesta was a traitor, dismissed him; but it was too late,
and he now behaved as though he were governor of Florence;
when the troops attempted to enforce the dismissal he turned
his guns on them. On the 9th of August the signory saw that
all hope was lost and entered into negotiations with Don Surrender
Ferrante Gonzaga, the new imperial commander, ot
On the 1 2th the capitulation was signed: Florence
was to pay an indemnity of 80,000 florins, the Medici
were to be recalled, the emperor was to establish the new govern-
ment, " it being understood that liberty is to be preserved."
Baccio Valori, a Medicean who had been in the imperialist camp,
now took charge, and the city was occupied by foreign troops.
A parlamento was summoned, the usual packed balla created, and
all opposition silenced. The city was given over to Pope Clement,
who, disregarding the terms of the capitulation, had Carducci
and Girolami (the last gonfaloniere) hanged, and established
Alessandro de' Medici, the natural son of Lorenzo, duke of Urbino,
as head of the republic on the sth of July 1531. The next yar
FLORES FLORIAN
539
the signory was abolished, Alessandro created gonfaloniere for
life, and his lordship made hereditary in his family by imperial
patent. Thus Florence lost her liberty, and came to be the capital
of the duchy (afterwards grand-duchy) of Tuscany (see TUSCANY).
The Medici dynasty ruled in Tuscany until the death of Gian
Gastone in 1737, when the grand-duchy was assigned to Francis,
The duke of Lorraine. But it was governed by a regency
Grand- until 1753, when it was conferred by the empress
Duchy of Maria Theresa on his son Peter Leopold. During the
Napoleonic wars the grand-duke Ferdinand III. of
Habsburg-Lorraine was driven from the throne, and Tuscany
was annexed to the French empire in 1808. In 1809 Florence
was made capital of the kingdom of Etruria, but after the fall of
Napoleon in 1814 Ferdinand was reinstated. He died in 1833,
and was succeeded by Leopold II. In 1848 there was a liberal
revolutionary movement in Florence, and Leopold granted a
constitution. But civil disorders followed, and in 1849 the grand-
duke returned under an Austrian escort. In 1859, after the
Franco-Italian victories over the Austrians in Lombardy, by a
bloodless revolution in Florence Leopold was expelled and
Tuscany annexed to the Sardinian kingdom.
In 1865 Florence became the capital of the kingdom of Italy,
but after the occupation of Rome in 1870 during the Franco-
Prussian war, the capital was transferred to the Eternal City
(1871).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best complete history of Florence is Gino
Capponi's Storia della Repubblica di Firenze (2 vols., Florence, 1875),
which although defective as regards the earliest times is a standard
work based on original authorities; also F. T. Perrens, Histoire de
Florence (9 vols., Paris, 1877-1890). For the early period see
Pasquale Villari's I Primi Due Secoli delta storia di Firenze (Eng. ed.,
London, 1894), and R. Davidsohn's Geschichte der Sladt Florenz
(Berlin, 1896); P. Villari's Savonarola (English ed., London, 1896) is
invaluable for the period during which the friar's personality domin-
ated Florence, and his Machiavelli (English ed., London, 1892) must
be also consulted, especially for the development of political theories.
Among the English histories of Florence, Napier's Florentine History
(6 vols., London, 1 846-1 847) and A.Trollope's History of the Common-
wealth of Florence (4 vols., London, 1865) are not without value
although out of date. Francis Hyett's Florence (London, 1903) is
more recent and compendious; the author is somewhat Medicean
in his views, and frequently inaccurate. For the later history, A.
von Reumont's Geschichte von Toscana (Gotha, 1876-1877) is one
of the best works. There is a large number of small treatises and
compendia of Florentine history of the guide-book description. See
also the bibliographies in MEDICI, MACHIAVELLI, SAVONAROLA,
TUSCANY, &c. ( L - ""
FLORES, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to
Portugal, and forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop.
(1900) 8137; area, 57 sq. m. Flores and the adjacent island
of Corvo (pop. 806; area, 7 sq. m.) constitute the westernmost
group of the Azores, and seem but imperfectly to belong to the
archipelago, from the rest of which they are widely severed.
They lie also out of the usual track of navigators; but to those
who, missing their course, are led thither, Flores affords good
shelter in its numerous bays. Its poultry is excellent; and the
cattle are numerous, but small. It derives its name from the
abundance of the flowers that find shelter in its deep ravines. Its
capital is Santa Cruz das Flores (2247). In 1591 Flores was the
station of the English fleet before the famous sea fight between
Sir R. Grenville's ship " Revenge " and a Spanish fleet of 53
vessels. See AZORES.
FLORES, an island of the Dutch East Indies, a member of
the chain extending east of Java. Its length is 224 m., its greatest
breadth 37 m., and its area 5850 sq. m. The existence of slate,
chalk, and sandstone, eruptive rock, volcanoes and heights
stretching west and east, indicates a similar structure to that of
the other islands of the chain. Several volcanoes are active.
Among the loftier summits are, on the south coast, Gunong
Rokka (7940 ft.) and Keo (6560 ft.); with the lesser but con-
stantly active Gunong Api, forming a peninsula; and at ths
south-east, Lobetobi (7120 ft.). The thickly wooded interior
is little explored. The coasts have deep bays and extensive
rounded gulfs, where are situated the principal villages (kam
Pongs). On the north coast are Bari, Reo, Maumer and Gditing;
on the east, Larantuka; and on the south, Sikka and Enden.
The rivers, known only at their mouths, seem to be unnavigable.
The mean temperature is 77 to 80 F., and the yearly rainfall
43 to 47 in. For administrative purposes the island is divided
into West Flores (Mangerai), attached to the government
of Celebes, and Middle and East Flores (Larantuka and depend-
encies), attached to the residency of Timor. The population
is estimated at 250,000. The people live by trade, fishing,
salt-making, shipbuilding, and the cultivation of rice, maize,
and palms in the plain, but there is little industry or commerce.
Some edible birds' nests, rice, sandalwood and cinnamon are
exported to Celebes and elsewhere. The inhabitants of the
coast-districts are mainly of Malay origin. The aborigines,
who occupy the interior, are of Papuan stock. They are tall
and well-built, with dark or black skins. The hair is frizzly.
They are pure savages; their only religion is a kind of nature-
worship. They consider the earth holy and inviolable; thus
in severe droughts they only dig the river-beds for water as a
last resource. Portugal claimed certain portions of the island
until 1859.
FLOREZ, ENRIQUE (1701-1773), Spanish historian, was
born at Valladolid on the i4th of February 1701. In his fifteenth
year he entered the order of St Augustine, was afterwards
professor of theology at the university of Alcala, and published
a Cursus Iheologiae in five volumes (1732-1738). He afterwards
devoted himself to historical studies. Of these the first-fruit
was his Clave Hislorial, a work of the same class as the French
Art de verifier les dates, and preceding it by several years. It
appeared in 1743, and passed through many editions. In 1747
was published the first volume of EspaftaSagrada,teatrogeografico-
historico de la Iglesia de Espana, a vast compilation of Spanish
ecclesiastical history which obtained a European reputation,
and of which twenty-nine volumes appeared in the author's
lifetime. It was continued after his death by Manuel Risco
and others, and further additions have been made at the expense
of the Spanish government. The whole work in fifty-one volumes
was published at Madrid (1747-1886). Its value is considerably
increased by the insertion of ancient chronicles and documents
not easily accessible elsewhere. Florez was a good numismatist,
and published Medallas de las Colonias in 2 vols. (1757-1758), of
which a third volume appeared in 1773. His last work was the
Memorias de las reynas Catolicas, 2 vols. (1770). Flore? led a
retired, studious and unambitious life, and died at Madrid
on the 2oth of August 1773.
See F. Mendez, Noticia de la vida y escritos de Henrique Florez
(Madrid, 1780).
FLORIAN, SAINT, a martyr honoured in Upper Austria. In
the 8th century Puoche was mentioned as the place of his tomb,
and on the site was built the celebrated monastery of canons
regular, St Florian, which still exists. His Acta are of consider-
able antiquity, but devoid of historical value. Their substance
is borrowed from the Acta of St Irenaeus of Sirmium. The cult
of St Florian was introduced into Poland, together with the
relics of the saint, which were brought thither in 1183 by Giles,
bishop of Modena. Casimir, duke of Poland, dedicated a church
at Cracow to him. He is represented in various ways, especially
as a warrior holding in his hand a vessel from which he pours
out flames. His protection is often sought against fire. His
day in the calendar is the 4th of May.
See Acta Sanctorum, May, i. 461-467; B. Krusch, Scripiores rerum
Merovingicarum, iii. 65-68; C. Cahier, CaractMstiques des saints,
p. 490 (Paris, 1867). (H. DE.)
FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE (1755-1794), French
poet and romance writer, was born on the 6th of March 1755 at
the chateau of Florian, near Sauve, in the department of Card.
His mother, a Spanish lady named Gilette de Salgues, died when
he was quite a child. His uncle and guardian, the marquis of
Florian, who had married a niece of Voltaire, introduced him at
Ferney and in 1768 he became page at Anet in the household of
the duke of Penthievre, who remained his friend throughout his
life. Having studied for some time at the artillery school at
Bapaume he obtained from his patron a captain's commission
in a dragoon regiment, and in this capacity it is said he displayed
540
FLORIANOPOLIS FLORIDA
a boisterous behaviour quite incongruous with the gentle,
meditative character of his works. On the outbreak of the
French Revolution he retired to Sceaux, but he was soon dis-
covered and imprisoned; and though his imprisonment was short
he survived his release only a few months, dying on the i3th
of September 1794.
Florian's first literary efforts were comedies; his verse epistle
Voltaire et le serfdu Mont Jura and an eclogue Ruth were crowned
by the French Academy in 1782 and 1784 respectively. In
1782 also he produced a one-act prose comedy, Le Bon Mtnage,
and in the next year Galatee, a romantic tale in imitation of the
Galatea of Cervantes. Other short tales and comedies followed,
and in 1786 appeared Nutna Pompilius, an undisguised imitation
of Fenelon's Telemaque. In 1788 he became a member of the
French Academy, and published Estelle, a pastoral of the same
class as Galatee. Another romance, Gonzalve de Cordoue, pre-
ceded by an historical notice of the Moors, appeared in 1791,
and his famous collection of Fables in 1 792. Among his posthum-
ous works are La Jeunesse de Florian, ou Menwires d'un jeune
Espagnol (1807), and an abridgment (1799) of Don Quixote,
which, though far from being a correct representation of the
original, had great and merited success.
Florian imitated Salomon Gessner, the Swiss idyllist, and his
style has all the artificial delicacy and sentimentality of the
Gessnerian school. Perhaps the nearest example of the class
in English literature is afforded by John Wilson's (Christopher
North's) Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life. Among the best
of his fables are reckoned " The Monkey showing the Magic
Lantern," " The Blind Man and the Paralytic," and " The
Monkeys and the Leopard."
The best edition of Florian's CEuvres completes appeared in Paris
in 16 volumes, 1820; his CEuvres inedites in 4 volumes, 1824.
See " Vie de Florian," by L. F. Jauffret, prefixed to his CEuvres
posthumes (1802); A. J. N. de Rpsny, Vie de Florian (Paris, An V.);
Sainte-Beuve, Cauteries du lundi, t. iii. ; A. de Montvaillant, Florian,
sa vie, ses ceuvres (1879) ; and Lettres de Florian a Mme de la Briche,
published, with a notice by the baron de Barante in Melanges
published (1903) by the Societe des bibliophiles franjais.
FLORIANOPOLIS (formerly Desterro, Nossa Senhora do
Desterro and Santa Catharina, and still popularly known under
the last designation), a city and port of Brazil and the capital
of the state of Santa Catharina, on the western or inside shore
of a large island of the same name, 485 m. S.S.W. of Rio de Janeiro,
in 27 30' S., 48 30' W. Pop. (1890) 11,400, including many
Germans; (1902, estimate) 16,000; of the municipality, includ-
ing a large rural district and several villages (1890), 30,687.
The harbour is formed by the widening of the strait separating
the island from the mainland, which is nearly 2 m. wide at this
point. It is approached by narrow entrances from the N. and
S., which are defended by small forts. The island is mountainous
and wooded, and completely shelters the harbour from easterly
storms. The surroundings are highly picturesque and tropical
in character, but the town itself is poorly built and unattractive.
Its public buildings include the president's official residence,
arsenal, lyceum, hospital and some old churches. The climate
is warm for the latitude, but the higher elevations of the vicinity
are noted for their mild climate and healthfulness. There are
some German colonies farther up the coast whose products find
a market here, and a number of small settlements along the
mainland coast add something to the trade of the town. The
more distant inland towns are partly supplied from this point,
but difficult mountain roads tend to restrict the trade greatly.
There is a considerable trade in market produce with Rio de
Janeiro, but the exports are inconsiderable. Santa Catharina
was formerly one of the well-known whaling stations of the
South Atlantic, and is now a secondary military and naval
station.
The island of Santa Catharina was originally settled by the
Spanish; Cabeza de Vaca landed here in 1542 and marched
hence across country to Asuncion, Paraguay. The Spanish
failed to establish a permanent colony, however, and the Portu-
guese took possession. The island was captured by a Spanish
expedition under Viceroy Zeballos in 1777. A boundary treaty
of that same year restored it to Portugal. In 1894 Santa
Catharina fell into the possession of revolutionists against the
government of President Floriano Peixoto. With the collapse
of the revolution the city was occupied by the government forces,
and its name was then changed to Florianopolis in honour of the
president of the republic.
FLORIDA, the most southern of the United States of America,
situated between 24 30' and 31 N. lat. and 79 48' and 87 38'
W. long. It is bounded N. by Georgia and Alabama, E. by the
Atlantic Ocean, S. by the Strait of Florida, which separates it
from Cuba, and by the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Alabama
and the Gulf. The Florida Keys, a chain of islands extending
in a general south-westerly direction from Biscayne Bay, are
included in the state boundaries, and the city of Key West, on
an island of the same name, is the seat of justice of Monroe
county. The total area of the state is 58,666 sq. m., of which
3805 sq. m. are water surface. The coast line is greater than that
of any other state, extending 472 m. on the Atlantic and 674 m.
on the Gulf Coast.
The peculiar outline of Florida gives it the name of " Peninsula
State." The average elevation of the surface of the state above
the sea-level is less than that of any other state except Louisiana,
but there is not the monotony of unbroken level which descrip-
tions and maps often suggest. The N.W. portion of the state
is, topographically, similar to south-eastern Alabama, being a
rolling, hilly country; the eastern section is a part of the Atlantic
coastal plain; the western coast line is less regular than the
eastern, being indented by a number of bays and harbours,
the largest of which are Charlotte Harbour, Tampa Bay and
Pensacola Bay. Along much of the western coast and along
nearly the whole of the eastern coast extends a line of sand
reefs and narrow islands, enclosing shallow and narrow bodies
of water, such as Indian river and Lake Worth called rivers,
lakes, lagoons, bays and harbours. In the central part of the
state there is a ridge, extending N. and S. and forming a divide,
separating the streams of the east coast from those of the west.
Its highest elevation above sea-level is about 300 ft. The central
region is remarkable for its large number of lakes, approximately
30,000 between Gainesville in Alachua county, and Lake Okee-
chobee. They are due largely to sinkholes or depressions caused
by solution of the limestone of the region. Many of the lakes
are connected by subterranean channels, and a change in the
surface of one lake is often accompanied by a change in the
surface of another. By far the largest of these lakes, nearly
all of them shallow, is Lake Okeechobee, a body of water about
1250 sq. m. in area and almost uniformly shallow, its depth
seldom being greater than 15 ft. Caloosahatchee river, flowing
into the Gulf of Mexico near Charlotte Harbour, is its principal
outlet. Among the other lakes are Orange, Crescent, George,
Weir, Harris, Eustis, Apopka, Tohopekaliga, Kissimmee and
Istokpoga. The chief featureof the southern portionof thestate
is the Everglades (q.v.), the term "Everglade State" being
popularly applied to Florida. Within the state there are many
swamps, the largest of which are the Big Cypress Swamp in the
S. adjoining the Everglades on the W., and Okefinokee Swamp,
extending from Georgia into the N.E. part of the state.
A peculiar feature of the drainage of the state is the large number
of subterranean streams and of springs, always found to a greater or
less extent in limestone regions. Some of them are of great size.
Silver Spring and Blue Spring in Marion county, Blue Spring and
Orange City Mineral Spring in Volusia county, Chipola Spring near
Marianna m Jackson county, Espiritu Santo Spring near Tampa
in Hillsboro county, Magnolia Springs in Clay county, Suwanee
Springs in Suwanee county, White Sulphur Springs in Hamilton
county, the Wekiva Springs in Orange county, and Wakulla Spring,
Newport Sulphur Spring and Panacea Mineral Spring in Wakulla
county are the most noteworthy. Many of the springs have curative
properties, one of them, the Green Cove Spring in Clay county,
discharging about 3000 gallons of sulphuretted water per minute.
Not far from St Augustine a spring bursts through the sea itself with
such force that the ocean breakers roll back from it as from a sunken
reef. The springs often merge into lakes, and lake systems are
usually the sources of the rivers, Lake George being the principal
source of the St Johns, and Lake Kissimmee of the Kissimmee,
while a number of smaller lakes are the source of the Oklawaha, one
of the most beautiful of the Floridian rivers.
PU 6 ,,IU. A-iJ.-Gdiaj^-v
p^wsS^T-rsswSaifn
FLOR; DA
-1 P A L M BEACH
ffailtvof/s
County Seats
County Boundaries
NORTH-WESTERN
FLORIDA
Same Scale as main man
B Longitudo West 84 of Greemvic
EnwryWilkersc.
FLORIDA
54*
Of the rivers the most important are the St Johns, which
flows N. from about the middle of the peninsula, empties into
the Atlantic a short distance below Jacksonville, and is navigable
for about 250 m. from its mouth, the Withlacoochee, flowing
in a general north-westerly direction from its source in the N.E.
part of Polk county, and forming near its entrance into the Gulf
of Mexico the boundary between Levy and Citrus counties, and
four rivers, the Escambia, the Choctawatchee, the Apalachicola,
and the Suwanee, having their sources in other states and
traversing the north-western part of Florida. On account of
its sand reefs, the east coast has not so many harbours as the
west coast. The most important harbours are at Fernandina,
St Augustine, and Miami on the E. coast, and at Tampa, Key
West and Pensacola on the W. coast.
The soils of Florida have sand as a common ingredient. 1 They
may be divided into three classes : the pine lands, which often have
a surface of dark vegetable mould, under which is a sandy loam
resting on a substratum of clay, marl or limestone areas of such
soil are found throughout the state; the " hammocks," which have
soil of similar ingredients and are interspersed with the pine lands
large areas of this soil occur in Levy, Alachua, Citrus, Hernando.
Pasco, Gadsden, Leon, Madison, Jefferson and Jackson counties;
and the alluvial swamp lands, chiefly in E. and S. Florida, the richest
class, which require drainage to fit them for cultivation.
As regards climate Florida may be divided into three more
or less distinct zones. North and west of a line passing through
Cedar Keys and Fernandina the climate is distinctly " southern,"
similar to that of the Gulf states; from this line to another
extending from the mouth of the Caloosahatchee to Indian
river inlet the climate is semi-tropical, and is well suited to the
cultivation of oranges; S. of this the climate is sub-tropical,
well adapted to the cultivation of pineapples. Since the semi-
tropical and sub-tropical zones are nearer the course of the
Gulf Stream, and are swept by the trade winds, their tempera-
tures are more uniform than those of the zones of southern
climate; indeed, the extremes of heat (103 F.) and cold (13 F.)
are felt in the region of southern climate. The mean annual
temperature of the state is 70-8 F., greater in the sub-tropical
than in the other climate zones, and the Atlantic coast is in
general warmer than the Gulf Coast. The rainfall averages
52-09 in. per annum. On account of its warm climate, Florida
has many resorts for health and pleasure, which are especially
popular in the season from January to April; the more
important are St Augustine, Ormond, Daytona, Palm Beach,
Miami, Tampa, White Springs, Hampton Springs, Worthington
Springs and Orange Springs.
No metals have ever been discovered in Florida. The principal
minerals are rock phosphate and (recently more important) land and
river pebble phosphate, found in scattered deposits in a belt on the
" west coast about 30 m. wide and extending from Tallahassee to
Lake Okeechobee. The centre of the quarries is Dunnellon in
Marion county, and pebble phosphate is found m Hillsboro, Polk,
De Soto, Osceola, Citrus and Hernando counties. Although the
economic value of the phosphate deposits was first realized about
1880, between 1894 and 1907 Florida produced, each year, more
than half of all the phosphate rock produced in the whole United
States, the yield of Florida (i, 357-365 long tons) m 1907 being
valued at $6,577,757! that of the whole country at $10,653,558-
Florida is also the principal source in the United States for fuller s
earth, a deposit of which, near Quincy, was first discovered in 1893;
and clay (including kaolin) is also mined to some extent. Other
minerals that have been discovered but have not been industrially
developed are gypsum, lignite and cement rock. 1 he lack
thorough geological survey has perhaps prevented the discovery
of other minerals certainly it is responsible for a late recognition
of the economic value of the known mineral resources.
The flora of N. Florida is similar to that of south-eastern North
America ; that of S. Florida seems to be a link between the vegetation
of North America and that of South America and the West Indies,
for out of 247 species of S. Florida that have been examined, 187
are common to the West Indies, Mexico and South America. The
forests cover approximately 37,700 sq. m., chiefly in the northeri
part of the state, including about half of the peninsula, yellow pine
being predominant, except in the coastal marsh lands, where cypress,
found throughout the state, particularly abounds. About halt
the varieties of forest trees m the United States are found, and
1 Almost everywhere limestone is the underlying rock, but siliceous
sands, brought out by the Atlantic rivers to the N.E., are carried the
whole length of the Florida coast by marine action.
among the peculiar species are the red bay or " Florida Mahogany,"
satinwood and cachibou, and the Florida yew and savin, both
almost extinct. The lumber industry is important: in 1905 the
total factory product of lumber and timber was valued at
$10,901,650, and lumber and planing mill products were valued
at $1,690,455. In 1900 this was the most valuable industry in
the state; m 1905 it was second to the manufacture of tobacco.
The fauna is similar in general to that of the southern United States.
Among the animals are the puma, manatee (sea cow), alligator and
crocodile, but the number of these has been greatly diminished by
hunting. Ducks, wild turkeys, bears and wild cats (lynx) are found,
but in decreasing numbers.
The fisheries are very valuable ; the total number of species of
fish in Florida waters is about 600, and many species found on
one coast are not found on the other. The king fish and tarpon are
hunted for sport, while mullet, shad, redsnappers, pompano, trout,
sheepshead and Spanish mackerel are of great economic value.
The sponge and oyster fisheries are also important. The total
product of the fisheries in 1902 was valued at about $2,000,000.
Industry and Commerce. The principal occupation is agri-
culture, in which 44% of the labouring population was engaged
in 1900, but only 12-6% of the total land surface was enclosed
in farms, of which only 34-6% was improved, and the total
agricultural product for 1899 was valued at $18,309,104. As
the number of farms increased faster than the cultivated area
from 1850 to 1900, the average size of farms declined from 444
acres in 1860 to 140 in 1880 and to 106-9 i I 9O ) tne largest
class of farms being those with an acreage varying from 20 to
50 acres. Nearly three-fourths of the farms, in 1900, were
cultivated by their owners, but the cash tenantry system showed
an increase of 100% since 1890, being most extensively used
in the cotton counties. One-third of the farms were operated by
negroes, but one-half of these farms were rented, and the value
of negro farm property was only one-eighth that of the entire
farm property of the state. According to the state census of
1905 only 1,621,362 acres were improved; of 45,984 farms,
31,233 were worked by whites.
Fruits normally form the principal crop; the total value for
1907-8 of the fruit crops of the state (including oranges, lemons,
limes, grape-fruit, bananas, guavas, pears, peaches, grapes,
figs, pecans, &c.) was $6,160,299, according to the report of
the State Department of Agriculture. The discovery of Florida's
adaptability to the culture of oranges about 1875 may be taken
as the beginning of the state's modern industrial development.
But the unusual severity of the winters of 1887, 1894 and 1899
(the report of the Twelfth Census which gives the figures for
this year being therefore misleading) destroyed three- fourths of
the orange trees, and caused an increased attention to stock-
raising, and to various agricultural products. Orange culture
has recovered much of its importance, but it is carried on in
the more southern counties of the state. The cultivation of
pineapples, in sub-tropical Florida, is proving successful, the
product far surpassing that of California, the only other state
in the Union in which pineapples are grown. Grape-fruit, guavas
and lemons are also successfully produced in this part of the
state. The cultivation of strawberries and vegetables (cabbage,
cauliflower, beets, beans, tomatoes, egg-plant, cucumbers,
water-melons, celery, &c.) for northern markets, and of orchard
fruits, especially plums, pears and prunes, has likewise proved
successful. In 1907-8, according to the State Department of
Agriculture, the total value of vegetable and garden products
was $3,928,657. In 1903, according to the statistics of the
United States Department of Agriculture, Indian corn ranked
next to fruits (as given in the state reports), but its product
as compared with that of various other states is unimportant
in 1907 it amounted to 7,017,000 bushels only; rice is the only
other cereal whose yield in 1899 was greater than that of 1889,
but the Florida product was surpassed (in 1899) by that of the
Carolinas, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas; in 1907 the product
of rice in Florida (69,000 bushels) was less than that of Texas,
Louisiana, South Carolina, Arkansas and Georgia severally.
Tobacco culture, which declined after 1860 on account of the
competition of Cuba and Sumatra, has revived since 1885
through the introduction of Cuban and Sumatran seed; the
product of 1907 (6,937,500 ft) was more than six times that of
542
FLORIDA
1899, the product in 1899 (1,125,600 Ib) being more than
twice that of 1889 (470,443 ft>), which in turn was more
than twenty times that for 1880 (21,182 Ib) the smallest
production recorded for many decades. In 1907 the average
farm price of tobacco was 45 cents per Ib higher than that of
any other state. In 1899, 84% of the product was raised in
Gadsden county. The sweet potato and pea-nut crops have also
become very valuable; on the other hand the Census of 1900
showed a decline in acreage and production of cotton. In 1907
the acreage (265,000 acres) was less than in any cotton-growing
state except Missouri and Virginia; the crop for 1907-1908
was 49,794 bales. Sea-island cotton of very high grade is grown
in Alachua county. The production of sugar, begun by the
early Spanish settlers, declined, but that of syrup increased.
Pecan nuts are a promising crop, and many groves were planted
after 1905. In 1900 there were more than 1,900,000 acres of
land in the state unoccupied. The low lands of the South are
being drained partly by the state and partly by private companies.
Irrigation, introduced in 1888 by the orange growers, has been
adopted by other farmers, especially the tobacco-growers of
Gadsden county, and so the evil effects of the droughts, so com-
mon from February to June, are avoided. The value of farm pro-
perty in the southern counties, which have been developed very
recently, shows a steady increase, that of Hillsboro county
surpassing the other counties of the state. In 1907-8, according
to the state Department of Agriculture, the total value of all
field crops (cotton, cereals, sugar-cane, hay and forage, sweet
potatoes, &c.) was $11,856,340, and the total value of all farm
products (including live stock, $20,81 7,804, poultry and products,
$1,688,433, and dairy products, $1,728,642) was $46,371,320.
The manufactures of Florida, as compared with those of other
states, are unimportant. Their product in 1900 was more than twice
the product in 1890, and the product in 1905 (from establishments
under the factory system only) was $50,298,290, i.e. 47-1%
greater than in 1900. The most important industries were those
that depended upon the forests, their product amounting to nearly
45 % f the entire manufactured product of the state. The lumber
and timber products were valued in 1905 at $10,901,650, almost
twice their valuation in 1890, and an increase of 1-2% over the
product of 1900. The manufacture of turpentine and rosin, material
for which is obtained from the pine forests, had increased greatly
in importance between 1890 and 1900, the product in 1890 being
valued at only $191,859, that of 1900 at $6,469,605, and from the
latter sum it increased in 1905 to $9,901,905, an increase of more
than one-half. In 1900 the state ranked second and in 1905 first
of all the states of the country in the value of this product ; in 1905
the state's product amounted to 41 -4 % of that of the entire country.
The manufacture of cigars and cigarettes (almost entirely of cigars,
few cigarettes being manufactured), carried on chiefly by Cubans
at Key West and Tampa, also increased in importance between
1890 and 1900, the products in the latter year being valued at
$10,735,826, or more than one-quarter more than in 1890, and in
1905 there was a further increase of 56-2 %, the gross value being
$16,764,276, or nearly one-third of the total factory product of the
state. In 1900 Florida ranked fourth in the manufacture of tobacco
among the states of the Union, being surpassed by New York,
Pennsylvania and Ohio; in 1905 it ranked third (after New York
and Pennsylvania). Most of the tobacco used is imported from
Cuba, though, as has been indicated, the production of the state has
greatly increased since 1880. In the manufacture of fertilizers, the
raw material for which is derived from the phosphate beds, Florida's
aggregate product in 1900 was valued at $500,239, and in 1905 at
$i>59,37i, an increase of 217-9% in five years.
Florida's industrial progress has been mainly since the Civil
War, for before that conflict a large part of the state was practi-
cally undeveloped. An important influence has been the railways.
In 1880 the total railway mileage was 518 m.; in 1890 it was
2489 m.; in 1900, 3255 m., and in January 1909, 4,004-92 m. The
largest system is the Atlantic Coast Line, the lines of which in
Florida were built or consolidated by H. B. Plant (1819-1899) and
once formed a part of the so-called " Plant System " of railways.
The Florida East Coast Railway is also the product of one man's
faith in the country, that of Henry M. Flagler (b. 1830). The
Seaboard Air Line, the Louisville & Nashville, and the Georgia
Southern & Florida are the other important railways. The
Southern railway penetrates the state as far as Jacksonville,
over the tracks of the Atlantic Coast Line. A state railway
commission, whose members are elected by the people, has power
to enforce its schedule of freight rates except when such rates
would not pay the operating expenses of the railway. In 1882
the Florida East Coast Line Canal and Transportation Co. was
organized to develop a waterway from Jacksonville to Biscayne
Bay by connecting with canals the St Johns, Matanzas, and
Halifax rivers, Mosquito Lagoon, Indian river, Lake Worth,
Hillsboro river, New river, and Snake Creek; in 1908 this
vast undertaking was completed. The development of marine
commerce has been retarded by unimproved harbours, but
Fernandina and Pensacola harbours have always been good.
Since 1890 much has been done by the national Government,
aided in many cases by the local authorities and by private
enterprise, to improve the harbours and to extend the limits
of river navigation. With the increase of trade between the
United States and the West Indies following the Spanish-
American War (1898), the business of the principal ports, notably
of Fernandina, Tampa and Pensacola, greatly increased.
Population. The population of Florida in 1880 was 269,493;
in 1890, 391,422, an increase of 45-2%; and in 1900, 528,542,
or a further increase of 35% ; and in 1905, by a state census,
614,845; and in 1910, 752,619. In 1900, 95-5% were native born,
43' 7% were coloured (including 479 Chinese, Japanese and
Indians), and in 1905 the percentages were little altered. The
Seminole Indians, whose number is not definitely known, live
in and near the Everglades. The urban population on the basis
of places having a population of 4000 or more was 16-6% of the
total in 1900 and 22-7% in 1905, the percentage for Florida,
as for other Southern States, being small as compared with the
percentage for most of the other states of the Union. In 1900
there were 92, and, in 1905, 125 incorporated cities, towns and
villages; but only 14 (in 1905, 22) of these had a population
of over 2000, and only 4 (in 1905, 8) a population of more than
5000. The four in 1900 were: Jacksonville (28,429); Pensacola
(17,747); Key West (17,114); and Tampa (15,839). The eight
in 1905 were Jacksonville (35,301), Tampa (22,823), Pensacola
(21,505), Key West (20,498), Live Oak (7200), Lake City
(6409), Gainesville (5413), and St Augustine(si2i). Tallahassee
is the capital of the state. In 1906 the Baptists were the strongest
religious denomination; the Methodists ranked second, while
the Roman Catholic, Presbyterian and Protestant Episcopal
churches were of relatively minor importance.
Government. The present constitution was framed in 1885
and was ratified by the people in 1886. Its most important
feature, when compared with the previous constitution of 1868,
is its provision for the choice of state officials other than the
governor (who was previously chosen by election) by elections
instead of by the governor's appointment, but the governor,
who serves for four years and is not eligible for the next succeed-
ing term, still appoints the circuit judges, the state attorneys
for each judicial circuit and the county commissioners; he may
fill certain vacancies and may suspend, and with the Senate
remove officers not liable to impeachment. The governor is a
member of the Board of Pardons, the other members being
the attorney-general, the secretary of state, the comptroller and
the commissioner of agriculture; he and the secretary of state,
attorney-general, comptroller, treasurer, superintendent of
public instruction, and commissioner of agriculture comprise a
Board of Commissioners of State Institutions; he is also a
member of the Board of Education. The office of lieutenant-
governor was abolished by the present constitution. The legisla-
ture meets biennially, the senators being chosen for four, the
representatives for two years. By an amendment of 1896 the
Senate consists of not more than 32, and the House of Representa-
tives of not more than 68 members; by a two-thirds vote of
members present the legislature may pass a bill over the governor's
veto. The three judges of the Supreme Court and the seven of the
circuit court serve for six years, those of the county courts for
four years, and justices of the peace (one for each justice district,
of which the county commissioners must form at least two in
each county) hold office for four years. The constitutional
qualifications for suffrage are: the age of twenty-one years,
citizenship in the United States or presentation of naturalization
FLORIDA
543
certificates at registration centres, residence in the state one
year and in the county six months, and registration. To these
requirements the payment of a poll-tax has been added by
legislative enactment, such an enactment having been authorized
by the constitution. Insane persons and persons under guardian-
ship are excluded by the constitution, and " all persons convicted
of bribery, perjury, larceny or of infamous crime, or who shall
make or become directly or indirectly interested in any bet or
wager the result of which shall depend upon any election," or
who shall participate as principal, second or challenger in any
duel, are excluded by legislative enactment.
Amendments to the constitution may be made by a three-fifths
vote of each house of the legislature, ratified by a majority vote
of the people. A revision of the Constitution may be made
upon a two-thirds vote of all members of both Houses of the
legislature, if ratified by a majority vote of the people; a
Constitutional Convention is then to be provided for by the
legislature, such convention to meet within six months of the
passage of the law therefor, and to consist of a number equal to
the membership of the House of Representatives, apportioned
among the counties, as are the members of this House.
A homestead of 160 acres, or of one-half of an acre in an in-
corporated town or city, owned by the head of a family residing
in the state, with personal property to the value of $1000 and
the improvements on the real estate, is exempt from enforced
sale except for delinquent taxes, purchase money, mortgage
or improvements on the property. The wife holds in her own
name property acquired before or after marriage; the inter-
marriage of whites and negroes (or persons of negro descent to the
fourth generation) is prohibited. All these are constitutional
provisions. By legislative enactment whites and blacks living
in adultery are to be punished by imprisonment or fine; divorces
may be secured only after two years' residence in the state and
on the ground of physical incapacity, adultery, extreme cruelty,
habitual indulgence in violent temper, habitual drunkenness,
desertion for one year, previous marriage still existing, or such
relationship of the parties as is within the degrees for which
marriage is prohibited by law. Legitimacy of natural children
can be established by subsequent marriage of the parents, and
the age of consent is sixteen years.
The bonded debt was incurred during the Reconstruction Period
(1865-1875). In 1871 7 % 30 year bonds to the extent of $350,000
were issued and in 1873 another issue of 6% 30 year bonds to the
value of $925,000 was made. Most of these were held by the
Educational Fund at the time of their maturity. By 1901 all but
$267,700 of the issue of 1871 had been retired and this amount was
then refunded with 3% 50 year bonds which were taken by the
Educational Fund. In 1903 $616,800 of the 1873 issue was held
by the Educational Fund and $148,000 by individuals. The first
part of this claim was refunded by a new bond issue, also taken by
the Educational Fund, the second was paid from an Indian war
claim of $692,946, received from the United States government in
1902, when $132,000 bonds of 1857, held by the United States
government, were also extinguished. The bonded debt was thus
reduced to $884,500; and on the 1st of January 1909 the debt,
consisting of refunding bonds held as educational funds, amounted
to $601,567.
Penal System. There is no penitentiary; the convicts are
hired to the one highest bidder who contracts for their labour,
and who undertakes, moreover, to lease all other persons
convicted during the term of the lease, and sub-leases the
prisoners. In 1889 the convicts were placed under the care
of a supervisor of convicts, and in 1905 the law was amended
so that one or more supervisors could be appointed at the will
of the governors. In 1908 there were four supervisors and one
state prison physician, and there are special laws designed to
prevent abuses in the system. In 1908 the state received
$208,148 from the lease of convicts. Decrepit prisoners were
formerly leased, but in 1906 the lease excluded such as were
thought unfit by the state prison physician. Women convicts
were still leased with the men in 1908; of the 446 convici
committed in that year, there were 15 negro females, 356 negro
males and 75 white males. In the same year 54 escaped, and
27 were recaptured. The leased convicts are employed in the
turpentine and lumber industries and in the phosphate works.
The 1232 convicts " on hand" at the close of 1908 were held in
38 camps, 4 being the minimum, and 160 the maximum number,
at a camp. In 1908 two central hospitals for the prisoners were
maintained by the lessee company. County prison camps are
under the supervision of the governor and the supervisors of
convicts. The state supervisors must inspect each state prison
camp and each county prison camp every thirty days.
Education. As early as 1831 an unsuccessful attempt was
made to form an adequate public school fund; the first real
effort to establish a common school system for the territory was
made after 1835; in 1840 there were altogether 18 academies
and 51 common schools, and in 1849 the state legislature made
an appropriation in the interest of the public instruction of white
pupils, and this was supplemented by the proceeds of land
granted by the United States government for the same purpose.
In 1852 Tallahassee established a public school; and in 1860
there were, according to a report of the United States census,
2032 pupils in the public schools of the state, and 4486 in
" academies and other schools." The Civil War, however, in-
terrupted the early progress, and the present system of common
schools dates from the constitution of 1868 and the school law
of 1869. The school revenue derived from the interest of a
permanent school fund, special state and county taxes, and a
poll-tax, in 1907-1908 amounted to $1,716,161; the per capita
cost for each child of school age was $6-11 (white, $9-08;
negro, $2-24), and the average school term was 108 days (112
for whites, 99 for negroes). The state constitution prescribes
that " white and colored children shall not be taught in the same
school, but impartial provision shall be made for both." The
percentage of enrolment in 1907-1908 was 60 (whites, 66;
negroes, 52). The percentage of attendance to enrolment was
70%, 68% for white and 74% for negro schools. Before
1905 the state provided for higher education by the Florida
State College, at Tallahassee, formerly the West Florida
Seminary (founded in 1857); the University of Florida, at Lake
City, which was organized in 1903 by enlarging the work of the
Florida Agricultural College (founded in 1884); the East Florida
Seminary, at Gainesville (founded 1848 at Ocala); the
normal school (for whites) at De Funiak Springs; and the South
Florida Military Institute at Bartow; but in 1905 the legislature
passed the Buckman bill abolishing all these state institutions
for higher education and establishing in their place the university
of the state of Florida and a state Agricultural Experiment
Station, both now at Gainesville, and the Florida Female College
at Tallahassee, which has the same standards for entrance and for
graduation as the state university for men. Private educational
institutions in Florida are John B. Stetson University at De Land
(Baptist) ; Rollins College (1885) at Winter Park (non-sectarian),
with a collegiate department, an academy, a school of music, a
school of expression, a school of fine arts, a school of domestic and
industrial arts, and a business school; Southern College (1901),
at Sutherland (Methodist Episcopal, South); the Presbyterian
College of Florida (1905), at Eustis; Jasper Normal Institute
(1890), at Jasper, and the Florida Normal Institute at Madison.
The negroes have facilities for advanced instruction in the
Florida Baptist Academy, and Cookman Institute (Methodist
Episcopal, South), both at Jacksonville, and in the Normal and
Manual Training School (Congregational), at Orange Park.
There are a school for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb (1885) at St.
Augustine, a hospital for the insane at Chattahoochee and a
reform school at Marianna, all wholly supported by the state,
and a Confederate soldiers' and sailors' home at Tallahassee,
which is partially supported by the state.
History. The earliest explorations and attempts at coloniza-
tion of Florida by Euiopeans were made by the Spanish. The
Council of the Indies claimed that since 1510 fleets and ships
had gone to Florida, and Florida is shown on the Cantino map
of 1502. In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon (c. 1460-1521), who had
been with Christopher Columbus on his second voyage and had
later been governor of Porto Rico, obtained a royal grant
authorizing him to discover and settle " Bimini," a fabulous
island believed to contain a marvellous fountain or spring
544
FLORIDA
whose waters would restore to old men their youth or at least
had wonderful curative powers. Soon after Easter Day he
came in sight of the coast of Florida, probably near the mouth
of the St Johns river. From the name of the day in the calendar,
Pascua Florida, or from the fact that many flowers were found
on the coast, the country was named Florida. De Leon seems
to have explored the coast, to some degree, on both sides of the
peninsula, and to have turned homeward fully convinced that
he had discovered an immense island. He returned to Spain
in 1514, and obtained from the king a grant to colonize " the
island of Bimini and the island of Florida," of which he was
appointed adelantado, and in 1521 he made another expedition,
this one for colonization as well as for discovery. He seems
to have touched at the island of Tortugas, so named on account
of the large number of turtles found there, and to have landed
at several places, but many of his men succumbed to disease
and he himself was wounded in an Indian attack, dying soon
afterward in Cuba. Meanwhile, in 1516, another Spaniard,
Diego Miruelo, seems to have sailed for some distance along the
west coast of the peninsula. The next important exploration
of Florida was that of Panfilo de Narvaez. In 1527 he sailed
from Cuba with about 600 men (soon reduced to less than 400),
landed (early in 1528) probably at the present site of Pensacola,
and for six months remained in the country, he and his men
suffering terribly from exposure, hunger and fierce Indian
attacks. In September, his ships being lost and his force greatly
reduced in number, he hastily constructed a crazy fleet, re-
embarked probably at Apalachee Bay, and lost his life in a storm
probably near Pensacola Bay. Only four of his men, including
Nufiez Cabeza de Vaca, succeeded after eight years of Indian
captivity and of long and weary wanderings, in finding their
way to Spanish settlements in Mexico. Florida was also partially
explored by Ferdinando de Soto (q.v.) in 1539-1540. In the
summer of 1559 another attempt at colonization was made by
Tristan de Luna, who sailed from Vera Cruz, landed at Pensacola
Bay, and explored a part of Florida and (possibly) Southern
Alabama. Somewhere in that region he desired to make a
permanent settlement, but he was abandoned by most of his
followers and gave up his attempt in 1561.
In the following year, Jean Ribaut (1520-1565), with a band
of French Huguenots, landed first near St Augustine and then
at the mouth of the St Johns river, which he called the river
of May, and on behalf of France claimed the country, which
he described as " the fairest, fruitfullest and pleasantest of all
the world "; but he made his settlement on an island near what
is now Beaufort, South Carolina. In 1564 Rene de Laudonniere
(? -c. 1586), with another party of Huguenots, established
Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St Johns, but the colony did
not prosper, and in 1565 Laudonniere was about to return to
France when (on the 28th of August) he was reinforced by
Ribaut and about 300 men from France. On the same day that
Ribaut landed, a Spanish expedition arrived in the bay of St
Augustine. It was commanded by Pedro Menendez de Aviles
(1523-1574), one of whose aims was to destroy the Huguenot
settlement. This he did, putting to death almost the entire
garrison at Fort Caroline " not as Frenchmen, but as Lutherans,"
on the 2oth of September 1565. The ships of Ribaut were soon
afterwards wrecked near Matanzas Inlet; he and most of his
followers surrendered to Menendez and were executed. Menendez
then turned his attention to the founding of a settlement which
he named St Augustine (q.v.); he also explored the Atlantic
coast from Cape Florida to St Helena, and established forts at
San Mateo (Fort Caroline), Avista, Guale and St Helena. In
1567 he returned to Spain in the interest of his colony.
The news of the destruction of Fort Caroline, and the execution
of Ribaut and his followers, was received with indifference at
the French court; but Dominique de Gourgues (c. 1530-1593),
a friend of Ribaut but probably a Catholic, organized an expedi-
tion of vengeance, not informing his men of his destination
until his three ships were near the Florida coast. With the
co-operation of the Indians under their chief Saturiba he captured
Fort San Mateo in the spring of 1568, and on the spot where
the garrison of Fort Caroline had been executed, he hanged
his Spanish prisoners, inscribing on a tablet of pine the words,
" I do this not as unto Spaniards but as to traitors, robbers
and murderers." Feeling unable to attack St Augustine, de
Gourgues returned to France.
The Spanish settlements experienced many vicissitudes.
The Indians were hostile and the missionary efforts among them
failed. In 1586 St Augustine was almost destroyed by Sir
Francis Drake and it also suffered severely by an attack of
Captain John Davis in 1665. No until the last decade of the
1 7th century did the Spanish authorities attempt to extend the
settlements beyond the east coast. Then, jealous of the French
explorations along the Gulf of Mexico, they turned their atten-
tion to the west coast, and in 1696 founded Pensacola. When
the English colonies of the Carolinas and Georgia were founded,
there was constant friction with Florida. The Spanish were
accused of inciting the Indians to make depredations on the
English settlements and of interfering with English commerce
and the Spanish were in constant fear of the encroachments of
the British. In 1702, when Great Britain and Spain were con-
tending in Europe, on opposite sides, in the war of the Spanish
Succession, a force from South Carolina captured St Augustine
and laid siege to the fort, but being unable to reduce it for lack
of necessary artillery, burned the town and withdrew at the
approach of Spanish reinforcements. In 1706 a Spanish and
French expedition against Charleston, South Carolina, failed,
and the Carolinians retaliated by invading middle Florida in
1708 and again in 1722. In 1740 General James Edward Ogle-
thorpe, governor of Georgia, supported by a naval force, made
an unsuccessful attack upon St Augustine; two years later a
Spanish expedition against Savannah by way of St Simon's
Island failed, and in 1745 Oglethorpe again appeared before
the walls of St Augustine, but the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
in 1748 prevented further hostilities. Pensacola, the other
centre of Spanish settlement, though captured and occupied
(1719-1723) by the French from Louisiana, had a more peaceful
history.
By the treaty of Paris in 1763 Florida was ceded to England
in return for Havana. The provinces of East Florida and
West Florida were now formed, the boundaries of West Florida
being 31 N. lat. (when civil government was organized in 1767,
the N. line was made 32 28'), the Chattahoochee, and the
Apalachicola rivers, the Gulf of Mexico, Mississippi Sound,
Lakes Borgne, Pontchartrain and Maurepas, and the Mississippi
river. A period of prosperity now set in. Civil in place of
military government was instituted; immigration began;
and Andrew Turnbull, an Englishman, brought over a band of
about 1500 Minorcans (1769), whom he engaged in the cultivation
of indigo at New Smyrna. Roads were laid out, some of which
yet remain; and in the last three years of English occupation
the government spent $580,000 on the two provinces. Conse-
quently, the people of Florida were for the most part loyal to
Great Britain during the War of American Independence. In
1776, the Minorcans of New Smyrna refused to work longer on the
indigo plantations; and many of them removed to St Augustine,
where they were protected by the authorities. Several plans
were made to invade South Carolina and Georgia, but none
matured until 1778, when an expedition was organized which
co-operated with British forces from New York in the siege
of Savannah, Georgia. In the following year, Spain having
declared war against Great Britain, Don Bernardo de Galvez
(1756-1794), the Spanish governor at New Orleans, seized most
of the English forts in West Florida, and in 1781 captured
Pensacola.
By the treaty of Paris (1783) Florida reverted to Spain, and,
no religious liberty being promised, many of the English in-
habitants left East and West Florida. A dispute with the
United States concerning the northern boundary was settled by
the treaty of 1795, the line 31 N. lat. being established.
The westward expansion of the United States made necessary
American ports on the Gulf of Mexico; consequently the acquisi-
tion of West Florida as well as of New Orleans was one of the
FLORIDA
545
aims of the negotiations which resulted in the Louisiana Purchase
of 1803. After the cession of Louisiana to the United States,
the people of West Florida feared that that province would be
seized by Bonaparte. They, therefore, through a convention
at Buhler's Plains (July 17, 1810), formulated plans for a
more effective government. When it was found that the Spanish
governor did not accept these plans in good faith, another con-
vention was held on the 26th of September which declared
West Florida to be an independent state, organized a government
and petitioned for admission to the American Union. On the
27th of October President James Madison, acting on a theory of
Robert R. Livingston that West Florida was ceded by Spain to
France in 1800 along with Louisiana, and was therefore included
by France in the sale of Louisiana to the United States in 1803,
declared West Florida to be under the jurisdiction of the United
States. Two years later the American Congress annexed the
portion of West Florida between the Pearl and the Mississippi
rivers to Louisiana (hence the so-called Florida parishes of
Louisiana), and that between the Pearl and the Perdido to the
Mississippi Territory.
In the meantime war between Great Britain and the United
States was imminent. The American government asked the
Spanish authorities of East Florida to permit an American
occupation of the country in order that it might not be seized
by Great Britain and made a base of military operations. When
the request was refused, American forces seized Fernandina in
the spring of 181 2, an action that was repudiated by the American
government after protest from Spain, although it was authorized
in official instructions. About the same time an attempt to
organize a government at St Mary's was made by American
sympathizers, and a petty civil war began between the Americans,
who called themselves " Patriots," and the Indians, who were
encouraged by the Spanish. In 1814 British troops landed
at Pensacola to begin operations against the United States.
In retaliation General Andrew Jackson captured the place, but
in a few days withdrew to New Orleans. The British then
built a fort on the Apalachicola river, and there directed expedi-
tions of Indians and runaway negroes against the American
settlements, which continued long after peace was concluded
in 1814. In 1818 General Jackson, believing that the Spanish
were aiding the Seminole Indians and inciting them to attack
the Americans, again captured Pensacola. By the treaty of
1819 Spain formally ceded East and West Florida to the United
States; the treaty was ratified in 1821, when the United States
took formal possession, but civil government was not established
until 1822.
Indian affairs furnished the most serious problems of the
new Territory of Florida. The aborigines, who seemed to have
reached a stage of civilization somewhat similar to that of
the Aztecs, were conquered and exterminated or absorbed by
Creeks about the middle of the i8th century. There was a
strong demand for the removal of these Creek Indians, known
as Seminoles, and by treaties at Payne's Landing in 1832 and
Fort Gibson in 1833 the Indian chiefs agreed to exchange their
Florida lands for equal territory in the western part of the United
States. But a strong sentiment against removal suddenly
developed, and the efforts of the United States to enforce the
treaty brought on the Seminole War (1836-42), which resulted
in the removal of all but a few hundred Seminoles whose
descendants still live in southern Florida.
In 1845 Florida became a state of the American Union. On
the toth of January 1861 an ordinance of secession, which
declared Florida to be a " sovereign and independent nation,"
was adopted by a state convention, and Florida became one of
the Confederate States of America. The important coast towns
were readily captured by Union forces; Fernandina, Pensacola
and St Augustine in 1862, and Jacksonville in 1863; but an
invasion of the interior in 1864 failed, the Union forces being
repulsed in a battle at Olustee (on the 2oth of February 1864).
In 1865 a provisional governor was appointed by President
Andrew Johnson, and a new state government was organized.
The legislature of 1866 rejected the Fourteenth Amendment
x.i*
to the Federal Constitution, and soon afterwards Florida was
made a part of the Third Military District, according to the
Reconstruction Act of 1867. Negroes were now registered as
voters by the military authorities, and another Constitutional
Convention met in January and February 1868. A factional
strife in the dominant party, the Republican, now began; fifteen
delegates withdrew from the convention; the others framed a
constitution, and then resolved themselves into a political
convention. The seceding members with nine others then
returned and organized; but the factions were reconciled by
General George M. Meade. A new constitution was framed and
was ratified by the electors, and Florida passed from under a
quasi-military to a full civil government on the 4th of July 1868.
The factional strife in the Republican party continued, a
number of efforts being made to impeach Governor Harrison
Reed (1813-1899). The decisive year of the Reconstruction
Period was 1876. The Canvassing Board, which published the
election returns, cast out some votes, did not wait for the returns
from Dade county, and declared the Republican ticket elected.
George F. Drew (1827-1900), the Democratic candidate for
governor, then secured a mandamus from the circuit court
restraining the board from going behind the face of the election
returns; this was not obeyed and a similar mandamus was
therefore obtained from the supreme court of Florida, which
declared that the board had no right to determine the legality
of a particular vote. According to the new count thus ordered,
the Democratic state ticket was elected. By a similar process
the board's decision in favour of the election of Republican
presidential electors was nullified, and the Democratic electors
were declared the successful _ candidates; but the electoral
commission, appointed by Congress, reversed this decision. (See
ELECTORAL COMMISSION.)
Since 1876 Florida has been uniformly Democratic in politics.
AMERICAN GOVERNORS OF FLORIDA.
Territorial Governors.
Andrew Jackson . 1821-1822
William P. Duval 1822-1834
John H. Eaton . 1834-1835
Richard K. Call . 1835-1840
Robert R. Reid . 1840-1841
Richard K. Call . 1841-1844
John Branch . 1844-1845
State Governors.
William D. Moseley
Thomas Brown
Tames E. Broome
Madison S. Perry
John Milton .
William Marvin
David S. Walker
Harrison Reed
Ossian B. Hart
Marcellus L. Stearns
George F. Drew
William D. Bloxham
Edward A. Perry .
Francis P. Fleming
Henry L. Mitchell
William D. Bloxham
William S. Jennings
Napoleon B. Broward
Albert W. Gilchrist
1845-1849 Democrat
1849-1853 Whig
1853-1857 Democrat
1857-1861
1861-1865 ..
1865 Provisional
1865-1868 Democrat
1868-1872 Republican
1873-1874
1874-1877
1877-1881 Democrat
1881-1885
1885-1889
1889-1893
1893-1897
1897-1901
1901-1905
1905-1909
1909-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Physical and economic conditions are discussed
in a pamphlet (591 pp.) published by the State Department of
Agriculture, Florida, a Pamphlet Descriptive of its History, Topo-
graphy, Climate, Soil, &c. (Tallahassee, 1904) ; in Climate, Soil and
Resources of Florida (United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington, 1882) ; A Preliminary Report on the Soils of Florida
(United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Soils, Bulletin
13, 1898) ; C. L. Norton's Handbook of Florida (2nd edition, New
York, 1892); the volumes of the Twelfth Census of the United
States (for 1900) which treat of Agriculture and Manufactures, and
the Special Report on Mines and Quarries for 1902. J. N. Mac-
Gonigle's " Geography of Florida " (National Geographic Magazine,
vol. 7), T. D. A. Cockerell's " West Indian Fauna in Florida "
(Nature, vol. 46), L. F. Pourtales's " Flora and Fauna of the Florida
Keys " (American Naturalist, vol. n), and C. F. Millspaugh's Flora
of the Sand Keys of Florida (Chicago, 1907), a Field Columbian
Museum publication, are of value. To sportsmen, C. B. Cory's
Hunting and Fishing in Florida (Boston, 1896) and A. W. and
54-6
FLORIDABLANCA FLORIO
T. A. Dimock's Florida Enchantments (New York, 1908) areof interest.
For administration, see Wilbur F. Yocum's Civil Government of
Florida (De Land, Florida, 1904); and the Revised Statutes of
Florida (1892). The standard history is that by G. R. Fairbanks,
History of Florida (Philadelphia, 1871). This should be supple-
mented by D. G. Brinton's Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, its
Literary History, Indian Tribes and Antiquities (Philadelphia, 1859),
which has an excellent descriptive bibliography of the early ex-
plorations: Woodbury Lowery, The Spanish Settlements within the
Present Limits of the United States (New York, vol. i., 1901 ; vol. ii.,
sub-title Florida, 1905) ; R. L. Campbell's Historical Sketches of
Colonial Florida (Cleveland, 1892), which treats at length of the
history of Pensacola; H. E. Chambers's West Florida and its
Relation to the Historical Cartography of the United States (Johns
Hopkins Studies in Historical and Political Science, Series 1 6,
No. 5) ; and Herbert B. Fuller's The Purchase of Florida; its History
and Diplomacy (Cleveland, O., 1906). Theonly published collections
of documents relating to the state are Buckingham Smith's Colleccion
de varies documentos para la historia de la Florida y tierras adyacentes
(London, 1857), and Benjamin F. French's Historical Collections of
Louisiana (New York, 1846-1875).
FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSE MONINO Y REDONDO,
COUNT OF (1728-1808), Spanish statesman, was born at Murcia
in 1728. He was the son of a retired army officer, and received
a good education, which he completed at the university of
Salamanca, especially applying himself to the study of law.
For a time he followed the profession of an advocate, and acquired
a high reputation. A more public career was opened to him
by the marquis of Esquilache, then chief minister of state, who
sent him ambassador to Pope Clement XIV. Successful in his
mission, he was soon after appointed by Charles III. successor
to his patron, and his administration was one of the most brilliant
Spain had ever seen. He regulated the police of Madrid, reformed
many abuses, projected canals, established .many societies of
agriculture and economy and many philanthropical institutions,
and gave encouragement to learning, science and the fine arts.
Commerce flourished anew under his rule, and the long-standing
disputes with Portugal about the South American colonies were
settled. He sought to strengthen the alliance of Spain with
Portugal by a double marriage between the members of the
royal houses, designing by this arrangement to place ultimately
a Spanish prince on the throne of Portugal. But in this he failed.
Floridablanca was the right-hand man of King Charles III. in
his policy of domestic reform, and was much under the influence
of French philosophes and economic writers. Like other re-
formers of that school he was a strong supporter of the royal
authority and a convinced partisan of benevolent despotism.
The French Revolution frightened him into reaction, and he
advocated the support of the first coalition against France.
He retained his office for three years under Charles IV. ; but in
1792, through the influence of the favourite Godoy, he was
dismissed and imprisoned in the castle of Pampeluna. Here
he was saved from starvation only by the intervention of his
brother. He was afterwards aUowed to retire to his estates,
and remained in seclusion till the French invasion of 1808. He
was then called by his countrymen to take the presidency of
the central junta. But his strength failed him, and he died at
Seville on the soth of November of the same year. He left
several short treatises on jurisprudence.
See Obras originates del Conde de Floridablanca, edited, with bio-
graphical introduction, by A. Ferrer del Rio; in the Biilicteca de
Rivadeneyra, vol. lix.
FLORIDOR fJcsiAS DE SOULAS, Sieur de Prinefosse] (d. c.
1671), French actor, was born in Brie early in the i7th century,
the son of a gentleman of German family who had moved to
France, married there, and become a Roman Catholic. The son
entered the French army, but after being promoted ensign,
quitted the army for the theatre, where he took the name
of Floridor. His first Paris appearance was in 1640. Three
years later he was called to the company at the H&tel de Bour-
gogne, where he played all the leading parts in tragedy and
comedy and became the head of his profession. He was a man
of superb physique and excellent carriage, with a flexible and
sonorous voice, and manners of rare distinction and elegance,
He was much liked at court, and Louis XIV. held him in particular
esteem. He died in 1671 or 1672.
FLORIN, the name applied to several coins of the continent
of Europe and to two coins struck in England at different times.
The word comes through the Fr. florin from the Ital. fiorino,
flower, Lat. flos, florem. Fiorino was the Italian name of a gold
coin issued at Florence in 1252, weighing about fifty-four grains.
This coin bore on the obverse a lily, from which it took its name
of " the flower," on the reverse the Latin name of the city
Florentia, from which it was also known as a " florence."
" Florin " and " florence " seem to have been used in English
indiscriminately as the name of this coin. The Florentine florin
was held in great commercial repute throughout Europe, and
similar coins were struck in Germany, other parts of Italy,
France, &c. The English gold florin was introduced by Edward
III. in 1343, half and quarter florins being struck at the same
time. This gold florin weighed 108 grains and was to be current
for six shillings. It was found, however, to be overvalued in
proportion to the silver currency and was demonetized the
following year. The florin did not again appear in the English
coinage until 1849, when silver coins with this name, having
a nominal value of two shillings (one-tenth of a pound), were
struck. When first issued the " Dei gratia " was omitted from
the inscription, and they were frequently referred to as the
" Godless " or " graceless " florins. The D.G. was added in
1852. In 1887 a double florin or four shilling piece was issued,
but its coinage was discontinued in 1890. The total value of
double florins issued during these years amounted to 533,125.
(See also NUMISMATICS.)
FLORIO, GIOVANNI (i553?-i625), English writer, was born
in London about 1553. He was of Tuscan origin, his parents
being Waldenses who had fled from persecution in the Valtelline
and taken refuge in England. His father, Michael Angelo
Florio, was pastor of an Italian Protestant congregation in
London in 1550. He was attached to the household of Sir
William Cecil, but dismissed on a charge of immorality. He
dedicated a book on the Italian language to Henry Herbert,
and may have been a tutor in the family of William Herbert,
earl of Pembroke. Anthony a Wood says that the Florios left
England on the accession of Queen Mary, but returned after her
death. The son resided for a time at Oxford, and was appointed,
about 1576 tutor to the son of Richard Barnes, bishop of Durham,
then studying at Magdalen College. In 1578 Florio published
a work entitled First Fruits, which yield Familiar Speech, Merry
Proverbs, Witty Sentences, and Golden Sayings (4to). This was
accompanied by A Perfect Induction to the Italian and English
Tongues. The work was dedicated to the earl of Leicester.
Three years later Florio was admitted a member of Magdalen
College, and became a teacher of French and Italian in the univer-
sity. In 1591 appeared his Second Fruits, to be gathered of
Twelve Trees, of divers but delightsome Tastes to the Tongues of
Italian and English men; to which was annexed the Garden of
Recreation, yielding six thousand Italian Proverbs (4to). These
manuals contained an outline of the grammar, a selection of
dialogues in parallel columns of Italian and English, and longer
extracts from classical Italian writers in prose and verse. Florio
had many patrons; he says that he " lived some years " with
the earl of Southampton, and the earl of Pembroke also be-
friended him. His Italian and English dictionary, entitled
A World of Words, was published in folio in 1598. After the
accession of James I., Florio was named French and Italian
tutor to Prince Henry, and afterwards became a gentleman of the
privy chamber and clerk of the closet to the queen, whom he
also instructed in languages. His magnum opus is the admirable
translation of the Essayes on Morall, Politike, and Millitarie
Discourses of Lo. Michaell de Montaigne, 'published in folio in
1603 in three books, each dedicated to two noble ladies. A
second edition in 1613 was dedicated to the queen. Special
interest attaches to the first edition from the circumstance that
of the several copies in the British Museum library one bears
the autograph of Shakespeare long received as genuine but
now supposed to be by an iSth-century hand and another that
of Ben Jonson. It was suggested by Warburton that Florio is
satirized by Shakespeare under the character of Holofernes, the
FLORIS FLOTOW
547
pompous pedant of Low's Labour's Lost, but it is much more likely,
especially as he was one of the earl of Southampton's proteges,
that he was among the personal friends of the dramatist, who
may well have gained his knowledge of Italian and French from
him. He had married the sister of the poet Daniel, and had
friendly relations with many writers of his day. Ben Jonson
sent him a copy of Volpone with the inscription, " To his loving
father and worthy friend Master John Florio, Ben Jonson
seals this testimony of his friendship and love." He is character-
ized by Wood, in Athenae Oxonienses, as a very useful man in
his profession, zealous for his religion, and deeply attached to
his adopted country. He died at Fulham, London, in the
autumn of 1625.
FLORIS, FRANS, or more correctly FRANS DE VEIENDT,
called FLORIS (1520-1570), Flemish painter, was one of a large
family trained to the study of art in Flanders. Son of a stone-
cutter, Cornells de Vriendt, who died at Antwerp in 1538, he
began life as a student of sculpture, but afterwards gave up
carving for painting. At the age of twenty he went to Li6ge
and took lessons from Lambert Lombard, a pupil of Mabuse,.
whose travels in Italy had transformed a style truly Flemish
into that of a mongrel Leonardesque. Following in the footsteps
of Mabuse, Lambert Lombard had visited Florence, and caught
the manner of Salviati and other pupils of Michelangelo and
Del Sarto. It was about the time when Schoreel, Coxcie and
Heemskerk, after migrating to Rome and imitating the master-
pieces of Raphael and Buonarroti, came home to execute Dutch-
Italian works beneath the level of those produced in the peninsula
itself by Leonardo da Pistoia, Nanaccio and Rinaldo of Mantua.
Fired by these examples, Floris in his turn wandered across
the Alps, and appropriated without assimilation the various
mannerisms of the schools of Lombardy, Florence and Rome.
Bold, quick and resolute, he saw how easy it would be to earn a
livelihood and acquire a name by drawing for engravers and
painting on a large scale after the fashion of Vasari. He came
home, joined the gild of Antwerp in 1540, and quickly opened a
school from which 120 disciples are stated to have issued. Floris
painted strings of large pictures for the country houses of Spanish
nobles and the villas of Antwerp patricians. He is known to
have illustrated the fable of Hercules in ten compositions, and
the liberal arts in seven, for Claes Jongeling, a merchant of
Antwerp, and adorned the duke of Arschot's palace of Beaumont
with fourteen colossal panels. Comparatively few of his works
have descended to us, partly because they came to be contemned
for their inherent defects, and so were suffered to perish, partly
because they were soon judged by a different standard from
that of the Flemings of the i6th century. The earliest extant
canvas by Floris is the " Mars and Venus ensnared by Vulcan " in
the Berlin Museum (1547), the latest a " Last Judgment " (1566)
in the Brussels gallery. Neither these nor any of the intermediate
works at Alost, Antwerp, Copenhagen, Dresden, Florence,
Leau, Madrid, St Petersburg and Vienna display any charm
of originality in composition or in form. Whatever boldness
and force they may possess, or whatever principles they may
embody, they are mere appropriations of Italian models spoiled
in translation or adaptation. Their technical execution reveals
a rapid hand, but none of the lustre of bright colouring; and
Floris owed much of his repute to the cleverness with which
his works were transferred to copper by Jerome Cock and
Theodore de Galle. Whilst Floris was engaged on a Crucifixion
of 27 ft., and a Resurrection of equal size, for the grand prior
of Spain, he was seized with illness, and died on the ist of October
1 570 at Antwerp. .
FLORUS, Roman historian, flourished in the time of Trajan
and Hadrian. He compiled, chiefly from Livy, a brief sketch
of the history of Rome from the foundation of the city to t)
closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus (25 B.C.). The work,
which is called Epitome de T. Lino Bellorum omnium annorum
DCC Libri duo, is written in a bombastic and rhetorical style,
and is rather a panegyric of the greatness of Rome, whose life
is divided into the four periods of infancy, youth, manhooc
and old age. It is often wrong in geographical and chronological
details; but, in spite of its faults, the book was much used in the
middle ages. In the MSS. the writer is variously given as Julius
Florus, Lucius Anneus Florus, or simply Annaeus Florus. From
certain similarities of style he has been identified with Publius
Annius Florus, poet, rhetorician and friend of Hadrian, author
of a dialogue on the question whether Virgil was an orator or
poet, of which the introduction has been preserved.
The best editions are by O. Jahn (1852), C. Halm (1854), which
contain the fragments of the Virgilian dialogue. There is an English
translation in Bohn's Classical Library.
FLORUS, JULIUS, poet, orator, and jurist of the Augustan
age. His name has been immortalized by Horace, who dedicated
to him two of his Epistles (i. 3; ii. 2), from which it would
appear that he composed lyrics of a light, agreeable kind. The
statement of Porphyrion, the old commentator on Horace, that
Florus himself wrote satires, is probably erroneous, but he may
have edited selections from the earlier satirists (Ennius, Lucilius,
Varro). Nothing is definitely known of his personality, except
that he was one of the young men who accompanied Tiberius on
his mission to settle the affairs of Armenia. He has been variously
identified with Julius Florus, a distinguished orator and uncle
of Julius Secundus, an intimate friend of Quintilian (Instil, x.
3, 13) ; with the leader of an insurrection of the Treviri (Tacitus,
Ann. iii. 40); with the Postumus of Horace (Odes, ii. 14)
and even with the historian Florus.
FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS, Roman poet and rhetorician,
identified by some authorities with the historian Florus (g.v.).
The introduction to a dialogue called Virgilius orator an poeta
is extant, in which the author (whose name is given as Publius
Annius Florus) states that he was born in Africa, and at an
early age took part in the literary contests on the Capitol insti-
tuted by Domitian. Having been refused a prize owing to the
prejudice against African provincials, he left Rome in disgust,
and after travelling for some time set up at Tarraco as a teacher
of rhetoric. Here he was persuaded by an acquaintance to
return to Rome, for it is generally agreed that he is the Florus
who wrote the well-known lines quoted together with Hadrian's
answer by Aelius Spartianus (Hadrian 16). Twenty-six trochaic
tetrameters, De qualitate iiitae, and five graceful hexameters,
De rosis, are also attributed to him. Florus is important as
being the first in order of a number of 2nd-century African
writers who exercised a considerable influence on Latin literature,
and also the first of the poetae neoterici or novelli (new-fashioned
poets) of Hadrian's reign, whose special characteristic was the
use of lighter and graceful metres (anapaestic and iambic
dimeters), which had hitherto found little favour.
The little poems will be found in E. Bahrens, Poetae Latini minores
(1879-1883) ; for an unlikely identification of Fionas with the author
of the Penrigilium Veneris (q.v.) see E. H. O. Miiller, De P. Annio
Flora poeta el de Pervigilio Veneris (1855), and, for the poet's re-
lations with Hadrian, F. Eyssenhardt, Hadrian und Florus (1882);
see also F. Marx in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie, i. pt. 2 (1894).
FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND ADOLF VON, FREIHERR
(1812-1883), German composer, was born on his father's estate
at Teutendorf, in Mecklenburg, on the 27th of April 1812.
Destined originally for the diplomatic profession, his passion
for music induced his father to send him to Paris to study
under Reicha. But the outbreak of the revolution in 1830
caused his return home, where he busied himself writing chamber-
music and operetta until he was able to return to Paris. There
he produced Pierre et Catherine, Rob Roy, La Duchesse de Guise,
but made his first real success with Le Naufrage de la Meduse
at the Renaissance Thdatre in 1838. Greater, however, was the
success which attended Stradella (1844) and Martha (1847),
which made the tour of the world. In 1848 Flotow was again
driven home by the Revolution, and in the course of a few years
he produced Die Grossfiirstin (1850), Indra (1853), Rubezahl
(1854), Hilda (1855) and Albin (1856). From 1856 to 1863
he was director (Intendant) of the Schwerin opera, but in the
latter year he returned to Paris, where in 1869 he produced
L' Ombre. From that time to the date of his death he lived in
Paris or on his estate near Vienna. He died on the 24th of
FLOTSAM FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE
January 1883. Of his concert-music only the Jubelouvertiire
is now ever heard. His strength lay in the facility of his
melodies.
FLOTSAM, JETSAM and LIGAN, in English law, goods lost
at sea, as distinguished from goods which come to land, which
are technically designated wreck. Jetsam (the same word as
jettison, from Lat. jactare, to throw) is when goods are cast into
the sea, and there sink and remain under water; flotsam (floatson,
from float, Lat. flottare) is where they continue floating on the
surface of the waves; ligan (or lagan, from lay or lie) is where
they are sunk in the sea, but tied to a cork or buoy in order to
be found again. Flotsam, jetsam and ligan belong to the
sovereign in the absence only of the true owner. Wreck, on the
other hand (i.e. goods cast on shore), was by the common law
adjudged to the sovereign in any case, because it was said by
the loss of the ship all property was gone out of the original
owner. This singular distinction which treated goods washed
ashore as lost, and goods on and in the sea as not lost, is no doubt
to be explained by the primitive practice of plundering wrecked
ships. (See WRECK.)
FLOUNDER, a common term for flat-fish. The name is also
more specially given to certain varieties, according to local
usage. Thus the Pleuronectes flesus is the common flounder
of English terminology, found along the coasts of northern
Europe from the Bristol Channel to Iceland. It is particularly
partial to fresh water, ascending the Rhine as far as Cologne.
It rarely exceeds a length of 12 in. or a weight of 15 Ib. In
American terminology the principal fish of the name are the
" summer flounders " or " deep-sea flounders," also known
in America as " plaice " (Paralichlhys dentatus), as long as 3 ft.
and as heavy as 15 ft>; the "four-spotted flounders" (Para-
lichthys oblongus); the "common" or "winter" flounder
(Pseudopleuronectes americanus) ; the " diamond flounder "
(Hysopsella guttulata); and the " pole flounder " (Glyptocephalus
cynoglossus).
FLOUR and FLOUR MANUFACTURE. The term "flour"
(Fr. fleur, flower, i.e. the best part) is usually applied to the
triturated farinaceous constituents of the wheat berry (see
WHEAT) ; it is, however, also used of other cereals and even of
leguminoids when ground into a fine powder, and of many other
substances in a pulverulent state, though in these cases it is
usual to speak of rye flour, bean flour, &c. The flour obtained
from oats is generally termed oatmea). In Great Britain wheaten
flour was commonly known in the i6th and I7th centuries as
meal, and up to the beginning of the ipth century, or perhaps
later, the term mealing trade was not infrequently used of the
milling trade.
The ancestor of the millstone was apparently a rounded stone
about the size of a man's fist, with which grain or nuts were
pounded and crushed into a rude meal. These stones
grtndtag. are generally of hard sandstone and were evidently
used against another stone, which by dint of continual
hammering was broken into hollows. Sometimes the crusher
was used on the surface of rocks. St Bridget's stone, on the
shore of Lough Macnean, is supposed to have been a primitive
Irish mill; there are many depressions in the face of the table-
like rock, and it is probable that round this stone several women
(for in early civilization the preparation of flour was peculiarly
the duty of the women) would stand and grind, or rather pound,
meal. Many such stones, known as Bullan stones, still exist in
Ireland. Similar remains are found in the Orkneys and Shetlands,
and it is on record that some of these stones have been used
for flour-making within historic times. Richard Bennett in his
History of Corn Milling remarks that the Seneca Indians to this
day boil maize and crush it into a paste between loose stones.
In the same way the Omahas pound this cereal in holes in the
rocks, while the Oregon Indians parch and pound the capsules
of the yellow lily, much after the fashion described by Herodotus
in his account of the ancient Egyptians. In California the
Indian squaws make a sort of paste by crushing acorns between
a round stone or " muller," and a cuplike hollow in the surface
of a rock. Crushing stones are of different shapes, ranging
Quern.
from the primitive ball-like implement to an elongated shape
resembling the pestle of a mortar. Mullers of the latter type
are not infrequent among prehistoric remains in America, while
Dr Schliemann discovered several specimens of the globular
form on the reputed site of the city of Troy, and also among the
ruins of Mycenae. As a matter of fact stone mullers survived
in highly civilized countries into modern days, if indeed they are
now altogether extinct.
The saddle-stone is the connecting link between the primitive
pounder, or muller, and the quern, which was itself the direct
ancestor of the millstones still used to some extent
in the manufacture of flour. The saddle-stone, the stone"'
first true grinding implement, consisted of a stone with
a more or less concave face on which the grain was spread, and
in and along this hollow surface it was rubbed and ground into
coarse meal. Saddle-stones have been discovered in the sand
caves of Italy, among the lake dwellings of Switzerland, in the
dolmens of France, in the pit dwellings of the British Isles, and
among the remains of primitive folk all the world over. The
Romans of the classical period seem to have distinguished the
saddle-stone from the quern. We find allusions to the mold
trusatilis, which may be translated " the thrusting mill "; this
would fairly describe a backwards and forwards motion. The
mola iiersatilis evidently referred to the revolving millstone or
quern. In primitive parts of the world the saddle-stone is not
yet extinct, as for instance in Mexico. It is known as the metata,
and is used both for grinding maize and for making the maize
cakes known as tortillas. The same implement is apparently
still in use in some parts of South America, notably in Chile.
According to Richard Bennett, the quern, the first complete
milling machine, originated in Italy and is in all probability
not older than the 2nd century B.C. This is, however,
a controverted point. Querns are still used in most
primitive countries, nor is it certain that they have altogether
disappeared from remoter districts of Scotland and Ireland.
Whatever was their origin, they revolutionized flour milling.
The rotary motion of millstones became the essential principle
of the trituration of grain, and exists to-day in the rolls of the
roller mill. The early quern appears to have differed from its
descendants in that it was somewhat globular in shape, the
lower stone being made conical, possibly with the idea that the
ground flour should be provided with a downward flow to enable
it to fall from the stones. This type did not, however, persist.
Gradually the convexity disappeared and the surface of the
two stones became flat or very nearly so. In the upper stone
was a species of funnel, through which the grain passed as through
a hopper, making its way thence, as the stone revolved, into the
space between the running and the bed stone. The ground
meal was discharged at the periphery. The runner, or upper
stone, was provided with a wooden handle by which the stone
was revolved. The typical Roman mill of the Augustan age
may be seen at Pompeii. Here, in what is believed to have
been a public pistrinum or mill, were found four pairs of mill-
stones. The circular base of these mills is 5 ft. in diameter and
1 ft. high, and upon it was fastened the meta, a blunt cone about
2 ft. high, on which fitted the upper millstone or calUlus, also
conical. These mills were evidently rotated by slave labour,
as there was no room for the perambulation of a horse or donkey,
while the side-lugs in which the handle-bars were inserted are
plainly visible. Slave labour was generally used up to the
introduction of Christianity, but was finally abolished by the
emperor Constantine, though even after his edict mills continued
to be driven by criminals.
The Romans are credited by some authorities with having
first applied power to the driving of millstones, which they
connected with water-wheels by a horizontal spindle
through the intervention of bevel gearing. But long power.
after millstones had been harnessed to water power
slave labour was largely employed as a motive force. The water-
mill of the Romans was introduced at a relatively early period
into Britain. Domesday Book shows that England was covered
by mills of a kind at the time of the Norman conquest, and
FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE
549
Roller
milling.
mentions some 500 mills in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk
alone. No doubt the mola of Domesday Book consisted of one
pair of stones connected by rude gearing with a water-wheel.
Windmills are said to have been introduced by the Crusaders,
who brought them from the East. Steam power is believed
to have been first used in a British flour mill towards the close
of the 1 8th century, when Boulton & Watt installed a steam
engine in the Albion Flour Mills in London, erected under the
care of John Rennie. Another great engineer, Sir William
Fairbairn, in the early days of the iQth century, left the impress
of his genius on the mill and all its accessories. He was followed
by other clever engineers, and in the days immediately preceding
the roller period many improvements were introduced as regards
the balancing and driving of millstones. The introduction of
the blast and exhaust to keep the stones cool was a great step
in advance, while the substitution of silk gauze for woollen or
linen bolting cloth, about the middle of the ipth century, marked
another era in British milling. Millstones, as used just before
the introduction of roller milling, were from 4 to 45 ft. in diameter
by some 1 2 in. in thickness, and were usually made of a siliceous
stone, known as buhr-stone, much of which came from the quarry
of La Ferte-sous-Jouarre, in France.
Nine-tenths, or perhaps ninety-nine hundredths, of all the
flour consumed in Great Britain is made in roller mills, that is,
mills in which the wheat is broken and floured by
means of rollers, some grooved in varying degrees
of fineness, some smooth, their work being preceded
and supplemented by a wide range of other machinery. All
roller mills worthy of the name are completely automatic, that
is to say, from the time the raw material enters the mill warehouse
till it is sacked, either in the shape of finished flour or of offals,
it is touched by no human hand.
The history of roller milling extends back to the first half
of the igth century. Roller mills, that is to say, machines
fitted with rolls set either horizontally, or vertically, or obliquely,
for the' grinding of corn, are said to have been used as far back
as the 1 7th century, but if this be so it is certain that they were
only used in a tentative manner. Towards the middle of the
iQth century the firm of E. R. & F. Turner, of Ipswich, began to
build roller mills for breaking wheat as a preliminary to the
conversion of the resultant middlings on millstones. The rolls
were made of chilled iron and were provided with serrated edges,
which must have exercised a tearing action on the integuments
of the berry. These mills were built to the design of a German
engineer, of the name of G. A. Buchholz, and were exhibited at
the London exhibition of 1862, but they never came into general
use. It has also been stated that as early as 1823 a French
engineer, named Collier, of Paris, patented a roller mill, while
five years later a certain Malar took out another French patent,
the specification of which speaks of grooves and differential
speeds. But the direct ancestors of the roller mills of the present
day were brought out some time in the third decade of the ipth
century by a Swiss engineer named Sulzberger. His apparatus
was rather cumbrous, and the chilled iron rolls with which it
was fitted consumed a large amount of power relatively to the
work effected. But the Pester Walz-Muhle, founded in 1839
by Count Szechenyi, a Hungarian nobleman, which took its
name from the roller mills with which it was equipped by Sulz-
berger, was for many years a great success; some of its roller
mills are said to have been kept at work for upwards of forty
years, and one at least is preserved in the museum at Budapest.
It may be noted that Hungarian wheat is hard and flinty and
well adapted for treatment by rolls. Moreover, gradual reduction,
as now understood, was more or less practised in
Hungarian Hungary! everl before the introduction of roller
milling. Though millstones, and not rolls, were used,
yet the wheat was not floured at one operation, as in typical
low or flat grinding, but was reduced to flour in several successive
operations. In the first break the stones would be placed just
wide enough apart to " end " the wheat, and in each succeeding
operation the stones were brought closer together. But Hun-
garian milling was not then automatic in the sense in which
British millers understand the word. For a long time a great
deal of hand labour was employed in the merchant mills of
Budapest in carrying about products from one machine to
another for further treatment. This practice may have been
partly due to the cheap labour available, but it was also the
deliberate policy of Hungarian millers to handle in this way the
middlings and fine " dunst," because it was maintained that
only thus could certain products be delivered to the machine
by which they were to be treated in the perfection of condition.
The results were good so far as the finished products were con-
cerned, but in the light of modern automatic milling the system
appears uneconomical. Not only did it postulate an inordinately
large staff, but it further increased the labour bill by the demand
it made on the number of sub-foremen who were occupied in
classifying, largely by touch, the various products, and directing
the labourers under them. Hungarian milling still differs
widely from milling as practised in Great Britain in being a longer
system. This is due to the more minute subdivision of products,
a necessary consequence of the large number of grades of flour
and offals made in Hungary, where there are many intermediate
varieties of middlings and " dunst " for which no corresponding
terms are available in an English miller's vocabulary.
It will be convenient here to explain the meaning of three
terms constantly used by millers, namely, semolina, middlings
and dunst. These three products of roller mills are
practically identical in composition, but represent
different stages in the process of reducing the endo-
sperm of the wheat to flour. A wheat berry is covered
by several layers of skin, while under these layers is the floury
kernel or endosperm. This the break or grooved rolls tend to
tear and break up. The largest of these more or less cubical
particles are known as semolina, whilst the medium-sized are
called middlings and the smallest sized termed dunst. The last
is a German word, with several meanings, but is used in this
particular sense by German and Austrian millers, from whom
it was doubtless borrowed by the pioneers of roller milling in
England. If we were to lay a sample of fairly granular flour
beside a sample of small dunst the two would be easy to dis-
tinguish, but place a magnifying glass over the flour and it
would look very like the dunst. If we were to repeat this experi-
ment on dunst and fine middlings, the former would under the
glass present a strong resemblance to the middlings. The same
effect would be produced by the putting side by side of large
middlings and small semolina. This is a broad description of
semolina, middlings and dunst. Semolina and middlings are
more apt to vary in appearance than dunst, because the latter
is the product of the later stages of the milling process and
represents small particles of the floury kernel tolerably free
from such impurities as bran or fluff. The flour producing
middlings must not be confounded with the variety of wheat
offal which is also known to many English millers as middlings.
This consists of husk or bran, more or less comminuted, and with
a certain proportion of floury particles adherent. It is only
fit for feeding beasts.
The spread of roller milling on the continent of Europe was
undoubtedly accelerated by the invention of porcelain rolls,
by Friedrich Wegmann, a Swiss miller, which were
brought into general use in the seventh decade of the
igth century, and are still widely employed. They are
admirably fitted for the reduction of semolina, middlings and
dunst into flour; and for reducing pure middlings, that is,
middlings containing no bran or wheat husk, there is perhaps
nothing that quite equals them. They were introduced into
Great Britain in 1877, or thereabouts, and were used for several
years, but ultimately they almost disappeared from British
mills. This was partly due to the fact that as made at that date
they were rather difficult to work, as it was not easy to keep
the rolls perfectly parallel. Another drawback was . their in-
adaptability to over-heavy feeds, to which the British, and
perhaps still more the American, miller is frequently obliged
to resort. However, since the beginning of the 2oth century
some of the most advanced flour mills in England have again
*
550
FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE
taken to using porcelain rolls for some part of their reduction
process.
The birth of roller milling in Great Britain may be said to
date from 1872, when Oscar Oexle, a German milling engineer,
Roller erected a set of roller mills in the Tradeston Mills,
mining in Glasgow. This was long before the introduction of
la automatic roller mills. But the foundations of the
England, j^^ng S y s tem were not seriously disturbed till
1877, when a party of leading British and Irish millers visited
Vienna and Budapest with the object of studying roller milling
in its native home. In 1878 J. H. Carter installed in the mill
of J. Boland, of Dublin, what was probably the first complete
automatic roller plant erected in the United Kingdom, and in
1881 a milling exhibition held at the Royal Agricultural Hall,
London, showed the automatic roller system in complete opera-
tion. From that time the roller system made great progress.
By 1885 many of the leading British millers had installed full
roller plants, and in the succeeding ten years small roller plants
were installed in many country mills. For a time there was a
transition stage in which there was in operation a number of so-
called " combined " plants, that is to say, mills in which the
wheat was broken on millstones or disk mills, while the middlings
were reduced by smooth rolls; but these gradually dropped out
of being.
Well-found British flour mills at the present time are probably
the best fitted in the world, and as a whole have nothing to fear
from comparison with their American competitors. It is true
that American millers were rather quicker to copy Hungarian
milling methods so far as gradual reduction was concerned.
But from about 1880 the British miller was quite awake to his
position and was straining every nerve to provide himself with
a plant capable of dealing with every kind of wheat. It has
often been said that he commands the wheat of the whole world.
This is true in a sense, but it is not true that he can always
command the exact kind of wheat he requires at the price
required to meet foreign competition. Therein he is at a dis-
advantage. But engineers have done their best to meet this
weak point, and by their assistance he is able to compete under
almost all conditions with the millers of the whole world.
Processes of Milling. Fully to appreciate the various processes
of modern milling, it must be remembered not only that the
wheat as delivered at the mill is dusty and mixed with sand and
even more objectionable refuse, but also that it contains many
light grains and seeds of other plants. It is not therefore sufficient
for the miller to be able to reduce the grain to flour on the most
approved principles; he must also have at command the means
of freeing it from foreign substances, and further of " condition-
ing " it, should it be damp or over dry and harsh. Again, his
operations must be conducted with reference to the structure
of the wheat grain. The wheat berry is a fruit, not a seed, the
actual seed being the germ or embryo, a kidney-shaped body
which is found at the base of the berry and is connected with
the plumule or root. The germ is tough in texture and is in
roller milling easily separated from the rest of the berry, being
flattened instead of crushed by the rolls and thus readily sifted
from the stock. The germ contains a good deal of fatty matter,
which, if allowed to remain, would not increase the keeping
qualities of the flour. Botanists distinguish five skins on the
berry epidermis, epicarp, endicarp, episperm and embryous
membrane but for practical purposes the number of integuments
may be taken as three. The inner skin is often as thick as the
outer and second skins together, which are largely composed
of woody fibre; it contains the cerealin or aleurone cells, but
although these are made up of a certain proportion of proteids,
on account of the discolouring and diastasic action of the cerealin
in flour they are best eliminated. The endosperm, or floury
kernel, coming next to the inner skin, consists of starch granules
which are caught as it were in the minute meshes of a net. This
network is the gluten, and it may be noted that these meshes
are not of equal consistency throughout the berry, but are
usually finer and more dense near the husk than in the interior
of the kernel. This glutinous portion is of great importance
to the baker because on its quantity and quality depends the
" strength " or rising power of the flour, and the aim of modern
roller milling is to retain it as completely as possible, a matter
of some difficulty owing to its close adherence to the husk,
especially in the richest wheats. Another organ of the wheat
berry which has a most important bearing on the work of the
miller is the placenta, which is in effect a cord connecting the
berry with its stalk or straw. The placenta serves to filter the
food which the plant sucks up from the ground; it passes up
the crease of the berry, and is enfolded in the middle skin, being
protected on the outer side by the first and having the third
or inner skin on its other side. A good deal of the matters
filtered by the placenta are mineral in their nature, and such
portions as are not digested remain in the crease. This is the
matter which millers call " crease dirt." It is highly discolouring
to flour, and must be carefully eliminated. The fuzzy end of the
berry known as the beard also has a distinct function; its hairs
are in reality tubes which serve to carry off superfluous moisture.
They have, in common with the bran, no nutritive value. (See
also WHEAT.)
In the old " flat " or " low " milling the object was to grind as
perfectly as possible, at one operation, the central substance of the
grain, constituting the flour, and to separate it from the embryo and
outer skins constituting the bran. In " high " milling, on the other
hand, the grinding is effected in a series of operations, the aim
being to get as much semolina and middlings as possible from the
wheat, and to make as little flour as possible during the earlier or
" breaking " part of the process. It is impossible altogether to
avoid the production of flour at this stage, but properly set and
worked break-rolls will make as little as 15% of. "break-flour,"
which is of less value, being contaminated with crease dirt, and
also because it is weak owing to the absence of the gluten cells which
adhere more readily to the middlings. Whole wheaten flour, some-
times called Graham flour, consists of the entire grain ground up
to a uniform mass.
Wheat cleaning has been well called the foundation of all good
milling. In the screen house, as the wheat-cleaning department
of the mill is termed, will be found an array of machinery
almost equal in range and variety to that in the mill
itself. The wheat, drawn by an elevator from the barge,
or hoisted in sacks, is first treated by a machine known as a ware-
house separator. This apparatus accomplishes its work by means
of flat sieves, some of which will be of much coarser mesh than
others, and of air currents, the adjustment of which is a more delicate
task than might appear. Tha warehouse separator serves to free
dirty wheat of such impurities as lumps of earth, stones, straws and
sand, not to mention small seeds, also some maize, oats and barley.
Great care has to be exercised in all operations of the screen house
lest wheat should pass away with the screenings. Besides the
warehouse separator, which is made in different types and sizes,
grading and sorting cylinders, and what are known as cockle and
barley cylinders, are much used in the screen house. These cylinders
are provided with indents so shaped and of such size as to catch
seeds which are smaller than wheat, and reject grains, as of barley or
oats, which are longer than wheat. Sorting cylinders should be
followed by machines known as scourers, the function of which is to
free the wheat from adherent impurities. These machines are of
different types, but all depend on percussive action. A vertical
scourer consists of a number of steel or iron beaters attached to a
vertical spindle which revolves inside a metallic woven or perforated
casing, the whole being fitted with an effectual exhaust. Scourers
with horizontal spindles are also in great favour. Not every wheat
is suitable for scouring, but some wheats are so mingled with im-
purities that a severe action between the beaters and the perforated
case is absolutely necessary. The most efficient scourer is that which
frees the wheat from the greatest amount of impurity with a mini-
mum of abrasion. The beaters should be adjustable to suit different
kinds of wheat. Scourers are followed by brush machines which
are similar to the last and are of three distinct types : solid, divided
and cone brushes. In the solid variety the brush surface is continu-
ous around the circumference of a revolving cylinder; in divided
brushes there is often a set of beaters or bars covered with brush
but leaving intermediate spaces; while the cone brush consists of
beaters covered with fibre arranged like cones around a vertical
spindle. The object of all these brushes, the cylinder containing
them being fitted with an exhaust fan, is to polish the wheat and
remove adhering impurities which the percussive action of the
scourer may have failed to eliminate, also to remove the beard or
fuzzy end and any loose portions of the outer husk. But the miller
must be careful not to overdo the scouring action and unnecessarily
abrade the berry, else he will have trouble with his flour, the tritu-
rated bran breaking under the rolls and producing powder which
will discolour the break flour. To remove such metallic fragments
as nails, pieces of wire, &c., magnets are used. These may either
FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE
be of horseshoe shape, in which case they are usually set at the head
of the wheat spouts, or they may consist of magnetized plates set
at angles over which the wheat will slide. It is not a bad plan to
place the magnets just before the first set of break-rolls, where they
should ensure the arrest of steel and iron particles, which might
otherwise get between the rolls and spoil the edges of their grooves,
and also do damage to the sifting machines. Mention must also
be made of the automatic scales which are used to check the milling
value of the wheat. In principle these machines are all the same,
though details of construction may vary. Each weigher is set for
a given weight of grain. As soon as the receiving (hopper has
poured through a valve into the recipient or skip, which is hung at
one end of a beam scale, a load of grain sufficient to overcome the
weight hung at the other end of the beam, the inlet of grain is auto-
matically cut off and the skip is discharged, automatically returning
to take another charge. Each weighing is automatically recorded
on a dial. In this way a record can be kept of the gross weight of
the uncleaned wheat entering the warehouse and of the net weight
of the cleaned wheat. The difference between the two weighings
will, of course, represent the loss by cleaning. The percentage of
flour obtained from a given wheat can be ascertained in the mill
itself. In practice the second weigher is placed just before the
first break.
The cleansing of wheat by washing only became a fine art at the
close of the igth century, though it '.vas practised in the north of
England some twenty years earlier. Briefly it may be said
that certain wheats are washed to free them from extrane-
'mlca- ous - matters sucn as adherent earth and similar impurities
dltloalast wn ' cn cou 'd not be removed by dry cleaning without
*' undue abrasion. Such wheats are Indians, Persians and
hard Russians, and these require not only washing but also condition-
ing, by which is meant mellowing, before going to the rolls. With
another class of wheats, such as the softer Russians and Indians,
spring Americans and Canadians, hard American winters, Cali-
fornians and the harder River Plates, washing and conditioning by
heat is also desirable, though care must be exercised not to let the
moisture penetrate into the endosperm or floury portion of the
kernel. In a third and distinct class fall soft wheats, such as many
kinds of Plates, soft Russians and English wheat. It is generally
admitted that while wheat of the first two divisions will benefit from
the application of both moisture and heat, wheat of the third class
must be washed with great circumspection. The object of washing
machines is to agitate the wheat in water till the adherent foreign
matters are washed off and any dirt balls broken up and drained off
in the waste water. To this end some washers are fitted with Archi-
medean worm conveyors set either at an inclined angle or horizon-
tally or vertically; or the washer may consist of a barrel revolving
in a tank partly filled with water. Another function of washing
machines is to separate stones of the same size which are found in
several varieties of wheat. This separation is effected by utilizing
a current of water as a balance strong enough to carry wheat but not
strong enough to carry stones or bodies of greater specific gravity
than wheat. This current may be led up an inclined worm or may
flow horizontally over a revolving tray. The washer is followed
by a whizzer, which is an apparatus intended to free the berry by
purely mechanical means from superfluous moisture. The typical
whizzer is a vertical column fed at the bottom and delivering at the
top. The wet wheat ascends by centrifugal force in a spiral direction
round the column to the top, and by the time it is discharged from
the spout at the top it has thrown off from its outer skin almost
all its moisture, the water escaping through the perforated cover
of the machine. But there still remains a certain amount of water
which has penetrated the integuments more or less deeply, and to
condition the berry it is treated by a combination of hot and cold air.
The wheat is passed between perforated metalplates and subjected
to a draught hrst of hot and then of cold air. The perforated plates
are usually built in the shape of a column, or leg as it is often called,
and this is provided with two air chambers, an upper one serving
as a reservoir for hot, and the lower for cold air. The air from both
chambers is discharged by pressure through the descending layers
of wheat, which should not be more than an inch thick; the air is
drawn in by a steel-plate fan, which is often provided with a divided
casing, one side being used for cold, andtheotherforhotair. Coupled
with the hot air side is a heater consisting of .a series of circulating
steam-heated pipes. The temperature of the heated air can be
regulated by the supply of steam to the heater. This process of
washing and conditioning, one of the most important in a flour
mill, is characteristically British; millers have to deal with wheats
of the most varied nature, and one object of conditioning is to bring
hard and harsh, soft and weak wheats as nearly as possible to a
common standard of condition before being milled. Wheat is some-
times washed to toughen the bran, an end which can also be attained
by damping it from a spraying pipe as it passes along an inclined
worm. Another way of toughening bran is to pass wheat through
a heated cylinder, while again another process known as steaming
consists of injecting steam into wheat as it passes through a metal
hopper. Here the object is to cleanse to some extent, and to warm
and soften (by the condensation of moisture on the grain), but these
processes are imperfect substitutes for a full washing and condition-
ing plant. Hard wheats will not be injured by a fairly long im-
mersion in water, always provided the subsequent whizzing and dry-
ing are efficiently carried out. The second class of semi-hard wheats
already mentioned must be run more quickly through the washer
and freed from the water as rapidly as possible. Still more is this
necessary with really soft wheats, such as soft River Plates and the
softer English varieties. Here an immersion of only a few seconds
is desirable, while the moisture left by the water must be immediately
and energetically thrown off by the whizzer before the grain enters
the drier. Treated thus, soft wheats may be improved By washing.
It is claimed that hard wheats, like some varieties of Indians, are
positively improved in flavour by conditioning, and this is probably
true; certain it is that English country millers, in seasons when
native wheat was scarce and dear, and Indian wheat was abundant
and cheap, have found the latter, mellowed by conditioning, to be
an excellent substitute.
Wheats which have been exposed to the action of water during
harvest do not necessarily yield unsound flour; the matter is a
question of the amount of moisture absorbed. But it
must be remembered that it is not so much the water Efl ect ot
itself which degrades the constituents of the wheat ava P-
(starch and gluten) as the chemical changes which the dampness
produces. Hence perhaps the best remedy which can be found for
damp wheat is to dry it as soon as it has been harvested, either by
kiln or steam drier at a heat not exceeding 120 F., until the moisture
has been reduced to 10 % of the whole grain. The flour made from
wheat so treated may be weak, but will not usually be unsound.
The practice of drying damp flour has also good results. Long before
the roller milling period it was found that only flour which had been
dried (in a kiln) could safely be taken on long sea voyages, especially
when the vessel had to navigate warm latitudes. It may be noted
that in the days of millstone milling it was far more difficult to
produce good keeping flour. The wheat berry being broken up
and triturated in one operation, the flour necessarily contained a
large proportion of branny particles in which cerealin, an active
diastasic constituent, was present in very sensible proportions.
Again, the elimination of the germ by the roller process is favourable
to the production of a sounder flour, because the germ contains a
large amount of oleaginous matter and has a strong diastasic action
on imperfectly matured starches. The tendency of flours containing
germ to become rancid is well marked. During the South African
War of 1899-1902 the British army supply department had a
practical proof of the diastasic action of branny particles in flour.
Soldiers' bread is not usually of white colour, and the military
authorities not unnaturally believed that comparatively low-grade
flour, if sound, was eminently suitable for use in the field bakeries.
But in the climate of South Africa flour of this description soon
developed considerable acidity. Ultimately the supply department
gave up buying any but the driest patent flours, and it is understood
that the most suitable flour proved to be certain patents milled
in Minneapolis, U.S.A., from hard spring wheat. Not only did they
contain a minimum of branny and fibrous matters, but they were
also the driest that could be found.
After being cleaned the wheat berry is split and broken up into
increasingly fine pieces by fluted rolls or " breaks." In the earlier
years of roller milling it was usual to employ more breaks
than is now the case. The first pair of break-rolls used
to be called the splitting rolls, because their function was rolls.
supposed to be to split the berry longitudinally down its crease, so as
to give the miller an opportunity of removing the dirt between the
two lobes of the berry by means of a brush machine. The dirt was
in many cases no more than the placenta already described, which
shrivelling up took, like all vegetable fibre, a dark tint. The neat
split along the crease was not, however, achieved in more than 10%
of the berries so treated. Where such rolls are still in use they are
really serving as a sort of adjunct to the wheat-cleaning system.
Four or five breaks are now thought sufficient, but three breaks are
not recommended, except in very short systems for small country
mills. Rolls are now used up to 60 in. in length, though in one of
the most approved systems they never exceed 40 in. ; they are made
of chilled iron, and for the breaking of wheat are provided with
grooving cut at a slight twist, the spiral averaging J in. to the foot
length, though for the last set of break-rolls, which clean up the bran,
the spiral is sometimes increased to J in. per foot. The grooves
should have sharp edges because they do better work than when
bjunt, giving larger semolina and middlings, with bran adherent in
big flakes; small middlings, that is, little pieces of the endosperm
torn away by blunt grooves, and comminuted bran, make the pro-
duction of good class flour almost impossible; cut bran, moreover,
brings less money. The break-rolls should never work by pressure,
but nip the material fed between them at a given point; to cut or
shear, not to flatten and crush, is their function. Rolls may be set
either horizontally or vertically; an oblique setting has also come
into favour. The feed is of the utmost importance to the correct
working of a roller mill. The material should be fed in an even
stream, not too thick, and leaving no part of the roll uncovered.
The two rolls of each pair are run at unequal speeds, 2j to I being
the usual ratio on the three first breaks, while the last break is often
speeded at 3 to I or 3} to I ; in one of the oblique mills the difference
is obtained by making the diameter of one roll 13 and of the other 10
in. and running them at equal speed. For break-rolls up to 36 in. in
552
FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE
length 9 in. is the usual diameter; for longer rolls 10 in. is the
standard. To do good work rolls must run in perfect parallelism ;
otherwise some parts of the material will pass untouched, while
others will be treated too severely.
' The products of the break-rolls are treated by what are known
as scalpers, which are simply machines for sorting out these products
_. for further treatment. Scalpers may either be revolving
reels or flat sieves. The sieve is the favourite form of
scalper on account of its gentle action. Scalping requires a separat-
ing and sifting, not a scouring action. The break products are
usually separated on a sieve covered with wire or perforated zinc
plates. Generally speaking, two sieves are in one frame and are run
at a slight incline. The throughs of the top sieve fall on the sieve
below, while the rejections or overtails of the first sieve are fed to the
next break. The " throughs," or what has passed this sieve, are
graded by the next sieve, the tailings going to a purifier, while the
throughs may be freed from what flour adheres to them by a centri-
fugal dressing machine and then treated by another purifier. A
form of scalper which has come into general use on the continent
of Europe, and to a lesser extent in Great Britain and America, is
known as the plansifter. This machine, of Hungarian origin, is
simply a collection of superimposed flat sieves in one box, and will
scalp or sort out any kind of break stock very efficiently. A system
of grading the tailings, that is, the rejections of the scalpers, intro-
duced by James Harrison Carter (Carter-Zimmer patent), was known
as pneumatic sorting. Its object was to supplement the work of
the scalpers by classifying the tailings by means of air-currents.
To this end each scalper was followed by a machine arranged some-
what like a gravity purifier; that is to say, a current of air drawn
through the casing of the sorter allowed the heaviest and best
material to drop down straight, while the lighter stuff was deposited
in one or other of further compartments formed by obliquely placed
adjustable cant boards. So searching was this grading, that from
the first sorter of a four-break plant four separations would be
obtained, the first going to the second break, the second joining the
first separation from the second sorter and being fed to the third
break, while the third went with the best separation of the third
sorter to the fourth break, and the last separation from all the
sorters went straight into the bran sack. The work of the break-
rolls was greatly simplified and reduced by this sorting process, as
each particle of broken wheat went exactly to that pair of break-
rollers for which it was suitable, instead of all the material being
run indiscriminately through all the break-rollers and thereby being
cut up with the necessary result of increasing the production of
small bran.
The object of the purifier, a machine on which milling engineers
have lavished much thought and labour, is to get away from the
_ . semolina and middlings as much impure matteras possible,
that those products may be pure, as millers say, for
reduction to flour by the smooth rolls. The purifiers used in British
mills take advantage of the fact that the more valuable portions of
the wheat berry are heavier than the less valuable particles, such as
bran and fibrous bodies, and a current of air is employed to weigh
these fragments of the wheat berry as in a balance and to separate
them while they pass over a silk-covered sieve. To this end the
semolina or middlings are fed on a sieve vibrated by an eccentric
and set at a slight downward angle. This sieve is installed in an
air-tight longitudinal wooden chamber with glass windows on either
side, through which the process of purifying can be watched. Up-
wards through this sieve a fan constantly draws a current of air,
which, raising the stock upwards, allows the heavier and better
material to remain below while the lighter particles are lifted off
and fall on side platforms or channels, whence they are carried
forward and delivered separately. The good material drops through
the meshes of the silk, and is collected by a worm. It is usual to
clothe the sieve in sections with several different meshes of silk so
that stock of almost identical value, but differing size, may be
treated with uniform accuracy. In good purifiers the strength of
the current can be regulated at will in each section. The tailings of
a purifier do not usually exceed 10 to 15 % of the feed. The clothing
of purifier sheets must be nicely graduated to the clothing of the
preceding machines. Repurification and even tertiary purification
may be necessary under certain conditions. In Hungary and other
parts of Europe, gravity purifiers are much in use. Here the material
is guided along an open sieve set at a slight angle, while an air-
current is drawn up at an acute angle. Under the sieve may be ar-
ranged a series of inclined boards, the position of which can be varied
as required. The heaviest and most valuable products resist the
current and drop straight down, while lighter material is carried
off to further divisions.
From the purifier all the stock except the tailings, which may
require other treatment, should go to the smooth rollers to be made
Smooth ' nto fl ur ' but here the rollerman will have to exercise
rolls great care and discretion. Many of the remarks already
made in regard to break-rolls apply to smooth rolls,
notably in respect of parallelism. But instead of a cutting action,
the smooth rolls press the material fed to them into flour. This
pressure, however, must be applied with great discrimination, large
semolina with impurities attached requiring quite different treat-
ment from that called for by small pure middlings. The pressure on
the stock must be just sufficient and no more. Reduction rolls are
usually run at a differential speed of about 2 to 3. The feed must be
carefully graded, because to pass stock of varying size through a
pair of smooth rolls would be fatal to good work. Scratch rolls very
finely grooved are used for cracking impure semolina or for reducing
the tailings of purifiers. The latter often hold fragments of bran,
which are best detached by rolls grooved about 36 to the inch and
run at a differential of 3 to I. The reduction requires even more
roll surface than the break system. To do first-class work a mill
should have at least 35 to 40 in. on the breaks and 50 in. on the
reduction for each sack of 280 ft of flour per hour. Many engineers
consider 100 to 1 10 in. on the break, scratch and smooth rolls not
too much.
The dressing out of the flour from the stock reduced on smooth
rolls is generally effected by centrifugal machines, which consist
of a slowly revolving cylinder provided with an internal -^
shaft on which are keyed a number of iron beaters that
run at a speed of about 200 revolutions a minute, and fling the feed
against the silk clothing of the cylinder. What goes through the silk
is collected by a worm conveyor at the bottom of the machine.
Most centrifugals have so-called " cut-off " sheets, with internal
divisions in the tail end ; these are intended to separate some
intermediate products, which, having been freed fromfloury particles,
are treated on some other machine, such as a pair of rolls either
direct or after a purifier. The centrifugal is undoubtedly an efficient
flour separator, but the plansifters already mentioned are also good
flour-dressers, especially in dry climates. A plansifter mill will have
no centrifugals, except one or two at the tail end where the material
gets more sticky and requires more severe treatment.
The yield of flour obtained in a British roller mill averages 70 to
73 % of the wheat berry. The residue, with the exception of a very
small proportion of waste, is offal, which is divided into various
grades and sold. Profitable markets for British-made bran have
been found in Scandinavia, and especially in Denmark. In mill-
stone milling the yield of flour probably averaged 75 to 80 %, but
a certain proportion of this was little more than offal. The length of
the flour yield taken by British millers varies in different parts of
the kingdom, because demand varies. In one locality high-class
patents may be at a premium ; in another the call is for a straight
grade, i.e. a flour containing as much of the farinaceous substance
as can be won from the wheat berry. In one district there is a sale
for rich offals, that is, offals with plenty of flour adhering ; in another
there may be no demand for such offals. Hence, though the general
principles of roller milling as given above hold good all over the
country, yet in practice the work of each mill is varied more or less
to suit the peculiarities of the local trade.
Early in the io.th century a French chemist, J. J. E. Poutet,
discovered that nitrous acid and oxides of nitrogen act on some
fluid and semi-fluid vegetable oils, removing their yellow . . .
tinge and converting a considerable portion of their sub- . ~ *
stance into a white solid. The importance of this dis-
covery, when the physical constitution of wheat is considered, is
obvious, but it was years before any attempt was made to bleach
flour. The first attempts at bleaching seem to have been made on
the wheat itself rather than on the flour. In 1879 a process was
patented for bleaching grain by means of chlorine, gas, and about
1891 a suggestion was made for bleaching grain by means of electro-
lysed sea-water. In 1895 a scheme was put forward for treating
grain with sulphurous acid, and about two years later it was pro-
posed to subject both grain and flour to the influence of electric
currents. In 1893 a patent was granted for the purification of flour
by means of fresh air or oxygen, and three years later another in-
ventor proposed to employ the Rontgen rays for the same purpose.
In 1898 Emile Frichot took out a patent for using ozone and ozonized
air for flour-bleaching. The patent (No. 1661 of 1901) taken out by
J. & S. Andrews of Belfast recited that flour is known to improve
greatly if kept for some time after grinding, and the purpose of the
invention it covered was to bring about this improvement or con-
ditioning not only immediately after grinding, but also to a greater
extent than can be effected by keeping. The process consisted in
subjecting the flour to the action of a suitable gaseous oxidizing
medium; the inventors preferred air carrying a minute quantity
of nitric acid or peroxide of nitrogen, but they did not confine them-
selves to those compounds, having found that chlorine, bromine
and other substances capable of liberating oxygen were also more
or less efficacious. They claimed that while exercising no deleterious
action their treatment made the flour whiter, improved its baking
qualities, and rendered it less liable to be attacked by mites or other
organisms. Under the patent, No. 14006 of 1903, granted to J. N.
Alsop of Kentucky the flour was treated with atmospheric air
which had been subjected to the action of an arc or, flaming dis-
charge of electricity, with the purpose of purifying it and improv-
ing its nutritious properties. The Andrews and Alsop patents
became the objects of extended litigation in the English courts,
and it was held that the gaseous medium employed by Alsop was
substantially the same as that employed by Andrews, though
produced electrically instead of chemically, and therefore that the
Alsop process was an infringement of the Andrews patent. Various
other patents for more or less similar processes have also been taken
out. (G.F.Z.)
FLOURENS FLOWER
553
FLOURENS, GUSTAVE (1838-1871), French revolutionist
and writer, a son of J. P. Flourens (1794-1867), the physiologist,
was born at Paris on the 4th of August 1838. In 1863 he under-
took for his father a course of lectures at the College de France,
the subject of which was the history of mankind. His theories
as to the manifold origin of the human race, however, gave
offence to the clergy, and he was precluded from delivering a
second course. He then went to Brussels, where he published
his lectures under the title of Histoire de I'homme (1863); he
next visited Constantinople and Athens, took part in the Cretan
insurrection of 1866, spent some time in Italy, where an article
of his in the Popolo d Italia caused his arrest and imprisonment,
and finally, having returned to France, nearly lost his life in a
duel with Paul de Cassagnac, editor of the Pays. In Paris he
devoted his pen to the cause of republicanism, and at length,
having failed in an attempt to organize a revolution at Belleville
on the 7th of February 1870, found himself compelled to flee
from France. Returning to Paris on the downfall of Napoleon, he
soon placed himself at the head of a body of 500 tirailleurs. On
account of his insurrectionary proceedings he was taken prisoner
at Creteil, near Vincennes, by the provisional government, and
confined at Mazas on the 7th of December 1870, but was released
by his men on the night of January 21-22. On the i8th of
March he joined the Communists. He was elected a member of
the commune by the 2oth arrondissement, and was named colonel.
He was one of the most active leaders of the insurrection, and in
a sortie against the Versailles troops in the morning of the 3rd
of April was killed in a hand-to-hand conflict at Rueil, near
Malmaison. Besides his Science de I'homme (Paris, 1 869) , Gustave
Flourens was the author of numerous fugitive pamphlets.
See C. Proles, Les Hommes de la revolution de 1871 (Paris, 1898).
FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE (1794-1867), French
physiologist, was born at Maureilhan, near Beziers, in the depart-
ment of Herault, on the isth of April 1794. At the age of fifteen
he began the study of medicine at Montpellier, where in 1823
he received the degree of doctor. In the following year he
repaired to Paris, provided with an introduction from A. P. de
Candolle, the botanist, to Baron Cuvier, who received him
kindly, and interested himself in his welfare. At Paris Flourens
engaged in physiological research, occasionally contributing to
literary publications; and in 1821, at the Ath6nee there, he
gave a course of lectures on the physiological theory of the
sensations, which attracted much attention amongst men of
science. His paper entitled Recherches experimentales sur les
proprietes et les fonctions du systeme nerveux dans les animaux
vertebres, in which he, from experimental evidence, sought to
assign their special functions to the cerebrum, corpora quadri-
gemina and cerebellum, was the subject of a highly commendatory
report by Cuvier, adopted by the French Academy of Sciences
in 1822. He was chosen by Cuvier in 1828 to deliver for him a
course of lectures on natural history at the College de France,
and in the same year became, in succession to L. A. G. Bosc, a
member of the Institute, in the division " Economic rurale."
In 1830 he became Cuvier's substitute as lecturer on human
anatomy at the Jardin du Roi, and in 1832 was elected to the
post of titular professor, which he vacated for the professorship
of comparative anatomy created for him at the museum of the
Jardin the same year. In 1833 Flourens, in accordance with the
dying request of Cuvier, was appointed a perpetual secretary of
the Academy of Sciences; and in 1838 he was returned as a
deputy for thejarrondissement of Beziers. In 1 840 he was elected,
in preference to Victor Hugo, to succeed J. F. Michaud at the
French Academy; and in 1845 he was created a commander of
the legion of honour, and in the next year a peer of France.
In March 1847 Flourens directed the attention of the Academy
of Sciences to the anaesthetic effect of chloroform on animals.
On the revolution of 1848 he withdrew completely from political
life; and in 1855 he accepted the professorship of natural history
at the College de France. He died at Montgeron, near Paris,
on the 6th of December 1867.
Besides numerous shorter scientific memoirs, Flourens published
Essai sur quelques points de la doctrine de la revulsion et de la deri-
vation (Montpellier, 1813) ; Experiences sur le systeme nerveux (Paris,
1825); Cours sur la generation, I'ovologie, et I' embryologie (1836);
Analyse raisonnee des travaux de G. Cuvier (1841) ; Recherches sur le
developpement des os et des dents (1842) ; Anatomie genirale de la peau
et des membranes muqueuses (1843); Buffon, histoire de ses travaux
et de ses idees (1844); Fontenelle, ou de la philpsophie moderne rela-
tivement aux sciences physiques (1847); Thtorie experimental de la
formation des os (1847; ; (Euvres completes de Buffon (1853) ; De la
longevite humaine et de la quantite de vie sur le globe (1854), numerous
editions; Histoire de la decouverte de la circulation du san$ (1854);
Cours de physiologic comparee (1856); Recueil des eloges historiques
(1856) ; De la vie et de I intelligence (1858) ; De la raison, du genie f
et de lafolie (1861); Ontologie naturette (1861); Examen du livre de
M. Darwin sur I'Origine des Especes (1864). For a list of his papers
see the Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers.
FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1831-1899), English
biologist, was born at Stratford-on-Avon on the 3oth of November
1831. Choosing medicine as his profession, he began his studies
at University College, London, where he showed special aptitude
for physiology and comparative anatomy and took his M.B.
degree in 1851. He then joined the Army Medical Service, and
went out to the Crimea as assistant-surgeon, receiving the medal
with four clasps. On his return to England he became a member
of the surgical staff of the Middlesex hospital, London, and in
1 86 1 succeeded J. T. Quekett as curator of the Hunterian
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. In 1870
he also became Hunterian professor, and in 1884, on the death
of Sir Richard Owen, was appointed to the directorship of the
Natural History Museum at South Kensington. He died in
London on the ist of July 1 899. He made valuable contributions
to structural anthropology, publishing, for example, complete
and accurate measurements of no less than 1300 human skulls,
and as a comparative anatomist he ranked high, devoting
himself especially to the study of the mammalia. He was also
a leading authority on the arrangement of museums. The greater
part of his life was spent in their administration, and in conse-
quence he held very decided views as to the principles upon
which their specimens should be set out. He insisted on the
importance of distinguishing between collections intended for
the use of specialists and those designed for the instruction of the
general public, pointing out that it was as futile to present
to the former a number of merely typical forms as to provide
the latter with a long series of specimens differing only in the
most minute details. His ideas, which were largely and success-
fully applied to the museums of which he had charge, gained wide
approval, and their influence entitles him to be looked upon as a
reformer who did much to improve the methods of museum
arrangement and management. In addition to numerous original
papers, he was the author of An Introduction to the Osteology of the
Mammalia (1870); Fashion in Deformity (1881); The Horse:
a Study in Natural History (1890); Introduction to the Study of
Mammals, Living and Extinct (1891); Essays on Museums and
other Subjects (1898). He also wrote many articles for the ninth
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
FLOWER (Lat. jlos, floris; Fr. fleur), a term popularly used
for the bloom or blossom of a plant, and so by analogy for the
fairest, choicest or finest part or aspect of anything, and in various
technical senses. Here we shall deal only with its botanical
interest. It is impossible to give a rigid botanical definition
of the term " flower." The flower is a characteristic feature of
the highest group of the plant kingdom the flowering plants
(Phanerogams) and is the name given to the association of
organs, more or less leaf-like in form, which are concerned with
the production of the fruit or seed. In modern botanical works
the group is often known as the seed-plants (Spermatophyta).
As the seed develops from the ovule which has been fertilized
by the pollen, the essential structures for seed-production are
two, viz. the pollen-bearer or stamen and the ovule-bearer or
carpel. These are with few exceptions foliar structures, known
in comparative morphology as sporophylls, because they bear
the spores, namely, the microspores or pollen-grains which are
developed in the microsporangia or pollen-sacs, and the mega-
spore, which is contained in the ovule or megasporangium.
In Gymnosperms (?..), which represent the more primitive
554
FLOWER
Bracts.
type of seed-plants, the micro- or macro-sporophylls are generally
associated, often in large numbers, in separate cones, to which
the term " flower " has been applied. But there is considerable
difference of opinion as to the relation between these cones
and the more definite and elaborate structure known as the
flower in the higher group of seed-plants the Angiosperms (q.v.)
and it is to this more definite structure that we generally refer
in using the term " flower."
Flowers are produced from flower-buds, just as leaf-shoots
arise from leaf -buds. These two kinds of buds have a resemblance
to each other as regards the arrangement and the development
of their parts; and it sometimes happens, from injury and
other causes, that the part of the axis which, in ordinary cases,
would produce a leaf-bud, gives origin to a flower-bud. A
flower-bud has not in ordinary circumstances any power of
extension by the continuous de-
velopment of its apex. In this
respect it differs from a leaf-bud.
In some cases, however, of mons-
trosity, especially seen in the rose
(fig. i), the central part is pro-
longed, and bears leaves or flowers.
In such cases the flowers, so far as
their functional capabilities are
concerned, are usually abortive.
This phenomenon is known as pro-
liferation of the floral axis.
Flower-buds, like leaf-buds, are
produced in the axil of leaves,
which are called brads.
The term bract is properly applied
to the leaf from which the primary
floral axis, whether
simple or branched,
arises, while the leaves which arise
on the axis between the bract and
the outer envelope of the flower
are bracteoles or bractlets. Bracts
sometimes do not differ from
FIG. i. Proliferous Rose, the ordinary leaves, as in Veronica
s, Sepals transformed into hederijolia, Vinca, Anagallis and
leaves. Ajuga. In general as regards their
p. Petals multiplied at the f orm anc i appearance they differ
expense 01 the stamens. , j- i , i iS
which are reduced in from ordinary leaves, the difference
number. being greater in the upper than
c. Coloured leaves represent- in the lower branches of an inflor-
ing abortive carpels. escence. They are distinguished
a, Axis prolonged, bearing an , ., ...
imperfect flower at its b ? thelr Position at the base of
apex. the flower or flower-stalk. Their
arrangement is similar to that of
the leaves. When the flower is sessile the bracts are often
applied closely to the calyx, and may thus be confounded with
it, as in the order Malvaceae and species of Dianthus and winter
aconite (Eranthis), where they have received the name of epicalyx
or calyctdus. In some Rosaceous plants an epicalyx is present,
due to the formation of stipulary structures by the sepals. In
many cases bracts act as protective organs, within or beneath
which the young flowers are concealed in their earliest stage of
growth.
When bracts become coloured, as in Amherstia nobilis,
Euphorbia splendens, Erica elegans and Salvia splendens, they
may be mistaken for parts of the corolla. They are sometimes
mere scales or threads, and at other times are undeveloped;
giving rise to the ebracteate inflorescence of Cruciferae and some
Boraginaceae. Sometimes they are empty, no flower-buds
being produced in their axil. A series of empty coloured bracts
terminates the inflorescence of Salvia Horminum. The smaller
bracts or bracteoles, which occur among the subdivisions of a
branching inflorescence, often produce no flower-buds, and thus
anomalies occur in the floral arrangements. Bracts are occasion-
ally persistent, remaining long attached to the base of the
peduncles, but more usually they are deciduous, falling off early
by an articulation. In some instances they form part of the
fruit, becoming incorporated with other organs. Thus, the cones
of firs and the stroboli of the hop are composed of a series of
spirally arranged bracts covering fertile flowers; and the scales
on the fruit of the pine-apple are of the same nature. At the
base of the general umbel in umbelliferous plants a whorl of
bracts often exists, called a general involucre, and at the base
of the smaller umbels or umbellules there is a similar leafy whorl
called an imiolucel or partial involucre. In some instances, as in
fool's-parsley, there is no general involucre, but simply an
involucel; while in other cases, as in fennel or dill (fig. 15),
neither involucre nor involucel is developed. In Compositae
the name involucre is applied to the bracts surrounding the head
FlG. 2. Head (capitulum)of From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik,
Marigold (Calendula), showing ^ permission of Gustav Fischer.
a congeries of flowers, enclosed FIG. 3. Cupule of Quercus Aegi-
by rows of bracts, i, at the base, lops, cp, Cupule; gl, fruit. (After
which are collectively called an Duchartre.)
involucre.
of flowers (fig. 2, i), as in marigold, dandelion, daisy, artichoke.
This involucre is frequently composed of several rows of leaflets,
which are either of the same or of different forms and lengths,
and often lie over each other in an imbricated manner. The
leaves of the involucre are spiny in thistles and in teazel (Dip-
sacus), and hooked in burdock. Such whorled or verticillate
bracts generally remain separate (polyphyllous) , but may be
united by cohesion (gamophyllous) , as in many species of Bu-
pleurum and in Lavatera. In Compositae besides the involucre
there are frequently chaffy and setose bracts at the base of each
flower, and in Dipsacaceae a membranous tube surrounds each
flower. These structures are of the nature of an epicalyx. In
the acorn the cupule or cup (fig. 3) is formed by a growing
upwards of the flower-stalk immediately beneath the flower,
upon which scaly or spiny protuberances appear; it is of the
nature of bracts. Bracts also compose the husky covering of
the hazel-nut. i
When bracts become united, and overlie each other in several
rows, it often happens that the outer ones do not produce flowers,
that is, are empty or sterile. In the artichoke the outer imbri-
cated scales or bracts are in this condition, and it is from the
membranous white scales or bracts (paleae) forming the choke
attached to the edible receptacle that the flowers are produced.
The sterile bracts of the daisy occasionally produce capitula,
and give rise to the hen-and-chickens daisy. In place of develop-
ing flower-buds, bracts may, in certain circumstances, as in
proliferous or viviparous plants, produce leaf-buds.
A sheathing bract enclosing one or several flowers is called
a spathe. It is common among Monocotyledons, as Narcissus
(fig. 4), snow-flake, Arum and palms. In some palms it is 20
ft. long, and encloses 200,000 flowers. It is often associated
with that form of inflorescence termed the spadix, and may be
coloured, as in Anthurium, or white, as in arum lily (Richardia
aethiopica). When the spadix is compound or branching, as in
palms, there are smaller spathes, surrounding separate parts of
the inflorescence. The spathe protects the flowers in their young
state, and often falls off after they are developed, or hangs down
FLOWER
555
\\
FIG. 4. Flowers of Narcissus
(Narcissus Tazetta} bursting from
a sheathing bract b.
g
in a withered form, as in some palms, Typha and Pathos. In
grasses the outer scales or glumes of the spikelets are sterile
bracts (fig. 5, gl); and in Cyperaceae bracts enclose the organs
of reproduction. Bracts are
frequently changed into com-
plete leaves. This change is
called phyllody of bracts, and
is seen in species of Planlago,
especially in the variety of
Plantago media, called the
rose-plantain in gardens,
where the bracts become leafy
and form a rosette round the
flowering axis. Similar changes
occur in Plantago major, P.
lanceolata, Ajuga reptans,
dandelion, daisy, dahlia and
in umbelliferous plants. The
conversion of bracts into
stamens (staminody of bracts)
has been observed in the case
of Abies excelsa. A lengthen-
ing of the axis of the female
strobilus of Coniferae is not
of infrequent occurrence in
Cryptomeria japonica, larch (Larix europaea), &c., and this is
usually associated with a leaf-like condition of the bracts, and
sometimes even with
the development of
leaf-bearing shoots in
place of the scales.
The arrangement of
the flowers on the axis,
or the ramification of
the floral axis, is called
the inflorescence. The
primary axis of the
inflorescence is some-
times called the rachis;
its branches, whether
terminal or lateral,
which form the stalks
supporting flowers or
clusters of flowers, are
. peduncles, and ii small
FIG. 5. Spikelet of Oat (Avena saliva) i.....,..}, ; n ff
laid open, showing the sterile bracts gl, gl, branches are given ot
or empty glumes; g, the fertile or floral by it, they are called
glume, with a dorsal awn a; p, the pale; pedicels. A flower
fs, an abortive flower. having a stalk is called
pedunculate or pedicel-
late; one having no stalk is sessile. In describing a branching
inflorescence, it is common to speak of the rachis as the primary
floral axis, its branches as the secondary floral axes, their divi-
sions as the tertiary floral axes,
and so on; thus avoiding any
confusion that might arise from
the use of the terms rachis, ped-
uncle and pedicel.
The peduncle is simple, bearing
>a single flower, as in primrose;
or branched, as in London-pride.
It is sometimes succulent, as in
the cashew, in which it forms the
large coloured expansion sup-
porting the nut; spiral, as in
Cyclamen and Vallisneria; or
spiny, as in Alyssum spinosum. When the peduncle proceeds
from radical leaves, that is, from an axis which is so shortened
as to bring the leaves close together in the form of a cluster, as
in the primrose, auricula or hyacinth, it is termed a scape.
The floral axis may be shortened, assuming a flattened, convex
or concave form, and bearing numerous flowers, as in the arti-
FlG. 6. Peduncle of Fig
(Ficus Carica), ending in a
hollow receptacle, enclosing
numerous male and female
flowers.
choke, daisy and fig (fig. 6). The floral axis sometimes appears as
if formed by several peduncles
united together, constituting a
fasciated axis, as in the cocks-
comb, in which the flowers form
a peculiar crest at the apex of
the flattened peduncles. Adhe-
sions occasionally take place
between the peduncle and the
bracts or leaves of the plant, as
in the lime-tree (fig. 7). The
adhesion of the peduncles to the
stem accounts for the extra-
axillary position of flowers, as
in many Solanaceae. When this
union extends for a considerable
length along the stem, several
leaves may be interposed be-
tween the part where the ped-
uncle becomes free and the leaf
whence it originated, and it may
be difficult to trace the con-
nexion. The peduncle occasion-
ally becomes abortive, and in
place of bearing a flower, is trans-
formed into a tendril; at other
times it is hollowed at the apex,
so as apparently to form the
lower part of the outer whorl of
floral leaves as in Eschschollzia.
The termination of the peduncle,
or the part on which the whorls g j >
of the flower are arranged, is Oi Branch,
called the thalamus, torus or re- b, Petiole with axillary _ bud.
ceplacle.
There are two distinct types of .,
inflorescence one in which the c ' Corolla,
flowers arise as lateral shoots s, Stamens,
from a primary axis, which goes / Ovary,
on elongating, and the lateral kn - Flower-bud,
shoots never exceed in their development the length of the
primary axis beyond their
point of origin. The flowers
are thus always axillary.
Exceptions, such as in cruciferous
(* J3f plants, are due to the non-appear-
^\T ^-^ ance of the bracts. In the other
^\ ffSi^ type the primary axis terminates
FIG. 7.
T
(From Vines'
Students' Text-Book
of Botany, by per-
mission of Swan
Sonnenschein Si Co,)
Inflorescence of the
(Tilia platyphyllos) (nat.
Attached to the peduncle
bract W '
tenor*
FIG. 9. Head of flowers(capitulum)
of Scabiosa atropurpurea. The inflor-
escence is simple and indeterminate,
and the expansion of the flowers cen-
tripetal, those at the circumference
opening first.
in a single flower, but lateral axes are
given off from the axils of the bracts,
which again repeat the primary axis;
the development of each lateral axis
is stronger than that of the primary
(From strasburgfr's Lehrbuch ax is beyond its point of origin. The
der Botamk, by permission of Gustav ., f. . . .
Fischer.) flowersproduced in this inflorescence
FIG. 8. Raceme of Linaria are t h us terminal. The first kind
stnata. d, bract. of i nfloresc ence is indeterminate,
indefinite or axillary. Here the axis is either elongated,
556
FLOWER
producing flower-buds as it grows, the lower expanding first
(fig. 8), or it is shortened and depressed, and the outer flowers
expand first (fig. 9). The expansion of the flowers is thus
centripetal, that is, from base to apex, or from circumference
to centre.
The second kind of inflorescence is determinate, definite or
terminal. In this the axis is either elongated and ends in a solitary
flower, which thus terminates the axis, and if other flowers are
produced, they belong to secondary axes farther from the centre;
or the axis is shortened and flat-
tened, producing a number of
separate floral axes, the central
one expanding first, while the
others are developed in succession
farther from the centre. The ex-
pansion of the flowers is in this
case centrifugal, that is, from apex
to base, or from centre to circum-
ference. It is illustrated in fig. 10,
Ranunculus bulbosus ; a' is the
primary axis swollen at the base in
a bulb-like manner b, and with
roots proceeding from it. From
the leaves which are radical pro-
ceeds the axis ending in a solitary
terminal flower /'. About the
middle of this axis there is a leaf
or bract, from which a secondary
floral axis a" is produced, ending
in a single flower /", less advanced
/ FlG i 5?'~ Pla u t - f R A nUH ~ than the flower/'. This secondary
culus bulbosus, showing deter- . , , '. , , , .
minate inflorescence. axls bears a leaf also > from which
a tertiary floral axis a'" is pro-
duced, bearing an unexpanded solitary flower /". From this
tertiary axis a fourth is in progress of formation. Here/ is the
termination of the primary axis, and this flower expands first,
while the other flowers are developed centrifugally on separate
axes.
A third series of inflorescences, termed mixed, may be recog-
nized. In them the primary axis has an arrangement belonging
to the opposite type from that of the branches, or vice versa.
According to the mode and degree of development of the lateral
shoots and also of the bracts, various forms of both inflorescences
result.
Amongst indefinite forms the simplest occurs when a lateral
shoot produced in the axil of a large single foliage leaf of the plant
ends in a single flower, the axis of the plant elongating beyond,
as in Veronica hederifolia, Vinca minor and Lysimachia nemorum.
The flower in this case is solitary, and the ordinary leaves become
bracts by producing flower-buds in place of leaf-buds; their
number, like that of the leaves of this main axis, is indefinite,
varying with the vigour of the plant. Usually, however, the
floral axis, arising from a more or less altered leaf or bract,
instead of ending in a solitary flower, is prolonged, and bears
numerous bracteoles, from which smaller peduncles are produced,
and those again in their turn may be branched in a similar way.
Thus the flowers are arranged in groups, and frequently very
complicated forms of inflorescence result. When the primary
peduncle or floral axis, as in fig. 8, is elongated, and gives off
pedicels, ending in single flowers, a raceme is produced, as in
currant, hyacinth and barberry. If the secondary floral axes
give rise to tertiary ones, the raceme is branching, and forms a
panicle, as in Yucca gloriosa. If in a raceme the lower flower-
stalks are developed more strongly than the upper, and thus all
the flowers are nearly on a level, a corymb is formed,which maybe
simple, as in fig. 1 1 , where the primary axis a' gives off secondary
axes a", a", which end in single flowers; or branching, where
the secondary axes again subdivide. If the pedicels are very short
or wanting, so that the flowers are sessile, a spike is produced, as
in Plantago and vervain (Verbena officinalis) (fig. 12). If the
spike bears unisexual flowers, as in willow or hazel (fig. 13), it is an
amentum or catkin, hence such trees are called amentiferous; at
other times it becomes succulent, bearing numerous flowers,
surrounded by a sheathing bract or spathe, and then it constitutes
a spadix, which may be simple, as in Arum maculatum (fig. 14),
or branching as in palms. A spike bearing female flowers only,
and covered with scales, is a strobilus, as in the hop. In grasses
FIG. ii. FIG. 12. FIG. 13.
FIG. ii. Corymb of Cerasus Mahaleb, terminating an abortive
branch, at the base of which are modified leaves in the form of scales,
e. a', Primary axis; c", secondary axes bearing flowers; b, bract in
the axils of which the secondary axes arise.
FIG. 12. Spike of Vervain (Verbena officinalis), showing sessile
flowers on a common rachis. The flowers at the lower part of the
spike have passed into fruit, those towards the middle are in full
bloom, and those at the top are only in bud.
FIG. 13. Amentum .or catkin of Hazel (Corylus Avellana) , consist-
ing of an axis or rachis covered with bracts in the form of scales,
each of which covers a male flower, the stamens of which are seen
projecting beyond the scale. The catkin falls off in a mass, separating
from the branch by an articulation.
there are usually numerous sessile flowers arranged in small
spikes, called locustae or spikelets, which are either set closely
along a central axis, or produced on secondary axes formed by
the branching of the central one; to the latter form the term
panicle is applied.
If the primary axis, in place of being elongated, is contracted,
it gives rise to other forms of indefinite inflorescence. When the
axis is so shortened that the secondary axes arise from a common
point, and spread out as radii of nearly equal length, each ending
in a single flower or dividing again in a similar radiating manner,
(From Strasburger's Lchrbuch
der Botanik, by permission of
Gustav Fischer.)
'ix of
(After
Wossidlo.) a, Female
flowers; b, male flowers;
c, hairs representing
sterile flowers.
FIG. 15. Compound umbel of Corn-
Dill (Anethum graveolens) , having
a primary umbel a, and secondary
umbels b, without either involucre or
involucel.
an umbel is produced, as in fig. 15. From the primary floral
axis a the secondary axes come off in a radiating or umbrella-like
manner, and end in small umbels b, which are called partial
umbels or umbellules. This inflorescence is seen in hemlock and
other allied plants, which are hence called umbelliferous. If
there are numerous flowers on a flattened, convex or slightly
concave receptacle, having either very short pedicels or none, a
FLOWER
capilulum (head) is formed, as in dandelion, daisy and other
composite plants (fig. 2), also in scabious (fig. 9) and teazel.
In the American button-bush the heads are globular, in some
species of teazel elliptical, while in scabious and in composite
plants, as sunflower, dandelion, thistle, centaury and marigold,
they are somewhat hemispherical, with a flattened, slightly
hollowed, or convex disk. If the margins of such a receptacle
be developed upwards, the centre not developing, a concave
receptacle is formed, which may partially or completely enclose
a number of flowers that are generally unisexual. This gives rise
to the peculiar inflorescence of Dorslenia, or to that of the fig
(fig. 6), where the flowers are placed on the inner surface of the
hollow receptacle, and are provided with bracteoles. This in-
florescence has been called a hypanthodium.
Lastly, we have what are called compound indefinite inflores-
cences. In these forms the lateral shoots, developed centripetally
upon the primary axis, bear numerous bracteoles, from which
floral shoots arise which may have a centripetal arrangement
similar to that on the mother shoot, or it may be different. Thus
we may have a group of racemes, arranged in a racemose manner
on a common axis, forming a raceme of racemes or compound
raceme, as in Astilbe. In the same way we may have compound
umbels, as in hemlock and most Umbelliferae (fig. 15), a com-
pound spike, as in rye-grass, a compound spadix, as in some
palms, and a compound capitulum, as in the hen-and-chickens
daisy. Again, there may be a raceme of capitula, that is, a group
of capitula disposed in a racemose manner, as in Petasites, a
raceme of umbels, as in ivy, and so on, all the forms of inflores-
cence being indefinite in disposition. In Eryngium the shortening
of the pedicels changes an umbel into a capitulum.
The simplest form of the definite type of the inflorescence is
seen in Anemone nemorosa and in gentianella (Gentiana acaulis),
where the axis terminates in a single flower, no other flowers
being produced upon the plant. This is a solitary terminal
inflorescence. If other flowers were produced, they would arise
as lateral shoots from the bracts below the first-formed flower.
The general name of cyme is applied to the arrangement of a
group of flowers in a definite inflorescence. A cymose inflores-
cence is an inflorescence where the primary floral axis before
terminating in a flower gives off one or more lateral unifloral
axes which repeat the process the development being only
limited by the vigour of the plant. The floral axes are thus
centrifugally developed. The cyme, according to its develop-
ment, has been characterized as biparous or uniparous. In fig. 16
the biparous cyme is represented in the flowering branch of
Cerastium. Here the primary axis / ends in a flower, which has
passed into the state of fruit. At its base two leaves are produced,
in each of which arise secondary axes /' /', ending in single flowers,
and at the base of these axes a pair of opposite leaves is produced,
giving rise to tertiary axes t" t", ending in single flowers, and
so on. The term dichasium has also been applied to this form
of cyme.
In the natural order Carophyllaceae (pink family) the dichasial
form of inflorescence is very general. In some members of the
order, as Diantkus barbatm, D. carthusianorum, &c., in which
the peduncles are short, and the flowers closely approximated,
with a centrifugal expansion, the inflorescence has the form of a
contracted dichasium, and receives the name of fascicle. When
the axes become very much shortened, the arrangement is more
complicated in appearance, and the nature of the inflorescence
can only be recognized by the order of opening of the flowers.
In Labiate plants, as the dead-nettle (Lamium), the flowers are
produced in the axil of each of the foliage leaves of the plant,
and they appear as if arranged in a simple whorl of flowers.
But on examination it is found that there is a central flower
expanding first, and from its axis two secondary axes spring
bearing solitary flowers; the expansion is thus centrifugal.
The inflorescence is therefore a contracted dichasium, the flowers
being sessile, or nearly so, and the clusters are called verlicillaslers
(fig. 17). Sometimes, especially towards the summit of a di-
chasium, owing to the exhaustion of the growing power of the
plant, only one of the bracts gives origin to a new axis, the other
557
remaining empty; thus the inflorescence becomes unilateral,
and further development is arrested. In addition to the dichasial
form there are others where more than two lateral axes are
produced from the primary floral axis, each of which in turn
(From Strasburger's Lehrbuch da Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.)
FIG. 16. Cymose inflorescence (dichasium) of Cerastium cottinum\
t-t", successive axes. (After Duchartre.)
produces numerous axes. To this form the terms trichasial and
polychasial cyme have been applied; but these are now usually
designated cymose umbels. They are well seen in some species
of Euphorbia. Another term, anlhela, has been used to dis-
tinguish such forms as occur in several species of Luzula and
FIG. 17. Flowering stalk of the White Dead-nettle (Lamium
album). The bracts are like the ordinary leaves of the plant, and
produce clusters of flowers in their axil. The clusters are called
verticillasters, and consist of flowers which are produced in a centri-
fugal manner.
Juncus, where numerous lateral axes arising from the primary
axis grow very strongly and develop in an irregular manner.
In the uniparous cyme a number of floral axes are successively
developed one from the other, but the axis of each successive
generation, instead of producing a pair of bracts, produces only
one. The basal portion of the consecutive axes may become
much thickened and arranged more or less in a straight line,
558
FLOWER
and thus collectively form an apparent or false axis or sympodium,
and the inflorescence thus simulates a raceme. In the true
raceme, however, we find only a single axis, producing in succes-
sion a series of bracts, from which the flora! peduncles arise as
lateral shoots, and thus each flower is on the same side of the
floral axis as the bract in the axil of which it is developed; but
in the uniparous cyme the flower of each of these axes, the basal
portions of which unite to form the false axis, is situated on the
opposite side of the axis to the bract from which it apparently
arises (fig. 18). The bract is not, however, the one from which
the axis terminating in the flower arises, but is a bract produced
upon it, and gives origin in its axil to a new axis, the basal portion
FIG. 20.
FIG. 19.
FIG. 21.
FIG.
18. Helicoid cyme of a species of Alstroemeria. Oi, oj, 0.3, o,
&c., separate axes successively developed in the axils of the corre-
sponding bracts h, b 3 , 6 4 , &c., and ending in a flower ft, ft, ft, &c. The
whole appears to form a simple raceme of which the axes form the
internodes.
FIG. 19. Scorpioidal or cicinal cyme of Forget-me-not (Myosotis
palustris).
FIG. 20. Diagram of definite floral axes a, b, c, d, e, &c.
FIG. 21. Flowering stalk of Ragwort (Senecio). The flowers are
in heads (capitula), and open from the circumference inwards in an
indefinite centripetal manner. The heads of flowers, on the other
hand, taken collectively, expand centrifugally the central one a
first.
of which, constituting the next part of the false axis, occupies
the angle between this bract and its parent axis the bract
from which the axis really does arise being situated lower down
upon the same side of the axis with itself. The uniparous cyme
presents two forms, the scorpioid or cicinal and the helicoid or
bostrychoid.
In the scorpioid cyme the flowers are arranged alternately in a
double row along one side of the false axis (fig. 19), the bracts
when developed forming a second double row on the opposite
side; the whole inflorescence usually curves on itself like a
scorpion's tail, hence its name. In fig. 20 is shown a diagram-
matic sketch of this arrangement. The false axis, a b c d, is
formed by successive generations of unifloral axes, the flowers
being arranged along one side alternately and in a double row;
had the bracts been developed they would have formed a similar
double row on the opposite side of the false axis; the whole
inflorescence is represented as curved on itself. The inflorescence
in the family Boraginaceae are usually regarded as true scorpioid
cymes.
In the helicoid cyme there is also a false axis formed by the
basal portion of the separate axes, but the flowers are not placed
in a double row, but in a single row, and form a spiral or helix
round the false axis. In Alstroemeria, as represented in fig. 18,
the axis <Xi ends in a flower (cut off in the figure) and bears a leaf.
From the axil of this leaf, that is, between it and the primary
axis a\ arises a secondary axis 02, ending in a flower / 2 , and
producing a leaf about the middle. From the axil of this leaf
a tertiary floral axis a 3 , ending in a flower / 3 , takes origin.
In this case the axes are not arranged in two rows along one
side of the false axis, but are placed at regular intervals, so as
to form an elongated spiral round it.
Compound definite inflorescences are by no means common,
but in Streplocarpus polyanthus and in several calceolarias
we probably have examples. Here there are scorpioid cymes of
pairs of flowers, each pair consisting of an older and a younger
flower.
Forms of inflorescence occur, in which both the definite
and indefinite types are represented mixed inflorescences.
Thus in Composite plants,such as hawkweeds(.ff ieracia)
and ragworts (Senecio, fig. 21), the heads of flowers, /Uflores-
taken as a whole, are developed centrifugally, the ceace.
terminal head first, while the florets, or small flowers
on the receptacle, open centripetally, those at the circumference
first. So also in Labiatae, such as dead-nettle (Lamium), the
different whorls of inflorescence are developed centripetally,
while the florets of the verticillaster are centrifugal. This mixed
character presents difficulties in such cases as Labiatae, where
the leaves, in place of retaining their ordinary form, become
bracts, and thus might lead to the supposition of the whole
series of flowers being one inflorescence. In such cases the cymes
are described as spiked, racemose, or panicled, according to
circumstances. In Saxifraga umbrosa (London-pride) and in
the horse-chestnut we meet with a raceme of scorpioid cymes;
in sea-pink, a capitulum of contracted scorpioid cymes (often
called a glomerulus); in laurustinus, a compound umbel of
dichasial cymes; a scorpioid cyme of capitula in Vernonia
scorpioides. The so-called catkins of the birch are, in reality,
spikes of contracted dichasial cymes. In the bell-flower (Cam-
panula) there is a racemose uniparous cyme. In the privet
(Liguslrum vulgare) there are numerous racemes of dichasia
arranged in a racemose manner along an axis; the whole inflores-
cence thus has an appearance not unlike a bunch of grapes,
and has been called a thyrsus.
TABULAR VIEW OF INFLORESCENCES
A. Indefinite Centripetal Inflorescence.
I. Flowers solitary, axillary. Vinca, Veronica hederifolia.
II. Flowers in groups, pedicellate.
1 . Elongated form ( Raceme) , Hyacinth, Laburnum , Currant.
(Corymb), Ornithogalum.
2. Contracted or shortened form (Umbel), Cowslip,
A strantia.
III. Flowers in groups, sessile.
1. Elongated form (Spike), Plantago.
(Spikelet), Grasses.
(Amentum, Catkin), Willow, Hazel.
(Spadix) Arum, some Palms.
(Strobilus), Hop.
2. Contracted ^orshortened form (Capitulum), Daisy, Dande-
lion, Scabious.
IV. Compound Indefinite Inflorescence.
a. Compound Spike, Rye-grass.
b. Compound Spadix, Palms.
c. Compound Raceme, Astilbe.
d. Compound Umbel, Hemlock and most Umbelliferae.
e. Raceme of Capitula, Petasiles.
f. Raceme of Umbels, Ivy.
B. Definite Centrifugal Inflorescence.
I. Flowers solitary, terminal. Gentianella, Tulip.
II. Flowers in Cymes.
i. Uniparous Cyme.
a. Helicoid Cyme (axes forming a spiral).
Elongated form, Alstroemeria.
Contracted form, Witsenia corymbosa.
FLOWER
559
The
flower.
FlG. 22.
FIG. 25.
b. Scorpioid Cyme (axes unilateral, two rows).
Elongated form, Forget-me-not, Symphytum,
Henbane.
Contracted form, Erodium, Akhemilla arvensis.
2. Biparous Cyme (Dichotomous),including 3-5-chotomous
Cymes (Dichasium, Cymose Umbel, Anthela).
a. Elongated form, Cerastium, Stellaria.
b. Contracted form (Verticillaster), Dead-nettle, Pelar-
gonium.
3. Compound Definite Inflorescence. Streptocarpus poly-
anthus, many Calceolarias.
C, Mixed Inflorescence.
Raceme of Scorpioid Cymes, Horse-chestnut.
Scorpioid Cyme of Capitula, Vernonia scorpioides.
Compound Umbel of Dichotomous Cymes.Laurustinus.
Capitulum of contracted Scorpioid Cymes (Glomerulus),
Sea-pink.
The flower consists of the floral axis bearing the sporophylls
(stamens and carpels), usually with certain protective envelopes.
The axis is usually very much
contracted, no inter-
nodes being devel-
oped, and the portion
bearing the floral leaves, termed
the thalamus or torus, frequently
expands into a conical, flattened
or hollowed expansion; at other
times, though rarely, the inter-
nodes are developed and it is
elongated. Upon this torus the
parts of the flower are arranged
in a crowded manner, usually
,., forming a series of verticils, the
if. Q$P ;j parts of which alternate; but
\ A> v/Vs if g they are sometimes arranged
^V^^ *3fr spirally especially if the floral
axis be elongated. In a typical
flower, as in fig. 22, we recognize
four distinct whorls of leaves:
an outer whorl, the calyx of
sepals', within it, another whorl,
the parts alternating with those
of the outer whorl, the corolla of
petals', next a whorl of parts
alternating with the parts of
the corolla, the androecium of
stamens; and in the centre the
gynoecium of carpels. Fig. 23 is
a diagrammatic representation
of the arrangement of the parts
Flower of Sedum of such a fl ower; i t j s known as
a floral diagram. The flower is
FIG! 23. Diagram of a com- supposed to be cut transversely,
pletely symmetrical flower, con- and the parts of each whorl
sisting of four whorls, each of are distinguished by a different
FIG. 24. FIG. 26.
FIG. 22.
rubens. s, Sepals; p, petals; a,
stamens; c, carpels.
,t ra ;crpel' P : . , f
FIG. 24. Monochlamydeous two internal, forming the sporo-
(apetalous) flower of Goose- phylls, constitute the essential
foot (Chenopodium), consisting organs o f reproduction; the two
of a single perianth (calyx) of five Q j th protect i ve
parts, enclosing five stamens, u ** "' _,
which are opposite the divisions coverings or floral envelopes. 1
of the perianth, owing to the sepals are generally of a greenish
absence of the petals. colour; their function is mainly
of^fi^Tnt 1 (S) Tanfaf Protective, shielding the more
anther a, containing the pollen/), delicate internal organs before
which is discharged through slits the flower opens. The petals are
in the two lobes of the anther, usually showy, and normally
FIG. 26.-The pistil of Tobacco altern ate with the sepals. Some-
(Ntcotiana Tabacum), consisting
of the ovary o, containing times, as usually in monocoty-
ovules, the style s, and the ledons, the calyx and corolla are
capitate stigma g. The pistil is similar; in such cases the term
placed on the receptacle r, at the >, m - an ^ or p er igone, is applied.
extremity of the peduncle. ^ .^ ^ J^ crocuS; ^
hyacinth, we speak of the parts of the perianth, in place of
calyx and corolla, although in these plants there is an outer
whorl (calyx), of three parts, and an inner (corolla), of a
similar number, alternating with them. When the parts of
the calyx are in appearance like petals they are said to be
petaloid, as in Liliaceae. In some cases the petals have the
appearance of sepals, then they are sepaloid, as injuncaceae.
In plants, as Nymphaea alba, where a spiral arrangement of the
floral leaves occurs, it is not easy to say where the calyx ends
and the corolla begins, as these two whorls pass insensibly into
each other. When both calyx and corolla are present, the plants
are dichlamydeous; when one only is present, the flower is
termed monochlamydeous or apelalous, having no petals (fig. 24).
Sometimes both are absent, when the flower is achlamydeous,
or naked, as in willow. The outermost series of the essential
organs, collectively termed the androecium, is composed of the
microsporophylls known as the staminal leaves or stamens. In
their most differentiated form each consists of a stalk, the
filament (fig. 25, /), supporting at its summit the anther
(a), consisting of the pollen-sacs which contain the powdery
pollen (p), the microspores, which is ultimately discharged
therefrom. The gynoecium or pistil is the central portion
of the flower, terminating the floral axis. It consists of one
or more carpels (megasporophylls), either separate (fig. 22, c)
or combined (fig. 24). The parts distinguished in the pistil
are the ovary (fig. 26, o), which is the lower portion enclosing
the ovules destined to become seeds, and the stigma (g), a portion
of loose cellular tissue, the receptive surface on which the pollen
is deposited, which is either sessile on the apex of the ovary,
as in the poppy, or is separated from it by a prolonged portion
called the style (s). The androecium and gynoecium are not
present in all flowers. When both are present the flower is
hermaphrodite; and in descriptive botany such a flower is
indicated by the symbol . When only one of those organs
is present the flower is unisexual or diclinous, and is either male
(staminate),fr f or female (pistillate), ? . A flower then normally
consists of the four series of leaves calyx, corolla, androecium
and gynoecium and when these are all present the flower is
complete. These are usually densely crowded
upon the thalamus, but in some instances,
after apical growth has ceased in the axis,
an elongation of portions of the receptacle
by intercalary growth occurs, by which
changes in the position of the parts may be
brought about. Thus in Lychnis an elonga-
tion of the axis betwixt the calyx and the
corolla takes place, and in this way they are
separated by an interval. Again, in the
passion-flower (Passiflora) the stamens are
separated from the corolla by an elongated
portion of the axis, which has consequently
been termed the androphore, and in Passi- and pistil' of Frax-
flora also, fraxinella (fig. 27), Cappari- inella (Dictamnus
daceae, and some other plants, the ovary is ^^ consists ot
raised upon a distinct stalk termed the g ev eral carpels,
gynophore; it is thus separated from the which are elevated
stamens, and is said to be stipitate. Usually on a stalk or gyno-
the successive whorls of the flower, disposed More prolonged
.' , . from the receptacle
from below upwards or from without in-
wards upon the floral axis, are of the same number of parts, or
are a multiple of the same number of parts, those of one whorl
alternating with those of the whorls next it.
In the more primitive types of flowers the torus is more or
less convex, and the series of organs follow in 1'egular succession,
culminating in the carpels, in the formation of which the growth
of the axis is closed (fig. 28). This arrangement is known as
hypogynous, the other series (calyx, corolla and stamens) being
beneath (hypo-) the gynoecium. In other cases, the apex of the
growing point ceases to develop, and the parts below form a cup
around it, from the rim of which the outer members of the flower
are developed around (peri-) the carpels, which are formed from
the apex of the growing-point at the bottom of the cup. This
arrangement is known as perigynous (fig. 29). In many cases
this is carried farther and a cavity is formed which is roofed over
FIG. 27. Calyx
560
FLOWER
by the carpels, so that the outer members of the flower spring
from the edge of the receptacle which is immediately above the
ovary (epigynous), hence the term epigyny (fig. 30).
f
FIG. 28. FIG. 29. FIG. 30.
FIGS. 28, 29 and 30. Diagrams illustrating hypogyny, perigyny
and epigyny of the flower, a, Stamens; c, carpels; p, petals;
s, sepals.
When a flower consists of parts arranged in whorls it is said
to be cyclic, and if all the whorls have an equal number of parts
and are alternate it is eucydic (figs. 22, 23). In
Symmetry con trast to the cyclic flowers are those, as in Magnoli-
aower. aceae, where the parts are in spirals (acyclic). Flowers
which are cyclic at one portion and spiral at another,
as in many Ranunculaceae, are termed hemicyclic. In spiral
flowers the distinction into series is by no means easy, and usually
there is a gradual passage from sepaloid through petaloid to
staminal parts, as in the water-lily family, Nymphaeaceae (figs.
31, 32), although in some plants there is no such distinction, the
FIG. 3 FIG. 31.
From Strasburger's Text-Book of Botany, by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
FIGS. 31 and 32. White Water Lily. Fig. 31, flower; fig. 32,
successive stages, a-f, in the transition from petals to stamens.
(After Wossidlo.)
parts being all petaloid, as in Trollius. Normally, the parts of
successive whorls alternate; but in some cases we find the parts
of one whorl opposite or superposed to those of the next whorl.
In some cases, as in the vine-family Ampelidaceae, this seems
to be the ordinary mode of development, but the superposition
of the stamens on the sepals in many plants, as in the pink family,
Caryophyllaceae, is due to the suppression or abortion of the
whorl of petals, and this idea is borne out by the development,
in some plants of the order, of the suppressed whorl. As a rule,
whenever we find the parts of one whorl superposed on those of
another we may suspect some abnormality.
A flower is said to be symmetrical when each of its whorls
consists of an equal number of parts, or when the parts of any
one whorl are multiples of that preceding it. Thus, a sym-
metrical flower may have five sepals, five petals, five stamens and
five carpels, or the number of any of these parts may be ten,
twenty or some multiple of five. Fig. 23 is a diagram of a
symmetrical flower, with five parts in each whorl, alternating
with each other. Fig. 33 is a diagram of a symmetrical flower
of stone-crop, with five sepals, five alternating petals, ten
stamens and five carpels. Here the number of parts in the
staminal whorl is double that in the others, and in such a case
the additional five parts form a second row alternating with
the others. In the staminal whorl especially it is common to
find additional rows. Fig. 34 shows a symmetrical flower, with
five parts in the three outer rows, and ten divisions in the inner.
In this case it is the gynoecium which has an additional number
of parts. Fig. 35 shows a flower of heath, with four divisions
of the calyx and corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and four
divisions of the pistil. In fig.
36 there are three parts in
each whorl ; and in fig. 37
there are three divisions of
the calyx, corolla and pistil,
and six stamens in two rows.
In all these cases the flower
is symmetrical. In Mono-
cotyledons it is usual for the
staminal whorl to be double,
it rarely having more than
two rows, whilst amongst
dicotyledons there are often
very numerous rows of
stamens. The floral envelopes
are rarely multiplied. Flowers
in which the number of parts
in each whorl is the same, are
isomerous (of equal number);
when the number in some of
the whorls is different, the
flower is anisomerous (of un-
equal number). The pistil-
late whorl is very liable to
changes. It frequently
FIG. 33.
FIG. 34.
FIG. 37.
FIG. 38.
FIG. 33. Diagrammatic section
.. . f ,, of a symmetrical pentamerous
happens that when it is fully flower of Stone-crop (Sedum), con-
formed, the number of its sisting of five sepals (s), five petals
parts is not in conformity (p) alternating with the sepals, ten
with that of the other whorls, stamens (a) in two rows, and five
T . carpels (c) containing ovules. I he
In such circumstances, how- dar HnesV) on the outside of the
ever, a flower has been called carpels are glands,
symmetrical, provided the FIG. 34. Diagram of the flower
parts of the other whorls are of F ' ax (Linum), consisting of five
normal,-tbe permanent state %^A^J& g|
of the pistil not being taken each of which is partially divided
into account in determining into two. The dots represent a
symmetry. Thus fig. 38 shows whorl of stamens which has dis-
a pentamerous symmetrical ^^SlSSS^S^
flower, with dimerous pistil. FIG. 35. Diagram of the flower
Symmetry, then, in botanical of Heath (Erica), a regular tetra-
language, has reference to a merous flower,
certain definite numerical ^^
relation of parts. A flower FIG. 37. Diagram of the sym-
in which the parts are metrical trimerous flower of Fritil-
arranged in twos is called laf y (FntiUaria).
dimerous; when the parts of %^g*j$%$3.
the whorls are three, four or The calyx and corolla consist of
five, the flower is trimerous, five parts, the stamens are ten in
tetramerous or pentamerous, two rows, while the pistil has only
respectively. The symmetry two P arts developed,
which is most commonly met with is trimerous and pentamerous
the former occurring generally among monocotyledons, the
latter among dicotyledons. Dimerous and tetramerous sym-
metry occur also among dicotyledons.
The various parts of the flower have a certain definite relation
to the axis. Thus, in axillary tetramerous flowers (fig. 35), one
sepal is next the axis, and is called superior or posterior; another
is next the bract, and is inferior or anterior, and the other two
are lateral; and certain terms are used to indicate that position.
A plane passing through the anterior and posterior sepal and
through the floral axis is termed the median plane of the flower;
a plane cutting it at right angles, and passing through the lateral
sepals, is the lateral plane; whilst the planes which bisect the
FLOWER
561
angles formed by the lateral and median planes are the diagonal
planes, and in these flowers the petals which alternate with the
sepals are cut by the diagonal planes.
In a pentamerous flower one sepal may be superior, as in the
calyx of Rosaceae and Labiatae; or it may be inferior, as in
the calyx of Leguminosae (fig. 39) the reverse, by the law of
alternation, being the case with the petals. Thus, in the blossom
of the pea (figs. 39, 40), the odd petal (vexillum) st is superior,
FIG. 39. Diagram of flower
of Sweet-pea (Lathyrus), showing
five sepals (s), two superior, one
inferior, and two lateral; five
petals (p), one superior, two in-
ferior, and two , lateral; ten
stamens in two rows (a); and
one carpel (c).
FIG. 40. Flower of Pea
(Pisum sativum), showing a papi-
lionaceous corolla, with one
petal superior (st) called the
standard (vexillum), two inferior
(car) called the keel (carina),
and two lateral (a) called wings
(alae). The calyx is marked c.
while the odd sepal is inferior. In the order Scrophulariaceae
one of the two carpels is posterior and the other anterior, whilst
in Convolvulaceae the carpels are arranged laterally. Sometimes
the twisting of a part makes a change in the position of other
parts, as in Orchids, where the twisting of the ovary changes
the position of the labellum.
When the different members of each whorl are like in size and
shape, the flower is said to be regular; while differences in the
size and shape of the parts of a whorl make the flower irregular,
as in the papilionaceous flower, represented in fig. 39. When a
flower can be divided by a single plane into two exactly similar
parts, then it is said to be zygomorphic. Such flowers as Papilio-
naceae, Labiatae, are examples. In contrast with this are
polysymmetrical or actinomorphic flowers, which have a radial
symmetry and can be divided by several planes into several
exactly similar portions; such are all regular, symmetrical
flowers. When the parts of any whorl are not equal to or some
multiple of the others, then the flower is asymmetrical. This
want of symmetry may be brought about in various ways.
Alteration in the symmetrical arrangement as well as in the
completeness and regularity of flowers has been traced to sup-
pression or the non-development of parts, degeneration or imperfect
formation, cohesion or union of parts of the same whorl, adhesion
or union of the parts of different whorls, multiplication of parts,
and deduplication (sometimes called cAomw)orsplitting of parts.
By suppression or non-appearance of a part at the place where
it ought to appear if the structure was normal, the symmetry
or completeness of the flower is disturbed. This suppression
when confined to the parts of certain verticils makes the flower
asymmetrical. Thus, in many Caryophyllaceae, as Polycarpon
and Holosteum, while the calyx and corolla are pentamerous,
there are only three or four stamens and three carpels; in
Impaliens N oli-me-tangere the calyx is composed of three parts,
while the other verticils have five; in labiate flowers there are
five parts of the calyx and corolla, and only four stamens; and
in Tropaeolum pentaphyllum there are five sepals, two petals,
eight stamens and three carpels. In all these cases the want of
symmetry is traced to the suppression of certain parts. In the
last-mentioned plant the normal number is five, hence it is said
that there are three petals suppressed, as shown by the position
of the two remaining ones; there are two rows of stamens,
in each of which one is wanting; and there are two carpels
suppressed. In many instances the parts which are afterwards
suppressed can be seen in the early stages of growth, and occasion-
ally some vestiges of them remain in the fully developed flower.
By the suppression of the verticil of the stamens, or of the
carpels, flowers become unisexual or diclinous, and by the
suppression of one or both of the floral envelopes, monochlamy-
deous and achlamydeous flowers are produced. The suppression
of parts of the flower may be carried so far that at last a flower
consists of only one part of one whorl. In the Euphorbiaceae we
have an excellent example of the gradual suppression of parts,
where from an apetalous, trimerous, staminal flower we pass to
one where one of the stamens is suppressed, and then to forms
where two of them are wanting. We next have flowers in which
the calyx is suppressed, and its place occupied by one, two or
three bracts (so that the flower is, properly speaking, achlamy-
deous), and only one or two stamens are produced. And finally,
we find flowers consisting of a single stamen with a bract. There
is thus traced a degradation, as it is called, from a flower with
three stamens and three divisions of the calyx, to one with a
single bract and a single stamen.
Degeneration, or the transformation of parts, often gives rise
either to an apparent want of symmetry or to irregularity in
form. In unisexual flowers it is not uncommon to find vestiges
of the undeveloped stamens in the form of filiform bodies or
scales. In double flowers transformations of the stamens and
pistils take place, so that they appear as petals. In Canna,
what are called petals are in reality metamorphosed stamens.
In the capitula of Compositae we sometimes find the florets
converted into green leaves. The limb of the calyx may appear
as a rim, as in some Umbelliferae; or as pappus, in Compositae
and Valeriana. In Scrophularia the fifth stamen appears as a
scale-like body; in other Scrophulariaceae, as in Pentstemon,
it assumes the form of a filament, with hairs at its apex in place
of an anther.
Cohesion, or the union of parts of the same whorl, and adhesion,
or the growing together of parts of different whorls, are causes
of change both as regards form and symmetry. Thus in Cucurbita
the stamens are originally five in number, but subsequently
some cohere, so that three stamens only are seen in the mature
flower. Adhesion is well seen in the gynostemium of orchids,
where the stamens and stigmas adhere. In Capparidaceae
the calyx and petals occupy their usual position, but the axis
is prolonged in the form of a gynophore, to which the stamens
are united.
Multiplication, or an increase of the number of parts, gives
rise to changes. We have already alluded to the interposition
of new members in a whorl. This takes place chiefly in the
staminal whorl, but usually the additional parts produced form
a symmetrical whorl with the others. In some instances,
however, this is not the case. Thus in the horse-chestnut there
is an interposition of two stamens, and thus seven stamens are
formed in the flower, which is asymmetrical.
Parts of the flower are often increased by a process of deduplica-
tion, or chorisis, i.e. the splitting of a part so that two or more
parts are formed out of what was originally one. Thus in Cruci-
ferous plants the staminal whorl consists of four long stamens
and two short ones (letradynamous) . The symmetry in the flower
is evidently dimerous, and the abnormality in the androecium,
where the four long stamens are opposite the posterior sepals,
takes place by a splitting, at a very early stage of development,
of a single outgrowth into two. Many cases of what was con-
sidered chorisis are in reality due to the development of stipules
from the staminal leaf. Thus in Dicenlra and Corydalis there
are six stamens in two bundles; the central one of each bundle
alone is perfect, the lateral ones have each only half an anther,
and are really stipules formed from the staminal leaf. Branching
of stamens also produces apparent want of symmetry; thus,
in the so-called polyadelphous stamens of Hypericaceae there
are really only five stamens which give off numerous branches,
but the basal portion remaining short, the branches have the
appearance of separate stamens, and the flower thus seems
asymmetrical.
Cultivation has a great effect in causing changes in the various
parts of plants. Many alterations in form, size, number and
adhesion of parts are due to the art of the horticulturist. The
changes in the colour and forms of flowers thus produced are
endless. In the dahlia the florets are rendered quilled, and are
made to assume many glowing colours. In pelargonium the
flowers have been rendered larger and more showy; and such is
562
FLOWER
also the case with the Ranunculus, the auricula and the carna-
tion. Some flowers, with spurred petals in their usual state,
as columbine, are changed so that the spurs disappear; and
others, as Linaria, in which one petal only is usually spurred,
are altered so as to have all the petals spurred, and to present
what are called pelorian varieties.
As a convenient method of expressing the arrangement of the
parts of the flower, floral formulae have been devised. Several
modes of expression are employed. The following is a very
simple mode which has been proposed: The several whorls
are represented by the letters S (sepals), P (petals), St (stamens),
C (carpels), and a figure marked after each indicates the number
of parts in that whorl. Thus the formula SsPsStsCs means that
FIG. 41. FIG. 42. FIG. 43.
FIG. 41. Tetramerous monochlamydeous male flower of the
Nettle (Urtica).
FIG. 42. Diagram to illustrate valvular or valvate aestivation, in
which the parts are placed in a circle, without overlapping or folding.
FIG. 43. Diagram to illustrate induplicative or induplicate
aestivation, in which the parts of the verticil are slightly turned
inwards at the edges.
the flower is perfect, and has pentamerous symmetry, the whorls
being isomerous. Such a flower as that of Sedum (fig. 33) would
be represented by the formula S 5 P 6 St 6+ 5C5, where Ste+6 indicates
that the staminal whorl consists of two rows of five parts each.
A flower such as the male flower of the nettle (fig. 41) would be
expressed S 4 PoSt 4 Co. When no other mark is appended the
whorls are supposed to be alternate; but if it is desired to mark
the position of the whorls special symbols are employed. Thus,
to express the superposition of one whorl upon another, a line is
drawn between them, e.g. the symbol S 6 P 6 | StsCs is the formula
of the flower of Primulaceae.
The manner in which the parts are arranged in the flower-bud
with respect to each other before opening is the aestivation or
praefloration. The latter terms are applied to the flower-bud
in the same way as vernation is to the leaf-bud, and distinctive
names have been given to the different arrangements exhibited,
both by the leaves individually and in their relations to each
other. As regards each leaf of the flower, it is either spread out,
as the sepals in the bud of the lime-tree, or folded upon itself
(conduplicate), as in the petals of some species of Lysimachia,
or slightly folded inwards or outwards at the edges, as in the
FIG. 44. FIG. 45. FIG. 46.
FIG. 44. Diagram to illustrate reduplicative or reduplicate
aestivation, in which the parts of the whorl are slightly turned out-
wards at the edges.
FIG. 45. Diagram to illustrate contorted or twisted aestivation, in
which the parts of the whorl are overlapped by each other in turn,
and are twisted on their axis.
FIG. 46. Diagram to illustrate the quincuncial aestivation, in
which the parts of the flower are arranged in a spiral cycle, so that
I and 2 are wholly external, 4 and 5 are internal, and 3 is partly
external and partly overlapped by I.
calyx of some species of clematis and of some herbaceous plants,
or rolled up at the edges (involute or revolute), or folded trans-
versely, becoming crumpled or corrugated, as in the poppy.
When the parts of a whorl are placed in an exact circle, and are
applied to each other by their edges only, without overlapping
or being folded, thus resembling the valves of a seed-vessel,
the aestivation is valvate (fig. 42). The edges of each of the parts
may be turned either inwards or outwards; in the former case
the aestivation is induplicate (fig. 43), in the latter case reduplicate
(fig. 44). When the parts of a single whorl are placed in a circle,
each of them exhibiting a torsion of its axis, so that by one of its
sides it overlaps its neighbour, whilst its side is overlapped in like
manner by that standing next to it, the aestivation is twisted
or contorted (fig. 45). This arrangement is characteristic of the
flower-buds of Malvaceae and Apocynaceae, and it is also seen
in Convolvulaceae and Caryophyllaceae. When the flower
expands, the traces of twisting often disappear, but sometimes,
as in Apocynaceae, they remain. Those forms of aestivation
are such as occur in cyclic flowers, and they are included under
circular aestivation. But in spiral flowers we have a different
arrangement ; thus the leaves of the calyx of Camellia japonica
cover each other partially like tiles on a house. This aestivation
is imbricate. At other times, as in the petals of Camellia, the
parts envelop each other completely, so as to become convolute.
This is also seen in a transverse section of the calyx of Magnolia
grandiflora, where each of the three leaves embraces that within
it. When the parts of a whorl are five, as occurs in many
dicotyledons, and the imbrication is such that there are two
parts external, two internal, and a fifth which partially covers
one of the internal parts by
its margin, and is in its
turn partially covered by
one of the external parts,
the aestivation is quin-
cuncial (fig. 46). This quin-
cunx is common in the
corolla of Rosaceae. In
fig. 47 a section is given
of the bud of Antirrhinum
majus, showing the imbri-
cate spiral arrangement.
In this case it will be seen
that the part marked 5 has,
by a slight change in posi-
tion, become overlapped by
i. This variety of imbri-
cate aestivation has been
termed cochlear. In flowers
such as those of the pea
(fig. 40), one of the parts,
the vexillum, is often large
and folded over the others,
giving rise to vexillary
aestivation (fig. 48), or the
carina may perform a similar office, and then the aestivation is
carinal, as in the Judas-tree (Cercis SUiquastrum) . The parts of
the several verticils often differ in their mode of aestivation.
Thus, in Malvaceae the cor&lla is contorted and the calyx valvate,
or reduplicate; in St John's- wort the calyx is imbricate, and
the corolla contorted. In Convolvulaceae, while the corolla is
twisted, and has its parts arranged in a circle, the calyx is imbri-
cate, and exhibits a spiral arrangement. In Guazuma the calyx
is valvate, and the corolla induplicate. The circular aestivation
is generally associated with a regular calyx and corolla, while the
spiral aestivations are connected with irregular as well as with
regular forms.
-The sepals are sometimes free or separate from each other,
at other times they are united to a greater or less extent; in the
former case, the calyx is polysepalous, in the latter
gamosepalous or monosepalous.' The divisions of the
calyx present usually the characters of leaves, and in some cases
of monstrosity they are converted into leaf-like organs, as not
infrequently happens in primulas. They are usually entire,
but occasionally they are cut in various ways, as in the rose;
they are rarely stalked. Sepals are generally of a more or less
oval, elliptical or oblong form, with their apices either blunt or
FIG. 47. FIG. 48.
FIG. 47. Diagram to illustrate im-
bricated aestivation, in which the
parts are arranged in a spiral cycle,
following the order indicated by the
figures i, 2, 3, 4, 5.
FIG. 48. Diagram of a papilio-
naceous flower, showing vexillary
aestivation.
i and 2, The alae or wings.
3, A part of the carina or keel.
, The vexillum or standard, which,
in place of being internal, as
marked by the dotted line, be-
comes external.
, The remaining part of the keel.
The order of the cycle is indicated
y the figures.
Calyx.
FLOWER
acute. In their direction they are erect or reflexed (with their
apices downwards), spreading outwards (divergent or palulous),
or arched inwards (connivent). They are usually of a greenish
colour (herbaceous); but sometimes they are coloured or
petaloid, as in the fuchsia, tropaeolum, globe-flower and
pomegranate. Whatever be its colour, the external envelope
of the flower is considered as the calyx. The vascular bundles
sometimes form a prominent rib, which indicates the middle of
the sepal; at other times they form several ribs. The venation
is useful as pointing out the number of leaves which constitute
a gamosepalous calyx. In a polysepalous calyx the number
of the parts is indicated by Greek numerals prefixed; thus,
a calyx which has three sepals is trisepalous; one with five sepals
is pentasepalous. The sepals occasionally are of different forms
and sizes. In Aconite one of them is shaped like a helmet
(galeate). In a gamosepalous calyx the sepals are united in
various ways, sometimes very slightly, and their number is
marked by the divisions at the apex. These divisions either
are simple projections in the form of acute or obtuse teeth
(fig. 49) ; or they extend down the calyx as fissures about halfway,
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der
Botanik, by permission of Gustav
Fischer.
FIG. 51. FIG. 52. FIG. 53.
FIG. 49. Gamosepalous five-toothed calyx of Campion (Lychnis).
FIG. 50. Obsolete calyx (c) of Madder (Rubia) adherent to the
pistil, in the form of a rim.
FIG. 51. -Feathery pappus attached to the fruit of Groundsel
(Senecio vulgaris).
FIG. 52. Caducous calyx (c) of Poppy. There are two sepals
which fall off before the petals expand.
FIG. 53. Fruit of Physalis Alkekengi, consisting of the persistent
calyx (s), surrounding the berry (Jr), derived from the ovary. (After
Duchartre.)
the calyx being trifid (three-cleft), quinquefid (five-cleft), &c.,
according to their number; or they reach to near the base in the
form of partitions, the calyx being tripartite, quadripartite,
quinquepartitc, &c. The union of the parts may be complete,
and the calyx may be quite entire or truncate, as in some Correas,
the venation being the chief indication of the different parts'
The cohesion is sometimes irregular, some parts uniting to a
greater extent than others; thus a two-lipped or labiate calyx
is formed. The upper Up is often composed of three parts,
which are thus posterior or next the axis, while the lower has
two, which are anterior. The part formed by the union of the
sepals is called the tube of the calyx; the portion where the sepals
are free is the limb.
Occasionally, certain parts of the sepals undergo marked
enlargement. In the violet the calycine segments are prolonged
downwards beyond their insertions, and in the Indian cress
(Tropaeolum) this prolongation is in the form of a spur (calcar),
formed by three sepals; in Delphinium it is formed by one.
In Pelargonium the spur from one of the sepals is adherent to
the flower-stalk. In Potenlilla and allied genera an epicalyx is
formed by the development of stipules from the sepals, which
form an apparent outer calyx, the parts of which alternate with
the true sepals. In Malvaceae an epicalyx is formed by the
bracteoles. Degenerations take place in the calyx, so that it
becomes dry, s6aly and glumaceous (like the glumes of grasses),
as in the rushes (Juncaceae); hairy, as in Compositae; or a
mere rim, as in some Umbelliferae and Acanthaceae, and in
Madder (Rubia tinctorum, fig. 50), when it is called obsolete or
marginate. In Compositae, Dipsacaceae and Valerianaceae
the calyx is attached to the pistil, and its limb is developed in
the form of hairs called pappus (fig. 51). This pappus is either
simple (pilose) or feathery (plumose). In Valsriana the superior
calyx is at first an obsolete rim, but as the fruit ripens it is shown
to consist of hairs rolled inwards, which expand so as to waft
the fruit. The calyx sometimes falls off before the flower
expands, as in poppies, and is caducous (fig. 52); or along with
the corolla, as in Ranunculus, and is deciduous; or it remains
after flowering (persistent) as in Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae,
and Boraginaceae; or its base only is persistent, as in Datura
Stramonium. In Eschschollzia and Eucalyptus the sepals remain
united at the upper part, and become disarticulated at the base
or middle, so as to come off in the form of a lid or funnel. Such
a calyx is operculate or calyptrate. The existence or non-existence
of an articulation determines the deciduous or persistent nature
of the calyx.
The receptacle bearing the calyx is sometimes united to the
pistil, and enlarges so as to form a part of the fruit, as in the
apple, pear, &c. In these fruits the withered calyx is seen at
the apex. Sometimes a persistent calyx increases much after
flowering, and encloses the fruit without being incorporated
with it, becoming accrescent, as in various species of Physalis
(fig. 53); at other times it remains in a withered or marcescent
form, as in Erica; sometimes it becomes inflated or vesicular,
as in sea campion (Silene maritima).
The corolla is the more or less coloured attractive inner floral
envelope; generally the most conspicuous whorl. It is present
in the greater number of Dicotyledons. Petals differ
more from ordinary leaves than sepals do, and are Corotl *-
much more nearly allied to the staminal whorl. In some cases,
however, they are transformed into leaves, like the calyx, and
occasionally leaf-buds are developed in their axil. They are
seldom green, although occasionally that colour is met with, as
in some species of Cobaea, Hoya viridiflora, Gonolobus viridiftorus
and Pentatropis spiralis. As a rule they are highly coloured,
the colouring matter being contained in the cell-sap, as in blue
or red flowers, or in plastids (chromoplasts) , as generally in yellow
flowers, or in both forms, as in many orange-coloured or reddish
flowers. The attractiveness of the petal is often due wholly or
in part to surface markings; thus the cuticle of the petal of a
pelargonium, when viewed wikh a J or J-in. object-glass, shows
beautiful hexagons, the boundaries of which are ornamented with
several inflected loops in the sides of the cells.
Petals are generally glabrous or smooth; but, in some
instances, hairs are produced on their surface. Petaline hairs,
though sparse and scattered, present occasionally the same
arrangement as those which occur on the leaves; thus, in
Bombaceae they are stellate. Coloured hairs are seen on the
petals of Menyanthes, and on the segments of the perianth of
Iris. They serve various purposes in the economy of the flower,
often closing the way to the honey-secreting part of the flower
to small insects, whose visits would be useless for purposes of
pollination. Although petals are usually very thin and delicate
in their texture, they occasionally become thick and fleshy,
as in Stapelia and Rafflesia; or dry, as in heaths; or hard and
stiff, as in Xylopia. A petal often consists of two portions the
lower narrow, resembling the petiole of a leaf, and called the
unguis or claw; the upper broader, like the blade of a leaf, and
called the lamina or limb. These parts are seen in the petals
of the wallflower (fig. 54). The claw is often wanting, as in the
crowfoot (fig. 55) and the poppy, and the petals are then sessile.
According to the development of veins and the growth of cellular
tissue, petals present varieties similar to those of leaves. Thus
the margin is either entire or divided into lobes or teeth. These
teeth sometimes form a regular fringe round the margin, and the
564
FLOWER
petal becomes fimbriated, as in the pink; or laciniated, as in
Lychnis Flos-cuculi; or crested, as in Poly gala. Sometimes the
petal becomes pinnatifid, as in Schizopetalum. The median vein
is occasionally prolonged beyond the summit of the petals in
the form of a long process, as in Strophanthus hispidus, where
it extends for 7 in. ; or the prolonged extremity is folded down-
wards or inflexed, as in Umbelliferae, so that the apex approaches
the base. The limb of the petal may be flat or concave, or
hollowed like a boat. In Hellebore the petals become folded
FIG. 56.
FIG. 57.
FIG. 58.
FIG. 54. Unguiculate or clawed petal of Wallflower (Cheiranthus
Cheiri). c, Theclaworunguis; /, the blade or lamina.
FIG. 55. Petal of Crowfoot (Ranunculus), without a claw, and
thus resembling a sessile leaf. At the base of the petal a nectariferous
scale is seen.
FIG. 56. Tubular petal of Hellebore (Hellcborus).
FIG. 57. Pansy (Viola tricolor). Longitudinal section of flower;
v, bracteole on the peduncle; /, sepals; Is, appendage of sepal; c,
petals; cs, spur of the lower petals; fs, glandular appendage of the
lower stamens; a, anthers. (After Sachs.)
(From Vines' Students' Text-Book ot Botany, by permission of Swan Sonnenscbein
&Co.)
FlG. 58. Part of the flower of Aconite (Aconitum Napellus), show-
ing two irregular horn-like petals (p) supported on grooved stalks (o).
These serve as nectaries, i, the whorl of stamens inserted on the
thalamus and surrounding the pistil.
in a tubular form, resembling a horn (fig. 56) ; in aconite (fig. 58)
some of the petals resemble a hollow-curved horn, supported
on a grooved stalk; while in columbine, violet (fig. 57),
snapdragon and Centranthus, one or all of them are prolonged
in the form of a spur, and are calcarate. In Valeriana, Antir-
rhinum and Corydalis, the spur is very short, and the corolla
or petal is said to be gibbous, or saccate, at the base. These spurs,
tubes and sacs serve as receptacles for the secretion or containing
of nectar.
A corolla is dipetalous, tripetalous, tetrapetalous or pentapetalous
according as it has two, three, four or five separate petals. The
general name of polypetalous is given to corollas having separate
petals, while monopetalous, gamopetalous or sympetalous is applied
to those in which the petals are united. This union generally
takes place at the base, and extends more or less towards the
apex; in Phyteuma the petals are united at their apices also.
In some polypetaious corollas, as that of the vine, the petals are
separate at the base and adhere by the apices. When the petals
are equal as regards their development and size, the corolla is
regular; when unequal, it is irregular. When a corolla is gamo-
petalous it usually happens that the lower portion forms a
tube, while the upper parts are either free or partially united,
so as to form a common limb, the point of union of the two
portions being the throat, which often exhibits a distinct constric-
tion or dilatation. The number of parts forming such a corolla
can be determined by the divisions, whether existing as teeth,
crenations, fissures or partitions, or if, as rarely happens, the
corolla is entire, by the venation. The union may be equal
among the parts, or some may unite more than others.
Amongst regular polypetalous corollas may be noticed the
rosaceous corolla (fig. 59), in which there are five spreading
petals, having no claws, and arranged as in the rose, strawberry
and Potentilla; the caryophyllaceous corolla, in which there are
five petals with long, narrow, tapering claws, as in many of the
pink tribe; the cruciform, having four
petals, often unguiculate, placed opposite
in the form of a cross, as seen in wall-
flower, and in other plants called cruci-
ferous. Of irregular polypetalous corollas
the most marked is the papilionaceous
(fig. 40), in which there are five petals:
one superior (posterior), st, placed FIG. 59. Rosaceous
next to the axis, usually larger than the corolla (c) of the Straw-
rest, called the vexillum or standard; berrv (Fra.ga.ria vesca),
two lateral, a, the alae or wings; two ^CuTdatf 6 P *
... , ,i in W1LI1UUL LltlVVb.
inferior (anterior), partially or com-
pletely covered by the alae, and often united slightly by their
lower margins, so as to form a single keel-like piece, car, called
carina, or keel, which embraces the essential organs. This form
of corolla is characteristic of British leguminous plants.
Regular gamopetalous corollas are sometimes campanulate or
Mi-shaped, as in (Campanula) (fig. 60); infundibuliform or
funnel-shaped, when the tube is like an inverted cone, and the
limb becomes more expanded at the apex, as in tobacco; hypo-
crateriform or salver-shaped, when there is a straight tube sur-
mounted by a flat spreading limb, as in primula (fig. 61); tubular,
having a long cylindrical tube, appearing continuous with the
limb, as in Spigelia and comfrey; rotate or wheel-shaped, when
the tube is very short, and the limb flat and spreading, as in
forget-me-not, Myosotis (when the divisions of the rotate corolla
are very acute, as in Galium, it is sometimes called stellate or
star-like); urceolate or urn-shaped, when there is scarcely any
limb, and the tube is narrow at both ends, and expanded in the
middle, as in bell-heath (Erica cinerea). Some of these forms
may become irregular in consequence of certain parts being more
developed than others. Thus, in Veronica, the rotate corolla
has one division much smaller than the rest, and in foxglove
(Digitalis) there is a
slightly irregular
companulate cor-
olla. Of irregular
gamopetalous cor-
ollas there may be
mentioned the labiate
or lipped (fig. 62),
having two divisions
of the limb in the
form of lips (the
upper one, u, com-
posed usually of two
united petals, and
the lower, I, of three) ,
separated by a gap.
In such cases the tube varies in length, and the parts in their
union follow the reverse order of what occurs in the calyx, where
two sepals are united in the lower lip and three in the upper.
When the upper lip of a labiate corolla is much arched, and the
lips separated by a distinct gap, it is called ringent (fig. 62). The
labiate corolla characterizes the natural order Labiatae. When
the lower lip is pressed against the upper, so as to leave only a
chink between them, the corolla is said to be personate, as in
snapdragon, and some other Scrophulariaceae. In some corollas
the two lips become hollowed out in a remarkable manner, as in
calceolaria, assuming a slipper-like appearance, similar to what
occurs in the labellum of some orchids, as Cypripedium. When a
tubular corolla is split in such a way as to form a strap-like process
on one side with several tooth-like projections at its apex, it
becomes ligulate or strap-shaped (fig. 63). This corolla occurs
in many composite plants, as in the florets of dandelion, daisy
and chicory. The number of divisions at the apex indicates the
number of united petals, some of which, however, may be
From Strasburgcr's Lehrbuch der Bolanik, by permis-
sion of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 60. Flower of Campanula medium ;
d, bract; v, bracteoles.
FLOWER
565
abortive. Occasionally some of the petals become more united
than others, and then the corolla assumes a bilabiate or two-lipped
form, as seen in the division of Compositae called Labiatiflorae.
Petals are sometimes suppressed, and sometimes the whole
corolla is absent. In Amorpha and Afzelia the corolla is reduced to
a single petal, and in some other Leguminous plants it is entirely
wanting. In the natural order Ranunculaceae, some genera, such
as Ranunculus, globe-flower and paeony, have both calyx and
corolla, while others, such as clematis, anemone and Callha, have
only a coloured calyx. Flowers become double by the multiplica-
tion of the parts of the corolline whorl; this arises in general
from a metamorphosis of the stamens.
Certain structures occur on the petals of some flowers, which
received in former days the name of nectaries. The term nectary
was very vaguely applied
by Linnaeus to any part
of the flower which pre-
sented an unusual aspect,
as the crown (corona) of
narcissus, the fringes of
the Passion-flower, &c. If
the name is retained it
ought properly to include
only those parts which
secrete a honey-like sub-
stance, as the glandular
depression at the base of
the perianth of the fritil-
lary, or on the petal of
Ranunculus (fig. 55), or on
the stamens of Rutaceae.
FIG. 61. FIG. 62. FIG. 63.
FIG. 61. Flower of cowslip (Pri-
mula veris) cut vertically, s, Sepals
joined to form a gamosepalous calyx;
c, corolla consisting of tube and spread- The honey secreted by
ing limb; a, stamens springing from flowers attracts insects,
the mouth of the tube; p, pistil.
FIG. 62. Irregular gamopetalous
labiate corolla of the Dead-nettle P ollf
(Lamium album). The upper lip u is effect
composed of two petals united, the
lower lip (/) of three. Between the
limb join. From the arching of the
upper lip this corolla is called ringent.
FIG. 63. Irregular gamopetalous
ligulate flower of Ragwort (Senecio).
It is a tubular floret, split down on one
side, with the united petals forming a
straplike projection. The lines on the
flat portion indicate the divisions of the
five petals. From the tubular portion
below, the bifid style projects slightly.
which, by conveying the
to the stigma,
fertilization. The
horn-like nectaries under
the galeate sepal of
aconite (fig. 58) are modi-
fied petals, so also are the
tubular nectaries of hel-
lebore (fig. 56). Other
modifications of some part
of the flower, especially
of the corolla and stamens,
are produced either by
degeneration or out-
growth, or by chorisis,
or deduplicalion. Of this nature are the scales on the petals in
Lychnis, Silene and Cynoglossum, which are formed in the same
way as the ligules of grasses. In other cases, as in Samolus,
the scales are alternate with the petals, and may represent altered
stamens. In Narcissus the appendages are united to form a
crown, consisting of a membrane similar to that which unites
the stamens in Pancratium. It is sometimes difficult to say
whether these structures are to be referred to the corolline or to
the staminal row.
Petals are attached to the axis usually by a narrow base.
When this attachment takes place by an articulation, the petals
fall off either immediately after expansion (caducous) or after
fertilization (deciduous). A corolla which is continuous with the
axis and not articulated to it, as in campanula and heaths,
may be persistent, and remain in a withered or marcescent state
while the fruit is ripening. A gamopetalous corolla falls off in
one piece; but sometimes the base of the corolla remains per-
sistent, as in Rhinanthus and Orobanche.
The stamens and the pistil are sometimes spoken of as the
essential organs of the flower, as the presence of both is required
in order that perfect seed may be produced. As with few excep-
tions the stamen represents a leaf which has been specially
developed to bear the pollen or microspores, it is spoken of in
comparative morphology as a microsporophyll; similarly the
Stamen*.
carpels which make up the pistil are the megasporophylls (see
ANGIOSPERMS). Hermaphrodite or bisexual flowers are those
in which both these organs are found; unisexual or diclinous
are those in which only one of these organs appears, those
bearing stamens only, being staminiferous or " male "; those
having the pistil only, pistilliferous or " female." But even in
plants with hermaphrodite flowers self-fertilization is often pro-
vided against by the structure of the parts or by the period of
ripening of the organs. For instance, in Primula and Linum
some flowers have long stamens and a pistil with a short style,
the others having short stamens and a pistil with a long style.
The former occur in the so-called thrum-eyed primroses (fig. 61),
the latter in the " pin-eyed." Such plants are called dimorphic.
Other plants are trimorphic, as species of Lylhrum, and proper
fertilization is only effected by combination of parts of equal
length. In some plants the stamens are perfected before the
pistil; these are called proterandrous, as in Ranunculus repens,
Silene maritime, Zea Mays. In other plants, but more rarely,
the pistil is perfected before the stamens, as in Potentilla argentea,
Plantago major, Coix Lachryma, and they are termed pro-
terogynous. Plants in which proterandry or proterogyny occurs
are called dichogamous. When in the same plant there are
unisexual flowers, both male and female, the plant is said to be
monoecious, as in the hazel and castor-oil plant. When the male
and female flowers of a species are fcund on separate plants,
the term dioecious is applied, as in Mercurialis and hemp; and
when a species has male, female and hermaphrodite flowers
on the same or different plants, as in Parielaria, it is polygamous.
The stamens arise from the thalamus or torus within the
petals, with which they generally alternate, forming one or more
whorls, which collectively constitute the androecium.
Their normal position is below the pistil, and when
they are so placed (fig.64, a) upon the thalamus they are hypo-
gynous. Sometimes they become adherent to the petals, or are
epipetalous, and the insertion of both is looked upon as similar,
so that they are still hypogynous, provided they are independent
of the calyx and the pistil. In other cases they are perigynous
or epigynous (fig. 65). Numerous intermediate forms occur,
especially amongst Saxifragaceae, where the parts are half superior
or half inferior. Where the stamens become adherent to the
pistil so as to form a column, the flowers are said to be gynandrous,
as in Aristolochia (fig.
66). These arrange-
ments of parts are of
great importance in
classification. The
stamens vary in num-
ber from one to many
hundreds. In acyclic
flowers there is often
a gradual transition
from petals to
stamens, as in the
white water-lily (fig.
31). When flowers be-
come double by cul-
tivation, the stamens
are converted into
petals, as in the
paeony, camellia,
rose, &c. When there is only one whorl the stamens are
usually equal in number to the sepals or petals, and are
arranged opposite to the former, and alternate with the latter.
The flower is then isostemonous. When the stamens are not
equal in number to the sepals or petals, the flower is anisoste-
monous. When there is more than one whorl of stamens, then the
parts of each successive whorl alternate with those of the whorl
preceding it. The staminal row is more liable to multiplication
of parts than the outer whorls. A flower with a single row of
stamens is haplostemonous. If the stamens are double the sepals
or petals as regards number, the flower is diplostemonous; if
more than double, polystemonous. The additional rows of
From Strasburger's Lehrbuth der Balanik, by per-
mission of Gustav Fischer.
FlG. 64. Flower of Paeonia pcregrina,\n
longitudinal section, k, Sepal; c, petal; a,
stamens; g, pistil. (J nat. size.)
566
FLOWER
stamens may be developed in the usual centripetal (acropetal)
order, as in Rhamnaceae; or they may be interposed between
the pre-existing ones or be placed outside them, i.e. develop
centrifugally (basipetally), as in geranium and oxalis, when the
flower is said to be obdiplostemonous . When the stamens are
fewer than twenty they are said to be definite; when above
twenty they are indefinite, and are represented by the symbol oo.
The number of stamens is indicated by the Greek numerals
prefixed to the term androus; thus a flower with one stamen
is monandrous, with two, three, four, five, six or many stamens,
di-, tri-, tetr-, pent-, hex- or polyandrous, respectively.
The function of the stamen is the development and distribution
of the pollen. The stamen usually consists of two parts, a con-
tracted portion, often thread-like, termed the filament (fig. 25 /),
and a broader portion, usually of two lobes, termed the anther (a) ,
containing the powdery pollen (p], and supported upon the end
of the filament. That
portion of the filament
in contact with the
anther-lobes is termed
the connective. If the
FIG. 65. Flower of
Aralia in vertical sec-
tion, c, Calyx; p, petal;
e, stamen; s, stigmas.
The calyx, petals and
stamens spring from
above the ovary (o) in
which two chambers
are shown each with a
pendulous ovule; d, disc
between the stamens
and stigmas.
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by per-
mission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 06. Flowers of Aristoluchia Clem-
atitis cut through longitudinally. I. Young
flower in which the stigma (N) is receptive
anther is absent the
stamen is abortive,
and cannot perform and the stamens (S) have not yet opened ;
its functions . The H- *der flower with the stamens (S)
anther Hpvplnr>prl opened, the stigma withered, and the hairs
is developed on the corolla dried up. (X2.)
before the filament,
and when the latter is not produced, the anther is sessile, as in
the mistletoe.
The filament is usually, as its name imports, filiform or thread-
like , and cylindrical, or slightly tapering towards its summit.
It is often, however, thickened , compressed and flattened in
various ways, becoming petaloid in Canna, Marania, water-lily
(fig. 32); subulate or slightly broadened at the base and drawn
out into a point like an awl, as in Butomus umbellatus; or
clavate, that is, narrow below and broad above, as in Thalictrum.
In some instances, as in Tamarix gallica, Peganum Harmala,
and Campanula, the base of the filament is much dilated, and
ends suddenly in a narrow thread-like portion. In these cases
the base may give off lateral stipulary processes, as in A Ilium
and Alyssum calycinum. The filament varies much in length
and in firmness. The length sometimes bears a relation to that
of the pistil, and to the position of the flower, whether erect or
drooping. The filament is usually of sufficient solidity to support
the anther in an erect position; but sometimes, as in grasses,
and other wind-pollinated flowers, it is very delicate and hair-like,
so that the anther is pendulous (fig. 105). The filament is
generally continuous from one end to the other, but in some
cases it is bent or jointed, becoming geniculate; at other times,
as in the pellitory, it is spiral. It is colourless, or of different
colours. Thus in fuchsia and Poinciana, it is red; in Adamia
and Tradescantia virginica, blue; in Oenothera and Ranunculus
acris, yellow.
Hairs, scales, teeth or processes of different kinds are some-
times developed on the filament. In spiderwort (Tradescantia
virginica) the hairs are beautifully coloured, moniliform or
necklace-like, and afford good objects for studying rotation
of the protoplasm. Filaments are usually articulated to the
thalamus or torus, and the stamens fall off after fertilization:
but in Campanula and some other plants they are continuous
with the torus, and the stamens remain persistent, although in a
withered state. Changes are produced in the whorl of stamens
by cohesion of the filaments to a greater or less extent, while
the anthers remain free; thus, all the filaments of the androecium
may unite, forming a tube
round the pistil, or a central
bundle when the pistil is abor-
tive, the stamens becoming
monadelphous, as occurs in
plants of the Mallow tribe; or
they may be arranged in two
bundles, the stamens being
diadelphous, as in Polygala,
Fumaria and Pea; in this case
the bundles may be equal or
unequal. It frequently happens,
especially in Papilionaceous
flowers, that out of ten stamens
nine are united by their fila-
ments, while one (the posterior
one) is free (fig. 68). When
there are three or more bundles
the stamens are triadelphous, as in Hypericum aegyptiacum, or
polyadelphous, as in Ricinus communis (castor-oil). In some
cases, as in papilionaceous flowers, the stamens cohere, having
been originally separate, but in most cases each bundle is pro-
duced by the branching of a single stamen. When there are
three stamens in a bundle we may conceive the lateral ones
as of a stipulary nature. In Lauraceae there are perfect
stamens, each having at the base of the filament two abortive
stamens or staminodes, which may be analogous to stipules.
Filaments sometimes are adherent to the pistil, forming a column
(gynostemium) , as in Stylidium, Asclepiadaceae, Rafflesia, and
Aristolochiaceae (fig. 66) ; the flowers are then termed gynandrous.
a'
FIG. 67. Spikelet of Reed
(Phragmites communis) opened
out. a, b. Barren glumes; c,
fertile glumes, each enclosing one
flower with its pale, d; the zig-
zag axis (rhachilla) bears long
silky hairs.
FIG. 69.
FIG. 70.
FIG. 68. Stamens and pistil of Sweet Pea (Lathyrus). The
stamens are diadelphous, nine of them being united by their filaments
(/), while one of them (e) is free; st, stigma; c, calyx.
FIG. 69. Portion of wall of anther of Wallflower (Cheiranthus).
ce, Exothecium; cf, endothecium; highly magnified.
FIG. 70. Quadrilocular or tetrathecal anther of the flowering
Rush (Butomus umbellatus). The anther entire (a) with its filament;
section of anther (b) showing the four loculi.
The anther consists of lobes containing the minute powdery
pollen grains, which, when mature, are discharged by a fissure
or opening of some sort. There is a double covering
of the anther the outer, or exothecium, resembles the aa tbtr.
epidermis, and of ten presents stomata and projections of
different kinds (fig. 69) ; the inner, or endothecium, is formed by a
layer or layers of cellular tissue (fig. 69, cf), the cells of which
FLOWER
have a spiral, annular, or reticulated thickening of the wall.
The endothecium varies in thickness, generally becoming thinner
towards the part where the anther opens, and there disappears
entirely. The walls of the cells are frequently absorbed, so that
when the anther attains maturity the fibres are alone left, and
these by their elasticity assist in discharging the pollen. The
anther is developed before the filament, and is always sessile in
the first instance, and sometimes continues so. It appears at
first as a simple cellular papilla of meristem, upon which an
indication of two lobes soon appears. Upon these projections
the rudiments of the pollen-sacs are then seen, usually four
in number, two on each lobe. In each a differentiation takes
place in the layers beneath the epidermis, by which an outer layer
of small-celled tissue surrounds an inner portion of large cells.
Those central cells are the mother-cells of the pollen, whilst the
small-celled layer of tissue external to them becomes the endo-
thecium, the exothecium being formed from the epidermal layer.
In the young state there are usually four pollen-sacs, two for
each anther-lobe, and when these remain permanently complete
it is a quadrilocular or tetrathecal anther (fig. 70). Sometimes,
however, only two cavities remain in the anther, by union of
the sacs in each lobe, in which case the anther is said to be bilocular
or dilhecal. Sometimes the anther has a single cavity, and
becomes unilocular, or monothecal, or dimidiate, either by the
disappearance of the partition between the two lobes, or by the
abortion of one of its lobes, as in Styphelia laeta and Althaea
officinalis (hollyhock). Occasionally there are numerous cavities
in the anther, as in Viscum and Rafflesia. The form of the
anther-lobes varies. They are generally of a more or less oval
or elliptical form, or they may be globular, as in Mercurialis
annua; at other times linear or clavate ; curved, flexuose, or
sinuose, as in bryony and gourd. According to the amount of
union of the lobes and the unequal development of different
parts of their surface an infinite variety of forms is produced.
That part of the anther to which the filament is attached is the
back, the opposite being the face. The division between the lobes
is marked on the face of the anther by a groove or furrow, and
there is usually on the face a suture, indicating the line of de-
hiscence. The suture is often towards one side in consequence of
the valves being unequal. The stamens may cohere by their
anthers, and become syngenesious, as in composite flowers, and in
lobelia, jasione, &c.
The anther-lobes are united to the connective, which is either
continuous with the filament or articulated with it. When the
filament is continuous with the connective, and is
prolonged so that the anther-lobes appear to be united
to it throughout their whole length, and lie in apposition
to it and on both sides of it, the anther is said to be adnate or
adherent; when the filament ends at the base of the anther, then
the latter is innate or erect. In these cases the anther is to a
greater or less degree fixed. When, however, the attachment is
very narrow, and an articulation exists, the anthers are movable
(versatile) and are easily turned by the wind, as in Tritonia,
grasses (fig. 105), &c., where the filament is attached only to the
middle of the connective. The connective may unite the anther-
lobes completely or only partially. It is sometimes very short
and is reduced to a mere point, so that the lobes are separate or
free. At other times it i% prolonged upwards beyond the lobes,
assuming various forms, as in Acalypha and oleander; or it is
extended backwards and downwards, as in violet (fig. 71),
forming a nectar-secreting spur. In Salvia officinalis the connec-
tive is attached to the filament in a horizontal manner, so as
to separate the two anther-lobes (fig. 72), one only of which
contains pollen, the other being imperfectly developed and sterile.
The connective is joined to the filament by a movable joint
forming a lever which plays an important part in the pollination-
mechanism. In Slachys the connective is expanded laterally,
so as to unite the bases of the anther-lobes and bring them into
a horizontal line.
The opening or dehiscence of the anthers to discharge their
contents takes place either by clefts, by valves, cr by pores.
When the anther-lobes are erect, the cleft is lengthwise along the
The con
native.
At other
line of the suture longitudinal dekiscence (fig. 25).
times- the slit is horizontal, from the connective to the
side, as in Alchemilla arvensis (fig. 73) and in
the dehiscence is then transverse. When the anther-
lobes are rendered horizontal by the enlargement of the connec-
tive, then what is really longitudinal dehiscence may appear
to be transverse. The cleft does not always proceed the whole
length of the anther-lobe at once,
but often for a time it extends
only partially. In other in-
stances the opening is confined
to the base or apex, each locula-
ment opening by a single pore,
as in Pyrola, Tetratheca juncea,
Rhododendron, Vaccinium and
Solanum (fig. 74), where there are
two, and Poranthera, where there
are four; whilst in the mistletoe
the anther has numerous pores
for the discharge of the pollen.
Another mode of dehiscence is
the valvular, as in the barberry
(fig. 75), where each lobe opens
by a valve on the outer side of
the suture, separately rolling up
from base to apex; in some of
the laurel tribe there are two
such valves for each lobe, or four
in all. In some Guttiferae, as
Hebradendron cambogioides (the
Ceylon gamboge plant), the
anther opens by a lid separating
from the apex (circumscissile
dehiscence) .
The anthers dehisce at different
periods during the process of
flowering; sometimes in the bud,
but more commonly when the
pistil is fully developed and the
flower is expanded. They either
dehisce simultaneously or in suc-
cession. In the latter case in-
dividual stamens may move in
succession towards the pistil and
discharge their contents, as in
Parnassia palustris, or the outer
or the inner stamens may first
dehisce, following thus a centri-
petal or centrifugal order. These
variations are intimately con-
nected with the arrangements
for transference of pollen. The
anthers are called inlrorse when
they dehisce by the surface next
to the centre of the flower; they
are extrorse when they dehisce by the outer surface; when they
dehisce by the sides, as in Iris and some grasses, they are
laterally dehiscent. Sometimes, from their versatile nature,
anthers originally introrse become extrorse, as in the Passion-
flower and Oxalis.
The usual colour of anthers is yellow, but they present a great
variety in this respect. They are red in the peach, dark purple in
the POPPY and tulip, orange in Eschscholtzia, &c. The colour
and appearance of the anthers often change after they have
discharged their functions.
Stamens occasionally become sterile by the degeneration or
non-development of the anthers, when they are known as
staminodia, or rudimentary stamens. In Scrophularia the fifth
stamen appears in the form of a scale; and in many Pentstemons
it is reduced to a filament with hairs or a shrivelled membrane at
the apex. In other cases, as in double flowers, the stamens are
converted into petals; this is also probably the case with such
FIG. 72. FIG. 75.
FIG. 71. Two stamens of
Pansy (Viola tricolor), with
their two anther-lobes and the
connectives (p) extending be-
yond them. One of the stamens
has been deprived of its spur,
the other shows its spur c.
FIG. 72. Anther of Salvia
officinalis. If, fertile lobe full
of pollen ; Is, barren lobe with-
out pollen; e, connective; /,
filament.
FIG. 73. Stamen of Lady's
Mantle (Alchemilla), with the
anther opening transversely.
FIG. 74. Stamen of a species
of Nightshade (Solanum),
showing the divergence of the
anther-lobes at the base, and
the dehiscence by pores at the
apex.
FIG. 75. The stamen of the
Barberry (Berberis vulgaris),
showing one of the valves of
the anther (v) curved upwards,
bearing the pollen on its inner
surface.
5 68
FLOWER
plants as Mesembryanthemum, where there is a multiplication
of petals in several rows. Sometimes, as in Canna, one qf the
anther-lobes becomes abortive, and a petaloid appendage is
produced. Stamens vary in length as regards the corolla.
Some are enclosed within the tube of the flower, as in Cinchona
(included); others are exserted, or extend beyond the flower,
as in Littorella or Plantago. Sometimes the stamens in the early
state of the flower project beyond the petals, and in the progress
of growth become included, as in Geranium striatum. Stamens
also vary in their relative lengths. When there is more than one
row or whorl in a flower, those on the outside are sometimes
longest, as in many Rosaceae; at other times those in the interior
are longest, as in Luhea. When the stamens are in two rows,
those opposite the petals are usually shorter than those which
alternate with the petals. It sometimes happens that a single
stamen is longer than
all the rest. A definite
relation, as regards
number, sometimes
exists between the long
and the short stamens.
Thus, in some flowers
the stamens are didy-
namous, having only
four out of five stamens
developed, and the
two corresponding to
the upper part of the
flower longer than the
two lateral ones. This
occurs in Labiatae and
Scrophulariaceae (fig.
76). Again, in other
cases there are six
stamens, whereof four
long ones are arranged
in pairs opposite to each
other, and alternate
with two isolated short ones (fig. 77), giving rise to tetradynamous
flowers, as in Cruciferae. Stamens, as regards their direction,
may be erect, turned inwards, outwards, or to one side. In the
last-mentioned case they are called declinate, as in amaryllis,
horse-chestnut and fraxinella.
The pollen-grains or microspores contained in the anther con-
sist of small cells, which are developed in the large thick-walled
mother-cells formed in the interior of the pollen-sacs (micro-
sporangia) of the young anther. These mother-cells are either
separated from one another and float in the granular fluid which
fills up the cavity of the pollen-sac, or are not so isolated. A
division takes place, by which four cells are formed in each, the
exact mode of division differing in dicotyledons and mono-
cotyledons. These cells are the pollen-grains. They increase
in size and acquire a cell-wall, which becomes differentiated into
an outer cuticular layer, or extine, and an inner layer, or inline.
Then the walls of the mother-cells are absorbed, and the pollen-
grains float freely in the fluid of the pollen-sacs, which gradually
disappears, and the mature grains form a powdery mass within
the anther. They then either remain united in fours, or multiples
of four, as in some acacias, Periploca graeca and Inga anomala,
or separate into individual grains, which by degrees become
mature pollen. Occasionally the membrane of the mother-cell is
not completely absorbed, and traces of it are detected in a
viscid matter surrounding the pollen-grains, as in Onagraceae.
In orchidaceous plants the pollen-grains are united into masses,
or pollinia (fig. 78), by means of viscid matter. In orchids each
of the pollen-masses has a prolongation or stalk (caudide) which
adheres to a prolongation at the base of the anther (rostellum)
by means of a viscid gland (retinaculum) which is either naked
or covered. The term clinandrium is sometimes applied to the
part of the column in orchids where the stamens are situated.
In some orchids, as Cypripedium, the pollen has its ordinary
character of separate grains. The number of pollinia varies;
FIG. 76. Corolla
of foxglove (Digi-
talis purpurea), cut
in order to show
the didynamous
stamens (two long
and two short;
which are attached
to it.
From Strasburger's
Lehrbuch der Botanik,
by permission of Gustav
Fischer.
FIG. 77. Tetra-
dynamous stamens
(four long and two
short) of wallflower
(CheiranthusCheiri).
thus, in Orchis there are usually two, in Cattleya four, and in
Laelia eight. The two pollinia in Orchis Morio contain each
about 200 secondary smaller masses. These small masses, when
bruised, divide into grains which are united in fours. In Asclepia-
daceae the pollinia are usually united in pairs (fig. 79), belonging
to two contiguous anther-lobes each pollen-mass having a
s
FIG. 78. FIG. 79. FIG. 80.
FIG. 78. Pollinia, or pollen-masses, with their retinacula (g) or
viscid matter attaching them at the base. The pollen masses (p)
are supported on stalks or caudicles (c). These masses are easily
detached by the agency of insects. Much enlarged.
FIG. 79. Pistil of Asclepias (a) with pollen-masses (p) adhering
to the stigma (s). b, pollen-masses, removed from the stigma, united
by a gland-like body. Enlarged.
FIG. 80. Stamen of Asclepias, showing filament /, anther a, and
appendages p. Enlarged.
caudicular appendage, ending in a common gland, by means of
which they are attached to a process of the stigma. The pollinia
are also provided with an appendicular staminal covering (fig. 80).
The extine is a firm membrane, which
defines the figure of the pollen-grain, and
gives colour to it. It is either smooth, or
covered with numerous projections (fig. 81),
granules, points or crested reticulations.
The colour is generally yellow, and the sur-
face is often covered with a viscid or oily
matter. The intine is uniform in different
kinds of pollen, thin and transparent,
and possesses great power of extension.
In some aquatics, as Zoster a, Zannichellia, Naias, &c., only one
covering exists.
Pollen-grains vary from -$fa to yj-jf of an inch or less in diameter.
Their forms are various. The most common form of grain is
ellipsoidal, more or less narrow at the extremities, which are
called its poles, in contradistinction to a line equidistant from
the extremities, which is its equator. Pollen-grains are also
spherical; cylindrical and curved, as in Tradescanlia virginica;
FIG. 83. Male flWer of
Pellitory (Parietaria officinalis),
having four stamens with in-
curved elastic filaments, and
an abortive pistil in the centre.
When the perianth (p) ex-
pands, the filaments are thrown
out with force as at a, so as to
scatter the pollen.
From Vines' Students' Text-Book of
Botany, by permission of Swan Sonnen-
schein & Co.
FIG. 82. Germinating pollen-
grain of Epilobium (highly mag.)
bearing a pollen-tube s ; e, exine ;
i, intine; abc, the three spots
where the exine is thicker in
anticipation of the formation of
the pollen-tube developed in this
case at a. >
polyhedral in Dipsacaceae and Compositae; nearly triangular in
section in Proteaceae and Onagraceae (fig. 82). The surface of the
pollen-grain is either uniform and homogeneous, or it is marked
by folds formed by thinnings of the membrane. There are also
rounded portions of the membrane or pores visible in the pollen-
grain; these vary in number from one to fifty, and through one
FLOWER
569
or more of them the pollen-tube is extended in germination of
the spore. In Monocotyledons, as in grasses, there is often only
one, while in Dicotyledons they number from three upwards;
when numerous, the pores are either scattered irregularly, or
in a regular order, frequently forming a circle round the equatorial
surface. Sometimes at the place where they exist, the outer
membrane, in place of being thin and transparent, is separated
in the form of a lid, thus becoming operculate,iLS in the passion-
flower and gourd. Within the pollen-grain is the granular
protoplasm with some oily particles, and occasionally starch.
Before leaving the pollen-sac a division takes place in the pollen-
grain into a vegetative cell or cells, from which the tube is
developed, and a generative cell, which ultimately divides to
form the male cells (see ANGIOSPERMS and GYMNOSPERMS) .
When the pollen-grains are ripe, the anther dehisces and the
pollen is shed. In order that fertilization may be effected the
pollen must be conveyed to the stigma of the pistil.
This process, termed pollination (see POLLINATION),
is promoted in various ways, the whole form and
structure of the flower having relation to the process. In some
plants, as Kalmia and Pellitory (fig. 83), the mere elasticity
of the filaments is sufficient to effect this; in other plants
pollination is effected by the wind, as in most of our forest trees,
grasses, &c., and in such cases enormous quantities of pollen are
produced. These plants are anemophilous . But the common
agents for pollination are insects. To allure and attract them
to visit the flower the odoriferous secretions and gay colours
are developed, and the position and complicated structure of
the parts of the flower are adapted to the perfect performance
of the process. It is comparatively rare in hermaphrodite flowers
for self-fertilization to occur, and the various forms of dicho-
gamy, dimorphism and trimorphism are fitted to prevent this.
Under the term disk is included every structure intervening
between the stamens and the pistil. It was to such structures
Disk t ' lat t ^ le name f nectar y was applied by old authors.
It presents great varieties of form, such as a ring, scales,
glands, hairs, petaloid appendages, &c., and in the progress of
growth it often contains saccharine matter, thus becoming truly
nectariferous . The disk is frequently formed by degeneration
or transformation of the staminal row. It may consist of
processes rising from the torus, alternating with the stamens,
and thus representing an abortive whorl; or its parts may be
opposite to the stamens. In some
flowers, as Jatropha Curcas, In which
the stamens are not developed, their
place is occupied by glandular
bodies forming the disk. In Gesner-
I aceae and Cruciferae the disk con-
sists of tooth- like scales at the base
of the stamens. The parts compos-
ing the disk sometimes unite and
form a glandular ring, as in the
orange; or they form a dark-red
lamina covering the pistil, as in
Paeonia Moutan (fig. 84); or a
p g Flower of Tree waxv I mm 8 of the hollow receptacle,
Paeony (Paeonia Moutan), in the rose; or a swelling at the
deprived of its corolla, and top of the ovary, as in Umbelliferae,
showing the disk in the form j n w hich the disk is said to be
of a fleshy expansion (d) ep jgy nous The enlarged torus
covering the ovary in Nymphaea
(Castalia) and NelumUum may be regarded as a form of disk.
The pistil or gynoecium occupies the centre or apex of the
flower, and is surrounded by the stamens and floral envelopes
when these are present. It constitutes the innermost
whorl, which after flowering is changed into the fruit
and contains the seeds. It consists essentially of two parts, a
basal portion forming a chamber, the ovary, containing the ovules
attached to a part called the placenta, and an upper receptive
portion, the stigma, which is either seated on the ovary (sessile),
as in the tulip and poppy, or is elevated on a stalk called the
style, interposed between the ovary and stigma. The pistil
consists of one or more modified leaves, the carpels (or megasporo-
phylls). When a pistil consists of a single carpel it is simple or
monocarpellary (fig. 85). When it is composed of several carpels,
more or less united, it is compound or polycarpdlary (fig. 86).
In the first-mentioned case the terms carpel and pistil are
synonymous. Each carpel has its own ovary, style (when
present), and stigma, and may be regarded as formed by a folded
leaf, the upper surface of which is turned inwards towards the
axis, and the lower outwards, while from its margins are developed
one or more ovules. This comparison is borne out by an examina-
tion of the flower of the double-flowering cherry. In it no fruit
is produced, and the pistil consists merely of sessile leaves,
the limb of each being green and folded, with a narrow prolonga-
tion upwards, as if from the midrib, and ending in a thickened
portion. In Cycas the carpels are ordinary leaves, with ovules
upon their margin.
A pistil is usually formed by more than one carpel. The carpels
may be arranged either at the same or nearly the same height
FIG. 85.
jFlG. 87.
From Strasburger's
Lcltrbuch der Bolanik,
by permission of Guslav
Fischer.
FIG. 86. FIG. 89. FIG. 88. FIG. 90.
FIG. 85. Pistil of Broom (Cytisus) consisting of ovary o, style s,
and stigma /. It is formed by a single carpel.
FIG. 86. Vertical section of the flower of Black Hellebore (Hette-
borus niger). The pistil is apocarpous, consisting of several distinct
carpels, each with ovary, style and stigma. The stamens are in-
definite, and are inserted below the pistil (hypogynous).
FIG. 87. Fruit of the Strawberry (Fragaria vesca), consisting of
an enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the small
dry seed-like fruits (achenes).
FIG. 88. Fruit of Rosa alba, consisting of the fleshy hollowed axis
s', the persistent sepals s, and the carpels fr. The stamens (c) have
withered. (After Duchartre.)
FIG. 89. Pistil of Ranunculus, x, Receptacle with the points of
insertion of the stamens a, most of which have been removed.
FIG. 90. Syncarpous Pistil of Flax (Linum), consisting of five
carpels, united by their ovaries, while their styles and stigmas are
separate.
in a verticil, or at different heights in a spiral cycle. When they
remain separate and distinct, thus showing at once the composi-
tion of the pistil, as in Callha, Ranunculus, hellebore (fig. 86), and
Spiraea, the term apocarpous is applied. Thus, in Sedum (fig. 2 2)
the pistil consists of five verticillate carpels o, alternating with
the stamens e. In magnolia and Ranunculus (fig. 89) the separate
carpels are numerous and are arranged in a spiral cycle upon an
elongated axis or receptacle. In the raspberry the carpels are
on a conical receptacle; in the strawberry, on a swollen succulent
one (fig. 87); and in the rose (fig. 88), on a hollow one. When
the carpels are united, as in the pear, arbutus and chickweed,
the pistil becomes syncarpous. Thenumberof carpels ina pistil
is indicated by the Greek numeral. A flower with a simple
pistil is monogynous; with two carpels, digynous; with three
carpels, trigynous, &c.
The union in a syncarpous pistil is not always complete;
it may take place by the ovaries alone, while the styles and
stigmas remain free (fig. oo), and in this case, when the ovaries
form apparently a single body, the organ receives the name of
compound ovary; or the union may take place by the ovaries
and styles while the stigmas are disunited; or by the stigmas
570
FLOWER
and the summit of the style only. Various intermediate states
exist, such as partial union of the ovaries, as in the rue, where
they coalesce at their base; and partial union of the styles, as
in Malvaceae. The union is usually most complete at the base ;
but in Labiatae the styles are united throughout their length, and
in Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae the stigmas only. When
the union is incomplete, the number of the parts of a com-
pound pistil may be determined by the number of styles and
stigmas; when complete, the external venation, the grooves
on the surface, and the internal divisions of the ovary indicate
the number.
The ovules are attached to the placenta, which consists of a
mass of cellular tissue, through which the nourishing vessels
pass to the ovule. The. placenta is usually formed on
placenta. the ed g es of the car P ellar y leaf ( fi S- 90~ marginal.
In many cases, however, the placentas are formations
from the axis (axile), and are not connected with the carpellary
leaves. In marginal placentation the part of the carpel bearing
the placenta is the inner or ventral
suture, corresponding to the margin
of the folded carpellary leaf, while
the outer or dorsal suture corresponds
to the midrib of the carpellary leaf.
As the placenta is formed on each
margin of the carpel it is essentially
double. This is seen in cases where
the margins of the carpel do not
unite, but remain separate, and con-
sequently two placentas are formed in
place of one. When the pistil is
formed by one carpel the inner margins
unite and form usually a common
marginal placenta, which may extend
t FlG - r 9i- Pi?til of Pea a j the whole marg j n o f tne ovary
ovuYesSveCng toform as far as the base of the style (fig. 9I ),
the fruit. /, Funicle or or may be confined to the base or
stalk of ovule (of) ; pi, pla- a p e x only. When the pistil consists
centa; ^withered style and of severa i separate carpels, or is
stigma;;, persistent calyx. apocarpouS) there are generally separ-
ate placentas at each of their margins. In a syncarpous pistil,
on the other hand, the carpels are so united that the edges of
each of the contiguous ones, by their union, form a septum or
dissepiment, and the number of these septa consequently indicates,
the number of carpels in the compound pistil (fig. 92). When the
FIG. 92. FIG. 93. FIG. 94.
FIG. 92. Trilocular ovary of the Lily (Lilium),cut transversely.
s, Septum; o, ovules, which form a double row in the inner angle
of each chamber. Enlarged.
FIG. 93. Diagrammatic section of a quinquelocular ovary, com-
posed of five carpels, the edges of which are folded inwards, and meet
in the centre forming the septa, s. The ovules (o) are attached to a
central placenta, formed by the union of the five ventral sutures.
Dorsal suture, /.
FIG. 94. Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in
which the edges of the carpels, bearing the placentas and ovules o, are
not folded inwards. The placentas are parietal, and the ovules
appear sessile on the walls of the ovary. The ovary is unilocular.
dissepiments extend to the centre or axis, the ovary is divided
into cavities or cells, and it may be bilocular, trilocular (fig. 92),
quadrilocular, quinquelocular, or multilocular, according as it is
formed by two, three, four, five or many carpels; each carpel
corresponding to a single cell. In these cases the marginal
placentas meet in the axis, and unite so as to form a single central
one (figs. 92, 93), and the ovules appear in the central angle of
the loculi. When the carpels in a syncarpous pistil do not fold
inwards so that the placentas appear as projections on the walls
of the ovary, then the ovary is unilocular (fig. 95) and the
placentas are parietal, as in Viola (fig. 96). In these instances
the placentas may be formed at the margin of the united con-
tiguous leaves, so as to appear single, or the margins may not be
united, each developing a placenta. Frequently the margins of
the carpels, which fold in to the centre, split there into two
lamellae, each of which is curved outwards and projects into the
FIG. 95.
FIG. 96.
FIG. 97. FIG. 98.
FIG. 95. Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in
which the septa (s) proceed inwards for a certain length, bearing the
placentas and ovules (o). In this case the ovary is unilocular, and the
placentas are parietal. Dorsal suture, I,
FIG. 96. Pistil of Pansy (Viola tricolor), enlarged. I, Vertical;
2, horizontal section; c, calyx; d, wall of ovary; o, ovules; p,
placenta; s, stigma.
FIG. 97. Transverse section of the fruit of the Melon (Cucumis
Melo), showing the placentas with the seeds attached to them. The
three carpels forming the pepo are separated by partitions. From
the centre, processes go to circumference, ending in curved placentas
bearing the ovules.
FIG. 98. Diagrammatic section of a compound unilocular ovary,
in which there are no indications of partitions. The ovules (p) are
attached to a free central placenta, which has no connexion with
the walls of the ovary.
loculament, dilating at the end into a placenta. This is well
seenin Cucurbitaceae (fig. 97), Pyrola, &c. The carpellary leaves
may fold inwards very slightly, or they may be applied in a
valvate manner, merely touching at their margins, the placentas
then being parietal (fig. 94), and appearing as lines or thickenings
along the walls. Cases occur, however, in which the placentas
are not connected with the
walls of the ovary, and form
what is called a free central
placenta (fig. 98). This is seen
in many of the Caryophyl-
laceae and Primulaceae (figs.
99,100). In Caryophyllaceae,
however, while the placenta
is free in the centre, there are
often traces found at the base
of the ovary of the remains of
septa, as if rupture had taken
place, and, in rare instances,
ovules are found on the
margins of the carpels. But
in Primulaceae no vestiges of
septa or marginal ovules can
be perceived at any period of
growth; the placenta is
always free, and rises in the
centre of the ovary. Free
FIG. 99. FIG. loo.
FIG. 99. Pistil of Cerastium
hirsutum cut vertically, o, Ovary;
p, free central placenta; g, ovules;
j, styles.
FIG. loo. The same cut hori-
zontally, and the halves separated
so as to show the interior of the
cavity of the ovary o, with the free
central placenta p, covered with
ovules g.
central placentation, there-
fore, has been accounted for in two ways: either by supposing
that the placentas in the early state were formed on the margins of
FLOWER
carpellary leaves, and that in the progress of development these
leaves separated from them, leaving the placentas and ovules
free in the centre; or by supposing that the placentas are not
marginal but axile formations, produced by an elongation of the
axis, and the carpels verticillate leaves, united together around
the axis. The first of these views applies to Caryophyllaceae,
the second to Primulaceae.
Occasionally, divisions take 1 place in ovaries which are not
formed by the edges of contiguous carpels. These are called
spurious dissepiments. They are often horizontal, as in Cathar-
tocarpus Fistula, where they consist of transverse cellular pro-
longations from the walls of the ovary, only developed after
fertilization, and therefore more properly noticed under fruit.
At other times they are vertical, as in Datura, where the ovary,
in place of being two-celled, becomes four-celled; in Cruciferae,
where the prolongation of the placentas forms a vertical partition;
in Astragalus and Thespesia, where the dorsal suture is folded
inwards; and in Oxytropis, where the ventral suture is folded
inwards.
The ovary is usually of a more or less spherical or curved form,
sometimes smooth and uniform on its surface, at other times
hairy and grooved. The grooves usually indicate the divisions
between the carpels and correspond to the dissepiments. The
dorsal suture may be marked by a slight projection or by a
superficial groove. When the ovary is situated on the centre
of the receptacle, free from the other whorls, so that its base is
above the insertion of the stamens, it is termed superior, as in
Lychnis, Primula (fig. 61) and Peony (fig. 64) (see also fig. 28).
When the margin of the receptacle is prolonged upwards, carrying
with it the floral envelopes and staminal leaves, the basal portion
of the ovary being formed by the receptacle, and the carpellary
leaves alone closing in the apex, the ovary is inferior, as in
pomegranate, aralia (fig. 65), gooseberry and fuchsia (see
fig. 30). In some plants,
as many Saxifragaceae,
there are intermediate
forms, in which the term
half-inferior is applied to
the ovary, whilst the
floral whorls are half-
superior.
The style proceeds
from the summit of the
carpel (fig.
102), and is
traversed by a narrow
canal, in which there are
some loose projecting
cells, a continuation of
the placenta, constituting
what is called conduct-
ing tissue, which ends in
the stigma. This is par-
ticularly abundant when
the pistil is ready for
fertilization. In some
cases, owing to more
rapid growth of the
ovaVy'"(o)' 1 a'nd''as'tyTew'hK:h divides into dorsal side of the ovary,
three petaloid segments (s), each bearing the style becomes lateral
a stigma (st). . (fig. IO i); this may so
FIG. 104. Capsuleof Poppy, opening > '/hat the stvle
by pores (p), under the radiating peltate mci
stigma (*) a PP ears to anse fr T
near the base, as in the
strawberry, or from the base, as in Chrysobalanus Icaco, when
it is called basilar. In all these cases the style still indicates
the organic apex of the ovary, although it may not be the
apparent apex. When in a compound pistil the style of each
carpel is thus displaced, it appears as if the ovary were
depressed in the centre, and the style rising from the depres-
sion in the midst of the carpels seems to come from the torus.
Such a style is gynobasic, and is well seen in Boraginaceae.
The style.
FIG. 104. FIG. 103.
FIG. 101. Carpel of Lady's-mantle
(AlchemUla) with lateral style s; o,
composed of five carpels which are com-
pletely united ; o, ovary; s, style; st,
stigma. Enlarged.
nlarg
The
stigma.
The form of the style is usually cylindrical, more or less filiform
and simple; sometimes it is grooved on one side, at other times
it is flat, thick, angular, compressed and even petaloid, as in Iris
(fig. 103) and Canna. In Goodeniaceae it ends in a cup-like
expansion, enclosing the stigma. It sometimes bears hairs,
which aid in the application of the pollen to the stigma, and are
called collecting hairs, as in Campanula, and also in Aster and other
Compositae. These hairs, during the upward growth of the
style, come into contact with the already ripened pollen, and
carry it up along with them, ready to be applied by insects to the
mature stigma of other flowers. In Vicia and Lobelia the hairs
frequently form a tuft below the stigma. The styles of a syn-
carpous pistil are either separate or united; when separate, they
alternate with the septa; when united completely, the style is
said to be simple (fig. 102). The style of a single carpel, or of
each carpel of a compound pistil, may also be divided. Each
division of the tricarpellary ovary of Jilropka Curcas has a
bifurcate or forked style, and the ovary of Emblica officinalis has
three styles, each of which is twice forked. The length of the
style is determined by the relation which should subsist between
the position of the stigma and that of the anthers, so as to allow
the proper application of the pollen. The style is deciduous or
persists after fertilization.
The stigma is the termination of the conducting tissue of the
style, and is usually in direct communication with the placenta.
It consists of loose cellular tissue, and secretes a viscid
matter which detains the pollen, and causes it to
germinate. This secreting portion is, strictly speaking,
the true stigma, but the name is generally applied to all the
divisions of the style on which the stigmatic apparatus is situated.
The stigma alternates with the dissepiments of a syncarpous
pistil, or, in other words, corresponds with the back of the
loculaments; but in some cases it would appear that half the
stigma of one carpel unites with half that of the contiguous
carpel, and thus the stigma is opposite the dissepiments, that is,
alternates with the loculaments, as in the poppy.
The divisions of the stigma mark the number of carpels which
compose the pistil. Thus in Campanula a five-cleft stigma
indicates five carpels; in Bignoniaceae, Scrophulariaceae and
Acanthaceae, the two-lobed or bilamellar stigma indicates a
bilocular ovary. Sometimes, however, as in Gramineae, the
stigma of a single carpel divides. Its position may be terminal
or lateral. In Iris it is situated on a cleft on the back of the
petaloid divisions of the style (fig. 103). Some stigmas, as
those of Mimulus, present sensitive flattened laminae, which
close when touched. The stigma presents various forms. It may
be globular, as in Mirabilis Jalapa; orbicular, as in Arbutus
Andrachne; umbrella-like, as in
Sarracenia, where, however, the
proper stigmatic surface is beneath
the angles of the large expansion
of the apex of the style; ovoid, as
in fuchsia; hemispherical; poly-
hedral; radiating, as in the poppy
(fig. 104), where the true stigmatic
rays are attached to a sort of peltate
or shield-like body, which may
represent depressed or flattened
styles; cucullate, i.e. covered by a
hood, in calabar bean. The lobes
of a stigma are flat and pointed as
in Mimulus and Bignonia, fleshy
and blunt, smooth or granular, or with glumes removed, snow-
they are feathery, as in many ing three stamens and two
grasses (fig. 103) and other wind-
pollinated flowers. In Orchidaceae
the stigma is situated on the antetior surface of the column
beneath the anther. In Asclepiadaceae the stigmas are
united to the face of the anthers, and along with them form
a solid mass.
The ovule is attached to the placenta, and destined to become
the seed. Ovules are most usually produced on the margins of
FIG. 105. Flower of a grass
572
FLOWER
the carpellary leaves, but are also formed over the whole
surface of the leaf, as in Butomus. In other instances they rise
from the floral axis itself, either terminal, as in Poly-
gonaceae and Piperaceae, or lateral, as in Primulaceae
and Compositae. The ovule is usually contained in an ovary,
and all plants in which the ovule is so enclosed are termed
angiospermous; but in Coniferae and Cycadaceae it has no
proper ovarian covering, and is called naked, these orders being
denominated gymnospermous. In Cycas the altered leaf, upon
the margin of which the ovule is produced, and the peltate scales,
from which they are pendulous in Zamia, are regarded by all
botanists as carpellary leaves. As for the Coniferae great dis-
cussion has arisen regarding the morphology of parts in many
genera. The carpellary leaves are sometimes united in such a
way as to leave an opening at the apex of the pistil, so that the
ovules are exposed, as in mignonette. In Leontice thalictroides
(Blue Cohosh), species of Ophiopogon, Peliosanthes and Stateria,
the ovary ruptures immediately after flowering, and the ovules
are exposed; and in species of Cuphea the placenta ultimately
bursts through the ovary and corolla, and becomes erect, bearing
the exposed ovules. The ovule is attached to the placenta either
directly, when it is sessile, or by means of a prolongation funicle
(fig. 1 10, f) . This cord sometimes becomes much elongated after
fertilization. The part by which the ovule is attached to the
placenta or cord is its baseorhilum, the opposite extremity being
its apex. The latter is frequently turned round in such a way
as to approach the base. The ovule is sometimes embedded in
the placenta, as in Hydnora.
FIG. i 06.
FIG. 107.
FIG. 108. FIG. 109.
FIGS. 106 and 107. Successive stages in the development of an
ovule, n, Nucellus; i, inner; o, outer integument in section; m,
micropyle.
FIG. 108. Orthptropous ovule of Polygonum in section, showing
the embryo-sac s, in the nucellus n, the different ovular coverings,
the base of the nucellus or chalaza ch, and the apex of the ovule with
its micropyle m.
FIG. 109. Vertical section of the ovule of the Austrian Pine
(Pinus austriaca), showing the nucellus a, consisting of delicate
cellular tissue containing deep in its substance an embryo-sac b.
The micropyle m is very wide.
The ovule appears at first as a small cellular projection from
the placenta. The cells multiply until they assume a more or
less enlarged ovate form constituting what has been called the
nucellus (fig. 106, n), or central cellular mass of the ovule. This
nucellus may remain naked, and alone form the ovule, as in
some orders of parasitic plants such as Balanophoraceae, Santa-
laceae, &c. ; but in most plants it becomes surrounded by certain
coverings or integuments during its development. These appear
first in the form of cellular rings at the base of the nucellus,
which gradually spread over its surface (figs. 106, 107). In some
cases only one covering is formed, especially amongst gamo-
petalous dicotyledons, as in Compositae, Campanulaceae, also
in walnut, &c. But usually besides the single covering another
is developed subsequently (fig. 106, o), which gradually extends
over that first formed, and ultimately covers it completely,
except at the apex. There are thus two integuments to the
nucellus, an outer and an inner. The integuments do not
completely invest the apex of the nucellus, but an opening termed
the micropyle is left. The micropyle indicates the organic apex
of the ovule. A single cell of the nucellus enlarges greatly to
form the embryo-sac or megaspore (fig. 108, s). This embryo-sac
increases in size, gradually supplanting the cellular tissue of the
nucellus until it is surrounded only by a thin layer of it; or it
may actually extend at the apex beyond it, as in Phaseolus
and Alsine media; or it may pass into the micropyle, as in
Santalum. In Gymnosperms it usually remains deep in the
nucellus and surrounded by a thick mass of cellular tissue (fig.
109). For an account of the further development of the mega-
spore, and the formation of the egg-cell, from which after fertiliza-
tion is formed the embryo, see GYMNOSPERMS and ANGIO-
SPERMS.
The point where the integuments are united to the base of
the nucellus is called the chalaza (figs. 111,112). This is often
coloured, is of a denser
texture than the sur- ^f=^^. f
rounding tissue, and is
traversed by fibro-
vascular bundles, which
pass from the placenta
to nourish the ovule.
When the ovule is
so developed that the
chalaza is at the
hilum (next the pla- FIG. no. FIG. in.
centa), and the micro- FlG ,- 1 10. Campylotrppous ovule of
_ i t u <. wall-flower (Cheiranthus) , showing the
pyle is at the opposite funicle/f wh ich attaches the ovule to the
extremity, there being placenta ; p, the outer, s, the inner coat,
a short funicle, the , the nucellus, ch, the chalaza. The
ovule is orthotropous. ovule is curved upon itself, so that the
This form U ivpll PPTI Jn nucropyle is near the funicle.
JL his lorm is .veil seen in FlG , : I _ Anatropous ovule O f Dande-
Polygonaceae (fig. 112), n on (Taraxacum), n, nucellus, which is
Cistaceae, and most inverted, so that the chalaza ch, is re-
gymnosperms. In such moved from the base or hilum h, while
straight Un,> the micropyle / is near the base. The
an ovule a straight me connexion between the base of the ovule
drawn from the hilum anc i t h e base of the nucellus is kept up
to the micropyle passes by means of the raphe r.
along the axis of the
ovule. Where, by more rapid growth on one side than on the
other, the nucellus, together with the integuments, is curved upon
itself, so that the micropyle approaches the hilum, and ultimately
is placed close to it, while the chalaza is at the hilum, the ovule is
campylotropous (fig. 1 1 o) . Curved ovules are found in Crucif erae,
and Caryophyllaceae. The inverted or anatropous ovule (fig. in)
is the commonest form amongst angiosperms. In this ovule the
apex with the micropyle is turned towards the point of attach-
ment of the funicle to the placenta, the chalaza being situated
at the opposite extremity; and the funicle, which runs along the
side usually next the placenta, coalesces with the ovule and
constitutes the raphe (r), which often forms a ridge. The
anatropous ovule arises from the placenta as a straight or only
slightly curved cellular process, and as it grows, gradually
becomes inverted, curving from the point of origin of the integu-
ments (cf. figs. 106, 107). As the first integument grows round
it, the amount of inversion increases, and the funicle becomes
adherent to the side of the nucellus. Then if a second integument
be formed it covers all the free part of the ovule, but does not
form on the side to which the raphe is adherent. These may be
taken as the three types of ovule; but there are various inter-
mediate forms, such as semi-anatropous and others.
The position of the ovule relative to the ovary varies. When
there is a single ovule, with its axis vertical, it may be attached
to the placenta at the base of the ovary (basal placenta), and is
then erect, as in Polygonaceae and Compositae; or it may be
inserted a little above the base, on a parietal placenta, with its
apex upwards, and then is ascending, as in Parietaria. It may
hang from an apicilar placenta at the summit of the ovary, its
apex being directed downwards, and is inverted or pendulous,
as in Hippuris vulgaris; or from a parietal placenta near the
summit, and then is suspended, as in Daphne Mezereum, Poly-
galaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Sometimes a long funicle arises
from a basal placenta, reaches the summit of the ovary, and
there bending over suspends the ovule, as in Armeria (sea-pink) ;
at other times the hilum appears to be in the middle, and the
ovule becomes horizontal. When there are two ovules in the
same cell, they may be either collateral, that is, placed side by
FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL FLOYD
side (fig. 92), or the one may be erect and the other inverted,
as in some species of Spiraea and Aesculus; or they may be
placed one above another, each directed similarly, as is the case
in ovaries containing a moderate or definite number of ovules.
Thus, in the ovary of Leguminous plants (fig. 91), the ovules, o,
are attached to the extended marginal placenta, one above the
other, forming usually two parallel rows corresponding to each
margin of the carpel. When the ovules are definite (i.e. are
uniform, and can be counted), it is usual to find their attachment
so constant as to afford good characters for classification. When
the ovules are very numerous (indefinite), while at the same time
the placenta is not much developed, their position exhibits great
variation, some being directed upwards, others downwards,
others transversely; and their form is altered by pressure into
various polyhedral shapes. In such cases it frequently happens
that some of the ovules are arrested in their development and
become abortive.
When the pistil has reached a certain stage in growth it becomes
ready for fertilization. Pollination having been effected, and
the pollen-grain having reached the stigma in angio-
sperms,or the summit of the nucellusin gymnosperms,
it is detained there, and the viscid secretion from the
glands of the stigma in the former case, or from the nucellus in
the latter, induce the protrusion of the inline as a pollen-tube
through the pores of the grain.
The pollen-tube or tubes pass
down the canal (fig. 112),
through the conducting tissue
of the style when present, and
reach the interior of the ovary
in angiosperms, and then pass
to the micropyle of the ovule,
one pollen-tube going to each
Fertiliza-
tion.
n
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch det
Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 112. Ovary of Poly-
gonum Convolvulus in longitu-
dinal section during fertilization.
(X 48.)
fs, Stalk-like base of ovary.
fu, Funicle.
cha, Chalaza.
rtM, Nucellus.
mi, Micropyle.
ii, inner, ie, outer integument.
e, Embryo-sac.
ek, Nucleus of embryo-sac.
ei. Egg-apparatus.
an, Antipodal cells.
g. Style.
n, Stigma.
p, Pollen-grains.
ps, Pollen-tubes.
FIG. 113. Vertical section of
the ovule of the Scotch Fir (Pinus
sylvestris) in May of the second
year, showing the enlarged em-
bryo-sac b, full of endosperm
cells, and pollen-tubes c, pene-
trating the summit of the nucellus
after the pollen has entered the
large micropyle.
ovule. Sometimes the micro-
pyle lies close to the base of
the style, and then the pollen-
tube enters it at once, but
frequently it has to pass some
distance into the ovary, being
guided in its direction by vari-
ous contrivances, as hairs,
grooves, &c. In gymnosperms
the pollen-grain resting on the
apex of the nucellus sends out
its pollen-tubes, which at once
penetrate the nucellus (fig. 113)-
In angiosperms when the pollen-
tube reaches the micropyle it
passes down into the canal, and this portion of it increases
considerably in size. Ultimately the apex of the tube comes in
contact with the tip of the embryo-sac and perforates it.
male cells in the end of the pollen-tube are then transmitted t
the embryo-sac and fertilization is effected. Consequent upon
this after a longer or shorter period, those changes commence
in the embryo-sac which result in the formation of the embryo
573
plant, the ovule also undergoing changes which convert it into
the seed, and fit it for a protective covering, and a store of
nutriment for the embryo. Nor are the effects of fertilization
confined to the ovule; they extend to other parts of the plant.
The ovary enlarges, and, with the seeds enclosed, constitutes
the fruit, frequently incorporated with which are other parts
of the flower, as receptacle, calyx, &c. In gymnosperms the
pollen-tubes, having penetrated a certain distance down the
tissue of the nucellus, are usually arrested in growth for a longer
or shorter period, sometimes nearly a year. Fruit and seed are
discussed in a separate article FRUIT. (A. B. R.)
FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL. Imitations of natural flowers are
sometimes made for scientific purposes (as the collection of glass
flowers at Harvard University, which illustrates the flora of the
United States), but more often as articles of decoration and
ornament. A large variety of materials have been used in their
manufacture by different peoples at different times painted
linen and shavings of stained horn by the Egyptians, gold and
silver by the Romans, rice-paper by the Chinese, silkworm
cocoons in Italy, the plumage of highly coloured birds in South
America, wax, small tinted shells, &c. At the beginning of the
i8th century the French, who originally learnt the art from the
Italians, made great advances in the accuracy of their repro-
ductions, and towards the end of that century the Paris manu-
facturers enjoyed a world-wide reputation. About the same
time the art was introduced into England by French refugees,
and soon afterwards it spread also to America. The industry
is now a highly specialized one and comprises a large number of
operations performed by separate hands. Four main processes
may be distinguished. The first consists of cutting up the various
fabrics and materials employed into shapes suitable for forming
the leaves, petals, &c. ; this may be done by scissors, but more
often stamps are employed which will cut through a dozen or
more thicknesses at one blow. The veins of the leaves are next
impressed by means of a die, and the petals are given their
natural rounded forms by goffering irons of various shapes.
The next step is to assemble the petals and other parts of the
flower, which is built up from the centre outwards; and the
fourth is to mount the flower on a stalk formed of brass or iron
wire wrapped round with suitably coloured material, and to
fasten on the leaves required to complete the spray.
FLOYD, JOHN (1572-1649), English Jesuit, was born in
Cambridgeshire in 1572. He entered the Society of Jesus when
at Rome in 1592 and is also known as Daniel a Jesu, Hermannus
Loemelius, and George White, the names under which he pub-
lished a score of controversial treatises. He had considerable
fame both as a preacher and teacher, and was frequently arrested
in England. His last years were spent at Louvain and he died
at St Omer on the i sth of September 1649. His brother Edward
Floyd was impeached and sentenced by the Commons in 1621 for
speaking disparagingly of the elector palatine. *J
FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN (1807-1863), American politician,
was born at Blacksburg, Virginia, on the ist of June 1807. He
was the son of John Floyd (1770-1837), a representative in
Congress from 1817 to 1829 and governor of Virginia from
1830 to 1834. After graduating at South Carolina College in 1826,
the son practised law in his native state and at Helena, Arkansas,
and in 1839 settled in Washington county, Virginia, which in
1847-1849 and again in 1853 he represented in the state legisla-
ture. Meanwhile, from 184910 1852, he was governor of Virginia,
in which position he recommended to the legislature the enact-
ment of a law laying an import tax on the products of such states
as refused to surrender fugitive slaves owned by Virginia masters.
In March 1857 he became secretary of war in President
Buchanan's cabinet, where his lack of administrative ability
was soon apparent. In December 1860, on ascertaining that
Floyd had honoured heavy drafts made by government con-
tractors in anticipation of their earnings, the president requested
his resignation. Several days later Floyd was indicted for
malversation in office, but the indictment was overruled on
technical grounds. There is no proof that he profited by
these irregular transactions; in fact he went out of the office
574
FLOYER FLUME
financially embarrassed. Though he had openly opposed seces-
sion before the election of Lincoln, his conduct after that event,
especially after his breach with Buchanan, fell under suspicion,
and he was accused of having sent large stores of government
arms to Southern arsenals in anticipation of the Civil War. In
the last days of his term he apparently had such an intention,
but during the year 1860 the Southern States actually received
less than their full quota of arms. After the secession of Virginia
he was commissioned a brigadier-general in the Confederate
service. He was first employed in some unsuccessful operations
in western Virginia, and in February 1862 became commander
of the Confederate forces at Fort Donelson, from which he fled
with his second in command, General Gideon J. Pillow, on the
night of February 18, leaving General Simon B. Buckner to
surrender to General Grant. A fortnight later President Davis
relieved him of his command. He died at Abingdon, Virginia,
on the 26th of August 1863.
FLOYER, SIR JOHN (1649-1734), English physician and
author, was born at Hinters in Staffordshire, and was educated
at Oxford. He practised in Lichfield, and it was by his advice
that Dr Johnson, when a child, was taken by his mother to be
touched by Queen Anne for the king's evil on the 3Oth of March
1714. He died on the ist of February 1734. Floyer was an
advocate of cold bathing, introduced the practice of counting the
rate of the pulse-beats, and gave an early account of the patho-
logical changes in the lungs associated with emphysema.
His writings include: <l>ap;uaico-B<i<rai'os: or the Touchstone of
Medicines, discovering the virtues of Vegetables, Minerals and Animals,
by their Tastes and Smells (2 vols., 1687) ; The praeternatural State of
animal Humours described by their sensible Qualities (1696) ; An
Enquiry into the right Use and Abuses of the hot, cold and temperate
Baths in England (1697) ; A Treatise of the Asthma (ist ed., 1698) ;
The ancient Vvxpo\ovaia revived, or an Essay to prove cold Bathing
both safe and useful (London, 1702; several editions 8vo; abridged,
Manchester, 1844, I2mo); The Physician's Pulse-watch (1707-1710);
The Sibylline Oracles, translated from the best Greek copies, and com-
pared with the sacred Prophecies (ist ed., 1713); Two Essays: the
first Essay concerning the Creation, Aetherial Bodies, and Offices of
good and bad Angels; the second Essay concerning the Mosaic System
of the World (Nottingham, 1717); An Exposition of the Revelations
(1719) ; An Essay to restore the Dipping of Infants in their Baptism
(1722); Medicina Gerocomica, or the Galenic Art of preserving old
Men's Healths (ist ed., 1724); A Comment on forty-two Histories
described by Hippocrates (1726).
FLUDD, or FLUD, ROBERT [ROBERTUS DE FLUCTIBUS] (1574-
1637), English physician and mystical philosopher, the son of
Sir Thomas Fludd, treasurer of war to Queen Elizabeth in France
and the Low Countries, was born at Milgate, Kent. After
studying at St John's College, Oxford, he travelled in Europe
for six years, and became acquainted with the writings of
Paracelsus. He subsequently returned to Oxford, became a
member of Christ Church, took his medical degrees, and ulti-
mately became a fellow of the College of Physicians. He practised
in London with success, though it is said that he combined with
purely medical treatment a good deal of faith-healing. Following
Paracelsus, he endeavoured to form a system of philosophy
founded on the identity of physical and spiritual truth. The
universe and all created things proceed from God, who is the
beginning, the end and the sum of all things, and to him they
will return. The act of creation is the separation of the active
principle (light) from the passive (darkness) in the bosom of the
divine unity (God). The universe consists of three worlds;
the archetypal (God), the macrocosm (the world), the microcosm
(man). Man is the world in miniature, all the parts of both
sympathetically correspond and act upon each other. It is
possible for man (and even for the mineral and the plant)
to undergo transformation and to win immortality. Fludd's
system may be described as a materialistic pantheism, which,
allegorically interpreted, he put forward as containing the real
meaning of Christianity, revealed to Adam by God himself,
handed down by tradition to Moses and the patriarchs, and re-
vealed a second time by Christ. The opinions of Fludd had the
honour of being refuted by Kepler, Gassendi and Mersenne.
Though rapt in mystical speculation, Fludd was a man of varied
attainments. He did not disdain scientific experiments, and is
thought by some to be the original inventor of the barometer.
He was an ardent defender of the Rosicrucians, and De Quincey
considers him to have been the immediate, as J. V. Andrea
was the remote, father of freemasonry. Fludd died on the 8th
of September 1637.
See J. B. Craven, Robert Fludd, the English Rosicrucian (1902),
where a list of his works is given; A. E. Waite, The Real History
of the Rosicrucians (1887); De Quincey, The Rosicrucians and Free-
masons; J. Hunt, Religious Thought in England (1870), i. 240 seq.
His works were published in 6 vols., Oppenheim and Gouda, 1638.
FLUGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT (1802-1870), German
orientalist, was born at Bautzen on the i8th of February 1802.
He received his early education at the gymnasium of his native
town, and studied theology and philology at Leipzig. Gradually
he devoted his attention chiefly to Oriental languages, which he
studied in Vienna and Paris. In 1832 he became professor at the
Fiirstenschule of St Afra in Meissen, but ill-health compelled him
to resign that office in 1850, and in 1851 be went to Vienna,
where he was employed in cataloguing the Arabic, Turkish and
Persian manuscripts of the court library. He died at Dresden
on the sth of July 1870.
Fliigel's chief work is an edition of the bibliographical and ency-
clopaedic lexicon of Haji Khalfa, with Latin translation (7 vols.,
London and Leipzig, 1835-1858). He also brought out an edition
of the Koran (Leipzig, 1834 and again 1893); then followed Con-
cordantiae Corani arabicae (Leipzig, 1842 and again 1898); Mani,
seine Lehren und seine Schnften (Leipzig, 1862) ; Die grammatischen
Schulen der Araber (Leipzig, 1862); and Ibn Kutlubugas Krone der
Lebensbeschreibungen (Leipzig, 1862). An edition of Kitdb-al- Fihrist,
prepared by him, was published after his death.
FLUGEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1788-1855), German lexico-
grapher, was born at Barby near Magdeburg, on the 22nd of
November 1788. He was originally a merchant's clerk, but
emigrating to the United States in 1810, he made a special study
of the English language, and returning to Germany in 1819,
was in 1824 appointed lector of the English language in the uni-
versity of Leipzig. In 1838 he became American consul, and
subsequently representative and correspondent of the Smith-
sonian Institution at Washington and several other leading
American literary and scientific institutions. He died at Leipzig
on the 24th of June 1855.
The fame of Flugel rests chiefly on the Vollstandige englisch-
deutsche und deutsch-englische Worterbuch, first published in 2 vols.
(Leipzig) in 1830, which has had an extensive circulation not only
in Germany but in England and America. In this work he was
assisted by J. Sporschil, and a new and enlarged edition; edited by
his son Felix Flugel (1820^-1904), was published at Brunswick (1890-
1892). Another edition, in two volumes, edited by Prof. Immanuel
Schmidt and S. Tanger appeared (Brunswick, London & New York)
in 1906. Among his other works are Vollstandige engl. Sprachlehre
(1824-1826); Triglotte, oder kaufmannisches Worterbuch in drei
Sprachen, Deutsch, Englisch und Franzosisch (1836-1840); Kleines
Kaufmannisches Handivorterbuch in drei Sprachen (1840); and
Praktisches Handbuch der engl. Handelscorrespondenz (1827, 9th ed.
1873). All these have passed through several editions. In addition,
Flugel also published in the English language: A series of Com-
mercial Letters (Leipzig, 1822), a 9th edition of which appeared in
1874 under the title Practical Mercantile Correspondence and a
Practical Dictionary of the English and German Languages (2 vols.,
Hamburg and Leipzig, 1847-1852; isth ed., Leipzig, 1891). The
last was continued and re-edited by his son Felix.
FLUKE (probably connected with the Ger. flack, flat), a name
given to several kinds of fish, flat in shape, especially to the
common flounder; also the name of a trematoid worm, resem-
bling a flounder in shape, which as a parasite infects the liver
and neighbouring organs of certain animals, especially sheep,
and causes liver-rot. The most common is the Fasciola hepatica
(see TREMATODES). It is also the name of a species of kidney
potato. Probably from a resemblance to the shape of the fish,
" fluke " is the name given to the holding-plates, triangular in
shape, at the end of the arms of an anchor, and to the triangular
extremities of the tail of a whale. The use of the word as a slang
expression for a lucky accident appears to have been first applied
in billiards to an unintentional scoring shot.
FLUME (through an O. Fr. word flum, from the Lat. flumen,
a river), a word formerly used for a stream, and particularly
for the tail of a mill-race. It is used in America for a very
narrow gorge running between precipitous rocks, with a stream
FLUMINI MAGGIORE FLUORESCENCE
575
at the bottom, but more frequently is applied to an artificial
channel of wood or other material for the diversion of a stream
of water from a river for purposes of irrigation, for running a saw-
mill, or for various processes in the hydraulic method of gold-
mining (see AQUEDUCT).
FLUMINI MAGGIORE, a town of the province of Cagliari,
Sardinia, 10 m. by road N. of Iglesias, and 5 m. from the W. coast.
Pop. (1901) town 3908; commune 9647. It is the centre of
a considerable lead and zinc mining district. Three miles to the
S. are the ruins of a temple erected probably in the time of
Commodus (Corpus inscr. Lai. x., Berlin, 1883, No. 7539).
They seem to mark the site of Metalla (mines), a station on the
coast road from Sulci to Tharros, and the centre of the mining
district in Roman times. At Flumini Maggiore itself were found
two ingots of lead, one bearing a stamp with Hadrian's name.
FLUORANTHENE, Ci 5 H 10 , also known asidryl, a hydrocarbon
occurring with phenanthrene, pyrene, diphenyl, and other
substances in " Stupp " fat (the fat obtained in working up the
mercury ores in Idria), and also in the higher boiling fractions
of the coal tar distillate. It was discovered by R. Fittigin 1878,
who, with Gebhard and H. Liepmann, elucidated its constitution
(see Ann., 1879, 200, p. i). The hydrocarbons are separated
from the " Stupp " by means of alcohol, the soluble portion on
distillation giving first phenanthrene and then a mixture of pyrene
and fluoranthene. From the tar distillate, the chrysene can be
fractionally precipitated, and the fluoranthene can be separated
from most of the pyrene by fractional distillation in a partial
vacuum. In either case the two hydrocarbons are finally
separated by fractional crystallization of their picrates, which
are then decomposed by ammonia. Fluoranthene crystallizes
in large slender needles or monoclinic tables, melting at 109-110
C. and boiling at 250-251 C. (60 mm.). It is easily soluble in hot
alcohol, ether and carbon bisulphide. On oxidation with chromic
acid it forms a quinone, CuHgOa, and an a-diphenylene keto-
carboxylic acid (^''''CO H' ^ e P' crate me l ts at 182-183 C.
FLUORENE (a-diphenylene methane), C, 3 Hi or (CeH^CHs,
a hydrocarbon found in coal-tar. It is obtained from the higher
boiling fractions, after separation of naphthalene and anthracene,
by fractional distillation, the portion boiling between 290-340 C.
being taken. The fluorene is separated from this by placing it in
a freezing mixture, and is then redistilled or crystallized from
glacial acetic acid, or purified by means of its picrate. It may
be prepared by distilling diphenylene ketone over zinc dust,
or by heating it with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 150-160
C.; and also by passing the vapour of diphenyl methane through
a red hot tube. It crystallizes in colourless plates, possessing
a violet fluorescence, melting at 112-113 and boiling at 293-295
C. By oxidation with chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution,
it is converted into diphenylene ketone (CeH^-CO; whilst on
heating with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 250-260 C. it
gives a hydro derivative of composition CnHn.
FLUORESCEIN, or RESORCIN-PHTHALEIN, C2oHi 2 O B , in
chemistry, a compound discovered in 1876 by A. v. Baeyer by
the condensation of phthalic anhydride with resorcin at 195-200
C. (Ann., 1876, 183, p. i). The two reacting substances are either
heated alone or with zinc chloride for some hours, and the melt
obtained is boiled out with water, washed by dilute alcohol,
extracted by means of sodium hydrate, and the solution so
obtained is precipitated by an acid. The precipitate is well
washed with water and then dried. By repeating this process
two or three times, the fluorescein may be obtained in a very pure
condition. It forms a yellow amorphous powder, insoluble in
water but soluble in alcohol, and crystallizing from the alcoholic
solution in small dark red nodules. It is readily soluble in solu-
tions of the caustic alkalis, the solution being of a dark red colour
and showing (especially when largely diluted with water) a
brilliant green fluorescence. It was so named on account of this
last character. By brominating fluorescein in glacial acetic acid
solution, eosin (tetrabromfluorescein) is obtained, the same
compound being formed by heating 3-5-dibrom-2-4-dioxy-
benzoylbenzoic acid above its melting point (R. Meyer, Ber.,
1895, 28, p. 1576). It crystallizes from alcohol in yellowish red
needles, and dyes silk, wool, and mordanted cotton a fine pink
colour. When heated with caustic alkalis it yields dibrom-
resorcin and dibrommonoresorcin-phthalein. The corresponding
iodo compound is known as erythrosin. Fluoresceiu is readily
nitrated, yielding a di- or tetra-nitro compound according to
conditions. The entrance of the negative nitro group into the
molecule weakens the central pyrone ring in the fluorescein
nucleus and the di- and tetra-nitro compounds readily yield
hydrates (see J. T. Hewitt and B. W. Perkins, Jour. Chem. Soc.,
1900, p. 1326). By the action of ammonia or amines the di-nitro
fluoresceins are converted into yellow dyestuffs (F. Reverdin,
Ber., 1897, 30, p. 332). Other dyestuffs obtained from fluorescein
are safrosine or eosin scarlet (dibromdinitrofluorescein) and rose
Bengal (tetraiodotetrachlorfluorescein) .
On fusion with caustic alkali, fluorescein yields resorcin,
CH4(OH)2, and monoresorcin phthalcin (dioxybenzoylbenzoic
acid), (HG) 2 C 9 H,-CO-C H-COOH. With zinc dust and caustic
soda it yields fluorescin. By warming fluorescein with excess of
phosphorus pentachloride it yields fluorescein chloride, CjoHioOsCli
(A. Baeyer), which crystallizes from alcohol in small prisms, melting
at 252 C. When heated with aniline and aniline hydrochloride,
fluorescein yields a colourless anilide (O. Fischer and E. Hepp, Ber.,
1893, 26, p. 2236), which is readily methylated by methyl iodide
and potash to a fluoresceinanilidedimethyl ether, which when heated
for six hours to 150 C. with acetic and hydrochloric acids, is hydro-
lysed and yields a colourless fluorcsceindimethyl ether, which melts
at 198 C. On the other hand, by heating fluorescein with caustic
potash, methyl iodide and methyl alcohol, a coloured (yellow)
dimethyl ether, melting at 208 C. is obtained (Fischer and Hepp).
By heating the coloured dimethyl ether with caustic soda, the
monomethyl ether is obtained (O. Fischer and E. Hepp, Ber., 1895,
28, p. 397); this crystallizes in triclinic tables, and melts at 262 C.
It is to be noted that the colourless monomethyl ether fluoresces
strongly in alkaline solution, the dimethyl ether of melting point
208 fluoresces only in neutral solution (e.g., in alcoholic solution),
and the dimethyl ether of melting point 198 C. only in concentrated
hydrochloric or sulphuric arid solution (Fischer and Hepp). Con-
siderable discussion has taken place as to the position held by the
hydroxyl groups in the fluorescein molecule, C. Graebe (Ber., 1895,
28, p. 28) asserting that they were in the orthp position to the linking
carbon atom of the phthalic anhydride residue. G. Heller (Ber.,
1895, 28, p. 312), however, showed that monoresorcin-phthalcin
when brominated in glacial acetic acid gives a dibrom derivative
which, with fuming sulphuric acid, yields dibromxanthopurpurin
(l'3-dioxy-2'4-dibromanthraquinone), a reaction which is onjy
possible if the fluorescein (from which the monoresorcin-phthalein
is derived) contains free hydroxyl groups in the para position to the
linking carbon atom of the phthalic anhydride residue.
FLUORESCENCE. In a paper read before the Royal Society
of Edinburgh in 1833, Sir David Brewster described a remarkable
phenomenon he had discovered to which he gave the name of
" internal dispersion." Ori admitting a beam of sunlight, con-
densed by a lens, into a solution of chlorophyll, the green colour-
ing matter of leaves (see fig. i), he was surprised to find that the
path of the rays within the fluid
was marked by a bright light of a
blood-red colour, strangely contrast-
ing with the beautiful green of the
fluid when seen in moderate thick-
ness. Brewster afterwards observed
the same phenomenon in various
vegetable solutions and essential
oils, and in some solids, amongst
which was fluor-spar. He believed
this effect to be due to coloured
particles held in suspension. A few
years later, Sir John Herschel in-
dependently discovered that if a
solution of quinine sulphate, which, viewed by transmitted
light, appears colourless and transparent like water, were
illuminated by a beam of ordinary daylight, a peculiar blue
colour was seen in a thin stratum of the fluid adjacent to
the surface by which the light entered. The blue light was
unpolarized and passed freely through many inches of the
fluid. The incident beam, after having passed through the
stratum from which the blue light came, was not sensibly
enfeebled or coloured, but yet it had lost the power of
FIG. i.
57 6
FLUORESCENCE
producing the characteristic blue colour when admitted into a
second solution of quinine sulphate. A beam of light modified
in this mysterious manner was called by Herschel " epipolized. "
Brewster showed that epipolic was merely a particular case of
internal dispersion, peculiar only in this respect, that the rays
capable of dispersion were dispersed with unusual rapidity.
The investigation of this phenomenon was afterwards taken
up by Sir G. G. Stokes, to whom the greater part of our present
knowledge of the subject is due. Stokes's first paper " On the
Change of the Refrangibility of Light " appeared in 1852. He
repeated the experiments of Brewster and Herschel, and con-
siderably extended them. These experiments soon led him to
the conclusion that the effect could not be due, as Brewster had
imagined, to the scattering of light .by suspended particles, but
that the dispersed beam actually differed in refrangibility from
the light which excited it. He therefore termed it " true internal
dispersion " to distinguish it from the scattering of light, which
he called " false internal dispersion." As this name, however,
is apt to suggest Brewster's view of the phenomenon, he after-
wards abandoned it as unsatisfactory, and substituted the word
" fluorescence." This term, derived from fluor-spar after the
analogy of opalescence from opal, does not presuppose any theory.
To examine the nature of the fluorescence produced by quinine,
Stokes formed a pure spectrum of the sun's rays in the usual
manner. A test-tube, filled with a dilute solution of quinine
sulphate, was placed just outside the red end of the spectrum
and then gradually moved along the spectrum to the other
extremity. No fluorescence was observed as long as the tube
remained in the more luminous portion, but as soon as the violet
was reached, a ghost-like gleam of blue light shot right across
the tube. On continuing to move the tube, the blue light at
first increased in intensity and afterwards died away, but not
until the tube had been moved a considerable distance into the
ultra-violet part of the spectrum. When the blue gleam first
appeared it extended right across the tube, but just before
disappearing it was confined to a very thin stratum on the side
at which the exciting rays entered. Stokes varied this experi-
ment by placing a vessel filled with the dilute solution in a
spectrum formed by a train of prisms. The appearance is
illustrated diagrammatically in fig. 2. The greater part of the
light passed freely as if through water,
but from about half-way between the
Fraunhofer lines G and H to far beyond
the extreme violet, the incident rays
: gave rise to light of a sky-blue colour,
which emanated in all directions from
' the portion of the fluid (represented
white in fig. 2) which was under the
influence of the incident rays. The
anterior surface of the blue space coin-
cided, of course, with the inner surface
of the glass vessel. The posterior sur-
face marked the distance to which the incident rays were able
to penetrate before they were absorbed. This distance was at
first considerable, greater than the diameter of the vessel, but
decreased with great rapidity as the refrangibility of the incident
light increased, so that from a little beyond the extreme violet
to the end, the blue space was reduced to an excessively thin
stratum. This shows that the fluid is very opaque to the ultra-
violet rays. The fixed lines in the violet and invisible part of
the solar spectrum were represented by dark lines, or rather
planes, intersecting the blue region. Stokes found that the
fluorescent light is not homogeneous, for on reducing the incident
rays to a narrow band of homogeneous light, and examining the
dispersed beam through a prism, he found that the blue light
consisted of rays extending over a wide range of refrangibility,
but not into the ultra-violet.
I Another method, which Stokes found especially useful in
examining different substances for fluorescence, was as follows.
Two coloured media were prepared, one of which transmitted
the upper portion of the spectrum and was opaque to the lower
portion, while the second was opaque to the upper and trans-
FIG. 2.
parent to the lower part of the spectrum. These were called by
Stokes " complementary absorbents." No pair could be found
which were exactly complementary, of course, but the condition
was approximately fulfilled by several sets of coloured glasses
or solutions. One such combination consisted of a deep-blue
solution of ammoniacal copper sulphate and a yellow glass
coloured with silver. The two media together were almost
opaque. The light of the sun being admitted through a hole in
the window-shutter, a white porcelain tablet was laid on a shelf
fastened in front of the hole. If the vessel containing the blue
solution was placed so as to cover the hole, and the tablet was
viewed through the yellow glass, scarcely any light entered the
eye, but if a paper washed with some fluorescent liquid were laid
on the tablet it appeared brilliantly luminous. Different pairs
of complementary absorbents were required according to the
colour of the fluorescent light. This experiment shows clearly
that the light which passed through the first absorbent and
which would have been stopped by the second gave rise in the
fluorescent substance to rays of a different wave-length which
were transmitted by the second absorbent. Scattered light,
with which the true fluorescent light was often associated, was
eliminated by this method, being stopped by the second
absorbent.
Stokes also used a method, analogous to Newton's method of
crossed prisms, for the purpose of analysing the fluorescent light.
A spectrum was produced by means of a slit and a prism, the slit
being horizontal instead of vertical. The resulting very narrow
spectrum was projected on a white paper moistened with a
fluorescent solution, and viewed through a second prism with its
refracting edge per-
pendicular to that of
the first prism. In
addition to the slop-
ing spectrum seen
under ordinary cir-
cumstances, another
spectrum due to the
fluorescent light
alone, made its
appearance, as seen
in figs. 3 and 4. In
this spectrum the
colours do not run
from left to right,
but in horizontal
lines. Thus the dark
lines of the solar
spectrum lie across
the colours. The
spectra in figs. 3 and
4 were obtained by
V. Pierre with an
improved arrange-
FIG. 3. Spectrum of Chlorophyll.
FIG. 4. Spectrum of Aesculin.
ment of Stokes's method. It will be seen that, in the case
of chlorophyll, the whole spectrum, far into the ultra-violet,
gives rise to a short range of red fluorescent light, while
the effective part of the exciting light in the case of aesculin
(a glucoside occurring in horse-chestnut bark) begins a little
above the fixed line G and the fluorescent light covers a wide
range extending from orange to blue.
Besides the substances already mentioned, a large number
of vegetable extracts and some inorganic bodies are strongly
fluorescent. Stokes found that most organic substances show
signs of fluorescence. Green fluor-spar from Alston Moor
exhibits a violet, uranium glass a yellowish-green fluorescence.
Tincture of turmeric gives rise to a greenish light, and the extract
of seeds of Datura stramonium a pale green light. Ordinary
paraffin oil fluoresces blue. Barium platinocyanide, which is
much used in the fluorescent screens employed in work with the
Rontgen rays, shows a brilliant green fluorescence with ordinary
light. Crystals of magnesium platinocyanide possess the
remarkable property of emitting a polarized fluorescent light,
FLUORINE
the colour and plane of polarization, depending on the position
of the crystal with respect to the incident beam, and, if polarized
light is used, on the plane of polarization of the latter.
Slokes's Law. In all the substances examined by Stokes, the
fluorescent light appeared to be of lower refrangibility than the
light which excited it. Stokes considered it probable that this
lowering of the refrangibility of the light was a general law which
held for all substances. This is known as Stokes's law. It has
been shown, however, by E. Lommel and others, that this law
does not hold generally. Lommel distinguishes two kinds of
fluorescence. The bodies which exhibit the first kind are those
which possess strong absorption bands, of which only one re-
mains appreciable after great dilution. These bodies are always
strongly coloured and show anomalous dispersion and (in solids)
surface colour. In such cases, the maximum of intensity in the
fluorescent spectrum corresponds to the maximum of absorption.
Stokes's law is not obeyed, for a fluorescent spectrum can be pro-
duced by means of homogeneous light of lower refrangibility
than a great part of the fluorescent light. The second kind of
fluorescence is the most common, and is exhibited by bodies which
show absorption only in the upper part of the spectrum, i.e.
they are usually yellow or brown or (if the absorption is in the
ultra-violet) colourless. The absorption bands also are different
from those of substances of the first kind, for they readily dis-
appear on dilution. A third class of bodies is formed by those
substances which exhibit both kinds of fluorescence.
Nature of Fluorescence. No complete theory of fluorescence
has yet been given, though various attempts have been made to
explain the phenomenon. Fluorescence is closely allied to
phosphorescence (q.v.), the difference consisting in the duration
of the effect after the exciting cause is removed. Liquids which
fluoresce only do so while the exciting light is falling on them,
ceasing immediately the exciting light is cut off. In the case
of solids, on the other hand, such as fluor-spar or uranium glass,
the effect, though very brief, does not die away quite instantane-
ously, so that it is really a very brief phosphorescence. The
property of phosphorescence has been generally attributed to
some molecular change taking place in the bodies possessing it.
That some such change takes place during fluorescence is rendered
probable by the fact that the property depends upon the state
of the sensitive substance; somebodies, such as barium platino-
cyanide, fluorescing in the solid state but not in solution, while
others, such as fluorescein, only fluoresce in solution. Fluores-
cence is always associated with absorption, but many bodies are
absorbent without showing fluorescence. A satisfactory theory
would have to account for these facts as well as for the production
of waves of one period by those of another, and the non-homo-
geneous character of the fluorescent light. Quite recently W.
Voigt has sought to give a theory of fluorescence depending on
the theory of electrons. Briefly, this theory assumes that the
electrons which constitute the molecule of the sensitive body
can exist in two or more different configurations simultaneously,
and that these are in dynamical equilibrium, like the molecule
in a partially dissociated gas. If the electrons have different
periods of vibration in the different configurations, then it would
happen that the electrons whose period nearly corresponded with
that of the incident light would absorb the energy of the latter,
and if they then underwent a transformation into a different
configuration with a different period, this absorbed energy
would be given out in waves of a period corresponding to that of
the new configuration.
Applications of Fluorescence. The phenomenon of fluorescence
can be utilized for the purpose of illustrating the laws of re-
flection and refraction in lecture experiments since the path of
a ray of light through a very dilute solution of a sensitive sub-
stance is rendered visible. The existence of the dark h'nes in the
ultra-violet portion of the solar spectrum can also be demon-
strated in a simple 'manner. In addition to the foregoing
applications, Stokes made use of this property for studying the
character of the ultra-violet spectrum of different sources of
illumination and flames. He suggested also that the property
would in some cases furnish a simple test for the presence of a
x. 10
577
small quantity of a sensitive substance in an organic mixture.
Fluorescent screens are largely used in work with Rontgen rays.
There appears to be some prospect of light being thrown on the
question of molecular structure by experiments on the fluores-
cence of vapours. Some very interesting experiments in this
direction have been performed by R. W. Wood on the fluorescence
of sodium vapour.
REFERENCES. Sir G. G. Stokes, Mathematical and Physical
Papers, vols. iii. and iv. ; Muller-Pouillet, Lehrbuch der Physik, Bd. ii.
(1897); A. Wullner, Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik, Bd. iv.
(1899); A. A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik, Bd. vi. (1006):
R. W. Wood, Physical Optics (1905). (J. R. C.)
FLUORINE (symbol F, atomic weight 19), a chemical element
of the halogen group. It is never found in the uncombined
condition, but in combination with calcium as fluor-spar CaFj
it is widely distributed; it is also found in cryolite Na 3 AlF,,
in fluor-apatite, CaFj-SCaaPjOs, and in minute traces in sea-
water, in some mineral springs, and as a constituent of the enamel
of the teeth. It was first isolated by H. Moissan in 1886 by the
electrolysis of pure anhydrous hydrofluoric acid containing
dissolved potassium fluoride. The U-shaped electrolytic vessel
and the electrodes are made of an alloy of platinum-iridium,
the limbs of the tube being closed by stoppers made of fluor-spar,
and fitted with two lateral exit tubes for carrying off the gases
evolved. Whilst the electrolysis is proceeding, the apparatus
is kept at a constant temperature of - 23 C. by means of liquid
methyl chloride. The fluorine, which is liberated as a gas at
the anode, is passed through a well cooled platinum vessel,
in order to free it from any acid fumes that may be carried over,
and finally through two platinum tubes containing sodium
fluoride to remove the last traces of hydrofluoric acid; it is
then collected in a platinum tube closed with fluor-spar plates.
B. Brauner (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1894, 65, p. 393) obtained fluorine
by heating potassium fluorplumbate 3KF-HF-PbF 4 . At 200 C.
this salt decomposes, giving off hydrofluoric acid, and between
230-250 C. fluorine is liberated.
Fluorine is a pale greenish-yellow gas with a very sharp smell;
its specific gravity is 1-265 (H. Moissan); it has been liquefied,
the liquid also being of a yellow colour and boiling at - 187 C.
It is the most active of all the chemical elements; in contact
with hydrogen combination takes place between the two gases
with explosive violence, even in the dark, and at as low a tempera-
ture as -210 C.; finely divided carbon burns in the gas,
forming carbon tetrafluoride; water is decomposed even at
ordinary temperatures, with the formation of hydrofluoric acid
and " ozonised " oxygen; iodine, sulphur and phosphorus melt
and then inflame in the gas; it liberates chlorine from chlorides,
and combines with most metals instantaneously to form fluorides;
it does not, however, combine with oxygen. Organic compounds
are rapidly attacked by the gas.
Only one compound of hydrogen and fluorine is known,
namely hydrofluoric acid, HF or H 2 F 2 , which was first obtained
by C. Scheele in 1 77 1 by decomposing fluor-spar with concentrated
sulphuric acid, a method still used for the commercial preparation
of the aqueous solution of the acid, the mixture being distilled
from leaden retorts and the acid stored in leaden or gutta-percha
bottles. The perfectly anhydrous acid is a very volatile colour-
less liquid and is best obtained, according to G. Gore (Phil.
Trans., 1869, p. 173) by decomposing the double fluoride of
hydrogen and potassium, at a red heat in a platinum retort fitted
with a platinum condenser surrounded by a freezing mixture, and
having a platinum receiver luted on. It can also be prepared
in the anhydrous condition by passing a current of hydrogen
over dry silver fluoride. The pure acid thus obtained is a most
dangerous substance to handle, its vapour even when highly
diluted with air having an exceedingly injurious action on the
respiratory organs, whilst inhalation of the pure vapour is
followed by death. The anhydrous acid boils at 19- 5 C. (H.
Moissan), and on cooling, sets to a solid mass at -102- 5 C.,
which melts at-92-3 C. (K. Olszewski, Monats.fur Chemie,
1886, 7, p. 371). Potassium and sodium readily dissolve in the
anhydrous acid with evolution of hydrogen and formation of
578
FLUOR-SPAR FLUSHING
fluorides. The aqueous solution is strongly acid to litmus and
dissolves most metals directly. Its most important property is
that it rapidly attacks glass, reacting with the silica of the glass
to form gaseous silicon fluoride, and consequently it is used for
etching. T. E. Thorpe (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1889, 55, p. 163)
determined the vapour density of hydrofluoric acid at different
temperatures, and showed that there is no approach to a definite
value below about 88 C. where it reaches the value 10-29
corresponding to the molecular formula HF; at temperatures
below 88 C. the value increases rapidly, showing that the
molecule is more complex in its structure. (For references see
J. N. Friend, The Theory of Valency (1909), p. in.) The aqueous
solution behaves on concentration similarly to the other halogen
acids; E. Deussen (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 44, pp. 300, 408;
1906, 49, p. 297) found the solution of constant boiling point
to contain 43-2% HF and to boil at 110 (750 mm.).
The salts of hydrofluoric acid are known as fluorides and are
sasily obtained by the action of the acid on metals or their oxides,
hydroxides or carbonates. The fluorides of the alkali metals, of
silver, and of most of the heavy metals are soluble in water; those
of the alkaline earths are insoluble. A characteristic property of
the alkaline fluorides is their power of combining with a molecule of
hydrofluoric acid and with the fluorides of the more electro-negative
elements to form double fluorides, a behaviour not shown by other
metallic halides. Fluorides can be readily detected by their power
of etching glass when warmed with sulphuric acid ; or by warming
them in a glass tube with concentrated sulphuric acid and holding a
moistened glass rod in the mouth of the tube, the water apparently
gelatinizes owing to the decomposition of the silicon fluoride formed.
The atomic weight of fluorine has been determined by the con-
version of calcium, sodium and potassium fluorides into the corres-
ponding sulphates. J. Berzelius, by converting silver fluoride
into silver chloride, obtained the value 19-44, an d by analysing
calcium fluoride the value 19-16; the more recent work of H.
Moissan gives the value 19-05.
See H. Moissan, Le Fluor el ses composes (Paris, 1900).
FLUOR-SPAR, native calcium fluoride (CaF 2 ), known also
as FLUORITE or simply FLUOR. In France it is called fluorine,
whilst the term fluor is applied to the element (F). All these
terms, from the ~La.t.fluere, " to flow," recall the fact that the spar
is useful as a flux in certain metallurgical operations. (Cf. its
Ger. name Flussspat or Fluss.)
Fluor-spar crystallizes in the cubic system, commonly in
cubes, either alone or combined with the octahedron, rhombic
dodecahedron, four-faced cube, &c. The four-faced cube has
been called_the fluoroid. In fig. i, a is the cube (100), d the
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
rhombic dodecahedron (no), and/ the four-faced cube (310).
Fig. 2 shows a characteristic twin of interpenetrant cubes.
The crystals are sometimes polysyntheti'c, a large octahedron,
e.g., being built up of small cubes. The faces are often etched or
corroded. Cleavage is nearly always perfect, parallel to the
octahedron.
Fluor-spar has a hardness of 4, so that it is scratched by a knife,
though not so readily as calcite. Its specific gravity is about 3-2.
The colour is very variable, and often beautiful, but the mineral
is too soft for personal decoration, though it forms a handsome
material for vases, &c. In some fluor-spar the colour is disposed
in bands, regularly following the contour of the crystal. As the
colour is usually expelled, or much altered, by heat, it is believed
to be due to an organic pigment, and the presence of hydrocarbons
has been detected in many specimens by G. Wyrouboff, and
other observers. H. W. Morse (Proc. Amer. Acad., 1906, p. 587)
obtained carbon monoxide and dioxide, hydrogen and nitrogen
and small quantities of oxygen from Weardale specimens by
heating. He concluded that the gases are due to the decom-
position of an organic colouring matter, which has, however, no
connexion with the fluorescence or thermo-luminescence of
the mineral. Certain crystals from Cumberland are beautifully
fluorescent, appearing purple with a bluish internal haziness
by reflected light, and greenish by transmitted light. Fluor-spar,
though cubic, sometimes exhibits weak double refraction,
probably due to internal tension. Many kinds of fluor-spar are
thermo-luminescent, i.e. they glow on exposure to a moderate
heat, and the name of chlorophane has been given to a variety
which exhibits a green glow. The mineral also phosphoresces
under the Rontgen rays. Cavities containing liquid occasionally
occur in crystals of fluor-spar, notably in the greasy green cubes
of Weardale in Durham. A dark violet fluor-spar from Wolsen-
dorf in Bavaria, evolves an odour of ozone when struck, and has
been called antozonite. Ozone is also emitted by a violet fluor-
spar from Quincie, dep. Rhone, France. In both cases the spar
evolves free fluorine, which ozonizes the air.
Fluor-spar is largely employed by the metallurgist, especially
in lead-smelting, and in the production of ferro-silicon and
ferro-manganese. It is also used in iron and brass foundries,
and has been found useful as a flux for certain gold-ores and in
the reduction of aluminium. It is used as a source of hydrofluoric
acid, which it evolves when heated with sulphuric acid. The
mineral is also used in the production of opal glass and enamel
ware. In consequence of its low refractive and dispersive power,
colourless pellucid fluor-spar is valuable in the construction of
apochromatic lenses, but this variety is rare. The dark violet
fluor-spar of Derbyshire, known locally as " Blue John," is
prized for ornamental purposes. It occurs almost exclusively at
Tray Cliff, near Castleton. The dark purple spar, called by the
workmen " bull beef," may be changed, by heat, to a rich
amethystine tint. Being very brittle, the spar is rather difficult
to work on the lathe, and is often toughened by means of resin.
F. Corsi, the eminent Italian antiquary, held that fluor-spar was
the material of the famous murrhine vases.
Fluor-spar is a mineral of very wide distribution. Some of the
finest crystals occur in the lead-veins of the Carboniferous
Limestone series in the north of England, especially at Weardale,
Allendale and Alston Moor. It is also found in the lead and
copper-mines of Cornwall and S. Devon, notably near Liskeard,
where fine crystals have been found, with faces of the six-faced
octahedron replacing the corners of the cube. In Cornwall fluor-
spar is known to the miners as " cann." Fine yellow fluor-spar
occurs in some of the Saxon mines, and beautiful rose-red
octahedra are found in the Alps, near Goschenen. Many
localities in the United States yield fluor-spar, and it is worked
commercially in a few places, notably at Rosiclare in southern
Illinois.
FLUSHING, formerly a township and a village of Queens county,
New York, U.S.A., on Long Island, at the head of Flushing
Bay, since the ist of January 1898 a part of the borough of
Queens, New York City. Flushing is served by the Long Island
railroad and by electric lines. It was settled in 1644 by a company
of English non-conformists who had probably been residents of
Flushing in Holland, from which the new place took its name.
Subsequently a large number of Quakers settled here, and in
1672 George Fox spent some time in the township. Before the
War of Independence Flushing was the country-seat of many rich
New Yorkers and colonial officials.
FLUSHING (Dutch Vlissingen), a fortified seaport in the
province of Zeeland, Holland, on the south side of the island of
Walcheren, at the mouth of the estuary of the western Scheldt,
4 m. by rail S. by W. of Middelburg, with which it is also con-
nected by steam tramway and by a ship canal. There is a steam
ferry to Breskens and Ter Neuzen on the coast of Zeeland-
Flandres. Pop. (1900) 18,893. An important naval station
and fortress up to 1867, Flushing has since aspired, under the
care of the Dutch government, to become a great commercial
port. In 1872 the railway was opened which, in conjunction
FLUTE
with the regular day and night service of steamers to Queen-
borough in the county of Kent, forms one of the main routes
between England and the east of Europe. In 1873 the great
harbour, docks and canal works were completed. Yet the
navigation of the port remains far behind that of Rotterdam or
Antwerp, the tonnage being in 1899 about 7-9% of that of the
kingdom. As a summer resort, however, Flushing has acquired
considerable popularity, sea-baths and a large modern hotel
being situated on the fine beach about three-quarters of a mile
north-west of the town. It possesses a town hall, containing a
collection of local antiquities, a theatre, an exchange, an academy
of sciences and a school of navigation. The Jakobskerk, or
Jacob's church, founded in 1328, contains monuments to Admiral
de Ruyter (1607-1676) and the poet Jacob Bellamy (1757-1786),
who were natives of Flushing. The chief industries of the town
are connected with the considerable manufacture of machinery,
the state railway-workshops, shipbuilding yards, Krupp iron
and steel works' depot, brewing, and oil and soap manufacture.
The chief imports are colonial produce and wine, wood and coal.
The exports include agricultural produce (wheat and beans),
shrimps and meat.
FLUTE, a word adapted from O. Fr. fleiite, modern flute; from
O. Fr. have come the Span, flauta, Ital. flauto and Ger. Flo'le.
The New English Dictionary dismisses the derivations suggested
from Lat. flatuare or flavilare; ultimately the word must be
referred to the root seen in " blow," Lat. flare, Ger. blasen, &c.
i. In music " flute " is a general term applied to wood-wind
instruments consisting of a pipe pierced with lateral holes and
blown directly through the mouthpiece without the intervention
of a reed. The flute family is classified according to the mouth-
piece used to set in vibration the column of air within the tube:
i.e. (i) the simple lateral mouth-hole or embouchure which
necessitates holding the instrument in a transverse position;
(2) the whistle or fipple mouthpiece which allows the performer
to hold the instrument vertically in front of him. There is a
third class of pipes included among the flutes, having no mouth-
piece of any sort, in which the column of air is set in vibration by
blowing obliquely across the open end of the pipe, as in the
ancient Egyptian nay, and the pan-pipe or syrinx (q.ti.). The
transverse flute has entirely superseded the whistle flute, which
has survived only in the so-called penny whistle, in the " flute-
work " of the organ (q.v.), and in the French flageolet.
The Transverse Flute or German Flute (Fr. flute traversiere,
flute allemande: Ger. Flote, Querflote, Zwerchpfeif. Schweitzer-
pfeiff; Ital. flauto traverse) includes the concert flute known both
as flute in C and as flute in D, the piccolo (q.v.) or octave flute,
and the fife (q.v.). The modern flute consists of a tube open at
one end and nominally closed at the other by means of a plug
or cork stopper: virtually, however, the tube is an open one
giving the consecutive harmonic series of the open pipe or of a
stretched string. The primitive flute was made in one piece,
but the modern instrument is composed of three adjustable
joints, (i) The head- joint, plugged at the upper end and contain-
ing at about one-third of the length the mouth-hole or em-
bouchure. This embouchure, always open when the instrument
is being played, converts the closed tube into an open one, in an
acoustical sense. (2) The body, containing the holes and keys
necessary to produce the scale which gave the flute its original
designation of D flute, the head and body together, when the
holes are closed, giving the fundamental note D. Before the
invention of keys, this fundamental note and the notes obtained
by the successive opening of the six holes produced the diatonic
scale of D major. All other semitones were obtained by what
is known as cross fingering (Fr. doigte fourchu; Ger. Gabelgri/e).
It became usual to consider this the typical fingering nomen-
clature, whatever the fundamental note given out by the flute,
and to indicate the tonality by the note given out when the
six lateral holes are covered by the fingers. The result is
that the tonality is always a tone lower than the name of
the instrument indicates. Thus the D flute is really in C,
the F flute is Et>, &c. (3) The foot-joint or tail-joint con-
taining the two additional keys for C# and C which extend the
579
compass downwards, completing the chromatic scale of C in the
fundamental octave.
The compass of the modern flute is three octaves with
chromatic semitones from
= . The sound is pro-
duced by holding the flute transversely with the embouchure
turned slightly outwards, the lower lip resting on the nearer
edge of the embouchure, and blowing obliquely across, not
into, the orifice. The flat stream of air from the lips, known
as the air-reed, breaks against the sharp outer edge of the
embouchure. The current of air, thus set in a flutter, produces
in the stationary column of air within the tube a series of pulsa-
tions or vibrations caused by the alternate compression and rare-
faction of the air and generating sounds of a pitch proportional
to the length of the stationary column, which is practically
somewhat longer than the length of the tube. 1 The length of this
column is varied by opening the lateral finger-holes. The current
or air-reed thus acts upon the air column within the flute, without
passing through the tube, as a plectrum upon a string, setting it
in vibration. The air column of the flute is the sound-producer,
whereas in instruments with reed mouthpieces the vibrating
reed is more properly the sound-producer, while the air column,
acting as a resonating medium, reinforces the note of the reed by
vibrating synchronously with it. If the angle 2 at which the
current of air is directed against the outer edge of the embouchure
be made less acute and the pressure of the breath be at the same
time increased, the frequency of the alternate pulses of com-
pression and rarefaction within the tube will be increased two,
three or fourfold, forming a corresponding number of nodes and
loops which results in harmonics or upper partials, respectively
the octave, the twelfth, the doubje octave. By this means sounds
of higher pitch are produced without actually shortening the
length of the column of air by means of lateral holes. The
acoustic theory of sound-production in the flute is one on which
there is great diversity of opinion. The subject is too vast to be
treated here, but readers who wish to pursue it may consult
the works of Rockstro, 3 Helmholtz, 4 and others.* The effect of
boring lateral holes in pipes is to shorten the vibrating length of
the air column, which may be regarded as being effective only
between the hole in question and the mouthpiece. In order to
obtain this result the diameter of the hole should be equal to that
of the bore; as long as the holes were covered by the fingers,
this was obviously impossible. The holes, therefore, being smaller
than the laws of acoustics demand, have to be placed proportion-
ally nearer the mouthpiece in order to avoid deepening the pitch
and deadening the tone. This principle was understood by wind-
instrument makers of classic Greece (see AULOS and CLARINET),
and has been explained by Chladni 6 and Gottfried Weber. 7
The bore of the early flute with six finger-holes was invariably
cylindrical throughout, but towards the end of the i7th century
a modification took place, the head joint alone remaining
cylindrical while the rest of the bore assumed the form of a cone
having its smallest diameter at the open end of the tube. The
1 See E. F. F. Chladni, Die Akustik (Leipzig, 1802), p. 87.
1 See Sonreck, " t)ber die Schwingungserregung und die Bewegung
der Luftsaule in offenen und gedeckten Rohren, Fogg. Ann., 1876,
vol. 158.
* The Flute (London, 1890), 90-105, pp. 34-40.
* Theorie der Luftschwingungen in Rohren r,
(Berlin, 1896). r> -' IJ1 - v '-~- J -
No. 80.
* V. C. Mahillon, Experimental Studies on the Resonance of Trunco-
Conical and Cylindrical Air Columns, translated by F. A. Mahan
(London, 1001); D. J. Blaikley, Acoustics in Relation to Wind
Instruments (London, 1890); Fnedrich Zamminer, Die Musik und
die musikalischen Instrumente, &c. (Giessen, 1855); idem. " Sur le
mouvement vibratoire de 1'air dans les tuyaux," . Comptes rendus,
1855, vol. 41, &c.
8 Op. cit., 73, pp. 87-88, note I.
7 " Akustik der Blasinstrumente," AUgem. musikal. Zeit. (Leipzig,
1816), Bd. xviii. No. 5, p. 65 et seq. See also Ernst Euting, Zur
Geschichle der Blasinstrumente im 16. und 77. Jahrhundert. Inaugural
Dissertation, Friedrich-Wilhelms Universitat. (Berlin, isth of
March 1899), p. 9.
_ mit offenen Enden
Ostwald's Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften,
5 8
FLUTE
conoidal bore greatly improved the quality of tone and the
production of the higher harmonics of the third octave. Once
the conical bore had been adopted, the term flute was exclu-
sively applied to the new instruments, the smaller flutes, then
cylindrical, used in the army being designated fife (q.v.) . At
T
From Captain Day's Catalogue, &<:., by permission of Messrs. Eyre & Spottiswoode.
FlG. I. Eight-keyed Cone Flute by Richard Potter. l8th century.
s. Rudall, Carte & Co.
FIG. 2. Boehm Cylinder Flute. Rockstro Model
the present day. in England, France and America, the favourite
mode of construction is that introduced by Theobald Boehm,
and known as the " cylinder flute with the parabolic head,"
of which more will be said further on. The successive opening
of the holes and keys on the flute produces the chromatic scale
of the first or fundamental octave. By increasing the pressure
of the breath and slightly altering the position of the lips over
the mouth-hole, the same fingering produces the notes of the
fundamental octave in the next octave higher. The third octave
of the compass is obtained by the production of the higher
harmonics (Fr. sons harmoniques; Ger. Flageolettb'ne), of the
fundamental scale, facilitated by the opening of certain of the
finger-holes as " vent holes." The quality of tone depends
somewhat on the material of which the flute is made; silver and
gold produce a liquid tone of exquisite delicacy suitable for solo
music, cocus-wood and ebonite a rich mellow tone of considerable
power suitable for orchestral .music. The tone differs further
in the three registers, the lowest being slightly rough, the medium
sweet and elegiac, and the third bird-like and brilliant. The
proportions, position and form of the stopper and of the air
chamber situated between it and the embouchure are mainly
influential in giving the flute its peculiar slightly hollow timbre,
due to the paucity of the upper partials of which according to
Helmholtz 1 only the octave and twelfth are heard. Mr Blaikley 2
states, however, that when the fundamental D is played, he can
discern the seventh partial. The technical capabilities of the
flute are practically unlimited to a good player who can obtain
sustained notes diminuendo and crescendo, diatonic and chro-
matic scales and arpeggios both legato and staccato, leaps,
turns, shakes, &c. By the articulation with the tongue of the
syllables te-ke or ti-ke repeated quickly for groups of double notes,
or of te-ke-ti for triplets, an easy effective staccato is produced,
known respectively as double or triple tonguing, a device under-
stood early in the i6th century and mentioned by Martin
Agricola, 3 who gives the syllables as de for sustained notes,
di-ri for shorter notes, and tel-lel-lel for staccato passages in
quick tempo. 4
Musical instruments, such as flutes, in which a column of air is
set in vibration by regular pulsations derived from a current of air
directed by the lips of the executant against the side of the orifice
serving as embouchure, appear to be of very ancient origin. The
Hindus, Chinese and Japanese claim to have used these modes of
blowing from time immemorial. The ancient Egyptians had a long
pipe held obliquely and blown across the end of the pipe itself at its
upper extremity; it was known as Saib-it* and was frequently
figured on the monuments. The same instrument, called nay,
is still used in Mahommedan countries. The oblique aulos of the
Greeks, plagiaulos, 6 was of Egyptian origin and was perhaps at first
blown from the end as described above, 7 since we know that the
Greeks were familiar with that method of blowing in the syrinx
or pan-pipe. The instruments preserved at the British Museum 1
having lateral embouchures show, however, that they were also
acquainted probably through the Hindus with the transverse
flute, although in the case of these specimens a reed must
have been inserted into the mouth-hole or no sound would
have been obtained.
The high antiquity of a lateral embouchure in Europe
is generally admitted; the flute evidently penetrated
from the East at some period not yet determined. A
transverse flute is seen on Indian
sculptures of the Gandhara
school showing Greek influence,
and dating from the beginning
of our era (fig. 3). But although
the transverse flute was evi-
dently known to the Greeks and
Romans, it did not find the same
favour as the reed instruments known as auloi. We have no
evidence of the survival of the transverse flute after the fall of the
Roman empire until it filtered through from Byzantine sources
1 Lenre von der Tonempfindung (Braunschweig, 1877).
2 See additions by D. J. B. to article " Flute " in Grove's Diction-
ary of Music and Musicians (London, 1904).
3 Musica instrumentalis deutsch (Wittenberg, 1528).
4 See also L'Artusi, Delle imperfettioni della musica moderna
(Venice, 1600), p. 4; Gottfried Weber in Cdcilia, Bd. ix. p. 99.
6 See " Les Anciennes Flutes e'gyptiennes," by Victor Loret in
Journal asiatique (Paris, 1889), vol. xiy. p. 133 et seq., two careful
articles based on the ancient Egyptian instruments still extant. See
also Lauth, " t)ber die agyptische Instrumente," Sitzungs. der philos.,
phUolog. und histor. Klasse. der Kgl. bayer. Akad. zu Munchen (1873).
.FiG. 3. Transverse Flute. 1st or 2nd century A.D. From the
Tope at Amarabati, British Museum.
during the early middle ages. Instances of the flute occur on a
group of caskets' of Italo-Byzantine work of the gth or loth century,
while of purely Byzantine origin we find examples of flutes in Greek
6 See Albert A. Howard, " The Aulos or Tibia," Harvard Studies,
iv. (Boston, 1893), pp. 16-17.
7 Representations of flutes blown as here described have been
found in Europe. See Comptes rendus de la commission imperiale
archeologique (St Petersburg, 1867), p. 45, and atlas for the same
date, pi. vi. Pompeian painting given by Helbig, Wandgemalde,
No. 7607; Zahn, vol. iii. pi. 31 ; Museo Borbonnico, pi. xv. No. 18;
Clarac, pi. 130, 131, 139; Heuzey, Les Figurines, p. 136.
'There are two flutes at the British Museum (Catal. No. 84, 4-9
and 5 and 6), belonging to the Castellan! collection, made of wood
encased in bronze in which the mouthpiece, consisting of the head
of a maenad, has a lateral hole bored obliquely into the main tube.
This hole was probably intended for the reception of a reed. The
pipe is stopped at the end beyond the mouthpiece as in the modern
flute. There are six holes. See also the plagiaulos from Halicar-
nassus in the British Museum described by C. T. Newton in History
of Discoveries at Halicarnassus (London), vol. ii. p. 339. The Louvre
has two ancient statues (from the villa Borghese) representing
satyrs playing upon transverse flutes. Unfortunately these marbles
have been restored, especially in the details affecting our present
subject, and are therefore examples of no value to us. Another
statue representing a flute-player occurs in the British Museum.
The instrument has been supposed to be a transverse flute, but
erroneously, for the insufflation of the lateral tube against which
the instrumentalist presses his lips, could not, without the inter-
vention of a reed, excite the vibratory movement of the column of
air.
9 Florence, Carrand Collection. See Museo Nazionale Firenze,
Catalog*} (1898), p. 205, No. 26 (description only). Illustration in
Gallerie nazionali ilaliane, A. Ventun, vol. iii. (1897), p. 263,
L'Arte (Rome, 1894)", vol. i. p. 24, Hans Graeven, " Antike Vorlagen
byzantinischer Elfenbeinreliefs," in Jahrb. d. K. Preuss. Kunst-
Sammlungen (Berlin, 1897), Bd. xviii. p. II ; Hans Graeven, " Bin
Reliquienkastchen aus Pirano," id., 1899, Bd. xx. fig. 2 and pi. iii.
FLUTE
581
pitch of . the tenor
the bass 2- ' = and alto i
MSS. 1 preserved in Paris, at the British Museum and elsewhere.
There is moreover in the cathedral of St Sophia at Kiev * an orchestra
depicted on frescoes said to date from the nth century; among
the musicians is a flautist.
The first essentially western European trace of the transverse
flute occurs in a German MS. of the I2th century, the celebrated
Hortus deliciarum of the abbess Herrad von Landsperg. 3 Fol. 221
shows a syren playing upon the transverse flute, which Herrad
explains in a legend as tibia ; in the vocabulary the latter is trans-
lated swegel. In the I3th century it occurs among the miniatures of
the fifty-one musicians in the beautiful MS. Las Cantigas de Santa
Maria in the Escorial, Madrid. 4 Eustache Deschamps, a French
poet of the I4th century, in one of his ballads, makes mention of the
" flute traversaine," and we are justified in supposing that he refers
to the transverse flute. It had certainly acquired some vogue in
the 1 5th century, being figured in an engraving in Sebastian Vird-
ung's celebrated work 6 , where it is called " Zwerchpfeiff," and, with
the drums, it already constituted the principal element of the
military music. Agricola (op. cit.) alludes to it as the " Querch-
pfeiff " or " Schweizerpfeiff, ' the latter designation dating, it is
said, from the battle of Marignan (1515), when the Swiss troops
used it for the first time in war.
From Agricola onwards transverse flutes formed a complete family,
said to comprise the discant, the alto and -tenor, and the bass
_a Q ^ _ respectively. Praetorius* desig-
nates the transverse flute as
" Flauta traversa' Querpfeiff "
and " Querflot," and gives the
= and the . o i - as varie-
: I discant grc a ties . then
in - in St & in V in use. A
flute concert at that time included two discants, four altos or
tenors, and two basses. The same author distinguishes between the
" Traversa " and the " Schweizerpfeiff " or fife (which he also calls
" Feldpfeiff," i.e. military flute), although the construction was the
same. There were -e^ - respectively ; they were
two kinds of gfr ^ and gfr - | employed exclusively
"Feldpfeiff," in v~ *f =* with the military drum.
MersenneV account of the transverse flute, then designated " flflte
d'Allemagne "or " flute allemande " in France, and an " Air de Cour "
for four flutes in his work lead us to believe that there were then in
use in France -p the tenor an ^ tnc Dass
the soprano ffr j or alto
flute in **f > flute in '^ ing to
The museum of the Conservatoire Royal of Brussels possesses
specimens of all these varieties except the last. All of them are
laterally pierced with six finger-holes; they have a cylindrical bore,
and are fashioned out of a single piece of wood. Their compass con-
sists of two octaves and a fifth. Mersenne's tablature for fingering
the flute differs but little from those of Hotteterre-le-Romam 8 and
Eisel for the diatonic scale; he does not give the chromatic semi-
tones and the flute had as yet no keys. _ f ^ |
The largest bass flute in the Brussels museum is in g=b=^_
at the French normal pitch A 435 double vibrations per
second. It measures 0-95 m. from the centre of the blow orini
1 Greek MS. 510, Gre'goir de Nazance loth century, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris; illustration in Gustave L. Schlumberger, L Epopte
byzantine a la fin du dizibme siecle (Paris, 1896 and 1900), vol. i.
p 1503. British Museum, Greek Psalter, add. MS. 19352, Ml 1890.
written and illuminated dr. 1066 by Theodorus of Caesarea. A
cylindrical flute is shown turned to the right the left hand being
uppermost. Smyrna, Library of the Evaggehke Schole B 18, fol.
72a, A.D. 1 100, illustration by Strzygowski, '' Der Bilderkreis des
griechischen Physiologus," in Byzantinisches Archiv (Leipzig, I 99>
Heft 2, Taf. xi.; N. P. Kondakoff, Histoire de I'artbyzanlin (Pans,
1886 and 1891), pi. xii. 5; " Kuseyr' Amra," issued by K. Akad. a.
Wissenschaften (Vienna, 1907), vol. 11. pi. xxxiy.
1 A fine volume containing coloured drawings of these
has been published in St Petersburg (British Museum library cata-
logue, sect. " Academies," St Petersburg, 1874-1887, vol. iv. Tab.
I3 > This manuscript, written towards the end of the iath century
was preserved in the Strassburg library until 1870, when it was burnt
during the bombardment of the city. See the fine reproduction in
facsimile published by the Soc. pour la conservation des monuments
historigues d' Alsace. Texte exphcatif de A Straub and G. Keller
(Strassbure 1901), pi. Ivii., also C. M. Engelhardt, Herraa von
( ^ndspergunLhr' Werk (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 18.8), twelve
S i. b. 2. Illustrated in Critical and Bibliographical Notes
on Early Spanish Music (London, 1887), p. 119-
< Musica getutscht und auszgezogen (Basel, 1511;
Oreanoeraphia (Wolfenbuttel. 1618), pp. 24, 25, 40.
informirend, Musicus
(Erfurt, 1738), P- 85-
the lower extremity of the tube. The disposition of the lateral holes
is such that it is impossible to cover them with the fingers if the
flute is held in the ordinary way. The in-
strument must be placed against the mouth
in an almost vertical direction, inclining the
extremity of the tube either to the right or
the left. This inconvenient position makes
it necessary that the instrument should be
divided into two parts, enabling the player
to turn the head joint that the embouchure
may be most commodiously approached by
the lips, which is not at all easy. The first
and fourth of the six lateral holes are
double in order to accommodate both right-
and left-handed players, the holes not in
use being stopped up with wax. The bass
flute shown in fig. 4 is the facsimile of an
instrument in the Museo Civico of Verona.
The original, unfortunately no longer fit for
use, is nevertheless sufficiently well pre-
served to allow of all its proportionate
measurements being given. The lowest
note, Eb, is obtained with a remarkable
amplitude of sound, thus upsetting a very
prevalent opinion that it is impossible to
produce by lateral insufflation sounds which
go a little lower than the ordinary limit
downwards of the modern orchestral flute. 10
The bass flute cited by Mersenne should
not differ much from that of the Museo
Civico at Verona. We suppose it to have
been in ($ -. and that it was furnished
with an open key like that which was
applied to the recorders (flutes douces) of
the same epoch, the function of the key
being to augment by another note the com-
pass of the instrument in the lower part. A
bass flute in G similar to the one in fig. 5
is figured and described in Diderot and _
D'Alembert's encyclopaedia" (1751). Ac- T IG - 4- * lG -$:
cording to Quantz, 12 it was in France and _ * IG - 4v~ Bass *! 'V te -
about the middle of the I7th century that f rom Museo Civico,
the first modifications were introduced in Verona (facsimile),
the manufacture of the flute. The improve- _ FIG. 5. Bass Flute,
ments at this period consisted of the Brussels Museum,
abandonment of the cylindrical bore in
favour of a conical one, with the base of the cone forming the
head of the instrument. At the same time the flute was
made of three separate pieces called head, body, and tail or foot,
which were ultimately further subdivided. The body or middle
joint was divided into two pieces, so that the instrument could be
tuned to the different pitches then in use by a replacement with
longer or shorter pieces. It was probably about 1677, when Lully
introduced the German flute into the opera, that recourse was had
for the first time to keys, and that the key of D# was applied to the
lower part of the instrument." The engraving of B. Picart, dated
1707, given in Hotteterre's book, represents the flute as having
reached the stage of improvement of which we have just spoken. In
1726 Quantz, 14 finding himself in Paris, had a second key applied to
the flute, placed nearly at the same height as the first, that of the
.n _, intended to differentiate the D# and the Eb." This
gk | = innovation was generally well received in Germany, but
)=> does not appear to have met with corresponding success
in other countries. In France and England manufacturers adopted
it bat rarely; in Italy it was declared useless." About the same
10 Fdtis, Rapport sur la fabrication des instruments de musique d,
I' Exposition Universelle de Paris, en 1855.
11 See Recueil de planches, vol. iv., and article " Basse de flflte
traversiere," vol. ii. (Paris, 1751). See also The Flute, by R. S.
Rockstro (London, 1890), p. 238, where the wood cut is reproduced
together with a translation of the article. The Museum of the
Conservatoire in Paris also possesses a bass flute by the noted French
maker Delusse.
u Versuch einer Anweisung die Flote traversiere zu spielen (Berlin,
13 Unless the contrary is stated, we have always in view, in describ-
ing the successive improvements of the flute, the treble flute in D,
which is considered to be typical of the family.
14 " Herrn Johann Joachim Ouantzens-Lebenslauf, von ihm selbst
entwprfen," in the Historisch-kritische Beytrdge zur Aufnahme der
Musik, by Marpurg (Berlin, 1754), p. 239. Quantz was professor
of the flute to Frederick the Great.
"See Johann Georg Tromlitz, Ausfuhrlicher und grundlicher
Unterricht die Flote zu spielen (Leipzig, 1791), i, 7, and Uber Floten
mil mehrern Klappen (Leipzig, 1800), cap. vii. 21.
' Antonio Lorenzoni, Saggio per ben sonare il flauto traverse
(Vicenza, 1779).
FLUTE
time flutes were constructed with the lower extremity lengthened
sufficiently to produce the fundamental C, and furnished with a
supplementary key to produce the C#. This innovation, spoken of
by Quantz 1 did not meet with a very favourable reception, and was
shortly afterwards abandoned. Passing mention may be made of
the drawing of a flute with a C key in the Music-Saal of J. F. B.
Majer (Nuremberg, 1741), p. 45.
The tuning of the instrument to different pitches was effected
by changes in the length, and notably by substituting a longer or
shorter upper piece in the middle joint. So wide were the differences
in the pitches then in use that seven such pieces for the upper portion
of it were deemed necessary. The relative proportions between the
different parts of the instrument being altered by these modifications
in the length, it was conceived that the just relation could be re-
established by dividing the foot into two pieces, below the key.
These two pieces were adjusted by means of a tenon, and it was
asserted that, in this way, the foot could be lengthened proportion-
ately to the length of the middle joint. Flutes thus improved took
the name of " flutes a registre." The register system was, about
1752, applied by Quantz to the head joint 2 and, the embouchure
section being thus capable of elongation, it was allowable to the per-
former, according to the opinion of this professor, to lower the pitch
of the flute a semitone, without having recourse to other lengthening
pieces, and without disturbing the accuracy of intonation.
The upper extremity of the flute, beyond the embouchure orifice,
is closed by means of a cork stopper. On the position of this cork
depends, in a great measure, the accurate tuning of the flute. It is
in its right place when the accompanying octaves are
true. Quantz, in speaking of this accessory, mentions
the use of a nut-screw to give the required position to
the cork. 3 He does not name the inventor of this ap-
pliance, but, according to Tromlitz, 4 the improvement was due to
Quantz himself. The invention goes back to 1 726.
When the Method of Quantz appeared there were still in use,
besides the orchestral flute in D, the little fourth flute in G, the
low fourth flute in A, and the flute d'amour a note higher; in
France they had, moreover, the little octave flute in D (octave).
A bass flute in D had also been attempted (see fig. 5). When
Ribock published his Bemerkungen uber die Flote s the flute
had already the five keys here shown.
This author states that the inventor of these
new keys is not known to him, but that
either Kusder, a musical instrument-maker in London, or Johann
Georg Tromlitz of Leipzig was the originator, since he has not been
able to trace those keys on the flutes of any other maker. Although
Tromlitz does not claim for himself the invention of the keys for F,
G# and B!>, he states that " he had occupied himself for several years
in applying these keys so as not to augment the difficulty of playing,
but on the contrary to render the handling of them as easy as
possible." 6 In the later work published in 1800,' however, he
seems to attribute the invention of these keys to Richard Potter of
London; he says that he has never yet been fortunate enough to
come across a good flute by that maker " the flute has certainly
gained by the addition of the keys for F, G# and Bb, but this is not
everything, for on such a flute much must perforce be left un-
atternpted. . . . Only a flute with eight keys according to my in-
vention is capable of everything." It would seem, moreover, from
circumstantial evidence stated clearly and on good authority by
Rockstro 8 that the keys for F, G# and B\> must have been used
first in England and made by Richard Potter before 1774. The
higher key of C adopted from 1786 by Tromlitz, we believe to have
been first recommended by Ribock (1782).' Tromlitz in Uber
Floten describes at length what may be termed the first systematic
effort to overcome the difficulties created by the combination of
open holes and closed keys. He attempted to solve the question
by determining the positions of the holes according to the exigencies
of fingering instead of subordinating them to the more arbitrary
theories connected with the musical scale.
In 1785 Richard Potter improved Quantz's slide applied to the
head joint as well as to the register of the foot by a double system
of tubes forming double sliding air-tight joints. In the document 10
describing this improvement Potter patented the idea of lining the
holes with silver tubes and of adapting metal conical valves to the
keys. Potter's patent conical valves were an adaptation of the
contrivance first invented by J. F. Boie or Boye of Gottingen,"
1 See A nweisung, i. 15.
2 See Lebensiauf, loc. cit. p. 248, where Quantz states that he in-
vented the adjustable head for the flute.
3 See Anweisung, i. 10-13 an d iv. 26.
4 Ausfuhrlicher und grilndlicher Unterricht die Flole zu spielen
(Leipzig, 1791), i. cap. 20. Compare Schilling, Univ.-Lexikon
(Leipzig, 1835).
6 Stendal, 1782 (published under his initials only, J. J. H. R.,
see p. 2).
* Kurze Abhandlung von Flotenspielen (Leipzig, 1786), p. 27.
7 Ober Floten, &c., pp. 133 and 134.
8 See The Flute, pp. 242-244 and 561 and 562.
9 See op. cit. pp. 51 and 62.
10 English patent, No. 1499. " See Rockstro, op. cit. p. 197.
who used pewter for the plugs, and silver for lining the holes. The
keys mentioned in the patent were four -D#, F, G#, A#. The idea
of extending the compass of the flute downwards was taken up again
about the same time by two players of the flute in London named
Tacet and Florio. They devised a new disposition of the keys C
and C#, and confided the execution of their invention to Potter. In
Dr Arnold's New Instructions for the German Flute occurs a tablature,
the engraving of which goes back to the end of the i8th century, and
bears the following title, " A Complete Drawing and Concise Scale
and Description of Tacet and Florio's new invented German Flute,
with all the additional keys explained." It explains the use of six
keys C, C#, D#, F, G#, A# that are not always figured, because
the employment of so many keys was at once admitted. Tromlitz
himself, who, however, made flutes with nine keys adding El>,
another F, and Cq, declared that he was not in favour of so great
a complication, and that he preferred the flute with only two keys,
D# and Eb, with a register foot joint and a cork nut-screw at the
head joint. This instrument met all requirements. He was always
much opposed to the use of the old keys for Cq and C#, because they
altered the recognised quality of tone of the instrument. When
Tromlitz published his method, the family of flutes had become
modified. It comprehended only the typical flute in D, the flflte
d'amour a minor third lower, a " third ' flute a minor third higher,
and, finally, the little octave flute.
While Tromlitz was struggling in Germany with the idea of
augmenting the compass of the flute downwards by employing open
keys for Cs] and C#, an Italian, Giovanni Batista Orazi, 12 increased
the scale of the instrument downwards by the application of five
new keys, viz. B, Bb, A, Al>, and G. At the same time that he
produced this invention u he conceived the plugging of the lateral
holes by the valve keys then recently invented by Potter. But
it was hardly possible to obtain a perfect plugging of seven lateral
holes with the aid of as many keys, for the control of which there
were only the two little fingers, and therefore this invention of
Orazi proved a failure.
In 1808 the Rev. Frederick Nolan, 14 of Stratford, near London,
conceived an open key, the lever of which, terminating by a ring,
permitted the closing of a lateral hole at the same time the key was
being acted upon. The combination in this double action is the
embryo of the mechanism that a little later was to transform the
system of the flute. Two years later Macgregor, 16 a musical-instru-
ment maker in London, constructed a bass flute an octave lower
than the ordinary flute. The idea was not new, as is proved by the
existence of the bass flute mentioned above. The difference between
the two instruments lies in the mechanism of the keys. That em-
ployed by Macgregor consisted of a double lever, a contrivance
dating from before the middle of the l8th century, of which the
application is seen in an oboe of large dimensions preserved in the
National Museum at Munich. 16
In 1811 Johann Nepomuk Capeller invented the extra Dqhole
and key, which is still in constant use on every flute of modern
construction. 17
About 1830 the celebrated French flautist Tulou added two more
keys, those of F# and C#, and a key, called
" de cadence," to facilitate the accompany-
ing shakes.
To increase the number of keys, to improve ~&
their system of plugging, and to extend the Cj)
scale of the instrument in the lower region,
these had hitherto been the principal problems dealt with in
the improvement of the flute. No maker, no inventor to whose
labours we have called attention, had as yet devoted his atten-
tion to the rational division of the column of air by means of the
lateral holes. In 1831 Theobald Boehm, a Bavarian, happening to
be in London, was struck with the power of tone the celebrated
English performer Charles Nicholson drew from his instrument.
Boehm learned, and not without astonishment, that his English
colleague obtained this result by giving the lateral holes a much
greater diameter than was then usually admitted. About the
same time Boehm made the acquaintance of an amateur player
named Gordon, who had effected certain improvements; he had
bored the lateral hole for the lower E, and had covered it with a
key, while he had replaced the key for F with a ring. These innova-
tions set Boehm about attempting a complete reform of the
12 Saggio per costruire e suonare un flauto traverse enarmonico che
ha i suoni bassi del violino (Rome, 1797).
13 The idea of this large flute was taken up again in 1819 by Trexler
of Vienna, who called it the " panaulon."
14 Patent, No. 3183. Part of the specification together with a
diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 273-274.
16 Patent, No. 3349. Part of the specification together with a
diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 273-274.
16 Another specimen, almost the same, constructed about 1775,
and called " Basse de Musette," may be seen in the Museum of the
Paris Conservatoire.
17 See account of Capeller's inventions by Carl Maria von Weber
in Allgem. musikal. Zeit. (Leipzig, 1811), pp. 377-379, a translation
of which is given by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 279 and 280.
FLUX
583
instrument. 1 He went resolutely to work, and during the year 1832
he produced the new flute which bears his name. This instrument
is distinguished by a new mechanism of keys, as well as by larger
holes disposed along the tube in geometrical progression.
Boehm's system had preserved the key of G# open ; Coche, 1 a
professor in the Paris Conservatoire, assisted by Auguste Buffet
the younger, a musical-instrument maker in that city, modified
Boehm's flute by closing the G# with a key, wishing thus to render
the new fingering more conformable to the old. He thus added a
key, facilitating the shake upon C# with D#, and brought about
some other changes in the instrument of less importance.
Boehm had not, however, altered the bore of the flute, which had
been conical from the end of the I7th century. In 1846, however,
he made further experiments, and the results obtained were put in
practice by the construction of a new instrument, of which the body
was given a cylindrical bore, while the diameter of the head was
modified at the embouchure, the head-joint becoming parabolic
(see fig. 2). The inventor thus obtained a remarkable equality in
the tones of the lower octave, a greater sonorousness, and a perfect
accuracy of intonation, by establishing the more exact proportions
which a column of air of cylindrical form permitted.
The priority of Boehm s invention was long contested, his de-
tractors maintaining that the honour of having reconstructed the
flute was due to Gordon. But an impartial investigation vindi-
cates the claim of the former to the invention of the large lateral
holes. 3 His greatest title to fame is the invention of the mechanism
which allows the production of the eleven chromatic semitones
intermediate between the fundamental note and its first harmonic
by means of eleven holes so disposed that in opening them suc-
cessively they shorten the column of air in exact proportional
quantities. 4 Boehm (Essays, &c.) published a diagram or scheme to
be adopted in determining the position of the note-holes of wind
instruments for every given pitch. This diagram gives the posi-
tion of the intermediate holes which he had been enabled to
establish by a rule of proportion based on the law of the lengths
of strings.
The Boehm flute, notwithstanding the high degree of perfection
it has reached, has not secured unanimous favour; even now there
are players who prefer the ordinary flute. The change of fingering
required for some notes, the great delicacy and liability Jo derange-
ment of the mechanism, have something to do with this. In England
especially, the ordinary flute retains many partisans, thanks to
the improvements introduced by a clever player, Abel Siccama, in
1845 (Patent No. 10,553). He bored the lateral holes of E and A
lower, and covered them with open keys. He added some keys, and
made a better disposition of the other lateral holes, of which he
increased the diameter, producing thus a sonorousness almost equal
to that of the Boehm flute, while yet preserving the old fingering
for the notes of the first two octaves. But in spite of these improve-
ments the old flute will not bear an impartial comparison with that
.of Boehm.
A flute constructed on a radically new system by Signer Carlo
Tommaso Georgi and introduced in 1896 places the technique of
the instrument on an entirely new and simple basis. The principal
features of this flute consist in an embouchure placed at the upper
extremity of the tube instead of at the side, which allows the instru-
ment to be held in a perpendicular position; no tuning cork is re-
quired. There are eleven holes mathematically placed in the tube
which give the semitones of the scale; there are no keys. The
eleven holes are fingered by the fingers and thumbs, the C# hole
being closed by the side of the left fore-finger. All the notes are
obtained by means of simple fingering as far as G# of the third
octave, the remaining notes of which are produced by cross-fingering.
For the convenience of players with short fingers keys can be added,
and the head of the Georgi flute can be used with any cylinder flute.
The compass of the Georgi flute is almost the same as that of
the concert flute; viz. E If the lower C and CJ are
required, extra holes -5 p- and keys can be added.
Everything that is gs^=to_ = possible on the Boehm flute is
possible on the Georgi V~~* and more, owing to the sim-
plicity of the fingering ; each finger having but one duty to perform,
all trills are equally easy. The tone is the true flute tone, brilliant
and sympathetic. 5
1 See Vber den Flolenbau und die neuesten Verbesserungen desselben
(Mainz, 1847); and W. S. Broadwood, An Essay on the Construction
of Flutes originally written by Theobald Boehm, published with the
addition of Correspondence and other Documents (London, 1882).
2 Examen critique de la flute ordinaire comparee d. la flute Boehm
3 They existed long before, however, in the Chinese Ty and the
a > Tnc reader may consult with advantage Mr C. Welch's History
of the Boehm Flute (London, 1883), wherein all the documents relat-
ing to this interesting discussion have been collected with great
impartiality.^ ^^ ^ Kathleen Schlesinger, The Instruments
of the Orchestra, part i. pp. 192-194, where an illustration is given
and Paul Wetzger, Die Flote (Heilbronn, 1906), pp. 23-24, and Tafel
iv. No. 20.
The old English fipple flute, or flute d bee, is described under the
headings RECORDER and FLAGEOLET. (V. M.; K. S.)
2. In architecture the name " flute " is given to the vertical
channels (segmental, semicircular or elliptical in horizontal
section) employed on the shafts of columns in the classic styles.
The flutes are separated one from the other by an " arris " in
the Doric order and by a " fillet " in the Ionic and Corinthian
orders. The earliest fluted columns are those in Egypt, at first
with plain faces without any sinking, subsequently at Karnac
(1400 B.C.) with a segmental sinking equal in depth to about
one-seventh of the width of the flute. The columns flanking one
of the " beehive " tombs at Mycenae have segmental flutes and
are the earliest Greek examples. In two of the earliest Doric
temples at Metapontum and Syracuse (temple of Apollo) the
flutes are also segmental, but in later examples in order to
emphasize the arris they were formed of three arcs and are known
as " false ellipses," and this applies to nearly all the fluting in
Greek examples whether belonging to the Doric, Ionic or
Corinthian orders. The number of flutes varies, there being 52
in the archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus and from 30 to 52
flutes in the Persian columns according to the diameter of the
column. In the Greek Doric column 20 is the usual number, but
there are 16 only in the temples of Sunium, Assos, Segesta and
the temple of Apollo at Syracuse; 18 in one of the temples of
Selinus and the temple of Diana at Syracuse, and 24 in the temple
of Neptune at Paestum. The depth of the flute also varies;
in the Propylaea at Athens the radius is equal to the width of
the flute and the flute is segmental. In the Parthenon the radius
of the central part of the flute is greater than the width, but the
smaller arcs on either side accentuate better the arris. A similar
accentuation is found in the Ionic and Corinthian orders, where
the flutes are separated by fillets, and their section is always
elliptical in Greek work, the depth of the flute, however, being
always greater than in the Doric order. Thus, in the temple of
Ilissus and the Ionic column in the cella of the temple at Bassae,
the depth is about one-quarter of the width, in the Propylaea
at Priene it is about one-third, and in the Erechtheum and other
examples of the Greek Ionic order it is little more than one-half.
The width of the fillet also varies, being as a rule one quarter of
the width of the flute; and the same applies to the Greek
Corinthian order. In the Roman Doric, Ionic and Corinthian
orders, the flute is either segmental or semicircular, its depth
being about one-third of the width in the Doric column, and in all
Ionic, Corinthian and Composite columns half the width of the
flute. The fillet also is much broader in Roman examples, being
about one-third of the width of the flute. In Roman columns
sometime-, the flutes of the lower part of the shaft, about one-
third of the height, are partly filled with a convex moulding,
" cabling " being the usual term applied to this treatment.
The French architects of the i6th and lyth centuries carried this
decorative feature much farther, and in the Tuileries and the
Louvre carved a series of leaves in the flutes. In a few Italian
buildings, instead of the fluting of the column being vertical,
it twines round the column and is known as spiral fluting; a fine
example is found in the Bevilacqua palace at Verona by San
Michele. Fluting is sometimes introduced into capitals, as in
the tomb of Mylasa, and in friezes, as in the theatre at Cnidos,
the Incantada at Salonica, and a doorway at Patara. In one
of the museums at Rome is a fine sarcophagus, the sides of which
are sculptured with flutes in. waved lines. The coronas of many
of the Roman temples were carved with flutes. In medieval
buildings, fluting was occasionally introduced in imitation of
Roman work, as in the churches of central Syria and of Autun and
Langres in France, but in the south of Italy and Sicily it would
seem to have been brought in as a variety of treatment in the
decoration of the shafts carrying the arches of cloisters, as at
Monreale in Sicily and in those of St John Lateran and St Paul-
outside-the- Walls at Rome. (R. P. S.)
FLUX (Lat. fluxus, a flowing; this being also the meaning
of the English term in medicine, &c.),in metallurgy, a substance
introduced in the smelting of ores to promote fluidity, and to
remove objectionable impurities in the form of a slag. The
5 8 4
FLY FLYCATCHER
substances in commonest use are: lime or limestone, to slag
off silica and silicates, fluor-spar for lead, calcium and barium
sulphates and calcium phosphate, and silica for removing basic
substances such as limestone. Other substances are also used,
but more commonly in assaying than in metallurgy. Sodium
and potassium carbonates are valuable for fluxing off silica;
mixed with potassium nitrate sodium carbonate forms a valuable
oxidizing fusion mixture; " black flux " is a reducing flux
composed of finely divided carbon and potassium carbonate, and
formed by deflagrating a mixture of argol with j to 5 its weight
of nitre. Borax is very frequently employed; it melts to a clear
liquid and dissolves silica and many metallic oxides. Potassium
bisulphate is useful in the preliminary treatment of refractory
aluminous ores. Litharge and red lead are used in silver and
gold assays, acting as solvents for silica and any metallic oxides
present.
FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Teut. fleugan,
to fly), a designation applied to the winged or perfect state of
many insects belonging to various orders, as in butterfly (see
LEPIDOPTERA), dragon-fly (?..), may-fly (q.v.), caddis-fly (q.v.),
&c.; also specially employed by entomologists to mean any
species of the two- winged flies, or DIPTERA (q.v.). In ordinary
parlance fly is often used in the sense of the common house-fly
(Musca domestica); and by English colonists and sportsmen
in South Africa in that of a species of tsetse-fly (Glossina), or a
tract of country (" belt ") in which these insects abound (see
TSETSE-FLY).
Apart from the house-fly proper (Musca domestica), which in
England is the usual one, several species of flies are commonly
found in houses; e.g. the Stomoxys calcitrans, or stable-fly;
Pollenia rudis, or cluster-fly; Muscina stabulans, another stable-
fly; Calliphora erythrocephala, blue-bottle fly, blow- fly or meat-
fly, with smaller sorts of blue-bottle, Phormia terraenovae and
Lucilia caesar; Homalomyia canicularis and brevis, the small
house-fly; Scenopinus feneslralis, the black window-fly, &c.
But Musca domestica is far the most numerous, and in many
places, especially in hot weather and in hot climates, is a regular
pest. Mr L. O. Howard (Circular 71 of the Bureau of Entomology
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1906) says that in 1900
he made a collection of the flies in dining-rooms in different parts
of the United States, and out of a total of 23,087 flies, 22,808
were the common house-fly. Its geographical distribution is
of the widest, and its rapidity of breeding, in manure and door-
yard filth, so great that, as a carrier of germs of disease, especially
cholera and typhoid, the house-fly is now recognized as a potent
source of danger; and various sanitary regulations have been
made, or precautions suggested, for getting rid of it. These are
discussed by Mr Howard in the paper referred to, but in brief
they all amount to measures of general hygiene, and the isolation,
prompt removal, or proper sterilization of the animal or human
excrement in which these flies breed.
FLYCATCHER, a name introduced in ornithology by Ray,
being a translation of the Muscicapa of older authors, and
applied by Pennant to an extremely common English bird, the
M. grisola of Linnaeus. It has since been used in a general and
very vague way for a great many small birds from all parts of the
world, which have the habit of catching flies on the wing. Orni-
thologists who have trusted too much to this characteristic and
to certain merely superficial correlations of structure, especially
those exhibited by a broad and rather flat bill and a gape beset
by strong hairs or bristles, have associated under the title of
Muscicapidae an exceedingly heterogeneous assemblage of
forms much reduced in number by later systematists. Great
advance has been made in establishing as independent families
the Todidae and Eurylaemidae, as well as in excluding from it
various members of the Ampelidae, Cotingidae, Tyrannidae,
Vireonidae, Mniotiltidae, and perhaps others, which had been
placed within its limits. These steps have left the Muscicapidae
a purely Old- World family of the order Passeres, and the chief
difficulty now seems to lie in separating it from the Campephagidae
and the Laniidae. Only a very few of the forms of flycatchers
(which, after all the deductions above mentioned, may be
reckoned to include some 60 genera or subgenera, and perhaps
250 species) can here be even named. 1
The best-known bird of this family is that which also happens
to be the type of the Linnaean genus Muscicapa the spotted
or grey flycatcher (M. grisola). It is a common summer visitant
to nearly the whole of Europe, and is found throughout Great
Britain, though less abundant in Scotland than in England, as
well as in many parts of Ireland, where, however, it seems to be
but locally and sparingly distributed. It is one of the latest
migrants to arrive, and seldom reaches the British Islands till the
latter part of May, when it may be seen, a small dust-coloured
bird, sitting on the posts or railings of gardens and fields, ever
and anon springing into the air, seizing with an audible snap
of its bill some passing insect as it flies, and returning to the spot
it has quitted, or taking up some similar station to keep watch as
before. It has no song, but merely a plaintive or peevish call-
note, uttered from time to time with a jerking gesture of the
wings and tail. It makes a neat nest, built among the small twigs
which sprout from the bole of a large tree, fixed in the branches
of some plant trained against a wall, or placed in any hole of
the wall itself that may be left by the falling of a brick or stone.
The eggs are from four to six in number, of a pale greenish-blue,
closely blotched or freckled with rust-colour. Silent and incon-
spicuous as is this bird, its constant pursuit of flies in the closest
vicinity of houses makes it a familiar object to almost everybody.
A second British species is the pied flycatcher (M. atricapilla),
a much rarer bird, and in England not often seen except in the
hilly country extending from the Peak of Derbyshire to Cumber-
land, and more numerous in the Lake District than elsewhere.
It is not common in Scotland, and has only once been observed
in Ireland. More of a woodland bird than the former, the
brightly-contrasted black and white plumage of the cock,
together with his agreeable song, readily attracts attention
where it occurs. It is a summer visitant to all western Europe,
but farther eastward its place is taken by a nearly allied species
(M. collaris) in which the white of the throat and breast extends
like a collar round the neck. A fourth European species (M.
parva), distinguished by its very small size and red breast, has
also strayed some three or four times to the extreme south-west
of England. This last belongs to a group of more eastern range,
which has received generic recognition under the name of Erythro-
sterna, and it has several relations in Asia and particularly in
India, while the allies of the pied flycatchers (Ficedula of Brisson)
are chiefly -of African origin, and those of the grey or spotted
flycatcher (Muscicapa proper 2 ) are common to the two con-
tinents.
One of the most remarkable groups of Muscicapidae is that
known as the paradise flycatchers, forming the genus Tchitrea of
Lesson. In nearly all the species the males are distinguished by
the growth of exceedingly long feathers in their tail, and by their
putting on, for some part of the year at least, a plumage generally
white, but almost always quite different from that worn by the
females, which is of a more or less deep chestnut or bay colour,
though in both sexes the crown is of a glossy steel-blue. They are
found pretty well throughout Africa and tropical Asia to Japan,
and seem to affect the deep shade of forests rather than the open
country. The best-known species is perhaps the Indian T.
paradisi; but the Chinese T. incii, and the Japanese T. princeps,
from being very commonly represented by the artists of those
nations on screens, fans and the like, are hardly less so; and the
cock of the last named, with his bill of a pale greenish-blue and
1 Of the 36 genera or subgenera which Swainson included in his
Natural Arrangement and Relations of the Family of Flycatchers
(published in 1838), at least 19 do not belong to the Muscicapidae at
all, and one of them, Todus, not even to the order Passeres. It is
perhaps impossible to name any ornithological work whose substance
so fully belies its title as does this treatise. Sw?inson wrote it filled
with faith in the so-called " Quinary System " that fanciful theory,
invented by W. S. Macleay, which misled and kept back so many of
the best English zoologists of his generation from the truth, and,
unconsciously swayed by his bias, his judgment was warped to fit
his hypothesis.
1 By some writers this section is distinguished as Butalis of Boie,
but to do so seems contrary to rule.
FLYGARE-CARLEN FLYING-FISH
585
eyes surrounded by bare skin of the same colour though these
are characters possessed in some degree by all the species
seems to be the most beautiful of the genus. T, bourbonnensis,
which is peculiar to the islands of Mauritius and Reunion,
appears to be the only species in which the outward difference of
the sexes is but slight. In T. corvina of the Seychelles, the adult
male is wholly black, and his middle tail-feathers are not only
very long but very broad. In T. mutata of Madagascar, some
of the males are found in a blackish plumage, though with the
elongated median rectrices white, while in others white pre-
dominates over the whole body; but whether this sex is here
actually dimorphic, or whether the one dress is a passing phase
of the other, is at present undetermined. Some of the African
species, of which many have been described, seem always to
retain the rufous plumage, but the long tail-feathers serve to
mark the males.
A few other groups are distinguished by the brilliant blue they
exhibit, as Myiagra azurea, and others as Monarcha (or Arses)
chrysomela by their golden yellow. The Australian forms assigned
to the Muscicapidae are very varied. Sisura inquieta has some
of the habits of a water- wagtail (Motacilla), and hence has re-
ceived the name of " dishwasher," bestowed in many parts of
England on its analogue; and the many species of Rhipidura
or fantailed flycatchers, which occur in various parts of the
Australian Region, have manners still more singular turning
over in the air, it is said, like a tumbler pigeon, as they catch their
prey; but concerning the mode of life of the .majority of the
Muscicapidae, and especially of the numerous African forms,
hardly anything is known. (A. N.)
FLYGARE-CARLEN, EMILIE (1807-1892), Swedish novelist,
was born in Stromstad on the 8th of August 1807. Her father,
Rutger Smith, was a retired sea-captain who had settled down
as a small merchant, and she often accompanied him on the
voyages he made along the coast. She married in 1827 a doctor
named Axel Flygare, and went with him to live in the province
of Smaland. After his death in 1833 she returned to her old home
and published in 1838 her first novel, Waldemar Klein. In the
next year she removed to Stockholm, and married, in 1841, the
jurist and poet, Johan Gabriel Garlen (1814-1875). Her house
became a meeting-place for Stockholm men of letters, and for
the next twelve years she produced one or two novels annually.
The premature death of her son Edvard Flygare (1820-1853),
who had already published three books, showing great promise,
was followed by six years of silence, after which she resumed her
writing until 1884. The most famous of her tales are Rosen pd
Tistelon (1842; Eng. trans. The Rose of Tistelon, 1842);
Enslingen pa Johannesskaret (1846; Eng. trans. The Hermit,
4 vols., 1853); and Ell Kopemanshus i skargarden (1859; The
Merchant's House on the Cliffs). Fru Carlen published in 1878
Minnen af svenskl forfattarlif 1840-1860, and in 1887-1888
three volumes of Efterskord {ran en 80- arings forfattarbana,
containing her last tales. She died at Stockholm on the sth of
February 1892. Her daughter, Rosa Carlen (1836-1883), was
also a popular novelist.
Emilie Flygare-CarleVs novels were collected in thirty-one
volumes (Stockholm, 1869-1875).
FLYING BUTTRESS, in architecture, the term given to a
structural feature employed to transmit the thrust of a vault
across an intervening space, such as an aisle, chapel or cloister,
to a buttress built outside the latter. This was done by throwing
a semi-arch across to the vertical buttress. Though employed
by the Romans and in early Romanesque work, it was generally
masked by other constructions or hidden under a roof, but in
the 1 2th century it was recognized as rational construction and
emphasized by the decorative accentuation of its features, as in
the cathedrals of Chartres, Le Mans, Paris, Beauvais, Reims,
&c. Sometimes, owing to the great height of the vaults, t'
semi-arches were thrown one above the other, and there i
cases where the thrust was transmitted to two or even t
buttresses across intervening spaces. As a vertical buttress,
placed at a distance, possesses greater power of resistance
thrust than if attached to the wall carrying the vault, vertical
buttresses as at Lincoln and Westminster Abbey were built
outside the chapterhouse to receive the thrust. All vertical
buttresses are, as a rule, in addition weighted with pinnacles to
give them greater power of resistance.
FLYING COLUMN, in military organization, an independent
corps of troops usually composed of all arms, to which a particular
task is assigned. It is almost always composed in the course of
operations, out of the troops immediately available. Mobility
being its raison d'etre, a flying column is when possible composed
of picked men and horses accompanied with the barest minimum
of baggage. The term is usually, though not necessarily, applied
to forces under the strengthof a brigade. The " mobile columns "
employed by the British in the South African War of 1899-1902,
were usually of the strength of two battalions of infantry, a
battery of artillery, and a squadron of cavalry almost exactly
half that of a mixed brigade. Flying columns are mostly used in
savage or guerrilla warfare.
" FLYING DUTCHMAN," a spectre-ship popularly believed to
haunt the waters around the Cape of Good Hope. The legend
has several variants, but the commonest is that which declares
that the captain of the vessel, Vanderdecken, was condemned for
his blasphemy to sail round the cape for ever, unable to " make "
a port. In the Dutch version the skipper is the ghost of the Dutch
seaman Van Straaten. The appearance of the " Flying Dutch-
man " is considered by sailors asominousof disaster. The German
legend makes one Herr Von Falkenberg the hero, and alleges that
he is condemned to sail for ever around the North Sea, on a ship
without helm or steersman, playing at dice for his soul with
the devil. Sir Walter Scott says the " Flying Dutchman " was
originally a vessel laden with bullion. A murder was committed
on board, and thereafter the plague broke out among the crew,
which closed all ports to the ill-fated craft. The legend has been
used by Wagner in his opera Der fliegende Hollander.
FLYING-FISH, the name given to two different kinds of fish.
The one (Dactylopterus) belongs to the gurnard family ( Triglidae),
and is more properly called flying gurnard; the other (Exocoetus)
has been called flying herring, though more nearly allied to the
gar-pike than to the herring. Some other fishes with long
pectoral fins (Pterois) have been stated to be able to fly, but this
has been proved to be incorrect. '
The flying gurnards are much less numerous than the Exocoeti
with regard to individuals as well as species, there being only
three or four species known of the former, whilst more than fifty
have been described of the latter, which, besides, are found in
numerous shoals of thousands. The Dactylopteri may be readily
FIG. i . Dactylopterus volitans.
distinguished by a large bony head armed with spines, hard
keeled scales, two dorsal fins, &c. The Exocofli have thin,
deciduous scales, only one dorsal fin, and the ventrals placed
far backwards, below the middle of the body; some have long
barbels at the chin. In both kinds the pectoral fins are greatly
prolonged and enlarged, modified into an organ of flight, and in
many species of Exocoelus the ventral fins are similarly enlarged,
and evidently assist in the aerial evolutions of these fishes.
Flying-fishes are found in the tropical and subtropical seas only,
and it is a singular fact that the geographical distribution of the
two kinds is nearly identical. Flying-fish are more frequently
5 86
FLYING-FOX FLYING-SQUIRREL
observed in rough weather and in a disturbed sea than during
calms; they dart out of the water when pursued by their
enemies or frightened by an approaching vessel, but frequently
also without any apparent cause, as is also observed in many
other fishes; and they rise without regard to the direction of
the wind or waves. The fins are kept quietly distended, without
any motion, except an occasional vibration caused by the air
whenever the surface of the wing is parallel with the current of
the wind. Their flight is rapid, greatly exceeding that of a ship
going 10 m. an hour, but gradually decreasing in velocity and not
extending beyond a distance of 500 ft. Generally it is longer
when the fishes fly against, than with or at an angle to, the wind.
Any vertical or horizontal deviation from a straight line is not
caused at the will of the fish, but by currents of the air; thus they
FIG. 2. Exocoetus callopterus.
retain a horizontally straight course when flying with or against
the wind, but are carried towards the right or left whenever the
direction of the wind is at an angle with that of their flight.
However, it sometimes happens that the fish during its flight
immerses its caudal fin in the water, and by a stroke of its tail
turns towards the right or left. In a calm the line of their flight is
always also vertically straight or rather parabolic, like the course
of a projectile, but it may become undulated in a rough sea,
when they are flying against the course of the waves; they then
frequently overtop each wave, being carried over it by the
pressure of the disturbed air. Flying-fish often fall on board of
vessels, but this never happens during a calm or from the lee side,
but during a breeze only and from the weather side. In day time
they avoid a ship, flying away from it, but during the night
when they are unable to see, they frequently fly against the
weather board, where they are caught by the current of the air,
and carried upwards to a height of 20 ft. above the surface of the
water, whilst under ordinary circumstances they keep close to it.
All these observations point clearly to the fact that any deflection
from a straight course is due to external circumstances, and not
to voluntary action on the part of the fish.
A little Malacopterygian fish about 4 in. long has recently been
discovered in West Africa which has the habits of a fresh-water
flying-fish. It has been named Pantodon buchholzi. It has very
large pectoral fins with a remarkable muscular process attached
to the inner ray. It lives in fresh-water lakes and rivers in the
Congo region, and has been caught in its flight above the water
in a butterfly-net.
FLYING-FOX, or, more correctly, Fox-BAT. The first name
is applied by Europeans in India to the fruit-eating bats of the
genus Pleropus, which contains more than half the family
(Pteropidae). This genus is confined to the tropical regions of the
Eastern hemisphere and Australia. It comprises numerous
species, a considerable proportion of which occur in the islands
of the Malay Archipelago. The flying-foxes are the largest of
the bats, the kalong of Java (Pteropus edulis) measuring about
a foot in length, and having an expanse of wing-membrane
measuring 5 ft. across. Flying-foxes are gregarious, nocturnal
bats, suspending themselves during the day head-downwards
by thousands from the branches of trees, where with their wings
gathered about them, they bear some resemblance to huge
shrivelled-up leaves or to clusters of some peculiar fruit. In
Batchian, according to Wallace, they suspend themselves chiefly
from the branches of dead trees, where they are easily caught
or knocked down by sticks, the natives carrying them home in
basketfuls. They are then cooked with abundance of spices,
and " are really very good eating, something like hare." Towards
evening these bats bestir themselves, and fly off in companies
to the village plantations, where they feed on all kinds of fruit,
and so numerous and voracious are they that no garden crop
has much chance of being gathered which is not specially pro-
tected from their attacks. The flying-fox of India (Pteropus
medius) is a smaller species, but is found in great numbers
wherever fruit is to be had in the Indian peninsula.
FLYING-SQUIRREL, properly the name of such members of
the squirrel-group of rodent mammals as have a parachute-like
expansion of the skin of the flanks, with attachments to the
limbs, by means of which they are able to take long flying-leaps
from tree to tree. The parachute is supported by a cartilage
attached to the wrist or carpus; in addition to the lateral
membrane, there is a narrow one from the cheek along the front
of each shoulder to the wrist, and in the larger species a third
(interfemoral) connecting the hind-limbs with the base of the long
tail. Of the two widely distributed genera, Pteromys includes
the larger and Sciuro-
plerus the smaller species.
The two differ in certain
details of dentition, and
in the greater develop-
ment in the former of the
parachute, especially the
interfemoral portion,
which in the latter is
almost absent. . In Ptero-
mys the tail is cylindrical
and comparatively thin,
while in Sciuropterus it is
broad, flat and laterally
expanded, so as to com-
pensate for the absence
of the interfemoral mem-
brane by acting as a
supplementary para-
chute.
In general appearance
flying-squirrels resemble
ordinary squirrels,
although they are even
more beautifully col-
oured. Their habits,
food, &c., are also very
similar to those of the
true squirrels, except that
they are more nocturnal,
and are therefore less
often seen. The Indian flying-squirrel (P. oral) leaps with its
parachute extended from the higher branches of a tree, and
descends first directly and then more and more obliquely, until
the flight, gradually becoming slower, assumes a horizontal
direction, and finally terminates in an ascent to the branch or
trunk of the tree to which it was directed. The presence of these
rodents at night is made known by their screaming cries. Sciuro-
pterus is represented by 5. wlucella in eastern Europe and
northern Asia, and by a second species in North America, but the
other species of this genus and all those of Pteromys are Indo-
Malayan. A third genus, Eupetaurus, typified by a very large,
long-haired, dark-grey species from the mountains to the north-
west of Kashmir (Eu. cinereus), differs from all other members of
the squirrel-family by its tall-crowned molar teeth. It has a
total length of 37 in., of which 22 are taken up by the tail.
In Africa the name of flying-squirrel is applied to the members
of a very different family of rodents, the Anomaluridae, which are
provided with a parachute. Since, however, this parachute is
absent in some members of the family, the most distinctive
character is the presence of a double row of spiny scales on the
under surface of the tail, which apparently aid in climbing.
The flying species are also distinguished from ordinary flying-
squirrels by the circumstance that the additional bone serving
for the support of the fore part of the flying-membrane rises
Pigmy African Flying-Squirrel
(Idiurus zenkeri).
FLYSCH FOG
587
from the elbow-joint instead of from the wrist. The family is
represented by two flying genera, Anomalurus and Idiurus; the
latter containing only one very minute species (shown in the cut)
characterized by its small ears and elongated tail. Most of the
species are West African. In habits these rodents appear to be
very similar to the true flying-squirrels. The species without a
parachute constitutes the genus Zenkerella, and looks very like
an ordinary squirrel (see RODENTIA).
In Australia and Papua the name flying-squirrel is a'pplied
to such marsupials as are provided with parachutes; animals
which naturalists prefer to designate flying-phalangers (see
MARSUPIALIA). (R.L.*)
FLYSCH, in geology, a remarkable formation, composed
mainly of sandstones, soft marls and sandy shales found extending
from S.W. Switzerland eastward along the northern Alpine zone
to the Vienna basin, whence it may be followed round the
northern flanks of the Carpathians into the Balkan peninsula.
It is represented in the Pyrenees, the Apennines, the Caucasus
and extends into Asia; similar flysch-like deposits are related
to the Himalayas as the European formations are to the Alps.
The Flysch is not of the same age in every place; thus in the
western parts of Switzerland the oldest portions probably belong
to the Eocene period, but the principal development is of
Oligocene age; as it is traced eastward we find in the east Alps
that it descends into the upper Cretaceous, and in the Vienna
region and the Carpathians it contains intercalations which clearly
indicate a lower Cretaceous horizon for the lower parts. It
appears indeed that this type of formation was in progress of
deposition at one point or another in the regions enumerated
above from Jurassic to late Tertiary times. The absence of
fossils from enormous thicknesses of Flysch makes the correlation
with other formations difficult; often the only indications
of organisms are the abundant markings supposed to represent
Algae (Chondrites, &c.), which have given rise to the term
" Hieroglyphic-sandstone." The most noteworthy exceptions
are perhaps the Oligocene fish-bed of Glarus, the Eocene nummu-
litic beds in Calabria, and the Aplychus beds of Waidhofen.
Local phases of the Flysch have received special names; it is
the " Vienna " or " Carpathian " sandstone of those regions;
the " macigno " (a soft sandstone with calcareous cement) of
the Maritime Alps and Apennines; the " scagliose " (scaly clays)
and " alberese " (limestones) of the same places are portions of
this formation. The gris de Menton, the gris d'Annot of the
Basses Alps, and the gm d'Embrun of Chaillot appear in Switzer-
land as the gris de Taveyannaz. At several places the upper
layers of the Flysch are iron-stained, as in the region of Leman
and at the foot of the Dent du Midi; it is then styled the " Red-
Flysch." Lenticular intercalations of gabbro, diabase, &c., occur
in the Flysch in Calabria on the Pyrenees. Large exotic blocks of
granite, gneiss and other crystalline rocks in coarse conglomerates
are found near Vienna, near Sonthofen in Bavaria, near LakeThun
(Wild Flysch) and at other points, which have been variously
regarded as indications of glaciation or of coastal conditions.
FOCA (pronounced FAwtcha), a town of Bosnia, situated at
the confluence of the Drina and Cehotina rivers, and encircled
by wooded mountains. Pop. (1895) 4217. The town is the head-
quarters of a thriving industry in silver filigree-work and inlaid
weapons, for which it was famous. With its territories enclosed
by the frontiers of Montenegro and Novi Bazar, Foca, then
known as Chocha, was the scene of almost incessant border
warfare during the middle ages. No monuments of this period
are left except the Bogomil cemeteries, and the beautiful mosques,
which are the most ancient in Bosnia. The three adjoining
towns of Foca, Gorazda and Ustikolina were trading-stations
of the Ragusans in the uth century, if not earlier. In the i6th
century, Benedetto Ramberti, ambassador from Venice to the
Porte, described the town, in his Libri Tre delle Cose dei Turchi,
as Cozza, " a large settlement, with good houses in Turkish style,
and many shops and merchants. Here dwells the governor of
Herzegovina, whose authority extends over the whole of Seryia.
Through this place all goods must pass, both going and returning,
between Ragusa and Constantinople."
FOCHABERS, a burgh of barony and village of Elginshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 981. It is delightfully situated on the
Spey, about 9 m. E. by S. of Elgin, the terminus of a branch of
the Highland railway connecting at Orbliston Junction with the
main line from Elgin to Keith. The town was rebuilt in its
present situation at the end of the i8th century, when its earlier
site was required for alterations in the grounds of Gordon Castle,
in which the old town cross still stands. The streets all lead at
right angles to the central square, where fairs and markets are
held. The public buildings include a library and reading-room,
the court-house and the Milne school, named after Alexander
Milne, who endowed it with a legacy of 20,000. Adjoining the
town, surrounded by a park containing many magnificent old
trees, stands Gordon Castle, the chief seat of the duke of
Richmond and Gordon, erected in the i8th century. The anti-
quary George Chalmers (1742-1825) and the composer William
Marshall (1748-1833) were natives of the burgh.
FOCSHANI (Rumanian Focjani, sometimes incorrectly written
Fokshani or Fokshan), the capital of the department of Putna,
Rumania; on the river Milcov, which formed the ancient frontier
of the former principalities of Moldavia and Walachia. Pop.
(1900) 23,783; of whom 6000 were Jews. The chief buildings
are the prefecture, schools, synagogues, and many churches,
including those of the Armenians and Protestants. Focshani
is a commercial centre of some importance, the chief industries
being oil and soap manufacture and tannery. A large wine trade
is also carried on, and corn is shipped in lighters to Galatz. The
annual fair is held on the 29th of April. Government explora-
tions in the vicinity of this town show it to be rich in minerals,
such as iron, copper, coal and petroleum. The line Focshani-
Galatz is covered by a very strong line of fortifications, known
as the Sereth Line. A congress between Russian and Turkish
diplomatists was held near the town in 1772. In the neighbour-
hood the Turks suffered a severe defeat from the Austrians and
Russians in 1789.
FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace "), a point at which
converging rays meet, toward which they are directed, or from
which diverging rays are directed; in the latter case called
the virtual focus (see MICROSCOPE; TELESCOPE; LENS). In
geometry the word is used to denote certain points (see
GEOMETRY; CONIC SECTION; and PERSPECTIVE).
FOG, the name given to any distribution of solid or liquid
particles in the surface layers of the atmosphere which renders
surrounding objects notably indistinct or altogether invisible
according to their distance. In its more intense forms it hinders
and delays travellers of all kinds, by sea or land, by railway, road
or river, or by the mountain path. It is sometimes so thick as
to paralyse traffic altogether. According to the New English
Dictionary the word " appears to be " a back formation from
the adjective " foggy," a derivative of " fog " used with its old
meaning of aftermath or coarse grass, or, in the north of Britain,
of " moss." Such a formation would be reasonable, because
wreaths of fog in the atmospheric sense are specially character-
istic of meadows and marshes where fog, in the more ancient
sense, grows.
Two other words, mist and haze, are also in common use with
reference to the deterioration of transparency of the surface
layers of the atmosphere caused by solid or liquid particles, and
in ordinary literature the three words are used almost according
to the fancy of the writer. It seems possible to draw a distinction
between mist and haze that would be fairly well supported by
usage. Mist may be defined as a cloud of water particles at the
surface of land or sea, and would only occur when the air is nearly
or actually saturated, that is, when there is little or no difference
between the readings of the dry and wet bulbs; the word haze,
on the other hand, may be reserved for the obscuration of the
surface layers of the atmosphere when the air is dry.
It would not be difficult to quote instances in which even this
distinction is disregarded in practice. Indeed, the telegraphic
code of the British Meteorological Office uses the same figure for
mist and haze, and formerly the Beaufort weather notation had
no separate letter for haze (now indicated by 2), though it
588
FOG
Name.
No.
On Land.
On Sea.
On River.
Slight Fog or Mist
i
Objects indistinct, but
Horizon invisible, but
Objects indistinct, but
traffic by rail or road
unimpeded
lights and landmarks
visible at working
navigation unimpeded
distances
f
Traffic by rail requires
additional caution
Lights, passing vessels
and landmarks gener-
Navigation impeded, ad-
ditional caution re-
Moderate Fog
P
Traffic by rail or road
ally indistinct under
quired
I
impeded
a mile. Fog signals
are sounded
I*
Traffic by rail or road
impeded
Ships' lights and vessels
Navigation suspended
Thick Fog .
\5
Traffic by rail or road
invisible at i mile or
I
totally disorganized
lSS
distinguished between
/,fog, and m, mist. It is
possible, however, that
these practices may
arise, not from confu-
sion of idea, but from
economy of symbols,
when the meaning can
be made out from a
knowledge of the asso-
ciated observations.
As regards the dis-
tinction between mist
and fog, careful con-
sideration of a number
of examples leads to the conclusion that the word " fog " is
used to indicate not so much the origin or meteorological
nature of the obscurity as its effect upon traffic and travellers
whether on land or sea. It is, generally speaking, " in a
fog " that a traveller loses himself, and indeed the phrase
has become proverbial in that sense. A " fog-bell " or " fog-
horn " is sounded when the atmosphere is so thick that the aid of
sound is required for navigation. A vessel is " fog-logged "
or " fog-bound " when it is stopped or detained on account of
thick atmosphere. A " fog-signal " is employed on railways
when the ordinary signals are obliterated within working
distances. A " fog-bow " is the accompaniment of conditions
when a mountain traveller is apt to lose his way.
These words are used quite irrespective of the nature of the
cloud which interferes with effective vision and necessitates the
special provision; the word " mist " is seldom used in similar
connexion. We may thus define a fog as a surface cloud suffi-
ciently thick to cause hindrance to traffic. It will be a thick mist
if the cloud consists of water particles, a thick haze if it consists
of smoke or dust particles which would be persistent even in a
dry atmosphere.
It is probable that sailors would be inclined to restrict the use
of the word to the surface clouds met with in comparatively calm
weather, and that the obscurity of the atmosphere
when it is blowing hard and perhaps raining hard
as well should be indicated by the terms " thick
weather " or " very thick weather " and not by
"'fog " ; but the term " fog " would be quite correctly
used on such occasions from the point of view of
cautious navigation. If cloud, drizzling rain, or
heavy rain cause such obscurity that passing ships
are not visible within working distances the sound-
ing of a fog-horn becomes a duty.
The number of occasions upon which fog and
mist may be noted as occurring with winds of different strengths
may be exemplified by the following results of thirty years for
St Mary's, Scilly Isles, where the observations have always
been made by men of nautical experience.
Description of Effects.
a cloud of minute water globules, of no great vertical thickness,
which disperses the sunlight by repeated reflection but is fully
translucent. In dust-storms and sand-storms dark or coloured
fog clouds are produced such as those which are met with in the
Harmattan winds off the west coast of Africa. In large towns
the fog cloud is darkened and intensified by smoke, and in some
cases may be regarded as due entirely to the smoke.
The physical processes which produce fogs of water particles
are complicated and difficult to unravel. We have to account
for the formation and maintenance of a cloud at the earth's
surface; and the process of cloud-formation which is probably
most usual in nature, namely, the cooling of air by rarefraction
due to the reduction of pressure on ascent, cannot be invoked,
except in the case of the fogs forming the cloud-caps of hills,
which are perhaps not fairly included. We have to fall back upon
the only other process hitherto recognized as causing cloudy
condensation in the atmosphere, that is to say, the mixing of
masses of mist air of different temperatures. The mixing is
brought about by the slow motion of air masses, and this slow
motion is probably essential to the phenomenon.
Over the sea fog is most frequently due to the cooling of a
surface layer of warm air by the underlying cold water. The
amount of motion of the air must be sufficient to prevent the
TABLE I. Air travelling from Northern Africa to Northern Russia,
ro.und by the Azores.
Successive Temperatures of sea .
68
68
67
59
54F.
,. air
68
70
67
60
56F.
States of the atmosphere .
clear
clear
clear
shower
mist
TABLE II. Air travelling from N.W. Africa to Scotland.
Successive Temperatures of sea.
67
63
54 F.
,, ,, air .
66
64
53 F.
State of atmosphere
fair
shower
mist with shower
Wind Force.
& I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8-12
All
Winds.
Number of occasions of fog
per 1000 observations .
8
7
9
H
6
3
<i
<i
47
Number of occasions of mist
per 1000 observations .
5
6
ii
22
20
12
6
2
84
The use of the word " fog " in the connexion " high fog,"
to describe the almost total darkness in the daytime occasionally
noted in London and other large cities due to the persistent
opaque cloud in the upper air without serious obscuration of the
surface layers, is convenient but incorrect.
Regarding " fog " as a word used to indicate the state of the
atmosphere as regards transparency considered with reference to
its effect upon traffic, a scale of fog intensity has been introduced
for use on land or at sea, whereby the intensity of obscurity is
indicated by the numbers i to 5 i n the table following. At
sea or in the country a fog, as a rule, is white and consists of
condensation taking place at the sea surface without showing
itself as a cloud. In a research on the Life History of Surface Air
Currents the changes incidental to the movement of the air over
the north Atlantic Ocean were traced with great care, and the
above examples (Tables I, II) taken from page 72
of the work referred to are typical of the forma-
tion of sea fog by the cooling of a relatively warm
current passing over cold water.
In conformity with this suggestion we find that
fog is most liable to occur over the open ocean
in those regions where, as off the Newfound-
land banks, cold-water currents underlie warm
air, and that it is most frequent at the season of the year when the
air temperature is increasing faster than the water temperature.
But it is difficult to bring this hypothesis always to bear upon
actual practice, because the fog is representative of a tempera-
ture difference which has ceased to exist. One cannot therefore
observe under ordinary circumstances both the temperature
difference and the fog. Doubtless one requires not only the
initial temperature difference but also the slow drift of air which
favours cooling of the lower layers without too much mixing and
consequently a layer of fog close to the surface. Such a fog,
the characteristic sea fog, may be called a cold surface fog. From
FOG
589
the conditions of its formation it is likely to be less dense at the
mast-head than it is on deck.
One would expect that a cold-air current passing over a warm
sea surface would give rise to an ascending current of warmed air
and hence cause cumulus cloud and possibly thunder showers
rather than surface fog, but one cannot resist the conclusion that
sea fog is sometimes formed by slow transference of cold air over
relatively warm water, giving rise to what may be called a
" steaming-pot " fog. In such a case the actual surface layer in
contact with the warm water would be clear, and the fog would
be thicker aloft where the mixing of cold air and water vapour
is more complete. Such fogs are, however, probably rare in
comparison with the cold-water fogs. If the existence of a cold
current over warm water were a sufficient cause of fog, as a current
of warm air over cold water appears to be, the geographical
distribution of notable fog would be much more widespread than
it actually is, and the seasonal distribution of fog would also be
other than it is.
The formation of fog over land seems to be an even more
complicated process than over the sea. Certainly in some cases
mistiness amounting to fog arises from the replacement of cold
surface air which has chilled the earth and the objects thereon
by a warm current. But this process can hardly give rise to
detached masses or banks of fog. The ordinary land or valley
fog of the autumn evening or winter morning is due to the com-
bination of three causes, first the cooling of the surface layer of
air at or after sunset by the radiation of the earth, or more
particularly of blades of grass, secondly the slow downward flow
(in the absence of wind) of the air thus cooled towards lower
levels following roughly the course of the natural water drainage
of the land, and thirdly the supply of moisture by evaporation
from warm moist soil or from the relatively warm water surface
of river or lake. In this way steaming-pot fog gradually forms
and is carried downward by the natural though slow descent of
the cooled air. It thus forms in wreaths and banks in the lowest
parts, until perhaps the whole valley becomes filled with a cloud
of mist or fog. A case of this kind in the Lake District is minutely
described by J. B. Cohen (Q. J. Roy. Mel. Soc. vol. 30, p. 211,
1904).
It will be noticed that upon this hypothesis the circumstances
favourable for fog formation are (i) a site near the bottom level of
the drainage area, (2) cold surface air and no wind, (3) an even-
ing or night of vigorous radiation, (4) warm soil, and (5) abundant
moisture in the surface-soil. These conditions define with
reasonable accuracy the circumstances in which fog is actually
observed.
The persistence of these fog wreaths is always remarkable
when one considers that the particles of a fog cloud, however
small they may be, must be continually sinking through the air
which holds them, and that unless some upward motion of the
air keeps at least a balance against this downward fall, the
particles of the cloud must reach the earth or water and to that
extent the cloud must disappear. In sheltered valleys it is easy
to suppose that the constant downward drainage of fresh and
colder fog-laden material at the surface supplies to the layers dis-
placed from the bottom the necessary upward motion, and the
result of the gradual falling of drops is only that the surface
cloud gets thicker; but there are occasions when the extent and
persistence of land fog seems too great to be accounted for by
persistent radiation cooling. For example, in the week before
Christmas of 1904 the whole of England south of the Humber
was covered with fog for several days. It is of course possible
that so much fog-laden air was poured down from the sides of
mountains and hills that did project above the surface of the fog,
as to keep the lower reaches supplied for the whole time, but
without more particulars such a statement seems almost incred-
ible. Moreover, the drifting of fog banks over the sea seems
capricious and unrelated to any known circumstances of fog-
formation, so that one is tempted to invoke the aid of electrifica-
tion of the particles or some other abnormal condition to account
for the persistence of fog. The observations at Kew observatory
show that the electrical potential is abnormally high during fog,
but whether that is the cause or the result of the presence of the
water particles, we are not yet in a position to say. It must be
remembered that a fog cloud ought to be regarded as being,
generally speaking, in process of formation by mixing. Observa-
tions upon clouds formed experimentally in globes tend to show
that if a mass of fog-bearing air could be enclosed and kept still
for only a short while the fog would settle and leave the air clear.
The apparently capricious behaviour of fog banks may be due
to the fact that mixing is still going on in the persistent ones,
but is completed in the disappearing ones.
One remarkable characteristic of a persistent fog is the coldness
of the foggy air at the surface in spite of the heat of the sun's
rays falling upon the upper surface of the fog. A remarkable
example may be quoted from the case of London, which was under
fog all day on 28th January 1909. The maximum temperature
only reached 3 iF., whereas at Warlinghamin Surrey from which
the fog lifted it was as high as 46 F.
A priori we might suppose that the formation of fog would
arrest cooling by radiation, and that fog would thus act as a
protection of plants against frost. The condensation of water
evaporated from wet ground, which affords the material for making
fog, does apparently act as a protection, and heavy watering is
sometimes used to protect plants from frost, but the same cannot
be said of fog itself cooling appears to go on in spite of the forma-
tion of fog.
A third process of fog-formation, namely, the descent of a
cloud from above in the form of light drizzling rain, hardly calls
for remark. In so far as it is subject to rules, they are the rules
of clouds and rain and are therefore independent of surface
conditions.
These various causes of fog-formation may be considered with
advantage in relation to the geographical distribution of fog.
Statistics on this subject are not very satisfactory on account of
the uncertainty of the distinction between fog and mist, but a
good deal may be learned from the distribution of fog over the
north Altantic Ocean and its various coasts as shown in the
Monthly Meteorological Charts of the north Atlantic issued by
the Meteorological Office, and the Pilot charts of the North
Atlantic of the United States Hydrographic Office. Coast fog,
which is probably of the same nature as land fog, is most frequent
in the winter months, whereas sea fog and ocean fog is most
extensive and frequent in the spring and summer. By June the
fog area has extended from the Great Banks over the ocean to
the British Isles, in July it is most intense, and by August it has
notably diminished, while in November, which is proverbially a
foggy month on land, there is hardly any fog shown over the
ocean.
The various meteorological aspects of fog and its incidence in
London were the subject of reports to the Meteorological Council
by Captain A. Carpenter and Mr R. G. K. Lempfert, based upon
special observations made in the winters of 1001-1902 and 1902-
1903 in order to examine the possibility of more precise forecasts
of fog.
The study of the properties and behaviour of fog is especially
important for large towns in consequence of the economic and
hygienic results which follow the incidence of dense fogs. The
fogs of London in particular have long been a subject of inquiry.
It is difficult to get trustworthy statistics on the subject in con-
sequence of the vagueness of the practice as regards the classifica-
tion of fog. For large towns there is great advantage in using a
fog scale such as that given above, in which one deals only with
the practical range of vision irrespective of the meteorological
cause.
Accepting the classification which distinguishes between fog
and haze or mist, but not between the two latter terms, as
equivalent to specifying fog when the thickness amounts to the
figure 2 or more on the fog scale, we are enabled to compare the
frequency of fog in London by the comparison of the results at
the London observing stations. The comparison was made by
Mr Brodie in a paper read before the Royal Meteorological Society
(Quarterly Journal, vol. 31, p. 15), and it appears therefrom
that in recent years there has been a notable diminution of fog
590
FOGAZZARO FOHR
frequency, as indicated in the following table of the total number
of days of fog in the years from 1871:
1871.
1872.
1873-
1874.
J875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
42
35
75
53
49
40
46
63
69
74
59
69
61
53
69
86
83
62
75
1890.
1891.
1892,
1893-
1894.
i895-
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
I905-
1906.
1907.
1908.
65
69
68
31
51
48
43
48
47
56
13
45
42
26
44
19
16
37
19
But from any statistics of the frequency occurrence of fog
it must not be understood that the atmosphere of London is
approaching that of the surrounding districts as regards trans-
parency. Judged by the autographic records it is still almost
opaque to sunshine strong enough to burn the card of the
recorder during the winter months.
The bibliography of fog is very extensive. The titles referring to
fog, mist and naze in the Bibliography of Meteorology (part ii.)
of the U. S. Signal Office, published in 1889, number 306. Among
more recent authors on the subject, besides those referred to in
the text, may be mentioned: Koppen, " Bodennebel," Met.Zeit.
(1885); Trabert, Met. Zeit. (1901), p. 522; Elias in Ergebnisse des
aeronautischen Observatoriums bei Berlin, ii. (Berlin, 1904) ; Scott,
Q.J.R. Met. Soc. xix. p. 229; A. G. McAdie, " Fog Studies, " Amer.
Inv. ix. (Washington, D.C., 1902), p. 209; Buchan, " Fogs on the
Coasts of Scotland," Journ. Scot. Met. Soc. xii. p. 3. (W. N. S.)
FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO (1842- ), Italian novelist and
poet, was born at Vicenza in 1842. He was a pupil of the Abate
Zanella, one of the best of the modern Italian poets, whose
tender, thoughtful and deeply religious spirit continued to
animate his literary productions. He began his literary career
with Miranda, a poetical romance (1874), followed in 1876
by Valsolda, which, republished in 1886 with considerable addi-
tions, constitutes perhaps his principal claim as a poet, which
is not inconsiderable. To the classic grandeur of Carducci and
D'Annunzio's impetuous torrent of melody Fogazzaro opposes
a Wordsworthian simplicity and pathos, contributing to modern
Italian literature wholesome elements of which it would other-
wise be nearly destitute. His novels, Malombra (1882), Daniele
Cortis (1887), Mislerio del Poela (1888), obtained considerable
literary success upon their first publication, but did not gain
universal popularity until they were discovered and taken up by
French critics in 1896. The demand then became prodigious,
and a new work, Piccolo Hondo anlico (1896), which critics far
from friendly to Fogazzaro's religious and philosophical ideas
pronounced the best Italian novel since / Promessi Sposi, went
through numerous editions. Even greater sensation was caused
by his novel // Santo (The Saint, 1906), on account of its being
treated as unorthodox by the Vatican; and Fogazzaro's sym-
pathy with the Liberal Catholic movement his own Catholicism
being well known made this novel a centre of discussion in the
Roman Catholic world.
See the biography by Molmenti (1900).
FOGELBERG, BENEDICT (or BENGT) ERLAND (1786-1854),
Swedish sculptor, was born at Gothenburg on the 8th of August
1786. His father, a copper-founder, encouraging an early-
exhibited taste for design, sent him in 1801 to Stockholm, where
he studied at the school of art. There he came much under the
influence of the sculptor Sergell, who communicated to him his
own enthusiasm for antique art and natural grace. Fogelberg
worked hard at Stockholm for many years, although his instinct
for severe beauty rebelled against the somewhat rococo quality
of the art then prevalent in the city. In 1818 the grant of a
government pension enabled him to travel. He studied from
one to two years in Paris, first under Pierre Guerin, and after-
wards under the sculptor Bosio, for the technical practice of
sculpture. In 1820 Fogelberg realized a dream of his life in
visiting Rome, where the greater part of his remaining years
were spent in the assiduous practice of his art, and the careful
study and analysis of the works of the past. Visiting his native
country by royal command in 1854, he was received with great
enthusiasm, but nothing could compensate him for the absence
of those remains of antiquity and surroundings of free natural
beauty to which he had been so long accustomed. Returning
to Italy, he died suddenly of apoplexy at Trieste on the 22nd
of December 1854. The subjects of Fogelberg's earlier works
are mostly taken
from classic myth-
ology. Of these,
"Cupid and
Psyche," "Venus
entering the
B a t h," " A
Bather " (1838),
Apollo Citharede," " Venus and Cupid " (1839) and " Psyche "
(1854) may be mentioned. In his representations of Scandinavian
mythology Fogelberg showed, perhaps for the first time, that he
had powers above those of intelligent assimilation and imitation.
His"Odm"(i83i),"Thor"(i8 4 2),and"Balder"(i8 4 2),thoughin-
fluenced by Greek art, display considerable power of independent
imagination. His portraits and historical figures, as those of
Gustavus Adolphus ( 1 849) , of Charles XII. ( 1 85 1 ) , of Charles XIII.
(1852), and of Birger Jarl, the founder of Stockholm (1853),
are faithful and dignified works.
See Casimir Leconte, L'CEuvre de Fogelberg (Paris, 1856).
FOGGIA, a town and episcopal see (since 1855) of Apulia, Italy,
the capital of the province of Foggia, situated 243 ft. above sea-
level, in the centre of the great Apulian plain, 201 m. by rail S.E.
of Ancona and 123 m. N.E. by E. of Naples. Pop. (1901) town,
49,031; commune, 53,134- The name is probably derived from
the pits or cellars (foveae) in which the inhabitants store their
grain. The town is the medieval successor of the ancient Arpi,
3 m. to the N.; the Normans, after conquering the district from
the Eastern empire, gave it its first importance. The date of the
erection of the cathedral is probably about 1179; it retains some
traces of Norman architecture, and the facade has a fine figured
cornice by Bartolommeo da Foggia; the crypt has capitals of
the nth (?) century. The whole church was, however, much
altered after the earthquake of 1731. A gateway of the palace
of the emperor Frederick II. (1223, by Bartolommeo da Foggia)
is also preserved. Here died his third wife, Isabella, daughter
of King John of England. Charles of Anjou died here in 1 284.
After his son's death, it was a prey to internal dissensions and
finally came under Alphonso I. of Aragon, who converted the
pastures of the Apulian plain into a royal domain in 1445, and
made Foggia the place at which the tax on the sheep was to be
paid and the wool to be sold. The other buildings of the town
are modern. Foggia is a commercial centre of some importance
for the produce of the surrounding country, and is also a con-
siderable railway centre, being situated on the main line from
Bologna to Brindisi, at the point where this is joined by the line
from Benevento and Caserta. There are also branches to-
Rocchetta S. Antonio (and thence to either Avellino, Potenza,
or Gioia del Colle), to Manfredonia, and to Lucera.
FOHN (Ger., probably derived through Romansch favongn,
favoign, from Lat. fawnius), a warm dry wind blowing down the
valleys of the Alps from high central regions, most frequently
in winter. The Fohn wind often blows with great violence.
It is caused by the indraft of air from the elevated region ta
areas of low barometric pressure in the neighbourhood, and the
warmth and dryness are due to dynamical compression of the
air as it descends to lower levels. Similar local winds occur
in many parts of the world, as Greenland, and on the slopes of the
Rocky Mountains. In the southern Alpine valleys the Fohn
wind is often called sirocco, but its nature and cause are different
from the true sirocco. The belief that the warm dry wind comes
from the Sahara dies hard; and still finds expression in some
textbooks.
For a full account of these winds see Hann, Lehrbuch der Meteoro-
logie,^ p. 594.
FOHR, a German island in the North Sea, belonging to
the province of Schleswig-Holstein, and situated off its coast.
Pop. 4500. It comprises an area of 32 sq. m., and is reached by
a regular steamboat service from Husum and Dagebiill on the
mainland to Wyk, the principal bathing resort on the E. coast of
the island. The chief attraction of Wyk is the Sandwall, a
FOIL FOIL-FENCING
59 1
promenade which is shaded by trees and skirts the beach. Fohr,
the most fertile of the North Frisian islands, is principally
marshland, and comparatively well wooded. There are numerous
pleasantly-situated villages and hamlets scattered over it, of
which the most frequented are Boldixum, Nieblum and Al-
kersum. The inhabitants are mainly engaged in the fishing
industry, and are known as excellent sailors.
FOIL. i. (Through O. Fr. from Lat. folium, a leaf, modern
Fr. feuille), a leaf, and so used in heraldry and in plant names,
such as the " trefoil " clover; and hence applied to anything re-
sembling a leaf. In architecture, the word appears for the small
leaf-like spaces formed by the cusps of tracery in windows or
panels, and known, according to the number of such spaces, as
" quatrefoil," " cinquefoil," &c. The word is also found in
" counterfoil," a leaf of a receipt or cheque book, containing
memoranda or a duplicate of the receipt or draft, kept by the
receiver or drawer as a " counter " or check. " Foil " is particu-
larly used of thin plates of metal, resembling a leaf, not in shape
as much as in thinness. In thickness foil comes between " leaf "
and " sheet " metal. In jewelry, a foil of silvered sheet copper,
sometimes known as Dutch foil, is used as a backing for paste
gems, or stones of inferior lustre or colour. This is coated with
a mixture of isinglass and translucent colour, varying with the
stones to be backed, or, if only brilliancy is required, left un-
coloured, but highly polished. From this use of " foil," the
word comes to mean, in a figurative sense, something which by
contrast, or by its own brightness, serves to heighten the attrac-
tive qualities of something else placed in juxtaposition. The
commonest " foil " is that generally known as " tinfoil." The
ordinary commercial " tinfoil " usually consists chiefly of lead,
and is used for the wrapping of chocolate or other sweetmeats,
tobacco or cigarettes. A Japanese variegated foil gives the
effect of " damaskeening." A large number of thin plates of
various metals, gold, silver, copper, together with alloys of
different metals are soldered together in a particular order,
a pattern is hammered into the soldered edges, and the whole is
hammered or rolled into a single thin plate, the pattern then
appearing in the order in which the various metals were placed.
2. (From an O. Fr. fuler or foler, modern fouler, to tread or
trample, to " full " cloth, Lat. fullo, a fuller), an old hunting
term, used of the running back of an animal over its own tracks,
to confuse the scent and baffle the hounds. It is also used in
wrestling, of a " throw." Thus comes the common use of the
word, in a figurative sense, with reference to both these meanings,
of baffling or defeating an adversary, or of parrying an attack.
3. As the name of the weapon used in fencing (see FOIL-
FENCING) the word is of doubtful origin. One suggestion, based
on a supposed similar use of Fi.fleurel, literally a " little flower,"
for the weapon, is that foil means a leaf, and must be referred
in origin to Lat. folium. A second suggestion is that it means
" blunted," and is the same as (2). A third is that it is an
adaptation of an expression " at foils," i.e. " parrying." Of
these suggestions, according to the New English Dictionary, the
first has nothing to support it, the second is not supported by
any evidence that in sense (2) the word ever meant to blunt.
The third has some support. Finally a suggestion is made that
the word is an alteration of an old word " foin," meaning a
thrust with a pointed weapon. The origin of this word is
probably an O. Fr.foisne, from the Lat. fuscina, a three-pronged
fork.
FOIL-FENCING, the art of attack and defence with the fencing-
foil. The word is used in several spellings (foyle, file, &c.) by the
English writers of the last half of the i6th century, but less in
the sense of a weapon of defence than merely as an imitation of
a real weapon. Blunt swords for practice in fencing have been
used in all ages. For the most part these were of wood and flat ir
general form, but when, towards the close of the i?th century, all
cutting action with the small-sword was discarded (see FENCING),
foil-blades were usually made of steel, and either round, three-
cornered or four-cornered in form, with a button covering the
point The foil is called in French fleurel, and in Italian
fioretlo (literally " bud ") from this button. The classic small-
sword play of the i?th and i8th centuries is represented at the
present time by fencing with the ipte de combat (fighting-rapier),
which is merely the modern duelling-sword furnished with a
button (see EPEE-DE-COMBAT), and by foil-fencing. Foil-fencing
is a conventional art, its characteristic limitation lying in the rule
that no hits except those on the body shall be considered good,
and not even those unless they be given in strict accordance with
certain standard precepts. In 6p6e-fencing on the contrary,
a touch on any part of the person, however given, is valid.
Foil-fencing is considered the basis, so far as practice is con-
cerned, of all sword-play, whether with foil, e'pe'e or sabre.
There are two recognized schools of foil-fencing, the French and
the Italian. The French method, which is now generally adopted
everywhere except in Italy, is described in this article, reference
being made to the important differences between the two schools.
The Fail. The foil consists of the " blade " and the " handle."
The blade, which is of steel and has a quadrangular section,
consists of two patts: the blade proper, extending from the guard
to the button, and the "tongue," which runs through the handle
and is joined to the pommel. The blade proper is divided into
the " forte," or thicker half (next the handle), and the " foible "
or thinner half. Some authorities divide the blade proper into
three parts, the " forte," " middle " and " foible." The handle
is comprised of the " guard," the " grip " and the " pommel."
The guard is a light piece of metal shaped like the figure 8 (Fr.
lunettes, spectacles) and backed with a piece of stiff leather of
the same shape. The grip, which is grasped by the hand, is a
hollow piece of wood, usually wound with twine, through which
the tongue of the blade passes. The pommel is a piece of metal,
usually pear-shaped, to which the end of the tongue is joined and
which forms the extremity of the handle. The blade from guard
to button is about 33 in. long (No. 5), though a somewhat shorter
and lighter blade is generally used by ladies. The handle is
about 8 in. long and slightly curved downwards.
The genuine Italian foil differs from the French in having the
blade a trifle longer and more whippy, and in the form of the
handle, which consists of a thin, solid, bell-shaped guard from
4 to 5 in. in diameter, a straight grip and a light metal bar joining
the grip with the guard, beyond the edge of which it extends
slightly on each side. Of late years many Italian masters use
French blades and even discard the cross-bar, retaining, however,
the bell-guard.
In holding the foil, the thumb is placed on the top or convex
surface of the grip (the sides of which are a trifle narrower than
the top and bottom), while the palm and fingers grasp the other
three sides. This is the position of " supination," or thumb-up.
" Pronation " is the reverse position, with the knuckles up.
The French lay stress upon holding the foil lightly, the necessary
pressure being exerted mostly by the thumb and forefinger, the
other fingers being used more to guide the direction of the exe-
cuted movements. This is in order to give free scope to the
doigti (fingering), or the faculty of directing the point of the foil
by the action of the fingers alone, and includes the possibility
of changing the position of the hand on the grip. Thus, in parry-
ing, the end of the thumb is placed within half an inch, or even
less, of the guard, while in making a lunge, the foil is held as near
the pommel as possible, in order to gain additional length.
It will be seen that doigle is impossible with the Italian foil,
in holding which the forefinger is firmly interlaced with the cross-
bar, preventing any movement of the hand. The lightness of
grasp inculcated by the French is illustrated by the rule of the
celebrated master Lafaugre: " Hold your sword as if you had
a little bird in your hand, firmly enough to prevent its escape, yet
not so firmly as to crush it." This lightness has for a consequence
that a disarmament is not considered of any value in the Fren'ch
school.
To Come on Guard. The position of " on guard " is that in
which the fencer is best prepared both for attack and defence.
It is taken from the position of " attention "; the feet together
and at right angles with each other, head and body erect, facing
forward in the same direction as the right foot, left arm and hand
hanging in touch with the body, and the right arm and foil
592
FOIL-FENCING
forming a straight line so that the button is about i yd. in
front of the feet and 4 in. from the floor. From this position the
movements to come " on guard " are seven in number:
1. Raise the arm and foil and extend them towards the adversary
(or master) in a straight line, the hand being opposite the eye.
2. Drop the arm and foil again until the point is about 4 in. from
the floor.
3. Swing the button round so that it shall point horizontally
backwards, and hold the hilt against the left thigh, the open fingers
of the left hand being held, knuckles down, against the guard and
along the blade.
4. Carry the foil, without altering the position of the hands, above
the head until the arms are fully extended, the foil being kept
horizontal and close to the body as it is lifted.
5. Let the left arm fall back behind the head to a curved position,
the hand being opposite the top of the head ; at the same time bring
the right hand down opposite the right breast and about 8 in. from
it; keeping the elbow well in and the point of the foil directed
towards the opponent's eye.
6. Bend the legs by separating them at the knees but without
moving the feet.
7. Shift the weight of the body on to the left leg and advance the
right foot a short distance (from 14 to 1 8 in., according to the height
of the fencer).
In the Italian school the fencer stands on guard with the right
arm fully extended, the body more effaced, i.e. the left shoulder
thrown farther back, and the feet somewhat farther apart. At
the present time, however, many of the best Italian fencers have
adopted the guard with crooked sword-arm, owing to their
abandonment of the old long-foil blade.
The Recover (at the close of the lesson or assault). To recover
"in advance ": extend the right arm at right angles with the
body, drop the left arm and straighten the legs by drawing the
rear foot up to the one in advance. To recover " to the rear ":
extend the right arm and drop the left as before, and straighten
the legs by drawing the forward foot back to that in the rear.
The Salute always follows the recover, the two really forming
one manoeuvre. Having recovered, carry the right hand to a
position just in front of the throat, knuckles out, foil vertical
with point upwards; then lower and extend the arm with nails
up until the point is 4 in. from the floor and slightly to the right.
To Advance. Being on guard, take a short step forward with
the right foot and let the left foot follow immediately the same
distance, the position of the body not being changed. However
the step, or series of steps, is made, the right foot should always
move first.
To Retreat. This is the reverse of the advance, the left foot
always moving first.
The Calls (deux appels). Being on guard, tap the floor twice
with the right foot without altering the position of any other
part of the person. The object of the calls is to test the
equilibrium of the body, and they are usually executed as a pre-
liminary to the recover.
The Lunge is the chief means of attack. It is immediately
preceded by the movement of " extension," in fact the two
really form one combined movement. Extension is executed by
quickly extending the right arm, so that point, hand and shoulder
shall have the same elevation; no other part of the person is
moved. The " lunge " is then carried out by straightening the
left leg and throwing forward the right foot, so that it shall
be planted as far forward as possible without losing the equili-
brium or preventing a quick recovery to the position of guard.
The left foot remains firmly in its position, the right shoulder is
advanced, and the left arm is thrown down and back (with hand
open and thumb up), to balance the body. The recovery to the
position of guard is accomplished by smartly throwing the body
back by the exertion of the right leg, until its weight rests again
on the left leg, the right foot and arms resuming their on-guard
positions. The point upon which the French school lays most
stress is, that the movement of extension shall, if only by a
fraction of a second, actually precede the advance of the right
foot. The object of this is to ensure the accuracy of the lunge,
i.e. the direction of the point.
The Gain. This consists in bringing up the left foot towards
the right (the balance being shifted), keeping the knees bent. In
this manner a step is gained and an exceptionally long lunge can
be made without the knowledge of the adversary. It is a common
stratagem of fencers whose reach is short.
Defence. For the purpose of nomenclature the space on the
fencer's jacket within which hits count is divided into quarters,
the two upper ones being called the " high lines," and the two
lower ones the " low lines." Thus a thrust directed at the upper
part of the breast is called an attack in the high lines. In like
manner the parries are named from the different quarters they
are designed to protect. There are four traditional parries
executed with the hand in supination, and four others, practically
identical in execution, made with the hand held in pronation.
Thus the parries defending the upper right-hand quarter of the
jacket are " sixte " (sixth; with the hand in supination) and
" tierce " (third; hand in pronation). Those defending the
upper left-hand quarter are " quarte " (fourth; in supination}
and " quinte " (fifth; in pronation). Those defending the lower
right-hand quarter are " octave " (eighth; in supination) and
" seconde " (second; in pronation). Those defending the lower
left-hand quarter are " septime " (seventh; in supination),
more generally called " demicircle," or " half-circle " ; and
" prime " (first; in pronation).
The Parries. The tendency of the French school has always
been towards simplicity, especially of defence, and at the present
day the parries made with the knuckles up (pronation), although
recognized and taught, are seldom if ever used against a strong
adversary in foil-fencing, owing principally to the time lost in
turning the hand. The theory of parrying is to turn aside the
opponent's foil with the least possible expenditure of time and
exertion, using the arm as little as possible while letting the hand
and wrist do the work, and opposing the " forte " of the foil
to the " foible " of the adversary's. The foil is kept pointed
as directly as possible towards the adversary, and the parries are
made rather with the corners than the sides of the blade. The
slightest movement that will turn aside the opponent's blade is
the most perfect parry. There are two kinds of parries, " simple,"
in which the attack is warded off by a single movement, and
" counter," in which a narrow circle is described by the point of
the foil round that of the opponent, which is thus enveloped and
thrown aside. There are also complex parries, composed of
combinations of two or more parries, which are used to meet
complicated attacks, but they are all resolvable into simple
parries. In parrying, the arm is bent about at right angles.
Simple Parries. The origin of the numerical nomenclature of
the parries is a matter of dispute, but it is generally believed that
they received their names from the positions assumed in the pro-
cess of drawing the sword and falling on guard. Thus the position
of the hand and blade, the moment it is drawn from the scabbard
on the left side, is practically that of the first, or " prime," parry.
To go from " prime " to " seconde " it is only necessary to drop
the hand and carry it across the body to the left side; thence
to " tierce " is only a matter of raising the point of the sword, &c.
Parry of Prime (to ward off attacks on the usually lower
left-hand side of the body). Hold the hand, knuckles up, opposite
the left eye and the point directed towards the opponent's knee.
This parry is now regarded more as an elegant evolution than a
sound means of defence, and is little employed.
Parry of Seconde (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side).
This is executed by a quick, not too wide movement of the hand
downwards and slightly to the right, knuckles up.
Parry of Tierce (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side).
A quick, dry beat on the adversary's " foible " is given, forcing
it to the right, the hand, in pronation, being held opposite the
middle of the right breast. This parry has been practically
discarded in favour of " sixte."
Parry of Quarte (against thrusts at the upper left-hand side).
This parry, perhaps the most used of all, is executed by forcing
the adversary's blade to the left by a dry beat, the hand being in
supination, opposite the left breast.
Parry of Quinte (against thrusts at the left-hand side, like
" quarte "). This is practically a low " quarte," and is little
used.
FOIL-FENCING
Parry of Sixle (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side).
This parry is, together with " quarte," the most important of all.
It is executed with the hand held in supinatiorr opposite the right
breast, a quick, narrow movement throwing the adversary's
blade to the right.
Parry of Septime or Half-Circle (against thrusts at the lower
left-hand side) is executed by describing with the point of the
foil a small semicircle downward and towards the left, the hand
moving a few inches in the same direction, but kept thumb up.
Parry of Octave (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side)
is executed by describing with the point of the foil a small semi-
circle downward and towards the right, the hand moving a few
inches in the same direction, but kept thumb up.
Counter Parries (Fr. centre) . Although the simple parries
are theoretically sufficient for defence, they are so easily deceived
by feints that they are supplemented by counter parries, in
which the blade describes narrow circles, following that of the
adversary and meeting and turning it aside; thus the point
describes a complete circle while the hand remains practically
stationary. Each simple parry has its counter, made with the
hand in the same position and on the same side as in the simple
parry. The two most important are the " counter of quarte "
and the " counter of sixte," while the counters of " septime "
and " octave " are less used, and the other four at the present
time practically never.
Counter of Quarte. Being on guard in quarte (with your
adversary's blade on the left of yours), if he drops his point under
and thrusts in sixte, in other words at your right breast, describe
a narrow circle with your point round his blade, downward to the
right and then up over to the left, bringing hand and foil back to
their previous positions and catching and turning aside his blade
on the way. The " Counter of Sixte " is executed in a similar
manner, but the circle is described in the opposite direction,
throwing off the adverse blade to the right. The " Counters of
Septime and Octave " are similar to the other two but are
executed in the low lines.
Complex or Combined Parries are such as are composed of two
or more parries executed in immediate succession, and are made
in answer to feint attacks by the adversary (see below); e.g.
being on guard in quarte, should the adversary drop his point
under and feint at the right breast but deflect the point again
and really thrust on the left, it is evident that the simple parry
of sixte would cover the right breast but would leave the real
point of attack, the left, entirely uncovered. The sixte parry
is therefore followed, as a continuation of the movement, by the
parry of quarte, or a counter parry. The complex parries are
numerous and depend upon the attack to be met.
Engagement is the junction of the blades, the different engage-
ments being named from the parries. Thus, if both fencers are in
the position of quarte, they are said to be engaged in quarte.
To engage in another line (Change of Engagement) e.g. from
quarte to sixte, the point is lowered and passed under the
adversary's blade, which is pressed slightly outward, so as to be
well covered (called " opposition "). " Double Engagement "
is composed of two engagements executed rapidly in succession
in the high lines, the last with opposition.
Attack. The attack in fencing comprises all movements the
object of which is to place the point of the foil upon the adversary's
breast, body, sides or back, between collar and belt. The space
upon which hits count is called the " target " and differs accord-
ing to the rules prevailing in the several countries, but is usually
as above stated. In Great Britain no hits above the collar-bones
count, while in America the target is only the left breast between
the median line and a line running from the armpit to the belt.
The reason for this limitation is to encourage accuracy.
Attacks are either "primary" or "secondary." Primary
Attacks are those initiated by a fencer before his adversary has
made any offensive movement, and are divided into " Simple,'
" Feint " and " Force " attacks.
Simple Attacks, the characteristic of which is pace, are those
made with one simple movement only and are four in number,
viz. the "Straight Lunge," the "Disengagement," the
593
" Counter-disengagement " and the " Cut-over." The Straight-
Lunge (coup droit), used when the adversary is not properly
covered when on guard, is described above under " Lunge."
The Disengagement is made by dropping the point of the foil
under the opponent's blade and executing a straight lunge on the
other side. It is often used to take an opponent unawares or
when he presses unduly hard on your blade. The Counter-
disengagement is used when the adversary moves his blade, i.e.
changes the line of engagement, upon which you execute a narrow
circle, avoiding his blade, and thrust in your original line. The
Cut-over (coupe) is a disengagement executed by passing the
point of the foil over that of the adversary and lunging in the
opposite line. The preliminary movement of raising the point
is made by the action of the hand only, the arm not being drawn
back.
Feint Attacks, deceptive in character, are those which are pre-
ceded by one or more feints, or false thrusts made to lure the
adversary into thinking them real ones. A feint is a simple
extension, often with a slight movement of the body, threatening
the adversary in a certain line, for the purpose of inducing him
to parry on that side and thus leave the other open for the real
thrust. At the same time any movement of the blade or any
part of the body tending to deceive the adversary in regard to the
nature of the attack about to follow, must also be considered a
species of feint. The principal feint attacks are the " One-Two,"
the " One-Two-Three " and the " Double."
The " One-Two " is a feint in one line, followed (as the
adversary parries) by a thrust in the original line of engagement.
Thus, being engaged in quarte, you drop your point under the
adversary's blade and extend your arm as if to thrust at his left
breast, but instead of doing this, the instant he parries you
move your point back again and lunge in quarte, i.e. on the
side on which you were originally engaged. In feinting it is
necessary that the extension of the arm and blade be so
complete as really to compel the adversary to believe it a
part of a real thrust in that line.
The ' One-Two-Three " consists of two feints, one at each
side, followed by a thrust in the line opposite to that of the
original engagement. Thrusts preceded by three feints are also
sometimes used. It is evident that the above attacks are useless
if the adversary parries by a counter (circular parry), which must
be met by a " Double." This is executed by feinting and, upon
perceiving that the adversary opposes with a circular parry, by
following the circle described by his point with a similar circle,
deceiving (i.e. avoiding contact with) his blade and thrusting
home.
The " Double," which is a favourite manoeuvre in fencing, is
a combination of a disengagement and a counter-disengagement.
Force- Attacks, the object of which is to disconcert the opponent
by assaulting his blade, are various in character, the principal ones
being the " Beat," the " Press," the " Glide " and the " Bind."
The " Beat " is a quick, sharp blow of the forte of the foil upon
the foible of the adversary's, for the purpose of opening a way
for a straight lunge which follows instantly. The blow is made
with the hand only. A " false beat " is a lighter blow made for
the purpose of drawing out or disconcerting the opponent, and is
often followed by a disengagement. The " Press '' is similar in
character to the beat, but, instead of striking the adverse blade,
a sudden pressure is brought to bear upon it, sufficiently heavy
to force it aside and allow one's own blade to be thrust home. A
" false press " may be used to entice the adversary into a too
heavy responsive pressure, which may then be taken advantage
of by a disengagement. The " Traverse " (Fr. froisst, Ital.
striscio) is a prolonged press carried sharply down the adverse
blade towards the handle. The " Glide " (" Graze," Fr. coule)
is a stealthy sliding of one's blade down that of the adversary,
without his notice, until a straight thrust can be made inside
his guard. It is also used as a feint before a disengage. The
" Bind " (liemenl) consists in gaining possession of the adver-
sary's foible with one's forte, and pressing it down and across
into the opposite low line, when one's own point is thrust home,
the adversary's blade being still held by one's hilt. It may be
594
FOIL-FENCING
also carried out from a low line into a high one. The bind is
less used in the French school than in the Italian. The " Flan-
connade " is a bind made by capturing the adversary's blade
in high quarte, carrying it down and thrusting in the outside
line with strong opposition. Another attack carried out by
means of a twist and thrust is the " Cross " (f raise), which is
executed when the adversary's blade is held low by passing one's
point over his wrist and forcing down both blades into seconde
with a full extension of the arm. The result is to create a sudden
and wide opening, and often disarms the adversary.
Secondary Attacks are those made (i) just as your adversary
himself starts to attack; (2) during his attack; and (3) on the
completion of his attack if it fails.
1. " Attacks on the Preparation " are a matter of judgment
and quickness. They are usually attempted when the adversary
is evidently preparing a complicated attack, such as the " one-
two-three " or some other manoeuvre, involving one or more
preliminary movements. At such a time a quick thrust will
often catch him unawares and score. Opportunities for pre-
paration attacks are often given when the adversary attempts
a beat preliminary to his thrust; the beat is frustrated by an
" absence of the blade," i.e. your blade is made to avoid
contact with his by a narrow movement, and your point
thrust home into the space left unguarded by the force of
his unresisted beat. Or the adversary himself may create an
" absence " by suddenly interrupting the contact of the blades,
in the hope that, by the removal of the pressure, your blade will
fly off to one side, leaving an opening; if, however, you are pre-
pared for his " absence " a straight thrust will score.
2. The chief " Attacks on the Development," or " Counter
Attacks," are the " Stop Thrust " and the " Time Thrust,"
both made while the adversary is carrying out his own attack.
The " Stop Thrust " (coup d'arrei) is one made after the adver-
sary has actually begun an attack involving two or more move-
ments, and is only justified when it can be brought off without
your being hit by the attacking adversary's point on any part of
the person. The reason for this is, that the rules of fencing decree
that the fencer attacked must parry, and that, if he disregards this
and attempts a simultaneous counter attack, he must touch his
opponent while totally avoiding the latter's point. Should he,
however, be touched, even on the foot or mask, by the adversary,
his touch, however good, is invalid. If both touches are good,
that of the original attacker, only counts. Stop thrusts are
employed mostly against fencers who attack wildly or without
being properly covered. The " Time Thrust " is delivered with
opposition upon the adversary's composite attack (one involving
several movements), and, if successful, generally parries the
original attack at the same time. It is not valid if the fencer
employing it is toucTied on any part of the person.
3. " Attacks on the Completion " (i.e. of the adversary's
attack) are " Ripostes," " Counter-ripostes," " Remises " and
" Renewals of Attack."
The Riposte (literally, response) is an attack made, immediately
after parrying successfully, by merely straightening the arm,
the body remaining immovable. The " counter-riposte " is a
riposte made after parrying the adversary's riposte, and gener-
ally from the position of the lunge, or while recovering from it,
since one must have attacked with a full lunge if the adversary
has had an opportunity to deliver a riposte. There are three
kinds of ripostes: direct, with feints and after a pause.
The " direct riposte " may be made instantly after parrying
the adversary's fchrust by quitting his blade and straightening
the arm, so that the point will touch his body on the nearest
and most exposed part; or by not quitting his blade but running
yours quickly down his and at the same time keeping a strong
opposition (" riposte d'opposition "). The quickest direct riposte
is that delivered after parrying quarte (for a right-hand fencer),
and is called by the French the riposte of " tac-au-tac," imitative
of the sudden succession of the click of the parry and the tap of
the riposting fencer's point on his adversary's breast. In making
" ripostes with a feint " the point is not jabbed on to the op-
ponent's breast immediately after the parry, but one or more
preliminary movements precede the actual riposte, such as a
disengagement, a cut-over or a double.
Ripostes with a pause (a temps perdu, with lost time) are. made
after a second's hesitation, and are resorted to when the fencers
are too near for an accurate direct riposte, or to give the
adversary time to make a quick parry, which is then deceived.
The remise is a thrust made after one's first thrust has been
parried and in the same line; it must be made in such a way
that the adversary's justified riposte is at the same time parried
by opposition or completely avoided. It is really a renewal of
the attack in the original line, while the so-called " renewal of
attack " (" redoublement d'attaque ") is a second thrust which
ignores the adversary's riposte, but made in a different line.
Both the remise and the renewal are valid only when the
adversary's riposte does not hit.
" False Attacks " are broad movements made for the purpose
of drawing the adversary out or of disconcerting him. They
may consist of an advance, an extension, a change of engage-
ment, an intentional uncovering by taking a wide guard (called
" invitation guard "), or any movement or combination of
movements tending to make the adversary believe that a real
attack is under way.
" The Assault " is a formal fencing bout or series of bouts in
public, while formal fencing in private is called " loose play "
or a " friendly bout." Bouts between fencers take place on a
platform about 24 ft. long and 6 ft. wide (in the United States
20 X 3 ft.). Formal bouts are usually for a number of touches,
or for a certain number of minutes, the fencer who touches
oftenest winning. The judges (usually three or five) are some-
times empowered to score one or more points against a com-
petitor for breaches of good form, or for overstepping the space
limits. In the United States bouts are for four minutes, with
a change of places after two minutes, and the competitors are
not interrupted, the winner being indicated by a vote of the
judges, who take into account touches and style. In all countries
contestants are required to wear jackets of a light colour, so
that hits may be easily seen. Audible acknowledgment of ali
touches, whether on the target or not, is universally considered
to be a fencer's duty. Fencing competitions are held in Great
Britain under the rules of the Amateur Fencing Association,
and in the United States under those of the Amateur Fencers'
League of America.
Fencing Terms (not mentioned above) : " Cavazione," Ital. for
disengagement. " Contraction, Parries of,'' those which do not parry
in the simplest manner, but drag the adverse blade into another
line, e.g. to parry a thrust in high sixte by counter of quarte. " Con-
trotempo," Ital. for time-thrust. " Coronation," an attack preceded
by a circular movement from high sixte to high quarte (and vice
versa) made famous by Lafaugere. " Corps-a-corps " (body to
body), the position of two fencers who are at such close quarters
that their persons touch; when this occurs the fencers must again
come on guard. " Coule," Fr. for glide. " Disarm," to knock the
foil out of the adversary's hand; it is of no value in the French
school. " Double Hit," when both fencers attack and hit at the
same time; neither hit counts. " Filo," Ital. for glide (graze).
" Flying Cut-over," a cut-over executed as a continuation of a
parry, the hand being drawn back towards the body. " Incontro,"
Ital. for double attack. " Give the blade," to allow the adversary
easy contact with the foil ; it is often resorted to in order to tempt
the adversary into a beat or bind. " Menace," to threaten the
adversary by an extension and forward movement of the trunk.
" Mur," see " Salute." " Passage of arms," a series of attacks and
parries, ending in a successful hit. " Phrase of arms," a series of
attacks and parries ending in a hit or invalidation. " Invalidation,"
a hit on some part of the person outside the target, made by the fencer
whose right it is at that moment to attack or riposte; such a hit
invalidates one made simultaneously or subsequently by hisopponent,
however good. " Rebeat," two beats, executed as quickly as possible
together, one on each side of the adversary's blade. " Reprises
d'attaque," Fr. for renewed attacks. "Salute," the courteous
salutation of the public and the adversary before and after a bout.
A more elaborate salute, called by the French the Mur, consists of
a series of parries, lunges and other evolutions carried out by both
fencers at the same time. Important exhibition assaults are usually
preceded by the Mur, which is called in English the Grand Salute.
Septime enveloppee," a riposte by means of a twist and thrust after
a parry in septime. It envelops and masters the adverse blade,
whence the name. " Secret thrusts," the French " bottes secretes,"
pretended infallible attacks of which the user is supposed alone to
FOIX, P. DE FOIX
595
know the method of execution; they have no real existence.
"Sforza," Ital. for disarmament. " Scandaglio," Ital for examina-
tion, studying the form of an opponent at the beginning of a bout.
" Toccata!" Ital. for " Touched! ' r ; Fr. " Touche."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature of foil-fencing is practically
identical with that of the art in general (see FENCING). The follow-
ing modern works are among the best. French School: Fencing,
in the Badminton library (1897); Foil and Sabre, by L. Rondelle
(Boston, 1892); "Fencing," by C. Prevost in the Encyclopaedia
of Sport (1901); Fencing, by Edward Breck (New York, 1906).
Italian school: Istruzione per la scherma, &c., by S. de Frae
(Milan, 1885); La Scherma ilaliana di spada e di sciabola, by F.
Masiello (Florence, 1887). (E. B.)
FOIX, PAUL DE (1528-1584), French prelate and diplomatist.
He studied Greek and Roman literature at Paris, and juris-
prudence at Toulouse, where shortly after finishing his curri-
culum he delivered a course of lectures on civil law, which gained
him great reputation. At the age of nineteen he was named
councillor of the parlement of Paris. Having in this capacity
expressed himself favourable to the adoption of mild measures
in regard to certain persons accused of Lutheranism, he was
arrested, but escaped punishment, and subsequently regained
the favour of the French court. At the end of 1561 he was sent
ambassador to England, where he remained four years. He was
then sent to Venice, and returned a short time afterwards to
England to negotiate a marriage between Queen Elizabeth and
the duke of Anjou. He again fulfilled several important missions
during the reign of Henry III. of France. In 1577 he was made
archbishop of Toulouse, and in 1579 was appointed ambassador
to Rome, where he remained till his death in 1584.
Les Lettres de Messire de Paul de Foix, archevesque de Toloze el
ambassadeur pour le roy aupres du pape Gregoire XIII, au rot
Henry III, were published in 1628, but there are some doubts as to
their authenticity. See Gallia Christiana (1715 seq.) ; M. A. Muret,
Oraisonfunebre de Paul de Foix (Paris, 1584) ; " Lettres de Catherine
de Medicis," edited by Hector de la Ferriere (Paris, 1880 seq.) in
the Collection de documents inedits sur I'histoire de France.
FOIX, a town of south-western France, in the middle ages
capital of the counts of Foix, and now capital of the department
of Ariege, 51 m. S. of Toulouse, on the Southern railway from
that city to Ax. Pop. (1906) town, 4498; commune, 6750. It is
situated between the Ariege and the Arget at their confluence.
The old part of the town, with its ill-paved winding streets and
old houses, is dominated on the west by an isolated rock crowned
by the three towers of the castle (i2th, I4th and isth centuries),
while to the south it is limited by the shady Promenade de
Villotte. The chief church is that of St Volusien, a Gothic
building of the I4th century. The town is the seat of a prefecture,
a court of assizes and a tribunal of first instance, and has a lycee,
training colleges, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the
Bank of France. Flour-milling and iron-wcrking are carried on.
Foix probably owes its origin to an oratory founded by Charle-
magne. This afterwards became an abbey, in which were laid
the remains of St Volusien, archbishop of Tours in the 5th
century.
The county of Foix included roughly the eastern part of the
modern department of Ariege, a region watered chiefly by the
Ariege and its affluents. During the later middle ages it consisted
of an agglomeration of small holdings ruled by lords, who, though
subordinate to the counts of Foix, had some voice in the govern-
ment of the district. Protestantism obtained an early entrance
into the county, and the religious struggles of the i6th and i7th
centuries were carried on with much implacability therein. The
estates of the county, which can be traced back to the i4th
century, consisted of three orders and possessed considerable
power and virility. In the I7th and i8th centuries Foix formed
one of the thirty-three governments of France, and in 1700 it was
incorporated in the department of Ariege.
Counts of Foix. The counts of Foix were an old and dis-
tinguished French family which flourished from the nth to the
1 5th century. They were at first feudatories of the counts of
Toulouse, but chafing under this yoke they soon succeeded in
throwing it off, and during the I3th and i4th centuries were
among the most powerful of the French feudal nobles. Living
on the borders of France, having constant intercourse with
Navarre, and in frequent communication with England, they
were in a position peculiarly favourable to an assertion of
independence, and acted rather as the equals than as the
dependents of the kings of France.
The title of count of Foix was first assumed by Roger, son of
Bernard Roger, who was a younger son of Roger I., count of
Carcassonne (d. 1012), when he inherited the town of Foix and
the adjoining lands, which had hitherto formed part of the county
of Carcassonne. Dying about 1064, Roger was succeeded by his
brother Peter, who died six years later, and was succeeded in
turn by his son, Roger II. This count took part in the crusade
of 1095, and was afterwards excommunicated by Pope Paschal II.
for seizing ecclesiastical property; but subsequently he appeased
the anger of the church by rich donations, and when he died
in 1125 he was succeeded by his son, Roger III. The death of
Roger III. about 1149, and of his son, Roger Bernard I., in 1188,
brought the county to Roger Bernard's only son, Raymond
Roger, who, in 1190, accompanied the French king, Philip
Augustus, to Palestine and distinguished himself at the capture
of Acre. He was afterwards engaged in the wars of the Albi-
genses, and on being accused of heresy his lands were given to
Simon IV., count of Montfort. Raymond Roger, who came to
terms with the church and recovered his estates before his death
in 1223, was a patron of the Provencal poets, and counted
himself among their number. He was succeeded by his son,
Roger Bernard II., called the Great, who assisted Raymond VII.,
count of Toulouse, and the Albigenses in their resistance to the
French kings, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., was excommunicated
on two occasions and died in 1241. His son, Roger IV., who
followed, died in 1265, and was succeeded by his son, Roger
Bernard III., who, more famous as a poet than as a warrior,
was taken prisoner both by Philip III. of France and by Peter
III. of Aragon. This count married Marguerite, daughter and
heiress of Gaston VII., viscount of Beam (d. 1 290), and this union
led to the outbreak of a long feud between the houses of Foix
and Armagnac; a quarrel which was continued by Roger
Bernard's son and successor, Gaston I., who became count
in 1302, inheriting both Foix and Beam. Becoming embroiled
with the French king, Philip IV., in consequence of the struggle
with the count of Armagnac, Gaston was imprisoned in Paris;
but quickly regaining his freedom he accompanied King Louis X.
on an expedition into Flanders in 1315, and died on his return
to France in the same year. His eldest son, Gaston II., was
the next count. Having become reconciled with the house of
Armagnac, Gaston took part in various wars both in France and
Spain, dying at Seville in 1343, when he was succeeded by his
son, Gaston III. (1331-1391). Gaston III., who was surnamed
Phoebus on account of his beauty, was the most famous member
of the old Foix family. Like his father he assisted France in her
struggle against England, being entrusted with the defence of
the frontiers of Gascony; but when the French king, John II.,
showed a marked preference for the count of Armagnac, Gaston
left his service and went to fight against the heathen in Prussia.
Returning to France about 1357 he delivered some noble ladies
from the attacks of the adherents of the Jacquerie at Meaux, and
was soon at war with the count of Armagnac. During this struggle
he also attacked the count of Poitiers, the royal representative in
Languedoc, but owing to the intervention of Pope Innocent VI.
he made peace with the count in 1360. Gaston, however, con-
tinued to fight against the count of Armagnac, who, in 1362,
was defeated and compelled to pay a ransom; and this war
lasted until 1377, when peace was made. Early in 1380 the
count was appointed governor of Languedoc, but when Charles
VI. succeeded Charles V. as king later in the same year, this
appointment was cancelled. Refusing, however, to heed the
royal command, and supported by the communes of Languedoc,
Gaston fought for about two years against John, duke of Berry,
who had been chosen as his successor, until, worsted in the
combat, he abandoned the struggle and retired to his estates,
remaining neutral and independent. In 1348 the count had
married Agnes, daughter of Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343),
by his wife Jeanne II., queen of Navarre. By Agnes, whom he
59 6
FOLARD, J. C.
divorced in 1373, he had an only son, Gaston, who is said to have
been incited by his uncle, Charles II., king of Navarre, to poison
his father, and who met his death in 1381. It is probable, as
Froissart says, that he was killed by his father. Left without
legitimate sons, Gaston was easily persuaded to bequeath his
lands to King Charles VI., who thus obtained Foix and Bearn
when the count died at Orthes in 1391. Gaston was very fond
of hunting, but was not without a taste for art and literature.
Several beautiful manuscripts are in existence which were exe-
cuted by his orders, and he himself wrote Deduits de la chasse
des bestes sauvaiges et des oiseaulx de proye. Froissart, who gives
a graphic description of his court and his manner of life, speaks
enthusiastically of Gaston, saying: " I never saw none like him
of personage, nor of so fair form, nor so well made," and again,
" in everything he was so perfect that he cannot be praised too
much."
Almost immediately after Gaston's death King Charles VI.
granted the county of Foix to Matthew, viscount of Castelbon,
a descendant of Count Gaston I. Dying without issue in 1398,
Matthew's lands were seized by Archambault, count of Grailly
and captal de Buch, the husband of his sister Isabella (d.i426),
who became count of Foix in 1401. Archambault's eldest son,
John (c. 1382-1436), who succeeded to his father's lands and
titles in 1412, had married in 1402 Jeanne, daughter of Charles
III., king of Navarre. Having served the king of France in
Guienne and the king of Aragon in Sardinia, John became the
royal representative in Languedoc, when the old quarrel between
Foix and Armagnac broke out again. During the struggle
between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs, he intrigued
with both parties, and consequently was distrusted by the
dauphin, afterwards King Charles VII. Deserting the cause of
France, he then allied himself with Henry V. of England; but
when Charles VII. became king in 1422, he returned to his former
allegiance and became the king's representative in Languedoc
and Guienne. He then assisted to suppress the marauding
bands which were devastating France; fought for Aragon
against Castile; and aided his brother, the cardinal of Foix, to
crush some insurgents in Aragon. Peter, cardinal of Foix (1386-
1464), was the fifth son of Archambault of Grailly, and was made
archbishop of Aries in 1450. He took a prominent part in the
struggle between the rival popes, and founded and endowed
the College de Foix at Toulouse. The next count was John's
son, Gaston IV., who married Leonora (d. 1479), a daughter of
John, king of Aragon and Navarre. In 1447 he bought the vis-
county of Narbonne, and having assisted King Charles VII. in
Guienne, he was made a peer of France in 1458. In 1455 his
father-in-law designated him as his successor in Navarre, and
Louis XI. of France gave him the counties of Rousillon and
Cerdagne, and made him his representative in Languedoc and
Guienne; but these marks of favour did not prevent him
from joining a league against Louis in 1471. His eldest son,
Gaston, the husband of Madeleine, a daughter of Charles VII. of
France, died in 1470, and when Gaston IV. died two years later,
his lands descended to his grandson, Francis Phoebus (d. 1483),
who became king of Navarre in 1479, and was succeeded by his
sister Catherine (d. 1517), the wife of Jean d'Albret (d. 1516).
Thus the house of Foix-Grailly was merged in that of Albret
and subsequently in that of Bourbon; and when Henry of
Navarre became king of France in 1589 the lands of the counts
of Foix-Grailly became part of the French royal domain. A
younger son of Count Gaston IV. was John (d. 1500), who
received the viscounty of Narbonne from his father and married
Marie, a sister of the French king Louis XII. He was on good
terms both with Louis XL and Louis XII., and on the death
of his nephew Francis Phoebus, in 1483, he claimed the kingdom
of Navarre against Jean d'Albret and his wife, Catherine de
Foix. The ensuing struggle lasted until 1497, when John
renounced his claim. He left a son, Gaston de Foix (1480-1512),
the distinguished French general, and a daughter, Germaine,
who became the second wife of Ferdinand I., king of Spain.
In 1507 Gaston exchanged his viscounty of Narbonne with
King Louis XII. for the duchy of Nemours, and as duke of
Nemours he took command of the French troops in Italy.
Having delivered Bologna and taken Brescia, Gaston encountered
the troops of the Holy League at Ravenna in April 1512, and
after putting the enemy to flight was killed during the pursuit.
From the younger branch of the house of Foix-Grailly have also
sprung the viscounts of Lautrec and of Meilles, the counts of
Benanges and Candale, and of Gurson and Fleix.
See D. J. Vaissete, Histoire generate de Languedoc, tome iv. (Paris,
1876); L. Flourac, Jean I", comte de Foix, mcomte souverain de
Beam (Paris, 1884); Le Pere Anselme, Histoire genealogique, tome
iii. (Paris, 1726-1733) ; Castillon, Histoire du comte de Foix (Toulouse,
1852); Madaune, Gaston Phasbus, comte de Foix et souverain de
Beam (Pau, 1865) ; and Froissart's Chroniques, edited by S. Luce
and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897).
FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES, CHEVALIER DE (1660-1752),
French soldier and military author, was born at Avignon on the
i3thof February 1669. His military ardour was first awakened
by reading Caesar's Commentaries, and he ran away from home
and joined the army. He soon saw active service, and, young
as he was, wrote a manual on partisan warfare, the manuscript
of which passed with Folard's other papers to Marshal Belleisle
on the author's death. In 1702 he became a captain, and aide-de-
camp to the duke of Vendome, then in command of the French
forces in Italy. In 1705, while serving under Vendome's brother,
the Grand Prior, Folard won the cross of St Louis for a gallant
feat of arms, and in the same year he distinguished himself at
the battle of Cassano, where he was severely wounded. It was
during his tedious recovery from his wounds that he conceived
the tactical theories to the elucidation of which he devoted most
of his life. In 1706 he again rendered good service in Italy, and
in 1708 distinguished himself greatly in the operations attempted
by Vend6me and the duke of Burgundy for the relief of Lille,
the failure of which was due in part to the disagreement of the
French commanders; and it is no small testimony to the ability
and tact of Folard that he retained the friendship of both.
Folard was wounded at Malplaquet in 1709, and in 1711 his
services were rewarded with the governorship of Bourbourg.
He saw further active service in 1714 in Malta, under Charles
XII. of Sweden in the north, and under the duke of Berwick in
the short Spanish War of 1719. Charles XII. he regarded as the
first captain of all time, and it was at Stockholm that Folard
began to formulate his tactical ideas in a commertary on Polybius.
On his way back to France he was shipwrecked and lost all his
papers, but he set to work at once to write his essays afresh,
and in 1724 appeared his Nouvelles Decouvertes sur la guerre dans
une dissertation de Polybe, followed (1727-1730). by Histoire de
Polybe traduite par . . . de Thuillier aiiec un commentaire . . .
de M. de Folard, Chevalier de I'Ordre de St Louis. Folard spent
the remainder of his life in answering the criticisms provoked
by the novelty of his theories. He died friendless and in obscurity
at Avignon in 1752.
An analysis of Folard's military writings brings to light not
a connected theory of war as a whole, but a great number of
independent ideas, sometimes valuable and suggestive, but far
more often extravagant. The central point of his tactics was
his proposed column formation for infantry. Struck by the
apparent weakness of the thin line of battle of the time, and
arguing from the eju/JoXov or cuneus of ancient warfare, he desired
to substitute the shock of a deep mass of troops for former
methods of attack, and further considered that in defence a solid
column gave an unshakable stability to the line of battle.
Controversy at once centred itself upon the column. Whilst
some famous commanders, such as Marshal Saxe and Guido
Starhemberg, approved it and put it in practice, the weight of
military opinion throughout Europe was opposed to it, and
eventually history justified this opposition. Amongst the most
discriminating of his critics was Frederick the Great, who is
said to have invited Folard to Berlin. The Prussian king
certainly caused a precis to be made by Colonel von Seers, and
wrote a preface thereto expressing his views. The work (like
others by Frederick) fell into unauthorized hands, and, on its
publication (Paris, 1760) under the title Esprit du Chen. Folard,
created a great impression. " Thus kept within bounds," said
FOLD
597
the prince de Ligne, " Folard was the best author of the time."
Frederick himself said tersely that " FoJard had buried diamonds
in a rubbish-heap." Thus began the controversy between line
and column formations, which long continued and influenced
the development of tactics up to the most modern times. Folard's
principal adherents in the i8th century were Joly de Maizeroy
and Menil Durand.
See Memoires pour servir d I'histoire de M. le Chevalier de Folard
(Paris and Regensburg, 1753), and for a detailed account of Folard's
works and those of his critics and supporters, Max Jahns, Gesckichte
der Kriegswissenschaflen, vol. ii. pp. 1478-1493 (Munich and Leipzig,
1890).
FOLD, a pleat or bend in a flexible material, or a curve in any
surface, whence its particular application in geology with which
this article deals. The verb " to fold " (O. Eng.fealdan) meant
originally to double back a oiece of cloth or other material so as
to form a pleat, whence has evolved its various senses of to roll
up, to enclose, enfold or embrace as with the arms, to clasp the
hands or arms together, &c. The word is common to Teutonic
languages, cf. Ger. fallen, Dutch vouwen (for vouden), &c., and the
ultimate Indo-European root is found in Gr. ir\fKtiv, Lat.
plicare, plectere, to plait, pleat, weave, and in the suffixes of such
words as SnrXciacos, duplex, double, simplex, &c. Similarly the
termination " -fold " is added to numbers implying " so many,"
e.g. twofold, hundredfold, cf. " manifold." The similar word
for an enclosure or pen for animals, especially for sheep, and
hence applied in a spiritual sense to a community of worshippers,
or to the whole body of Christians regarded as Christ's flock,
must be distinguished. In O. Eng. it isfaleed, and cognate forms
are found in Dutch vaalt, &c. It apparently meant a planked or
boarded enclosure, cf. Dan. fjael, Swed. fjol, plank.
In geology, a fold is a bend or curvature in the stratified
rocks of the earth's crust, whereby they have been made
to take up less horizontal space. The French equivalents are
pli, plissement, ridement; in Germany, Falte, Fallung, Soliciting
are the terms usually employed. It is comparatively rarely that
bedded rocks are observed in the position in which they were
first deposited, a certain amount of buckling up or sagging down
of the crust being continually in progress in one region or another.
In every instance therefore where, in walking over the surface,
we traverse a series of strata which gradually, and without dis-
locations, increase or diminish in inclination, we cross part of a
great curvature in the strata of the earth's crust.
Such foldings, however, can often be distinctly seen, either on
some cliff or coast-line, or in the traverse of a piece of hilly or
mountainous ground. The observer cannot long continue his
researches in the field without discovering that the rocks of the
earth's crust have been almost everywhere thrown into curves,
usually so broad and gentle as to escape observation except
when specially looked for. The outcrop of beds at the surface
is commonly the truncation of these curves. The strata must
once have risen above the present surface, and in many cases
may be found descending to the surface again with a contrary dip,
the intervening portion of the undulation having been worn away.
The curvature occasionally shows itself among horizontal or
gently inclined strata in the form of an abrupt inclination, and
then an immediate resumption of the previous flat or sloping
character. The strata are thus bent up and continue on the other
side of the tilt at a higher level. Such bends are called mono-
FIG. I. Section of the Isle of Wight a Monoclinal Curve, a,
Chalk; b, Woolwich and Reading beds; c, London clay; d, Bagshot
series; e, Headon series; /, g, Osborne and Bembridge series.
dines, monoclinal folds or flexures, because they present only one
fold, or one half of a fold, instead of the two which we see in an
arch or trough. The most notable instance of this structure in
Britain is that of the Isle of Wight, of which a section is given in
fig. i. The Cretaceous rocks on the south side of the island
rapidly rise in inclination till they become nearly vertical.
The Lower Tertiary strata follow with a similar steep dip, but
rapidly flatten down towards the north coast. Some remarkable
cases of the same structure have been brought to light by J. W.
Powell in his survey of the Colorado region.
It much more frequently happens that the strata have been
bent into arches and troughs, so that they can be seen dipping
under the surface on one side of the axis of a fold, and rising up
again on the other side. Where they dip away from the axis of
movement the structure is termed an anticline or anticlinal fold;
where they dip towards the axis, it is a syncline or synclinal fold.
The diagram in fig. 2 may be taken to represent a series of strata
FIG. 2. Plan of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds.
(1-17) thrown into an anticline (AA') and syncline (BB'). A
section drawn across these folds in the line CD would show
the structure given in fig. 3. Here we see that, at the part of the
CWilt
Section on line C D.
FIG. 3. Section of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds on the line CD
(fig. 2).
anticlinal axis (A) where the section crosses, bed No. 4 forms the
crown of the arch, Nos. i, 2 and 3 being concealed beneath it.
On the east side of the axis the strata follow each other in regular
succession as far as No. 13, which, instead of passing here under
the next in order, turns up with a contrary dip and forms the
centre of a trough or syncline (B). From underneath No. 13 on
the east side the same beds rise to the surface which passed
beneath it on the west side. The particular bed marked EF has
been entirely removed by denudation from the top of the anti-
cline, and is buried deep beneath the centre of the syncline.
Such foldings of strata must always die out unless they are
abruptly terminated by dislocations. In the cases given in fig.
2, both the arch and trough are represented as diminishing, the
former towards the north, the latter towards the south. The
observer in passing northwards along the axis of that anticline
finds himself getting into progressively higher strata as the fold
sinks down. On the other hand, in advancing southwards along
the synclinal axis, he loses stratum after stratum and gets into
lower portions of the series. When a fold diminishes in this way
it is said to " nose out." In fig. 2 there is obviously a general
inclination of the beds towards the north, besides the outward
dip from the anticline and the inward dip from the syncline.
Hence the anticline noses out to the north and the syncline to
the south.
Simple Folds. In describing rock-folds special terms have
been assigned to certain portions of the fold; thus, the sloping
FOLENGO, T.
sides of an anticline or syncline are known as the " limbs,"
" slopes," " flanks " or " members " of the fold; in an anticline,
the part X, fig. 3, the angle of the bend, is the " crest " or
" crown " (Ger. Gewolbebiegung, Fr. charniere anticlinale) , the
corresponding part of a syncline being the " trough-core " or
" base," Y, fig. 3 (Ger. Muldenbiegung, Fr. charniere synclinale).
The portion of an anticline which has been removed by denuda-
tion is the " aerial arch," dotted in fig. 3. The innermost strata
in a fold constitute the " core," arch-core A, fig. 3, or trough-
core B, in the same figure. In the majority of folds the bending
of the strata has taken place about an " axial plane " (often
called the " axis "), which in the examples illustrated in fig. 3
would pass through the points A and B, perpendicularly to the
horizontal line CD. In powerfully folded regions the axial
planes of the folds are no longer upright; they may be moder-
ately inclined, producing an " inversion," " inverted fold " or
" overfold." When the inclination of the axial plane is great a
" recumbent overfold " is produced (Fr. pli couchi, Ger. liegende
Falle). In a fold of this kind (fig. 4) we have an " arch limb "
(a), a middle limb (6) and a
floor or " trough limb " (c).
X and Y are the upper and
lower bends respectively.
One of the important func-
tions of a fold is its direc-
P tion; this of course depends
upon the orientation of the
axial plane. The crest-line of an anticline or trough-line of
a syncline is rarely horizontal for any great distance; its
departure from horizontality is designated the " pitch," and
the fold is said to pitch (or dip) towards the north, &c. Most
simple folds with the exception of very shallow curvatures
of wide area, when considered in their entirety, are seen to be
somewhat canoe-shaped in form. There are three variatiohs
of the simple fold dependent upon the position of the limbs,
(i) the limbs may tend to diverge as they recede from the
crest (fig. 3), sometimes styled an "open anticline"; (2) the
limbs may be parallel in " closed " folds (commonly known as
isoclinal folding); (3) the limbs may make an open angle or
widen out towards the crest (fig. 4). This is known as a fan-
shaped fold (Fr. pli en eventail, Ger. Facherfalte) ; another
variant of the same form is the mushroom fold (Fr. pli en cham-
pignon). The axial plane is not always extended: it may be
so abbreviated that the folding appears to have taken place
about a point; anticlines of this type are variously designated
" short-anticlines," " brachyanticlinaux " or "domes"; simi-
larly, there are " short-synclines," " brachysynclinaux " or
" cuvettes." The dip in cases of this kind has been described as
" qua-qua versal " or " periclinal."
Complex Folding. Sometimes a simple fold has been itself
subjected to further folding repeated more than once, it is then
termed a " refolded fold " (Fr. pli replil) ; fine examples may be
observed in the Alps and in other mountain chains. A great
regional major fold containing within itself a number of minor
" special " or subsidiary folds is described as a " geanticline "
(Fr. structure en eventail compose'), or as a " geosyncline " (Fr.
structure en eventail remierse). Even folds of lesser magnitude
may be highly complex in regions of extreme crustal movement,
and may contain smaller folds of the first, second, third or higher
order (Fr. couches gaufrees [fig. 5]). In its smaller manifestation,
this class of folding passes into " crumpling " or " puckering,"
where quite a large number of folds may be crowded into a single
hand specimen. In " frilling " or " frilled structure " the folds
have still smaller amplitude, and in many highly corrugated
rocks minute folds are observable with the microscope that do
not appear to the unaided eye. When a series of adjacent iso-
clinal overfolds has passed into a series of thrusts (see FAULT),
the so-called " imbricated " structure (Fr. structure imbriquee,
Ger. Schuppenstruktur) is generated. Occasionally crust-blocks
resembling " graben " and " horsts " are circumscribed by folds
instead of faults; when this is so they have been called respec-
tively " infolded graben " or " overfolded horsts."
The heterogeneous character of great masses of strata has
always had a marked influence on the nature of the folding;
some beds have yielded much more readily than others, certain
beds will be found to be faulted, while those above and below
have folded without fracture. In many examples of apparent
plasticity it can be shown that this effect has been produced
by an infinite number of minute slippings within the rock
substance.
The larger rock folds have produced important economic
FIG. 5. Curved and Contorted Rocks, near Old Head of Kinsale.
(Du Noyer.)
results. For example, in many coal regions the deposits have
been conserved in some districts in the synclines or " basins,"
while they have been removed by denudation from the uplifted
anticlines in others. Near the crest of anticlines is commonly
an enriched portion of the ground in mineralized districts; and,
in the case of water supply, the tilt of the strata determines the
direction of the underground flowage. Again, the most con-
venient site for oil wells is the crest of an anticline or " dome,"
where an impervious stratum imprisons the gas and oil in a
subjacent saturated layer under pressure.
For a discussion of the question of the distribution and arrange-
ment of the great folded regions of the earth's crust, see E. Suess,
Das Antlitz der Arde, English translation, The Face of the Earth,
vols. i., ii., iii., iv. (Oxford). See also E. de Margerie and A. Heim,
Les Dislocations de I'ecorce terrestre (Zurich, 1888); A. Rothpletz,
Ceotektonische Probleme (Stuttgart, 1894).
FOLENGO, TEOFILO (1491-1544), otherwise known as Merlino
Coccajo or Cocajo, one of the principal Italian macaronic poets,
was born of noble parentage at Cipada near Mantua on the 8th
of November 1491. From his infancy he showed great vivacity
of mind, and a remarkable cleverness in making verses. At the
age of sixteen he entered the monastery of Monte Casino near
Brescia, and eighteen months afterwards he became a professed
member of the Benedictine order. For a few years his life as a
monk seems to have been tolerably regular, and he is said to
have produced a considerable quantity of Latin verse, written,
not unsuccessfully, in the Virgilian style. About the year 1516
he forsook the monastic life for the society of a well-born young
woman named Girolama Dieda, with whom he wandered about
the country for several years, often suffering great poverty,
having no other means of support than his talent for versification.
His first publication was the Merlini Cocaii macaronicon, which
relates the adventures of a fictitious hero named Baldus. The
coarse buffoonery of this work is often relieved by touches of
genuine poetry, as well as by graphic descriptions and acute
criticisms of men and manners. Its macaronic style is rendered
peculiarly perplexing to the foreigner by the frequent introduction
of words and phrases from the Mantuan patois. Though fre-
quently censured for its occasional grossness of idea and ex-
pression, it soon attained a wide popularity, and within a very
few years passed through several editions. Folengo's next
production was the Orlandino, an Italian poem of eight cantos,
written in rhymed octaves. It appeared in 1526, and bore on
the title-page the new pseudonym of Limerno Pitocco (Merlin
the Beggar) da Mantova. In the same year, wearied with a life
of dissipation, Folengo returned to his ecclesiastical obedience;
and shortly afterwards wrote his Chaos del tri per uno, in which,
partly in prose, partly in verse, sometimes in Latin, sometimes
in Italian, and sometimes in macaronic, he gives a veiled account
of the vicissitudes of the life he had lived under his various names.
FOLEY, J. H. FOLIO
We next find him about the year 1533 writing in rhymed octaves
a life of Christ entitled L'Umanitd del Figliuolo di Dio; and he is
known to have composed, still later, another religious poem upon
the creation, fall and restoration of man, besides a few tragedies.
These, however, have never been published. Some of his later
years were spent in Sicily under the patronage of Don Fernando
de Gonzaga, the viceroy; he even appears for a short time to
have had charge of a monastery there. In 1543 he retired to
Santa Croce de Campesio, near Bassano; and there he died on
the gth of December 1544.
Folengo is frequently quoted and still more frequently copied by
Rabelais. The earlier editions of his Opus macaronicum are now
extremely rare. The often reprinted edition of 1530 exhibits the
text as revised by the author after he had begun to amend his life.
FOLEY, JOHN HENRY (1818-1874), Irish sculptor, was born
at Dublin on the 24th of May 1818. At thirteen he began to
study drawing and modelling at the schools of the Royal Dublin
Society, where he took several first-class prizes. In 1835 ne was
admitted a student in the schools of the Royal Academy, London.
He first appeared as an exhibitor in 1839 with his " Death of
Abel and Innocence." " Ino and Bacchus," exhibited in 1840,
gave him immediate reputation, and the work itself was after-
wards commissioned to be done in marble for the earl of Elles-
mere. " Lear and Cordelia " and " Death of Lear " were
exhibited in 1841. " Venus rescuing Aeneas "and" The Houseless
Wanderer " in 1842, " Prospero and Miranda " in 1843. In
1844 Foley sent to the exhibition at Westminster Hall his
" Youth at a Stream," and was, with Calder Marshall and John
Bell, chosen by the commissioners to do work in sculpture for
the decoration of the Houses of Parliament. Statues of John
Hampden and Selden were executed for this purpose, and received
liberal praise for the propriety, dignity and proportion of their
treatment. Commissions of all kinds now began to come rapidly.
Fanciful works, busts, bas-reliefs, tablets and monumental
statues were in great numbers undertaken and executed by him
with a steady equality of worthy treatment. In 1849 ne was
made an associate and in 1858 a member of the Royal Academy.
Among his numerous works the following may be noticed,
besides those mentioned above: " The Mother "; " Egeria,"
for the Mansion House; " The Elder Brother in Comus," his
diploma work; " The Muse of Painting," the monument of
James Ward, R.A.; " Caractacus," for the Mansion House;
"Helen Faucit"; "Goldsmith" and "Burke," for Trinity
College, Dublin; "Faraday"; "Reynolds"; "Barry," for
Westminster Palace Yard; " John Stuart Mill," for the Thames
embankment; " O'Connell " and " Gough," for Dublin ;
" Clyde," for Glasgow; " Clive," for Shrewsbury; " Hardinge,"
" Canning " and " Outram," for Calcutta; " Hon. James
Stewart," for Ceylon; the symbolical group " Asia," as well as
the statue of the prince himself, for the Albert Memorial in
Hyde Park; and " Stonewall Jackson," in Richmond, Va.
The statue of Sir James Outram is probably his masterpiece.
Foley's early fanciful works have some charming qualities; but
he will probably always be best remembered for the workmanlike
and manly style of his monumental portraits. He died at
Hampstead on the 27th of August 1874, and on the 4th of
September was buried in St Paul's cathedral. He left his models
to the Royal Dublin Society, his early school, and a great part
of his property to the Artists' Benevolent Fund.
See W. Cosmo Monkhouse, The Works of J. H. Foley (1875).
FOLEY, SIR THOMAS (1757-1833), British admiral, entered
the navy in 1770, and, during his time as midshipman, saw a
good deal of active service in the West Indies against American
privateers. Promoted lieutenant in 1778, he served under
Admiral (afterwards Viscount) Keppel and Sir Charles Hardy
in the Channel, and with Rodney's squadron was present
the defeat of De Langara off Cape St Vincent in 1780, and at the
relief of Gibraltar. Still under Rodney's command, he went
out to the West Indies, and took his part in the operations which
culminated in the victory of the i2th of April 1782. In the
Revolutionary War he was engaged from the first. As flag-
captain to Admiral John Cell, and afterwards to Sir Hyde
599
Parker, Foley took part in the siege of Toulon in 1793, the action
of Golfe Jouan in 1794, and the two fights off Toulon on the i3th
of April and the I3th of July 1793. At St Vincent he was flag-
captain to the second in command, and in the following year
was sent out in command of the " Goliath " (74), to reinforce
Nelson's fleet in the Mediterranean. The part played by the
" Goliath " in the battle of the Nile was brilliant. She led the
squadron round the French van, and this manoeuvre contributed
not a little to the result of the day. Whether this was done by
Foley's own initiative, or intended by Nelson, has been a matter
of controversy (see Journal of the Royal United Service Institution,
1885, p. 916). His next important service was with Nelson in
the Baltic. The " Elephant " carried Nelson's flag at the battle
of Copenhagen, and her captain acted as his chief-of-staff. Ill-
health obliged Foley to decline Nelson's offer (made when on the
point of starting for the battle of Trafalgar) of the post of Captain
of the Fleet. From 1808 to 1815 he commanded in the Downs
and at the peace was made K.C.B. Sir Thomas Foley rose to be
full admiral and G. C. B. He died while commanding in chief at
Portsmouth in 1833.
See J. B. Herbert, Life and Services of Sir Thomas Foley (Cardiff,
1884).
FOLI (FOLEY), ALLAN JAMES (1837-1899), Irish bass singer,
was born at Cahir, Tipperary, on the 7th of August 1837 ;
originally a carpenter, he studied under Bisaccia at Naples, and
made his first appearance at Catania in 1862. From the opera
in Paris he was engaged by Mapleson for the season of 1865, and
appeared with much success in various parts. He sang in the
first performance of The Flying Dutchman (Daland) in England
in 1870, and in the first performance of Gounod's Redemption in
1882. He was distinguished in opera and oratorio alike for his
vigorous, straightforward way of singing, and was in great request
at ballad concerts. He died on the 2oth of October 1899.
FOLIGNO (anc. Fulginiae, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of
Umbria, Italy, 771 ft. above sea-level, in the province of Perugia,
from which it is 25 m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 9532 (town),
26,278 (commune). It lies in a fertile plain, on the Topino, a
tributary of the Tiber; it is almost square in shape and is sur-
rounded by walls. It is a picturesque and interesting town;
several of its churches contain paintings by Umbrian masters,
notably works by Niccol6 di Liberatore (or Niccold Alunno,
1430-1502), and among them his chief work, a large altar-piece
(the predella of which is in the Louvre) in S. Niccold. The
cathedral has a romanesque S. facade of 1133, restored in 1903;
the interior was modernized in the i8th century. To the left
of the choir is an octagonal chapel by Antonio da Sangallo the
younger (1527). In the same piazza as the S. facade is the Palazzo
del Governo, erected in 1350, which has a chapel with frescoes
by Ottaviano Nelli of Gubbio (1424). S. Maria infra Portas is
said to date from the 7th century, but from this period only
the columns of the portico remain. Raphael's " Madonna
di Foligno," now in the Vatican, was originally painted for the
church of S. Anna. The Palazzo Orfini and the Palazzo Deli are
two good Renaissance buildings.
Foligno seems to have been founded about the middle of the
8th century A.D. It changed hands often during the wars of the
I3th century, and was destroyed by Perugia in 1281. From
1305 to 1439 it was governed by the family of the Trinci as
deputies of the Holy See, until in the latter year one of its members
went against the church. Pope Eugene IV. sent a force against
Foligno, to which the inhabitants opened their gates, and the
last of the Trinci, Corrado II., was beheaded. Henceforth
Foligno belonged to the states of the church until 1860. It
suffered from a severe earthquake in 1832. Foligno is a station
on the main line from Rome (via Orte) to Ancona, and is the
junction for Perugia. Three miles to the E. is the abbey of
Sassovivo with cloisters of 1229, very like those of S. Paolo
fuori le Mura at Rome, with pairs of small columns supporting
arches, and decorations in coloured mosaic (" Cosmatesque "
work). The church has been modernized.
FOLIO (properly the ablative case of the Lat. folium, leaf, but
also frequently an adaptation of the Ital. foglio), a term in
6oo
FOLIUM FOLKLAND
o
bibliography and printing, with reference either to the size of
paper employed, or of the book, or to the pagination. In the
phrase " in folio " it means a sheet of paper folded once, and
thus a book bound up in sheets thus folded is a book of the largest
size and is known as a " folio " (see BIBLIOGRAPHY). Similarly,
" folio " is one of the sizes of paper adapted to be thus folded
(see PAPER). In book-keeping the word is used for a page in a
ledger on which the credit and debtor account is written; in
law-writing, for a fixed number of words in a legal document,
used for measurement of the length and for the addition of costs.
In Great Britain, a " folio " is taken to contain 72 words, except
in parliamentary and chancery documents, when the number
is 90. In the U.S.A. 100 words form a " folio."
FOLIUM, in mathematics, a curve invented and discussed by
Rene Descartes. Its cartesian equation is x?+y> = 3axy. The
curve is symmetrical about the h'ne x=y,
and consists of two infinite branches
asymptotic to the line x+y+a=o and
a loop in the first quadrant. It may be
traced by giving m various values in the
equations x = ^am/ (i-f-m 3 ), y = 3aw 2
(i+m 3 ), since by eliminating m between
these relations the equation to the curve
is obtained. Hence it is unicursal (see
CURVE). The area of the loop, which
equals the area between the curve
and its asymptote, is 30/2.
FOLKES, MARTIN (1690-1754), English antiquary, was born
in London on the 29th of October 1690. He was educated at
Saumur University and Clare College, Cambridge, where he so
distinguished himself in mathematics that when only twenty-
three years of age he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society.
He was elected one of the council in 1716, and in 1723 Sir Isaac
Newton, president of the society, appointed him one of the vice-
presidents. On the death of Newton he became a candidate
for the presidency, but was defeated by Sir Hans Sloane, whom,
however, he succeeded in 1741; in 1742 he was made a member
of the French Academy; in 1746 he received honorary degrees
from Oxford and Cambridge. In 1733 he set out on a tour
through Italy, in the course of which he composed his Disserta-
tions on the Weights and Values of Ancient Coins. Before the
Society of Antiquaries, of which he was president from 1749 to
1754, he read in 1736 his Observations on the Trajan and Antonine
Pillars at Rome and his Table of English Gold Coins from the i8lh
Year of King Edward III. In 1745 he printed the latter with
another on the history of silver coinage. He also contributed
both to the Society of Antiquaries and to the Royal Society
other papers, chiefly on Roman antiquities. He married in
1714 Lucretia Bradshaw, an actress who had appeared at the
Haymarket and Drury Lane (see Nichols's Lit. Anecdot. ii.
578-598).
For Sir John Hill's attack on Folkes (Review of the Works of the
Royal Soc., 1751), see D'Israeli, Calamities and Quarrels of Authors
(1860), pp. 364-366.
FOLKESTONE, a municipal borough, seaport and watering-
place of Kent, England, within the parliamentary borough of
Hythe, 71 m. S.E. by E. of London by the South-Eastern &
Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 23,905; (1901) 30,650. This is
one of the principal ports in cross-Channel communications, the
steamers serving Boulogne, 30 m. distant. The older part of
Folkestone lies in a small valley which here opens upon the shore
between steep hills. The more modern portions extend up the
hills on either hand. To the north the town is sheltered
by hills rising sharply to heights of 400 to 500 ft., on several of
which, such as Sugarloaf and Castle Hills, are ancient earth-
works. Above the cliff west of the old town is a broad promenade
called the Lees, commanding a notable view of the channel
and connected by lifts with the shore below. On this cliff also
stands the parish church of St Mary and St Eanswith, a cruciform
building of much interest, with central tower. It is mainly Early
English, but the original church, attached to a Benedictine
priory, was founded in 1095 on the site of a convent established
by Eanswith, daughter of Eadbald, king of Kent in 630. The
site of this foundation, however, became endangered by en-
croachments of the sea. The monastery was destroyed at the
dissolution of religious houses by Henry VIII. Folkestone inner
harbour is dry at low water, but there is a deep water pier for
use at low tide by the Channel steamers, by which not only
the passenger traffic, but also a large general trade are carried
on. The fisheries are important. Among institutions may be
mentioned the grammar school, founded in 1674, the public
library and museum, and a number of hospitals and sanatoria.
The discontinued Harveian Institution for young men was
named after William Harvey, discoverer of the circulation of the
blood, a native of Folkestone (1578), who is also commemorated
by a tercentenary memorial on the Lees. Folkestone is a member
of the Cinque Port of Dover. It is governed by a mayor, 7
aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2522 acres. To the west of
Folkestone, close to Shorncliffe camp, is the populous suburb
of Cheriton (an urban district, pop. 7091).
Folkestone (Folcestan) was among the possessions of Earl
Godwine and was called upon to supply him with ships when he
was exiled from England; at the time of the Domesday Survey
it belonged to Odo, bishop of Bayeux. From early times it was
a member of the Cinque Port of Dover, and had to find one out
of the twenty-one ships furnished by that port for the royal
service. It shared the privileges of the Cinque Ports, whose
liberties were exemplified at the request of the barons of Folke-
stone by Edward III. in 1330. The corporation, which was
prescriptive, was entitled the mayor, jurats and commonalty
of Folkestone. The history of Folkestone is a record of its
struggle against the sea, which was -constantly encroaching
upon the town. In 1629 the inhabitants, impoverished by their
losses, obtained licence to erect a port. By the end of the i8th
century the town had become prosperous by the increase of its
fishing and shipping trades, and by the middle of the igth century
one of the chief health and pleasure resorts of the south coast.
FOLKLAND (foldand). This term occurs three times in Anglo-
Saxon documents. In a law of Edward the Elder (c. i. 2) it is
contrasted with bookland in a way which shows that these two
kinds of tenure formed the two main subdivisions of landowner-
ship : no one is to deny right to another in respect of folklarid or
bookland. By a charter of 863 (Cod. Dipl. 281), King ^thelberht
exchanges five hides of folkland for five hides of bookland which
had formerly belonged to a thane, granting the latter for the
newly-acquired estates exemption from all fiscal exactions except
the threefold public obligation of attending the fyrd and joining
in the repair of fortresses and bridges. Evidently folkland was
not free from the payment of gafal (land tax) and providing
quarters for the king's men. In ealdorman Alfred's will the
testator disposes freely of his bookland estates in favour of his
sons and his daughter, but to a son who is not considered as
rightful offspring five hides of folkland are left, provided the
king consents. It is probable that folkland is meant in two or
three cases when Latin documents speak of terra rei publicae
jure possessa.
Two principal explanations have been given to this term.
Allen thought that folkland was similar to the Roman ager
publicus: it was the common property of the nation (folc),
and the king had to dispose of it by carving out dependent
tenures for his followers more or less after the fashion of conti-
nental beneficia. These estates remained subject to the superior
ownership of the folk and of the king: they could eventually
be taken back by the latter and, in any case, the heir of a holder
of folkland had to be confirmed in possession by the king. A
letter of Bede to the archbishop Ecgbert of York may be inter-
preted to apply to this kind of tenure. Kemble, K. Maurer,
H. C. Lodge, Stubbs and others followed Allen's lead.
Another theory was started by Professor Vinogradoff in an
article on folkland in the English Hist. Review for 1893. It
considers folkland as landownership by folkright at common
law, as might be said in modern legal speech. In opposition to it
bookland appears as landownership derived from royal privilege.
The incidents recorded in the charters characterize folkland as
FOLKLORE
60 1
subject to ordinary fiscal burdens and to limitations in respect of
testamentary succession. Thane Wallaf has to be relieved from
fiscal exactions when his estate is converted from folkland into
bookland (C.D. 281). Ealdorman Alfred's son, not being recog-
nized as legitimate, has to claim fclkland not by direct succession
or devise, but by the consent of the king. These incidents and
limitations are thrown into relief by copious illustrations as to
the fundamental features of bookland contained in the number-
less " books." These are exemptions from fiscal dues and
freedom of disposition of the owner. This view of the matter has
been accepted by the chief modern authorities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. Allen, Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of
Royal Prerogative in England (London, 1849) ; K. Maurer, Kritische
Uberschau (1853), Band i. 102 ff. ; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book
and Beyond, 244 ff. (Cambridge, 1897) ; P. Vinogradoff, " Folcland,"
in the Eng. Hist. Rev. (1893), p. I ff.; Sir F. Pollock, Land Laws
(London, 1896); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, Band i.
(2nd ed., 293, Leipzig, 1887-1892). (P. Vl.)
FOLKLORE, a term invented in 1846 by Mr W. J. Thorns as a
designation for the traditional learning of the uncultured classes
of civilized nations. The word has been adopted in this sense
into many foreign languages; it is sometimes regarded as the
equivalent of the Ger. Volkskunde. But folklore is, properly
speaking, the " lore of the folk," while Volkskunde is lore or
learning about the folk, and includes not only the mental life
of a people, but also their arts and crafts. The term folklore is
also used to designate the science which deals with folklore;
the study of survivals involves the investigation of the similar
customs, beliefs, &c., of races on lower planes of culture; conse-
quently folklore, as interpreted by the English and American
societies, concerns itself as much or more with savage races as
with the popular superstitions of the white races.
History. The scientific study of folklore dates back to the
first quarter of the igth century, but folklore was collected long
before that date. The organized study of folklore is a thing of
recent growth. The first Folklore Society was founded in London
in 1878; similar bodies now exist in the United States, France,
Italy, Switzerland and especially in Germany and Austria.
The folk-tale makes its appearance in literature at a very early
period; Egyptian examples have come down to us from the
28th century B.C. In Greece the Homeric poems contain many
folk-tale incidents; for India we have the Jatakas and Pancha-
tantra; and for the Arabs the great collection of the Thousand
and One Nights. Another type of folk-narrative is represented
by Aesop's Fables. Not unnaturally beliefs and customs received
less attention; our knowledge of them among the ancients is as
a rule pieced together. Among the oldest professed collections
are J. B. Thiers (1606-1703), Traite des superstitions (1679),
Aubrey's Miscellanies (1686) and H. Bourne's (1696-1733)
Antiquitates vulgares (1725); but they belong to the antiquarian,
non-scientific period.
The pioneers of the modern scientific treatment of folklore
were the brothers Grimm, by the publication of their Kinder-und
Hausmarchen (1812-1815) and Deutsche Mythologie (1835).
They were the first to present the folk-tale in its genuine un-
adulterated form. They differed from their predecessors in
regarding the myth, not as the result of conscious speculation,
but of a mythopoeic impulse. They were, however, disposed to
press modern linguistic evidence too far and make the figures
of the folk-tale the lineal representatives of ancient gods, as the
folk-tales themselves were of the myths. This tendency was
exaggerated by their successors, J. W. Wolf, W. Rochholz and
others. At the outset of his career, W. Mannhardt (1831-1880),
the forerunner of the anthropological school of folklore, shared
in this mistake. Breaking away eventually from the philological
schools, which interpreted myths and their supposed descendants,
the folk-tales, as relating to the storm, the sun, the dawn, &c.
(see MYTHOLOGY), Mannhardt made folk-custom and belief h
basis To this end he set himself to collect and compare the
superstitions of the peasantry; but his health was always
feeble and he never completed his scheme. For a time Mann
hardt's researches bore fruit neither in his own country nor
abroad. In 1878 the foundation of the Folklore Society marked
a new era in England, where the philological school had had
few adherents; and the anthropological school soon produced
evidence of its vitality in the works of Mr Andrew Lang, Dr J. G.
Frazer and Professor Robertson Smith.
With the growth of our knowledge of European folk-custom
and belief on the one hand, and of rites and religions of people
in the lower stages of culture on the other hand, it has become
abundantly clear that there is no line of demarcation between
the two. Each throws light upon the other, and the super-
stitions of Europe are the lineal descendants of savage creeds
which have their parallels all over the world in the culture of
primitive peoples.
Subdivisions. The folklore of civilized peoples may be
conveniently classified under three main heads: (i) belief and
custom; (2) narratives and sayings; (3) art. These again may
be subdivided. The first division, Belief and Custom, includes
(A) Superstitious beliefs and practices, including (a) those
connected with natural phenomena or inanimate nature, (b)
tree and plant superstitions, (c) animal superstitions, (d) ghosts
and goblins, (e) witchcraft, (/) leechcraft, (g) magic in general
and divination, (h) eschatology, and (') miscellaneous super-
stitions and practices; and (B) Traditional customs, including
(a) festival customs for which are set aside certain days and
seasons, (b) ceremonial customs on the occasion of events such as
birth, death or marriage, (c) games, (d) miscellaneous local
customs, such as agricultural rites connected with the corn-spirit
(see DEMONOLOGY), and (e) dances. The second head of Narra-
tives and Sayings may be subdivided (A) into (a) sagas or tales
told as true, (b) Marchen or nursery tales, (c) fables, (d) drolls,
apologues, cumulative tales, &c., (e) myths (see MYTHOLOGY),
and (/) place legends; (B) into ballads and songs (in so far as
they do not come under art); and (C) into nursery rhymes,
riddles, jingles, proverbs, nicknames, place rhymes, &c. The
third head, Art, subdivides into (a) folk music with ballads and
songs, (b) folk drama. Any classification, however, labours
under the disadvantage of separating items which properly
belong together. Thus, myths are obviously the form in
which some superstitions are expressed. They may also be
aetiological in their nature and form an elaborate record of a
custom. Eschatological beliefs naturally take the form of myths.
Traditional narratives can also be classified under art, and so on.
Literature. The literature of the subject falls into two sharply
defined classes synthetic works and collections of folklore of
which the latter are immensely more numerous. Of the former
class the most important is Dr J. G. Frazer's Golden Bough,
which sets out from the study of a survival in Roman religion
and covers a wide field of savage and civilized beliefs and customs.
Especially important are the chapters on agricultural rites, in
which are set forth the results of Mannhardt's researches. Other
important lines of folklore research in the Golden Bough are
those dealing with spring ceremonies, with the primitive view
of the soul, with animal cults, and with sun and rain charms.
Mr E. S. Hartland's Legend of Perseus is primarily concerned
with the origin of a folk-tale, and this problem in the end is
dismissed as insoluble. A large part of the book is taken up
with a discussion of sympathetic magic, and especially with the
" life index," an object so bound up with the life of a human
being that it acts as an indication of his well-being or otherwise.
The importance of children's games in the study of folklore has
been recognized of recent years. An admirable collection of the
games of England has been published by Mrs G. L. Gomme.
With the more minute study of uncivilized peoples the problem
of the diffusion of games has also come to the fore. In particular
it is found that the string-game called " cat's cradle " in various
forms is of very wide diffusion, being found even in Australia.
The question of folk-music has recently received much attention
(see SONG).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Introductory works: M. R. Cox, Introduction
to Folklore', Kaindl, Die Volkskunde; Marillicr in Revue de I'histoire
des religions, xliii. 166, and other works mentioned by Kaindl.
General works: J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough; E. S. Hartland,
The Legend of Perseus; A. Lane, Custom and Myth, Myth, Ritual
and Religion; Tylor, Primitive Culture; Liebrecht, Zur Volkskunde.
602
POLLEN, A. FONBLANQUE
British Isles. England: Burne, Shropshire Folklore; Denham
Tracts (F. L. S.) ; Harland and Wilkinson, Lancashire Folklore;
Henderson, Folklore of Northern Counties; County Folklore Series
(Printed Extracts) of the F.L.S. Wales: Elias Owen, Welsh
Folklore; Rhys, Celtic Folklore. Scotland: Dalyell, Darker
Superstitions; Gregor, Folklore of N.E. of Scotland; the works of
J. G. Campbell, &c.
Germany: Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, English translation by
Stallybrass; Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube; Meyer, Deutsche
Volkskunde; Tetzner, Die Slaven in Deutschland; Mogk in Paul's
Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, and the works cited by
Kaindl (see above).
France: Sebillot's works; Rolland, Faune populaire; Laisnel
de la Salle, Croyances et legendes.
On the Slavs see the works of Krauss and v. Wlislochi; for
Bohemia, Grohmann, Aberglaube; for Greece, Abbott, Macedonian
Folklore, and Rennell Rodd, Folklore of Greece; for Italy, Pitre's
bibliography; for India, Crooke's works, and the Indian Antiquary.
For questionnaires see Handbook of Folklore (Folklore Soc.) ; Sebillot,
Essai de questionnaires; Journal of American Folklore (1890, &c.);
and Kaindl's Volkskunde. For a bibliography of folk-tales see
Hartland, Mythology and Folk-tales; to his list may be added
Petitot's Legendes indiennes; Rand, Legends of the Micmacs;
Lummis, The Man who Married the Moon; and the publications
of the American Folklore Society. For other works see biblio-
graphies in Folklore and other periodicals. On special points may
be mentioned Miss Cox's Cinderella (Folklore Society); Kohler's
works, &c. (see also bibliography to the article TALE). For games
see Gomme, English Games; Culin, Korean Games; Rochholz,
Alcmannisches Kinderlied; Bohme, Deutsches Kinderlied; Handel-
mann, Yolks- und Kinderspiele; Jayne, String Figures, &c. ; and
the bibliography to DOLL. See also Sonnenschein's Best Books.
The following is a list of the more important Societies and publi-
cations :
England : Folklore Society ; Folksong Society ; Gipsy-lore Society.
U.S.A.: American Folklore Society.
France : Societe des traditions populaires.
Germany: Verein fur Volkskunde; Hessische Vereinigung fur
Volkskunde; and minor societies in Saxony, Silesia and other
provinces.
Austria : Verein fur osterreichische Volkskunde.
Switzerland : Schweizerische Gesettschaft filr Volkskunde.
Italy : Societa per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari.
In addition to these, the anthropological societies devote more or
less attention to folklore. Resides the publications of the societies
mentioned above, minor societies or individuals are responsible for
the following among others: Belgium, Wattonia; Poland, Wisla;
France, Melusine (1878, 1883-1901); Bohemia, Cesky Lid; Den-
mark, Dania, &c. ; Germany, Zcitschrift fur V olkerpsychologie
(1859-1890) ; Am Urguell (1890-1898). (N. W. T.)
POLLEN, AUGUST (or, as he afterwards called himself,
ADOLF) LUDWI6 (1794-1855), German poet, was born at Giessen
on the 2ist of January 1794, the son of a district judge. He
studied theology at Giessen and law at Heidelberg, and after
leaving the university edited the Elberfeld Allgemeine Zeitung.
Suspected of being connected with some radical plots, he was
imprisoned for two years in Berlin. When released in 1821 he
went to Switzerland, where he taught in the canton school at
Aarau, farmed from 1847-1854 the estate of Liebenfels in
Thurgau, and then retired to Bern, where he lived till his death
on the 26th of December 1855. Besides a number of minor
poems he wrote Harfengrusse aus Deutschland und der Schweiz
(1823) and Malegys und Vivian (1829), a knightly romance after
the fashion of the romantic school. Of his many translations,
mention may be made of the Homeric Hymns in collaboration
with R. Schwenck (1814), Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered (1818)
and Siegfrieds Tod from the Nibelungenlied (1842); he also
collected and translated Latin hymns and sacred poetry (1819).
In 1846 he published a brief collection of sonnets entitled An
die gottlosen Nichtswuteriche. This was aimed at the liberal
philosopher Arnold Ruge, and was the occasion of a literary duel
between the two authors. Pollen's posthumous poem Tristans
Eltern (1857) may also be mentioned, but his best-known work
is a collection of German poetry entitled Bildersaal deutscher
Dichtung (1827).
POLLEN, KARL (i 795-1840) , German poet and patriot, brother
of A. L. Pollen, was born at Romrod in Hesse-Darmstadt, on the
5th of September 1795. He first studied theology at Giessen,
but after the campaign of 1814, in which, like his brother
August, he took part as a Hessian volunteer, began the study of
jurisprudence, and in 1818 established himself as Privatdocent
of civil law at Giessen. Owing to being suspected of political
intrigues, he removed to Jena, and thence, after the assassination
of Kotzebue, fled to France. Here again the political murder
of the due de Berry, on the I4th of January 1820, led to Pollen
being regarded as a suspect, and he accordingly took refuge in
Switzerland, where he taught for a while at the cantonal school
at Coire and at the university of Basel; but the Prussian
authorities imperatively demanding his surrender, he sought in
1824 the hospitality of the United States of America. Here he
became an instructor in German at Harvard in 1825, and in 1830
obtained an appointment as professor of German language
and literature there; but his anti-slavery agitation having
given umbrage to the authorities, he forfeited his post in 1835,
and was ordained Unitarian minister of a chapel at Lexington in
Massachusetts in 1836. He perished at sea on board a steamboat
which was totally consumed by fire while on a voyage from
New York to Boston, on the night of the I3th-i4th of January
1840. Pollen was the author of several celebrated patriotic
songs written in the interests of liberty. The best is perhaps
Horch auf, ihr Fursten! Du Volk, horch aufl of which Johannes
Wit, called von Dorring (1800-1863), was long, though errone-
ously, considered the author. It was published in A. L. Pollen's
collection of patriotic songs, Freie Stimmen frischer Jugend.
His wife Elisa Lee (1787-1860), an American authoress of some
reputation, published after his death his lectures and sermons, with
a biography written by herself (5 vols., Boston, 1846).
FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB (1798-1845), English lawyer,
was born at Topsham in Devonshire on the 2nd of December
1798. He was the son of Captain Benjamin Follett, who had
retired from the army in 1790, and engaged in business at
Topsham. He received his education at Exeter grammar school
and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1818. He had
entered the Inner Temple in 1816 and began to practise as a
pleader below the bar in 1821, but was called to the bar in 1824,
and joined the western circuit in 1825. At the very outset
his great qualifications were universally recognized. He was
thoroughly master of his profession, and his rapid rise in it was
due not only to his quick perception and sound judgment, but
to his singular courtesy, kindness and sweetness of temper.
In 1830 he married the eldest daughter of Sir Ambrose Harding
Gifford, chief justice of Ceylon. In 1835 he was returned to
parliament for Exeter. In parliament he early distinguished
himself, and under the first administration of Sir Robert Peel
was appointed solicitor-general (November 1834) ; but resigned
with the ministry in April 1 83 5. In the course of this year he was
knighted. On the return of Peel to power in 1841 Sir William
was again appointed solicitor-general, and in April 1844 he suc-
ceeded Sir Frederick Pollock as attorney-general. But his
health, which had begun to fail him in 1838, and had been
permanently injured by a severe illness in 1841, now broke down,
and he was compelled to relinquish practice and to visit the
south of Europe. He returned to England in March 1845; but
the disease, consumption, reasserted itself, and he died in
London on the 28th of June following. A statue of Follett,
executed by Behnes, was erected by subscription in West-
minster Abbey.
FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM (1793-1872), English
journalist, descended from a noble French Huguenot family,
the Greniers of Languedoc, was born in London in 1793. John
Grenier, a banker, became naturalized in England under the
name of Fonblanque; and his son John Samuel Martin Fon-
blanque (1760-1838), a distinguished equity lawyer, and the
author of a standard legal work, a Treatise on Equity, was the
father of Albany Fonblanque; he represented the borough of
Camelford in parliament; and was one of the Whig friends of
George IV. when prince of Wales. At fourteen young Fonblanque
was sent to Woolwich to prepare for the Royal Engineers. His
health, however, failed, and for two years his studies had to be
suspended. Upon his recovery he studied for some time with a
view to being called to the bar. At the age of nineteen (1812)
he commenced writing forthe newspapers, and very soon attracted
notice both by the boldness and liberality of his opinions, and by
FOND DU LAC FONDI
603
the superiority of his style to what Macaulay, when speaking of
him, justly called the " rant and twaddle of the daily and weekly
press " of the time. While he was eagerly taking his share in all
the political struggles of this eventful period, he was also con-
tinuing his studies, devoting no less than six hours a day to the
study of classics and political philosophy. Under this severe
mental training his health once more broke down. His energy,
however, was not impaired. He became a regular contributor to
the newspapers and reviews, realizing a fair income which, as his
habits were simple and temperate, secured him against pecuniary
anxieties.
From 1820 to 1830 Albany Fonblanque was successively
employed upon the staff of The Times and the Morning Chronicle,
whilst he contributed to the Examiner, to the London Magazine
and to theWestminster Review. In 1828 theExaminer newspaper,
which had been purchased by the Rev. Dr Fellowes, author of the
Religion of the Universe, &c., was given over to Fonblanque's
complete control; and for a period of seventeen years (183010
1847) he not only sustained the high character for political in-
dependence and literary ability which the Examiner had gained
under the direction of Leigh Hunt and his brother, John Hunt,
but even compelled his political opponents to acknowledge a
certain delight in the boldness and brightness of the wit directed
against themselves. When it was proposed that the admirers
and supporters of the paper should facilitate a reduction in its
price by the payment of their subscription ten years in advance,
not only did Mr Edward Bulwer (Lord Lytton) volunteer his
aid, but also Mr Disraeli, who was then coquetting with radical-
ism. During his connexion with the Examiner, Fonblanque had
many advantageous offers of further literary employment;
but he devoted his energies and talents almost exclusively to
the service of the paper he had resolved to make a standard of
literary excellence in the world of journalism. Fonblanque was
offered the governorship of Nova Scotia; but although he took
great interest in colonial matters, and had used every effort to
advocate the more generous political system which had colonial
self-government for its goal, he decided not to abandon his
beloved Examiner even for so sympathetic an employment. In
1847, however, domestic reasons induced him to accept the post
of statistical secretary of the Board of Trade. This of course
compelled him to resign the editorship of the Examiner, but he
still continued to contribute largely to the paper, which, under the
control of John Forster, continued to sustain its influential
position. During the later years of his life Fonblanque took no
prominent part in public affairs; and when he died at the age of
seven ty-nine( 187 2)he seemed, as his nephew, EdwardFonblanque,
rightly observes, " a man who had lived and toiled in an age gone
by and in a cause long since established."
The character of Albany Fonblanque's political activity may
be judged of by a study of his England under Seven Administra-
tions (1837), in comparison with the course of social and political
events in England from 1826 to 1837. As a journalist, he must
be regarded in the light of a reformer. Journalism before his
day was regarded as a somewhat discreditable profession; men
of true culture were shy of entering the hot and dusty arena lest
they should be confounded with the ruder combatants who fought
there before the public for hire. But the fact that Fonblanque,
a man not only of strong and earnest political convictions but
also of exceptional literary ability, did not hesitate to choose this
field as a worthy one in which both a politician and a man of
letters might usefully as well as honourably put forth his best
gifts, must have helped, in no small degree, to correct the old
prejudice.
See the Life and Labours of Albany Fonblanque, edited by his
nephew, Edward Harrington de Fonblanque (London, 1874;; i
collection of his articles with a brief biographical notice.
FOND DU LAC, a city and the county-seat of Fond du Lac
county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 60 m. N. of Milwaukee, at the
S. end of Lake Winnebago, and at the mouth of the Fond (
Lac river, which is navigable for only a short distance.
(1890) 12,024; (1900) 15,110, of whom 2952 were foreign-born;
(1910) 18,797. The city is a railway centre of some importance,
and is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the
Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault St Marie, and the Chicago & North-
Western railways, by interurban electric lines, and by steamboat
lines connecting through the Fox river with vessels on the Great
Lakes. At North Fond du Lac, just beyond the city limits,
are car-shops of the two last-mentioned railways, and in the
city are manufactories of machinery, automobiles, wagons
and carriages, awnings, leather, beer, flour, refrigerators, agri-
cultural implements, toys and furniture. The total value of the
city's factory products in 1905 was $5,599,606, an increase of
95'7% since 1900. The city has a Protestant Episcopal
cathedral, the Grafton Hall school for girls, and St Agnes hospital
and convent, and a public library with about 25,000 volumes in
1908. The first settlers on the site of Fond du Lac arrived about
1835. Subsequently a village was laid out which was incorpor-.
ated in 1847; a city charter was secured in 1852.
FONDI (anc. Fundi), a town of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Caserta, 12 m. N.W. of Formia, and n m. E.N.E.
of Terracina by road. Pop. (1901) 9930. It lies 25 ft. above
sea-level, at the N. end of a plain surrounded by mountains,
which extend to the sea. It occupies the site of the ancient
Fundi, a Volscian town, belonging later to Lalium adjectum, on
the Via Appia, still represented by the modern high-road which
passes through the centre of the town. It is rectangular in plan,
and portions of its walls, partly in fine polygonal work and partly
in opus incertum, are preserved. Both plan and walls date, no
doubt, from the Roman period. The gate on the north-east still
exists, and bears the inscription of three aediles who erected the
gate, the towers and the wall. A similar inscription of three
different aediles from the N.W. gate still exists, but not in situ.
In the neighbourhood are the remains of several ancient villas,
and along the Via Appia still stands an ancient wall of opus
reliculatum, with an inscription, in large letters, of one Varroni-
anus, the letters being at intervals of 25 ft. The engineering of
the ancient Via Appia between Fondi and Formia, where it
passes through the mountains near Itri, is remarkable.
The modern town is still enclosed by the ancient walls. The
castle on the S.E. side has some 15th-century windows with
beautiful tracery. Close by is the Gothic church of S. Pietro
(formerly S. Maria), which was the cathedral until the see was
suppressed in 1818 and united with that of Gaeta; it contains
a fine pulpit with " cosmatesque " work and the fine tomb of
Cristoforo Caetani (1439), two interesting 15th-century triptychs
and an episcopal throne, which served for the coronation of the
antipope Clement VII. in 1378. In the Dominican monastery
the cell which St Thomas Aquinas sometimes occupied is shown.
The ancient city of Fundi in 338 B.C. (or 332) received (with
Formiae) the civitas sine suffragio, because it had always secured
the Romans safe passage through its territory; the people
as a whole did not join Privernum in its war against Rome three
years later, though Vitruvius Vacca, the leader, was a native of
Fundi. It acquired the full citizenship in 188 B.C., and was
partly under the control of a praefectus. The inscription upon
some waterpipes which have been discovered shows that later it
became a municipium. It was governed by three aediles:
Horace's jest against the officious praetor (sic) is due to the
exigencies of metre (Th. Mommsen in Hermes, xiii. p. 113). The
family of Livia, the consort of Augustus, belonged to Fundi.
During the Lombard invasions in 592 Fundi was temporarily
abandoned, but it seems to have come under the rule of the
papacy by A.D. 754 at any rate. Pope John VIII. ceded it with
its territory to Docibile, duke of Gaeta, but its history is some-
what intricate after this period. Sometimes it appears as an
independent countship, though held by members of the Caetani
family, who about 1297 returned to it. In 1504 it was given to
Prospero Colonna. In 1534 Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa tried to
carry off Giulia Gonzaga, countess of Fondi, and sacked the city.
After this Fondi was much neglected; in 1721 it was sold to the
Di Sangro family, in which it still remains. Its position as a
frontier town between the papal states and the kingdom of
Naples, just in the territory of the latter the Via Appia can
easily be blocked either N.W. at the actual frontier called
604
FONNI FONSECA, BAY OF
Portella ' or S.E. of it affected it a good deal during the French
Revolution and the events which led up to the unification of
Italy.
The Lago di Fondi, which lies in the middle of the plain, and
the partially drained marshes surrounding it, compelled the
ancient Via Appia, followed by the modern road, to make a
considerable detour. The lake was also known in classical times
as lacus Amyclanus, from the town of Amyclae or Amunclae,
which was founded, according to legend, by Spartan colonists,
and probably destroyed by the Oscans in the 5th century B.C.
(E. Pais in Rendiconti dei Lincei, 1906, 611 seq.); the bay was
also known as mare Amunclanum.
The ancient Speluncae (mod. Sperlonga) on the coast also
belonged to the territory of Fundi. Here was the imperial villa
in which Sejanus saved the life of Tiberius, who was almost
crushed by a fall of rock. Considerable remains of it, and of the.
caves from which it took its name, still exist i m. S.E. of the
modern village. For modern discoveries see P. di Tucci in
Notizie degli scam (1880), 480; G. Patroni, ibid. (1898), 493.
The wine of Fundi is spoken of by ancient writers, though the
ager Caecubus, the coast plain round the Lago di Fundi, was even
more renowned, and Horace frequently praises its wine; and
though Pliny the Elder speaks as if its production had almost
entirely ceased in his day (attributing this to neglect, but even
more to the excavation works of Nero's projected canal from the
lacus Avernus to Ostia), Martial mentions it often, and it is
spoken of in the inscription of a wine-dealer of the time of
Hadrian, together with Falernian and Sedan wines (Corpus
inscript. Lai. vi. Berlin, 1882, 9797). The plain of Fondi is the
northernmost point in Italy where the cultivation of oranges and
lemons is regularly carried on in modern times.
See G. Conte Colino, Storia di Fondi (Naples, 1902) ; B. Amante
and R. Bianchi, Memorie storiche e statutarie di Fondi in Campania
(Rome, 1903) ; T. Ashby, in English Historical Review, xix. (1904)
557 seq- ( T - As ')
FONNI, a town of Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, 3280 ft.
above sea-level, to the N.W. of Monte Gennargentu, 21 m. S.
of Nuoro by road. Pop. (1901) 4323. It is the highest village
in Sardinia, and situated among fine scenery with some chestnut
woods. The church of the Franciscans, built in 1708, contains
some curious paintings by local artists. The costumes are ex-
tremely picturesque, and are well seen on the day of St John the
Baptist, the patron saint. The men's costume is similar to that
worn in the district generally; the linen trousers are long and
black gaiters are worn. The women wear a white chemise;
over that a very small corselet, and over that a red jacket with
blue and black velvet facings. The skirt is brown above and
red below, with a blue band between the two colours; it is
accordion-pleated. Two identical skirts are often worn, one
above the other. The unmarried girls wear white kerchiefs,
the married women black. A little to the N. of Fonni, by the
high-road, stood the Roman station of Sorabile, mentioned in
the Antonine Itinerary as situated 87 m. from Carales on the
road to Olbia. Excavations made in 1879 and 1880 led to the
discovery of the remains of this station, arranged round three
sides of a courtyard some 100 ft. square, including traces of
baths and other buildings, and a massive embanking wall above
them, some 150 ft. in length, to protect them from landslips
(F. Vivanet, in Notizie degli scavi, 1879, 350; 1881, 31), while
a discharge certificate (tabula honestae missionis) of sailors
who had served in the classis Ravennas was found in some
ruins here or hereabouts (id. ib., 1882, 440; T. Mommsen,
Corp. inscr. Lat. x. 8325). Near Fonni, too, are several
" menhirs " (called pietre celtiche in the district) and other
prehistoric remains. (T. As.)
FONSA6RADA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province
of Lugo; 25 m. E.N.E. of Lugo by road. Pop. (1900) 17,302.
Fonsagrada is situated 3166 ft. above the sea, on the watershed
between the rivers Rodil and Suarna. It is an important markel
for all kinds of agricultural produce, and manufactures linen anc
frieze; but its trade is mainly local, owing to the mountainous
1 For the pass of Ad Lautulas see TERRACINA.
character of the neighbourhood, and the lack of a railway or
navigable waterway, which prevent the development of any
considerable export trade.
FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA (1827-1892), first
president of the united states of Brazil, was born at Alagoas
on the 5th of August 1827, being the third son of Lieut.-Colonel
Manoel Mendes da Fonseca (d. 1859). He was educated at
;he military school of Rio de Janeiro, and had attained the rank
of captain in the Brazilian army when war broke out in 1864
against Montevideo, and afterwards against Solano Lopez,
dictator of Paraguay. His courage gained him distinction, and
aefore the close of the war in 1870 he reached the rank of colonel,
and some years later that of general of division. After holding
several military commands, he was appointed in 1886 governor
of the province of Rio Grande do Sul. In this position he threw
himself heartily into politics, espoused the republican opinions
then becoming prevalent, and sheltered their exponents with
his authority. After a fruitless remonstrance, the government
at the close of the year removed him from his post, and recalled
him to the capital as director of the service of army material.
Finding that even in that post he still continued to encourage
insubordination, the minister of war, Alfredo Chaves, dismissed
him from office. On i4th of May 1887, in conjunction with the
viscount de Pelotas, Fonseca issued a manifesto in defence of
the military officers' political rights. From that time his influence
was supreme in the army. In December 1888, when the Con-
servative Correa d'Oliveira became prime minister, Fonseca was
appointed to command an army corps on the frontier of Matto
Grosso. In June 1889 the ministry was overthrown, and on a
dissolution an overwhelming Liberal majority was returned to
the chamber of deputies. Fonseca returned to the capital in
September. Divisions of opinion soon arose within the Liberal
party on the question of provincial autonomy. The more
extreme desired the inauguration of a complete federal system.
Amongst the most vehement was Ruy Barbosa, the journalist
and orator, and after some difficulty he persuaded Fonseca to-
head an armed movement against the government. The insur-
rection broke out on the i5th of November 1889. The govern-
ment commander, Almeida Barreto, hastened to place himself
under Fonseca's orders, and the soldiers and sailors made
common cause with the insurgents. The affair was almost
bloodless, the minister of marine, baron de Ladario, being the
only person wounded. Fonseca had only intended to overturn
the ministry, but he yielded to the insistency of the republican
leaders and proclaimed a republic. A provisional government
was constituted by the army and navy in the name of the nation,
with Fonseca at its head. The council was abolished, and both
the senate and the chamber of deputies were dissolved. The
emperor was requested to leave the territory of Brazil within
twenty-four hours, and on the i7th of November was embarked
on a cruiser for Lisbon. On the 2oth of December a decree of
banishment was pronounced against the imperial family. Sa
universal was the republican sentiment that there was no attempt
at armed resistance. The provisional government exercised
dictatorial powers for a year, and on the 25th of February 1891
Fonseca was elected president of the republic. He was, however,
no politician, and possessed indeed little ability beyond the art
of acquiring popularity. His tenure of office was short. In
May be became involved in an altercation with congress, and in
November pronounced its dissolution, a measure beyond his
constitutional power. After a few days of arbitrary rule insur-
rection broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, and before the close of
November Fonseca, finding himself forsaken, resigned his office.
From that time he lived in retirement. He died at Rio de
Janeiro on the 23rd of August 1892.
FONSECA, AMAPALA or CONCHAGUA, BAY OF, an inlet of the
Pacific Ocean in the volcanic region between the Central American
republics of Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua. The bay is
unsurpassed in extent and security by any other harbour on
the Pacific. It is upwards of 50 m. in greatest length, by about
30 m. in average width, with an entrance from the sea about
18 m. wide, between the great volcanoes of Conchagua (3800 ft.)
FONT
605
and Coseguina (3000 ft.). The lofty islands of Conchaguita
and Mianguiri, with a collection of rocks called " Los Farellones,"
divide the entrance into four distinct channels, each of sufficient
depth for the largest vessels. A channel called " El Estero
Real " extends from the extreme southern point of the bay into
Nicaragua for about 50 m., reaching within 20 or 25 m. of Lake
Managua. The principal islands in the bay are Sacate Grande,
Tigre, Gueguensi and Esposescion belonging to Honduras,
and Martin Perez, Punta Sacate, Conchaguita and Mianguiri
belonging to Salvador. Of these Sacate Grande is the largest,
being about 7 m. long by 4 broad. The island of Tigre from its
position is the most important in the bay, being about 20 m.
in circumference, and rising in a cone to the height of 2500 ft.
On the southern and eastern shores of the island the lava forms
black rocky barriers to the waves, varying in height from 10
to 80 ft.; but on the northward and eastward are a number
of playas or smooth, sandy beaches. Facing one of the most
considerable of these is the port of Amapala (q.v.). Fonseca
Bay was discovered in 1522 by Gil Gonzalez de Avila, and named
by him after his patron, Archbishop Juan Fonseca, the implacable
enemy of Columbus.
FONT (Lat. fans, " fountain " or " spring," Ital. fonle, Fr.
les fonts), the vessel used in churches to hold the water for
Christian baptism. In the apostolic period baptism was ad-
ministered at rivers or natural springs (cf. Acts viii. 36), and no
doubt the primitive form of the rite was by immersion in the
water. Infusion pouring water on the head of the neophyte
was early introduced into the west and north of Europe on
account of the inconvenience of immersion, as well as its occasional
danger; this form has never been countenanced in the Oriental
churches. Aspersion, or sprinkling, was also admitted as valid,
but recorded early examples of its use are rare (see BAPTISM).
These different modes of administering baptism have caused
corresponding changes in the receptacles for the water. After
the cessation of persecution, when ritual and ornament began
to develop openly, special buildings were erected for administering
the rite of baptism. This was obviously necessary, for a large
piscina (basin or tank) in which candidates could be immersed
would occupy too much space of the church floor itself. These
baptisteries consisted of tanks entered by steps (an ascent of
three, and descent of four, to the water was the normal but not
the invariable number) and covered with a domed chamber
(see BAPTISTERY).
By the gth century, however, the use of separate baptisteries
had generally given place to that of fonts. The material of
which these were made was stone, often decorative marble;
as early as 524, however, the council of Lerida enacted that if a
stone font were not procurable the presbyter was to provide
a suitable vessel, to be used for the sacrament exclusively, which
might be of any material. In the Eastern Church the font
never became an important decorative article of church furniture :
" The font, KoXu^Wpa (says Neale, Eastern Church, i. 214), in
the Eastern Church is a far less conspicuous object than it is in
the West. Baptism by immersion has been retained; but the
font seldom or never possesses any beauty. The material is
usually either metal or wood. In Russia the columbethra is
movable and only brought out when wanted."
One of the most elaborate of early fonts is that described by
Anastasius in the Lateran church at Rome, and said to have been
presented thereto by Constantine the Great. It was of porphyry,
overlaid with silver inside and out. In the middle were two
porphyry pillars carrying a golden dish, on which burnt the
Paschal lamp (having an asbestos wick and fed with balsam).
On the rim of the bowl was a golden lamb, with silver statues
of Christ and St. John the Baptist. Seven silver stags poured
out water. This elaborate vessel was of course exceptional;
the majority of early fonts were certainly much simpler. A fine
early Byzantine stone example exists, or till recently existed,
at Beer-Sheba.
Few if any fonts survive older than the nth century,
are all of stone, except a few of lead; much less common are
fonts of cast bronze (a fine example, dated 1112, exists at the
Church of St Barthelemy, Li6ge). The most ancient are plain
cylindrical bowls, with a circular sometimes cruciform or
quatrefoil outline to the basin, either without support or with
a single central pillar; occasionally there is more than one pillar.
The basins are usually lined with lead to prevent absorption
by the stone. The church of Efenechtyd, Denbigh, possesses
an ancient font made of a single block of oak. Though the
circular form is the commonest, early Romanesque fonts are not
infrequently square; and sometimes an inverted truncated cone
is found. Octagonal fonts are also known, though uncommon;
hexagons are even less common, and pentagons very rare.
There is a pentagonal font of this period at Cabourg, dept.
Calvados, N. France.
Fonts early began to be decorated with sculpture and relief.
Arcading and interlacing work are common; so are symbol and
pictorial representation. A very remarkable leaden font is
preserved at Strassburg, bearing reliefs representing scenes in
the life of Christ. At Pont-a-Mousson on the Moselle are bas-
reliefs of St John the Baptist preaching, and baptizing Christ.
Caryatides sometimes take the place of the pillars, and sculp-
tured animals and grotesques of strange design not infrequently
form the base. More remarkable is the occasional persistence
of pagan symbolism; an interesting example is the very ancient
font from Ottrava, Sweden, which, among a series of Christian
symbols and figures on its panels, bears a representation of Thor
(see G. Stephens' brochure, Thunor the Thunderer).
In the I3th century octagonal fonts became commoner. A
very remarkable example exists at the cathedral of Hildesheim
in Hanover, resting on four kneeling figures, each bearing a vase
from which water is running (typical of the rivers of Paradise).
Above is an inscription explaining the connexion of these rivers
with the virtues of temperance, courage, justice and prudence.
On the sides of the cup are representations of the passage of the
Jordan, of the Red Sea, the Baptism of Christ, and the Virgin
and Child. The font has a conical lid, also ornamented with
bas-reliefs. A cast of this font is to be seen in the Victoria and
Albert Museum at South Kensington. A leaden font, with figures
of Our Lord, the Virgin Mary, St Martin, and the twelve Apostles,
exists at Mainz; it is dated 1328 by a set of four leonine hexa-
meters inscribed upon it. In the i4th and succeeding centuries
octagonal fonts became the rule. They are delicately ornamented
with mouldings and similar decorations, in the contemporary
style of Gothic architectural art. Though the basin is usually
circular in 15th-century fonts, examples are not infrequently
found in which the outline of the basin follows the octagonal
shape of the outer surface of the vessel. Examples of this type
are to be found at Strassburg, Freiburg and Basel.
In England no fonts can certainly be said to date before the
Norman conquest, although it is possible that a few very rude
examples, such as those of Washaway, Cornwall, and Denton,
Sussex, are actually of Saxon times; of course we cannot count
as " Saxon fonts " those adapted from pre-Norman sculptured
stones originally designed for other purposes, such as that at
Dolton, Devonshire. On the other hand, Norman fonts are very
common, and are often the sole surviving relics of the Norman
parish church. They are circular or square, sometimes plain,
but generally covered with carving of arcades, figures, foliage,
&c. Among good examples that might be instanced of this
period are Alphington, Devon (inverted cone, without foot);
Stoke Cannon, Devon (supported on caryatides); Ham, Staffs
(cup-shaped); Fincham, Burnham Deepdale, Sculthorpe,
Toftrees, and Shernborne in Norfolk (all, especially the last,
remarkable for elaborate carving); Youlgrave, Derby (with a
projecting stoup in the side for the chrism a unique detail);
besides others in Lincoln cathedral; Iffley, Oxon; Newenden,
Kent; Coleshill, Warwick; East Meon, Hants; Castle Frome,
Herefordshire. Some of the best examples of " Norman "
fonts in England (such as the notable specimen in Winchester
cathedral) were probably imported from Belgium. In the
Transitional period we may mention a remarkable octagonal font
at Belton, Lincolnshire; in this period fall most of the leaden
fonts that remain in England, of which thirty are known (7 in
6o6
FONTAINE, P. F. L. FONTAINEBLEAU
Gloucestershire, 4 in Berkshire and Kent, 3 in Norfolk, Oxford
and Sussex, i in Derby, Dorset, Lincoln, Somerset, Surrey and
Wiltshire); perhaps the finest examples are at Ashover, Derby-
shire, and Walton, Surrey. Early English fonts are com-
paratively rare. They bear the moulding, foliage and tooth
ornament in the usual .style of the period. A good example of
an Early English font is at All Saints, Leicester; others may be
seen at St Giles', Oxford, and at Lackford, Suffolk. Fonts of the
Decorated period are commoner, but not so frequent as those of
the preceding Norman or subsequent Perpendicular periods.
Fonts of the Perpendicular period are very common, and are
generally raised upon steps and a lofty stem, which, together with
the body of the font, are frequently richly ornamented with
panelling. It was also the custom during this period to ornament
the font with shields and coats of arms and other heraldic
insignia, as at Herne, Kent. The fonts of this period, however,
are as a rule devoid of interest, and, like most Perpendicular
work, are stiff and monotonous. There is, however, a remarkable
font, with sculptured figures, belonging to the late I4th century,
at West Drayton in Middlesex.
In Holyrood chapel there was a brazen font in which the royal
children of Scotland were baptized. It was carried off in 1544
by Sir R. Lea, and given by him to the church at St Albans,
but was afterwards destroyed by the Puritans. A silver font
existed at Canterbury, which was sometimes brought to West-
minster on the occasion of a royal baptism. At Chobham,
Surrey, there is a leaden font covered with oaken panels of the
1 6th century. The only existing structure at all recalling the
ancient baptisteries in English churches is found at Luton in
Bedfordshire. The font at Luton belongs to the Decorated
style, and is enclosed in an octagonal structure of freestone,
consisting of eight pillars about 25 ft. in height, supporting a
canopy. The space around the font is large enough to hold
twelve adults comfortably. At the top of the canopy is a vessel
for containing the consecrated water, which when required was
let down into the font by means of a pipe.
In 1236 it was ordered by Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury,
that baptismal fonts should be kept under lock and key, as a
precaution against sorcery: " Fontes baptismales sub sera
clausi teneantUr propter sortilegia." The lids appear at first to
have been quite simple and flat. They gradually, however,
partook of the ornamentation of the font itself, and are often
of pyramidal and conical forms, highly decorated with finials,
crockets, mouldings and grotesques. Sometimes these covers are
very heavy and are suspended by chains to enable them to be
raised at will. Very rich font covers may be seen at Ewelme,
Oxon; St Gregory, Sudbury; North Walsingham, Norfolk;
Worlingworth, Suffolk. The ordinary position of the font in
the church was and is near the entrance, usually to the left of
the south door.
See Arcisse de Caumpnt, Cours d'antiquites monumentales (Paris,
1830-1843); Francis Simpson, A Serits of Antient. Baptismal Fonts
(London, 1828); Paley, Ancient Fonts; E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Diet,
raisonne de V architecture (1858-1868), vol. v. ; J. H. Parker's Glossary
of Architecture', Francis Bond, Fonts and Font-Covers (London, 1908).
A large number of fine illustrations of fonts, principally of the earlier
periods, will be found in the volumes of the Reliquar y and Illustrated
Archaeologist. (R. A. S. M.)
FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANCOIS LEONARD (1762-1853),
French architect, was born at Pontoise on the 2oth of September
1762. He came of a family several of whose members had dis-
tinguished themselves as architects. Leaving the college of
Pontoise at the age of sixteen he was sent to L'Isle-Adam to
assist in hydraulic works undertaken by the architect Andre.
To facilitate his improvement Andre allowed him to have access
to his plans and to copy his designs. In October 1779 he was
sent to Paris to study in the school of Peyre the younger, and
there began his acquaintance with Percier, which ripened into
a life-long friendship. After six years of study he competed
for a prize at the Academy, and, winning the second for the plan
of an underground chapel, he received a pension and was sent
to Rome (1785). Percier accompanied him. The Revolution
breaking out soon after his return to France, he took refuge in
England; but after the establishment of the consulate he was
employed by Bonaparte, to whom he had been introduced by
the painter, David, to restore the palace of Malmaison. Hence-
forth he was fully engaged in the principal architectural works
executed in Paris as architect successively to Napoleon I.,
Louis XVIII. and Louis Philippe. In conjunction with Percier
(till his death) he was employed on the arch of the Carrousel,
the restoration of the Palais-Royal, the grand staircase of the
Louvre, and the works projected for the union of the Louvre and
the Tuileries. In 181 2 he was admitted a member of the Academy
of Fine Arts, and in 1813 was named first architect to the
emperor. With Percier he published the following works
Palais, maisons, et autres edifices de Rome moderne (1802);
Descriptions de ceremonies et de files (1807 and 1810); Recueil
de decorations interieures (1812); Choix des plus celebres maisons
de plaisance de Rome et des environs (1809-1813); Residences
des souverains, Parallele (1833). L'histoire du Palais-Royal was
published by Fontaine alone, who lost Percier, his friend and
associate, in 1838, and himself died in Paris on the loth of
October 1853.
FONTAINEBLEAU, a town of northern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Marne, 37m. S.E.
of Paris on the railway to Lyons. Pop. ( 1 906) 1 1 , 1 08. Fontaine-
bleau, a town of clean, wide and well-built streets, stands in the
midst of the forest of Fontainebleau, nearly 2 m. from the left
bank of the Seine. Of its old houses, the Tambour mansion, and
a portion of that which belonged to the cardinal of Ferrara,
both of the i6th century, are still preserved; apart from the
palace, the public buildings are without interest. A statue of
General Damesme (d. 1848) stands in the principal square, and a
monument to President Carnot was erected in 1895. Fontaine-
.bleau is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first
instance and a communal college. The school of practical
artillery and engineering was transferred to Fontainebleau from
Metz by a decree of 1871, and now occupies the part of the palace
surrounding the cour des offices.
Fontainebleau has quarries of sand and sandstone, saw-mills,
and manufactories of porcelain and gloves. Fine grapes are
grown in the vicinity. The town is a fashionable summer resort,
and during the season the president of the Republic frequently
resides in the palace. This famous building, one of the largest,
and in the interior one of the most sumptuous, of the royal
residences of France, lies immediately to the south-east of the
town. It consists of a series of courts surrounded by buildings,
extending from W. to E.N.E.; they comprise the Cour du
Cheval Blanc or des Adieux (thus named in memory of the parting
scene between Napoleon and the Old Guard in 1814), the Cour
de la Fontaine, the Cour Ovale, built on the site of a more
ancient chateau, and the Cour d' Henri IV.: the smaller Cour
des Princes adjoins the northern wing of the Cour Ovale. The
exact origin of the palace and of its name (Lat. Fans Bleaudi)
are equally unknown, but the older chateau was used in the
latter part of the i2th century by Louis VII., who caused Thomas
Becket to consecrate the Chapelle St Saturnin, and it continued
a favourite residence of Philip Augustus and Louis IX. The
creator of the present edifice was Francis I., under whom the
architect Gilles le Breton erected most of the buildings of the
Cour Ovale, including the Porte Doree, its southern entrance,
and the Salle des Fetes, which, in the reign of Henry II., was
decorated by the Italians, Francesco Primaticcio and Nicolo
dell' Abbate, and is perhaps the finest Renaissance chamber in
France. The Galerie de Franf ois I. and the lower storey of the
left wing of the Cour de la Fontaine are the work of the same
architect, who also rebuilt the two-storeyed Chapelle St Saturnin.
In the same reign the Cour du Cheval Blanc, including the
Chapelle de la Ste Trinite and the Galerie d'Ulys'se, destroyed
and rebuilt under Louis XV., was constructed by Pierre
Chambiges. After Francis I., Fontainebleau owes most to Henry
IV., to whom are due the Cour d' Henri IV., the Cour des Princes,
with the adjoining Galerie 'de Diane, and Galerie des Cerfs, used
as a library. Louis XIII. built the graceful horseshoe staircase
in the Cour du Cheval Blanc; Napoleon I. spent 12, 000,000 francs
FONTAN, L. M. FONTANA, P.
607
on works of restoration, and Louis XVIII., Louis Philippe and
Napoleon III. devoted considerable sums to the same end. The
palace is surrounded by gardens and ornamental waters to the
north the Jardin de POrangerie, to the south the Jardin Anglais
and the Parterre, between which extends the lake known as the
Bassin des Carpes, containing carp in large numbers. A space
of over 200 acres to the east of the palace is covered by the park,
which is traversed by a canal dating from the reign of Henry IV.
On the north the park is bordered by a vinery producing fine
white grapes.
Forest of Fontainebleau. The forest of Fontainebleau is one
of the most beautiful wooded tracts in France, and for generations
it has been the chosen haunt of French landscape painters.
Among the most celebrated spots are the Vallee de la Solle,
the Gorge aux Loups, the Gorges de Franchard and d'Apremont,
and the Fort 1'Empereur. The whole area extends to 42,200
acres, with a circumference of 56 m. Nearly a quarter of this
area is of a rocky nature, and the quarries of sandstone supplied
a large part of the paving of Paris. The oak, pine, beech, horn-
beam and birch are the chief varieties of trees.
It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the historical
events which have taken place at Fontainebleau. Philip the
Fair, Henry III. and Louis XIII. were all born in the palace,
and the first of these kings died there. James V. of Scotland
was there received by his intended bride; and Charles V. of
Germany was entertained there in 1539. Christina of Sweden
lived there for years, and the gallery is still to be seen where in
1657 she caused her secretary Monaldeschi to be put to death.
In 1685 Fontainebleau saw the signing of the revocation of
the edict of Nantes, and in the following year the death of the
great Conde. In the i8th century it had two illustrious guests
in Peter the Great of Russia and Christian VII. of Denmark;
and in the early part of the igth century it was twice the residence
of Pius VII., in 1804 when he came to consecrate the emperor
Napoleon, and in 1812-1814, when he was his prisoner.
See Pfnor, Monographic de Fontainebleau, with text by Cham-
pollion Figeac (Paris, 1866); Guide artistique et historique au palais
de Fontainebleau (Paris, 1889); E. Bourges, Recherches sur Fontaine-
bleau (Fontainebleau, 1896).
FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE (1801-1839), French man of letters,
was born at Lorient on the 4th of November 1801. He began
his career as a clerk in a government office, but was dismissed
for taking part in a political banquet. At the age of nineteen
he went to Paris and began to contribute to the Tablettes and
the Album. He was brought to trial for political articles written
for the latter paper, but defended himself so energetically that
he secured the indefinite postponement of his case. The offending
paper was suppressed for a time, and Fontan produced a collection
of political poems, Odes et epllres, and a number of plays, of
which Perkins Warbec (1828), written in collaboration with
MM. Halevy and Drouineau, was the most successful. In 1828
the Album was revived, and in it Fontan published a virulent
but witty attack on Charles X., entitled Le Mouton enragf.
(soth June 1829). To escape the inevitable prosecution Fontan
fled over the frontier, but, finding no safe asylum, he returned
to Paris to give himself up to the authorities, and was sentenced
to five years' imprisonment and a heavy fine. He was liberated
by the revolution of 1830, and his Jeanne la folk, performed in
the same year, gained a success due perhaps more to sympathy
with the author's political principles than to the merits of the
piece itself, a somewhat crude and violent picture of Breton
history. A drama representing the trial of Marshal Ney, whicl
he wrote in collaboration with Charles Dupenty, Le Prods d un
marechal de France (printed 1831), was suppressed on the
night of its production. Fontan died in Paris on the
AVmpatl'e'tic portrait of Fontan as a prisoner, and an analysis
of his principal works, are to be found in Jules Janm's Histotre de la,
litterature dramatique, vol. i. .
FONTANA, DOMENICO (1543-1607), Italian architect
mechanician, was born at Mili, a village on the Lake of Como, in
i=;4l After a good training in mathematics, he went m 1303
to join his elder brother, then studying architecture at Rome.
He made rapid progress, and was taken into the service of
Cardinal Montalto, for whom he erected a chapel in the church of
Santa Maria Maggiore and the villa Negroni. When the cardinal's
pension was stopped by the pope, Gregory XIII., Fontana
volunteered to complete the works in hand at his own expense.
The cardinal being soon after elected pope, under the name of
Sixtus V., he immediately appointed Fontana his chief architect.
Amongst the works executed by him were the Lateran palace,
the palace of Monte Cavallo (the Quirinal), the Vatican library,
&c. But the undertaking which brought Fontana the highest
repute was the removal of the great Egyptian obelisk, which
had been brought to Rome in the reign of Caligula, from the place
where it lay in the circus of the Vatican. Its erection in front
of St Peter's he accomplished in 1586. After the death of Sixtus
V., charges were brought against Fontana of misappropriation
of public moneys, and Clement VIII. dismissed him from his
post (1592). This appears to have been just in time to save
the Colosseum from being converted by Fontana into a huge
cloth factory, according to a project of Sixtus V. Fontana was
then called to Naples, and accepted the appointment of architect
to the viceroy, the count of Miranda. At Naples he built the
royal palace, constructed several canals and projected a new
harbour and bridge, which he did not live to execute. The only
literary work left by him is his account of the removal of the
obelisk (Rome, 1590). He died at Naples in 1607, and was
honoured with a public funeral in the church of Santa Anna.
His plan for a new harbour at Naples was carried out only after
his death. His son Giulio Cesare succeeded him as royal architect
in Naples, the university of that town being his best-known
building.
FONTANA, LAVINIA (1552-1614), Italian portrait-painter,
was the daughter of Prospero Fontana (<?..). She was greatly
employed by the ladies of Bologna, and, going thence to Rome,
painted the likenesses of many illustrious personages, being under
the particular patronage of the family (Buoncampagni) of Pope
Gregory XIII., who died in 1585. The Roman ladies, from the
days of this pontiff to those of Paul V., elected in 1605, showed
no less favour to Lavinia than their Bolognese sisters had done;
and Paul V. was himself among her sitters. Some of her portraits,
often lavishly paid for, have been attributed to Guido. In works
of a different kind also she united care and delicacy with boldness.
Among the chief of these are a Venus in the Berlin museum;
the " Virgin lifting a veil from the sleeping infant Christ," in the
Escorial; and the " Queen of Sheba visiting Solomon." Her
own portrait in youth she was accounted very beautiful was
perhaps her masterpiece; it belongs to the counts Zappi of
Imola, the family into which Lavinia married. Her husband,
whose name is given as Paolo Zappi or Paolo Foppa, painted the
draperies in many of Lavinia's pictures. She is deemed on the
whole a better painter than her father; from him naturally
came her first instruction, but she gradually adopted the Carac-
cesque style, with strong quasi-Venetian colouring. She was
elected into the Academy of Rome, and died in that city in 1614.
FONTANA, PROSPERO (1512-1597), Italian painter, was
born in Bologna, and became a pupil of Innocenzo da Imola.
He afterwards worked for Vasari and Perino del Vaga. It was
probably from Vasari that Fontana acquired a practice of off-
hand, self-displaying work. He undertook a multitude of com-
missions, and was so rapid, that he painted, it is said, in a few
weeks an entire hall in the Vitelli palace at Citta di Castello.
Along with daring, he had fertility of combination, and in works
of parade he attained a certain measure of success, although his
drawing was incorrect and his mannerism palpable. He belongs
to the degenerate period of the Bolognese school, under the
influence chiefly of the imitators of Raphael Sabbatini, Sam-
macru'ni and Passerotti being three of his principal colleagues.
His soundest successes were in portraiture, in which branch of
art he stood so high that towards 1550 Michelangelo introduced
him to Pope Julius III. as a portrait-painter; and he was
pensioned by this pope, and remained at the pontifical court
with the three successors of Julius. Here he lived on a grand
scale, and figured as a sort of arbiter and oracle among his
6o8
FONTANE, T. FONTENELLE, B. DE
professional brethren. Returning to Bologna, after doing some
work in Fontainebleau and in Genoa, he opened a school of art,
in which he became the preceptor of Lodovico and Agostino
Caracci; but these pupils, standing forth as reformers and
innovators, finally extinguished the academy and the vogue of
Fontana. His subjects were in the way of sacred and profane
history and of fable. He has left a large quantity of work in
Bologna, the picture of the " Adoration of the Magi," in the
church of S. Maria delle Grazie, being considered his masterpiece
not unlike the style of Paul Veronese. He died in Rome in
1597-
FONTANE, THEODOR (1819-1898), German poet and novelist,
was born at Neu-Ruppin on the 3oth of December 1819. At
the age of sixteen he was apprenticed to a chemist, and after
qualifying as an apothecary, he found employment in Leipzig
and Dresden. In 1844 he travelled in England, and settling
in Berlin devoted himself from 1849 to literature. He made
repeated journeys to England, interesting himself in old English
ballads, and as the firstfruits of his tours published Ein Sommer
in London (1854); Aus England, Sludien und Brief e (1860) and
Jenseil des Tweed, Bilder und Briefe aus Schottland (1860).
Fontane was particularly attached to the Mark of Brandenburg,
in which his home lay; he was proud of its past achievements,
and delighted in the growth of the capital city, Berlin. The
fascination which the country of his birth had for him may be
seen in his delightfully picturesque Wanderungen durch die Mark
Brandenburg (1862-1882, 4 vols.). He also described the wars of
Prussia in Der schleswig-holsteinische Krieg im Jahre 1864 (1866)
and Der deutsche Krieg von 1866 (1869). He proceeded to the
theatre of war in 1870, and, being taken prisoner at Vaucouleurs,
remained three months in captivity. His experiences he narrates
in Kriegsgefangen. Erlebtes 1870 (1871), and he published the
result of his observations of the campaign in Der Krieg gegen
Frankreich 1870-71 (1874-1876). Like most of his contempo-
raries, he at first sought inspiration for his poetry in the heroes
of other countries. His Gedichte (1851) and ballads Manner und
Helden (1860) tell of England's glories in bygone days. Then the
achievements of his own countrymen entered into rivalry, and
these, as an ardent patriot, he immortalized in poem and narra-
tive. It is, however, as a novelist that Fontane is best known.
His fine historical romance Vor dent Sturm (1878) was followed
by a series of novels of modern life: L'Adultera (1882); Schach
von Wuthenoiv (1883); Irrungen, Wirrungen (1888); Stine (1890);
Unwiederbringlich (1891); Effi Briest (1895); Der Stechlin (1899),
in which with fine literary tact Fontane adapted the realistic
methods and social criticism of contemporary French fiction to
the conditions of Prussian life. He died on the zoth of September
1898 at Berlin.
Fontane's Gesammelte Romane und Erzdhlungen were published in
12 vols. (1890-1891; 2nd ed., 1905). For his life see the auto-
biographical works Meine Kinderjahre (1894) a "d Von zwanzig bis
dreissig (1898), also Briefe an seine Familie (1905) ; also F. Servaes,
Theodor Fontane (1900).
FONTANES, LOUIS, MARQUIS DE (1757-1821), French poet and
politician, was born at Niort (Deux Sevres) on the 6th of March
1757. He belonged to a noble Protestant family of Languedoc
which had been reduced to poverty by the revocation of the edict
of Nantes. His father and grandfather remained Protestant,
but he was himself brought up as a Catholic. His parents died
in 1774-1775, and in 1777 Fontanes went to Paris, where he
found a friend in the dramatist J. F. Ducis. His first published
poems, some of which were inspired by English models, appeared
in the Almanack des Muses; " Le Cri de mon cceur," describing
his own sad childhood, in 1778; and " La Foret de Navarre "
in 1780. His translation from Alexander Pope, L'Essai sur
I'homme, was published with an elaborate preface in 1783, and
La Chartreuse and Le Jour des marts in the same year,
Le Verger in 1788 and his Epttre sur I' edit en faveur des
non-catholiques, and the Essai sur I' astronomie in 1789.
Fontanes was a moderate reformer, and in 1790 he became
joint-editor of the Moderateur. He married at Lyons in 1792,
and his wife's first child was born during their flight from the
siege of that town. Fontanes was in hiding in Paris when the four
citizens of Lyons were sent to the Convention to protest against
the cruelties of Collot d'Herbois. The petition was drawn up
by Fontanes, and the authorship being discovered, he fled from
Paris and found shelter at Sevran, near Livry, and afterwards
at Andelys. On the fall of Robespierre he was made professor
of literature in the Ecole Centrale des Quatre-Nations, and he
was one of the original members of the Institute. In the
Memorial, a journal edited by La Harpe, he discreetly advocated
reaction to the monarchical principle. He was exiled by the
Directory and made his way to London, where he was closely
associated with Chateaubriand. He soon returned to France,
and his admiration for Napoleon, who commissioned him to
write an eloge on Washington, secured his return to the Institute
and his political promotion. In 1802 he was elected to the legis-
lative chamber, of which he was president from 1804 to 1810.
Other honours and titles followed. He has been accused of
servility to Napoleon, but he had the courage to remonstrate
with him on the judicial murder of the due d'Enghien, and as
grand master of the university of Paris (1808-1815) he con-
sistently supported religious and monarchical principles. He
acquiesced in the Bourbon restoration, and was made a marquis
in 1817. He died on the i7th of March 1821 in Paris, leaving
eight cantos of an unfinished epic poem entitled La Grece sauvee.
The verse of Fontanes is polished and musical in the style of
the 1 8th century. It was not collected until 1839, when Sainte-
Beuve edited the CEuvres (2 vols.) of Fontanes, with a sym-
pathetic critical study of the author and his career. But by
that time the Romantic movement was in the ascendant and
Fontanes met with small appreciation.
FONTENAY-LE-COMTE, a town of western France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Vendee 30 m. N.E.
of La Rochelle on the State railway between that town and
Saumur. Pop. (1906) town, 7639; commune, 10,326. Fontenay,
an ancient and straggling town, is situated a few miles south of
the forest of Vouvant and on both banks of the Vendee, at the
point where it becomes navigable. The church of Notre-Dame
(i5th to i8th centuries), which has a fine spire and a richly
sculptured western entrance, and the church of St Jean (i6th
and 1 7th centuries) are the chief religious buildings. The town
has several houses of the i6th and i7th centuries. The most
remarkable of these is the Hdtel de Terre Neuve (1595-1600),
which contains much rich decoration together with collections
of furniture and tapestry. Fontenay was the birthplace of many
prominent men during the isth and i6th centuries, and the
Fontaine des Quatre-Tias, a fountain in the Renaissance style,
given to the town by King Francis I., commemorates the fact.
The chief square is named after Francois Viete, the great
mathematician, who was born at Fontenay in 1540. The public
institutions of the town include a tribunal of first instance and
a communal college. Among its industries are the manufacture
of felt hats, oil and soap and timber-sawing, flour-milling and
tanning. There is trade in horses, mules, timber, grain, fruit, &c.
Fontenay was in existence as early as the time of the Gauls.
The affix of " comte " is said to have been applied to it when it
was taken by King Louis IX. from the family of Lusignan and
given to his brother Alphonse, count of Poitou, under whom
it became capital of Bas-Poitou. Ceded to the English by the
treaty of Bretigny in 1360 it was retaken in 1372 by Duguesclin.
It suffered repeated capture during the Religious Wars of the
1 6th century, was dismantled in 1621 and was occupied both
by the republicans and the Vendeans in the war of 1793. From
1790 to 1806 it was capital of the department of Vendee.
FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE (1657-1757),
French author, was born at Rouen, on the nth of February
1657. He died in Paris, on the Qth of January 1757, having
thus very nearly attained the age of 100 years. His father was
an advocate settled in Rouen, his mother a sister of the two
Corneille. He was educated at the college of the Jesuits in his
native city, and distinguished himself by the extraordinary
precocity and versatility of his talents. His teachers, who
readily appreciated these, were anxious for him to join their
FONTENOY
order, but his father had designed him for the bar, and an
advocate accordingly he became; but, having lost the first
cause which was entrusted to him, he soon abandoned law and
gave himself wholly to literary pursuits. His attention was
first directed to poetry; and more- than once he competed for
prizes of the French Academy, but never with success. He
visited Paris from time to time and established intimate relations
with the abbe de Saint Pierre, the abbe Vertot and the mathe-
matician Pierre Varignon. He witnessed, in 1680, the total
failure of his tragedy Aspar. Fontenelle afterwards acknowledged
the justice of the public verdict by burning his unfortunate
drama. His opera of Thetis et Pelee, 1689, though highly praised
by Voltaire, cannot be said to rise much above the others; and
it may be regarded as significant that of all his dramatic
works not one has kept the stage. His Poesies pastorales
(1688) have no greater claim to permanent repute, being char-
acterized by stiffness and affectation; and the utmost that can
be said for his poetry in general is that it displays much of the
limae labor, great purity of diction and occasional felicity of
expression.
His Leltres galantes du chevalier d'Her . . ., published
anonymously in 1685, was an amusing collection of stories that
immediately made its mark. In 1686 his famous allegory of
Rome and Geneva, slightly disguised as the rival princesses
Mreo and Eenegu, in the Relation de I'ile de BornSo, gave proof
of his daring in religious matters. But it was by his Nouveaux
Dialogues des marts (1683) that Fontenelle established a genuine
claim to high literary rank; and that claim was enhanced three
years later by the appearance of the Enlrelicns sur la plurality
des mond.es (1686), a work which was among the very first
to illustrate the possibility of being scientific without being
either uninteresting or unintelligible to the ordinary reader.
His object was to popularize among his countrymen the astro-
nomical theories of Descartes; and it may well be doubted if
that philosopher ever ranked a more ingenious or successful
expositor among his disciples.
Hitherto Fontenelle had made his home in Rouen, but in 1687
he removed to Paris; and in the same year he published his
Hisloire des oracles, a book which made a considerable stir in
theological and philosophical circles. It consisted of two essays,
the first of which was designed to prove that oracles were not
given by the supernatural agency of demons, and the second
that they did not cease with the birth of Christ. It excited the
suspicion of the Church, and a Jesuit, by name Baltus, published
a ponderous refutation of it; but the peace-loving disposition
of its author impelled him to leave his opponent unanswered.
To the following year (1688) belongs his Digression sur les
anciens et les modernes, in which he took the modern side in
the controversy then raging; his Doutes sur le systeme physique
des causes occasionnelles (against Malebranche) appeared shortly
afterwards.
In 1691 he was received into the French Academy in spite of
the determined efforts of the partisans of the ancients in this
quarrel, especially of Racine and Boileau, who on four previous
occasions had secured his rejection. He consequently was
admitted a member both of the Academy of Inscriptions and of
the Academy of Sciences; and in 1697 he became perpetual
secretary to the latter body. This office he actually held for
the long period of forty-two years; and it was in this official
capacity that he wrote the Histoire du renouvellement de I' Academic
des Sciences (Paris, 3 vols., 1708, 1717, 1722) containing extracts
and analyses of the proceedings, and also the eloges of the members,
written with great simplicity and delicacy. Perhaps the best
known of his tloges, of which there are sixty-nine in all, is that
of his uncle Pierre Corneille. This was first printed in the
Nouvelles de la republique des leltrcs (January 1685) and, as
Vie de Corneille, was included in all the editions of Fontenelle's
(Euwes. The other important works of Fontenelle are his
Elements de la geomctrie de I'infini (1727) and his Apologie des
tourbillons (1752). Fontenelle forms a link between two very
widely different periods of French literature, that of Corneille,
Racine and Boileau on the one hand, and that of Voltaire,
609
D'Alembert and Diderot on the other. It is not in virtue of his
great age alone that this can be said of him; he actually had
much in common with the beaux esprils of the i7th century, as
well as with the philosophes of the i8th. But it is to the latter
rather than to the former period that he properly belongs.
He has no claim to be regarded as a genius; but, as Sainte-
Beuve has said, he well deserves a place " dans la classe des
esprits infiniment dislingues " distinguished, however, it ought
to be added by intelligence rather than by intellect, and less
by the power of saying much than by the power of saying a little
well. In personal character he has sometimes been described
as having been revoltingly heartless; and it is abundantly
plain that he was singularly incapable of feeling strongly the
more generous emotions a misfortune, or a fault, which revealed
itself in many ways. " Ilfaut avoir de I'ame pour avoir du gout."
But the cynical expressions of such a man are not to be taken
too literally; and the mere fact that he lived and died in the
esteem of many friends suffices to show that the theoretical
selfishness which he sometimes professed cannot have been
consistently and at all times carried into practice.
There have been several collective editions of Fontenelle's works,
the first being printed in 3 vols. at the Hague in 1728-1729. The
best is that of Paris, in 8 vols. 8vo, 1790. Some of his separate
works have been very frequently reprinted and also translated.
The Pluralite des mondes was translated into modern Greek in 1794.
Sainte-Beuve has an interesting essay on Fontenelle, with several
useful references, in the Cauteries du lundi, vol. iii. See also Ville-
main, Tableau de la litterature franc,aise au XVIII' siecle; the abbe
Trublet, Memoires pour servir & I'histoire de la vie et des outrages
de M. de FonteneUe_ 0759); A. Laborde-Milaa, Fontenelle (1905),
in the "Grands ecrivains francais " series; and L. Maigron,
Fontenelle, I'homme, I'oeuvre, I' influence (Paris, 1906).
FONTENOY, a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau,
about 4 m. S.E. of Tournai, famous as the scene of the battle of
Fontenoy, in which on the nth of May 1745 the French army
under Marshal Saxe defeated the Anglo-Allied army under the
duke of Cumberland. The object of the French (see also
AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR or THE) was to cover the siege
of the then important fortress of Tournai, that of the Allies,
who slowly advanced from the east, to relieve it. Informed
of the impending attack, Louis XV., with the dauphin, came
with all speed to witness the operations, and by his presence to
give Saxe, who was in bad health and beset with private enemies,
the support necessary to enable him to command effectively.
Under Cumberland served the Austrian field-marshal Konigsegg,
and, at the head of the Dutch contingent, the prince of Waldeck.
The right of the French position (see map) rested on the river
at Antoing, which village was fortified and garrisoned, between
Antoing and Fontenoy three square redoubts were constructed,
and Fontenoy itself was put in a complete state of defence. On
the left rear of this line, and separated from Fontenoy by some
furlongs of open ground, another redoubt was made at the corner
of the wood of Barry and a fifth towards Gavrain. The infantry
was arrayed in deployed lines behind the Antoing-Fontenoy
redoubts and the low ridge between Fontenoy and the wood;
behind them was the cavalry. The approaches to Gavrain were
guarded by a mounted volunteer corps called Grassins. At
Calonne the marshal had constructed three military bridges
against the contingency of a forced retreat. The force of the
French was about 60,000 of all arms, not including 22,000 left
in the lines before Tournai. Marshal Saxe himself, who was
suffering from dropsy to such an extent that he was unable to
mount his horse, slept in a wicker chariot in the midst of the
troops. At early dawn of the 1 1 th of May, the Anglo-Hanoverian
army with the Austrian contingent formed up in front of Vzon,
facing towards Fontenoy and the wood, while the Dutch on their
left extended the general line to Peionne. The total force was
46,000, against about 52,000 whom Saxe could actually put into
the line of battle.
The plan of attack arranged by Cumberland, Konigsegg and
Waldeck on the toth grew out of circumstances. A preliminary
skirmish had cleared the broken ground immediately about
Vezon and revealed a part of the defender's dispositions. It was
resolved that the Dutch should attack the front Antoing-
x. 20
6io
FONTENOY
Fontenoy, while Cumberland should deliver a flank attack
against Fontenoy and all in rear of it, by way of the open ground
between Fontenoy and the wood. A great cavalry attack round
the wood was projected but had to be given up, as in the late
evening of the loth the Allies' light cavalry drew fire from its
southern edge. Cumberland then ordered his cavalry commander
to form a screen facing Fontenoy, so as to cover the formation of
the infantry. On the morning of the nth another and most
important modification had to be made. The advance was
beginning when the redoubt at the corner of the wood became
visible. Cumberland hastily told off Brigadier James Ingoldsby
(major and brevet-colonel ist Guards), with four regiments and
an artillery detachment, to storm this redoubt which, crossing
its fire with that of Fontenoy, seemed absolutely to inhibit the
development of the flank attack. At 6 A.M. the brigade moved
off, but it was irresolutely handled and halted time after time;
and after waiting as long as possible, the British and Hanoverian
cavalry under Sir James Campbell rode forward and extended
FONTENOY
Scale, i :6o,ooo
I English Milo
Contours at intervals of
6 metres, - 11-4 /tl
Emery Wllur 1C.
in the plain, becoming at once the target for a furious cannonade
which killed their leader and drove them back. Thereupon Sir
John (Lord) Ligonier, whose deployment the squadrons were
to have covered, let them pass to the rear, and, hearing the guns
of the Dutch towards Antoing, pushed the British infantry for-
ward through the lanes, each unit on reaching open ground
covering the exit and deployment of the one in rear, all under the
French cannonade. This went on for two hours, and save that
it showed the magnificent discipline of the British and Hano-
verian regiments, was a bad prelude to the real attack. Cumber-
land's own exertions brought a few small guns to the front of the
Guards' Brigade, and one of the first shots from these killed
Antoine Louis, due de Gramont, colonel of the Gardes Francaises,
and another Henri du Baraillon du Brocard, Saxe's artillery
commander.
It was now 9 A.M., and while the guns from the wood redoubt
battered the upright ranks of the Allies, Ingoldsby's brigade was
huddled together, motionless, on the right. Cumberland himself
galloped thither, and under his reproaches Ingoldsby lost the
last remnants of self-possession. To Sir John Ligonier's aide-
de-camp, who delivered soon afterwards a bitterly formal order
to advance, Ingoldsby sullenly replied that the duke's orders
were for him to advance in line with Ligonier's main body.
By now, too, the Dutch advance against Antoing-Fontenoy had
collapsed.
But on the right the cannonade and the blunders together
had roused a -stern and almost blind anger in the leaders and the
men they led. Ingoldsby was wounded, and his successor, the
Hanoverian general Zastrow, gave up the right attack and
brought his battalions into the main body. A second half-
hearted attack on Fontenoy itself, delivered by some Dutch
troops, was almost made successful by the valour of two of these
battalions (one of them being the then newly raised Highland
regiment, the Black Watch) which came thither of their own
accord. Meantime the young duke and the old Austrian field-
marshal had agreed to take all risks and to storm through
between Fontenoy and the wood redoubt, and had launched the
great attack, one of the most celebrated in the history of war.
The English infantry was in two lines. The Hanoverians on
their left, owing to want of space, were compelled to file into third
line behind the redcoats, and on their outer flanks were the
battalions that had been with Ingoldsby. A few guns, man-
drawn, accompanied the assaulting mass, and the cavalry
followed. The column may have numbered 14,000 infantry.
All the infantry battalions closed on their centre, the normal
three ranks becoming six. If the proper distances between lines
were preserved, the mass must have formed an oblong about
500 yds X 600 yds (excluding the cavalry).
The duke of Cumberland placed himself at the head of the
front line and gave the signal to advance. Slowly and in parade
order, drums beating and colours flying, the mass advanced,
straight up the gentle slope, which was swept everywhere by
the flanking artillery of the defence. Then, when the first line
reached the low crest on the ends of which stood the French
artillery, the fire, hitherto convergent, became a full enfilade
from both sides, and at the same moment the enemy's horse and
foot became visible beyond. A brief pause ensued, and the
front gradually contracted as regiments shouldered inwards to
avoid the fire. Then the French advanced, and the Guards
Brigade and the Gardes Francaises met face to face. Captain
Lord Charles Hay (d. 1760), lieutenant of the First (Grenadier)
Guards, suddenly ran in front of the line, took off his hat to the
enemy and drank to them from a pocket flask, shouting a taunt,
" We hope you will stand till we come up to you, and not swim
the river as you did at Dettingen," then, turning to his own men,
he called for three cheers. The astonished French officers
returned the salute and gave a ragged counter-cheer. Whether
or not the French, as legend states, were asked and refused to
fire first, the whole British line fired one tremendous series of
volleys by companies. 50 officers and 760 men of the three
foremost French regiments fell at once, and at so appalling a
loss the remnant broke and fled. Three hundred paces farther
on stood the second line of the French, and slowly the mass
advanced, firing regular volleys. It was now well inside the
French position, and no longer felt the enfilade fire that swept
the crest it had passed over. By now, as the rear lines closed up,
the assailants were practically in square and repelled various
partial attacks coming from all sides. The Regiment du Roi
lost 33 officers and 345 men at the hands of the Second (Cold-
stream) Guards. But these counter-attacks gained a few
precious minutes for the French. It was the crisis of the battle.
The king, though the court meditated flight, stood steady with
the dauphin at his side, Fontenoy was the one great day of
Louis XV. 's life, and Saxe, ill as he was, mounted his horse to
collect his cavalry for a charge. The British and Hanoverians
were now at a standstill. More and heavier counter-strokes
were repulsed, but no progress was made; their cavalry was un-
able to get to the front, and Saxe was by now thinking of victory.
Captain Isnard of the Touraine regiment suggested artillery to
batter the face of the square, preparatory to a final charge.
General Lowendahl galloped up to Saxe, crying, " This is a great
day for the king; they will never escape! " The nearest guns
were planted in front of the assailants, and used with effect.
The infantry, led by Lowendahl, fastened itself on the sides of
the square, the regiments of Normandy and Vaisseaux and the
FONTEVRAULT FOOD
6n
Irish Brigade conspicuous above the rest. On the front, waiting
for the cannon to do its work, were the Maison du Roi, the Gendar-
merie and all the light cavalry, under Saxe himself, the duke of
Richelieu and count d'Estrees. The left wing of the Allies was
still inactive, and troops were brought up from Antoing and
Fontenoy to support the final blow. About 2 P.M. it was de-
livered, and in eight minutes the square was broken. As the
infantry retired across the plain in small stubborn groups the
French fire still made havoc in their ranks, but all attempts
to close with them were repulsed by the terrible volleys, and
they regained the broken ground about Vezon, whence they had
come. Cumberland himself and all the senior generals remained
with the rearguard.
The losses at Fontenoy were, as might be expected, somewhat
less than normally heavy when distributed over the whole of
both armies, but exceedingly severe in the units really engaged.
Eight out of nineteen regiments of British infantry lost over
200 men, two of these more than 300. A tribute to the loyalty
and discipline of the British, as compared with the generality
of armies in those days, may be found in the fact that the three
Guards' regiments had no " missing " men whatever. The 23rd
(Royal Welsh Fusiliers) had 322 casualties. Boschlanger's
Hanoverian regiment suffered even more heavily, and four
others of that nation had 200 or more casualties. The total
loss was about 7500, that of the French 7200. The French
" Royal " regiment lost 30 officers and 645 men; some other
regimental casualties have been mentioned above. The Dutch
lost a bare 7 % of their strength.
Fontenoy was in the i8th century what the attack of the
Prussian Guards at St Privat is to-day, s.locus classicus for military
theorists. But the technical features of the battle are completely
overshadowed by its epic interest, and above all it illustrates
the permanent and unchangeable military characteristics of the
British and French nations.
FONTEVRAULT, or FONTEVRAUD (Lat. Fans Ebraldi), a
town of western France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire,
10 m. S.E. of Saumur by road and 2| m. from the confluence of
the Loire and Vienne. Pop. (1906) 1279. It is situated in the
midst of the forest of Fontevrault. The interest of the place
centres in its abbey, which since 1804 has been utilized and abused
as a central house of detention for convicts. The church (i2th
century), of which only the choir and apse are appropriated to
divine service, has a beautiful nave formerly covered by four
cupolas destroyed in 1816. There is a fifth cupola above the
crossing. In a chapel in the south transept are the effigies of
Henry II. of England, of his wife Eleanor of Guienne, of Richard
I. of England and of Isabella of Angouleme, wife of John of
England Eleanor's being of oak and the rest of stone. The
cloister, refectory and chapter-house date from the i6th century.
The second court of the abbey contains a remarkable building,
the Tour d'fivrault (i2th century), which long went under the
misnomer of chapellefuneraire, but was in reality the old kitchen.
Details and diagrams will be found in Viollet-le-Duc's Dictionnaire
de I 'architecture. There are three stories, the whole being
surmounted by a pyramidal structure.
The Order of Fontevrault was founded about noo by Robert
of Arbrissel, who was born in the village of Arbrissel or Arbresec,
in the diocese of Rennes, and attained great fame as a preacher
and ascetic. The establishment was a double monastery,
containing a nunnery of 300 nuns and a monastery of 200 monks,
separated completely so that no communication was allowed
except in the church, where the services were carried on in
common; there were, moreover, a hospital for 120 lepers and
other sick, and a penitentiary for fallen women, both worked by
the nuns. The basis of the life was the Benedictine rule, but the
observance of abstinence and silence went beyond it in stringency.
The special feature of the institute was that the abbess ruled
the monks as well as the nuns. At the beginning the order had
a great vogue, and at the time of Robert's death, 1117, there
were several monasteries and 3000 nuns; afterwards the number
of monasteries reached 57, all organized on the same plan,
institute never throve out of France; there were attempts to
introduce it into Spain and England: in England there were
three houses at Ambresbury (Amesbury in Wiltshire), Nuneaton,
and Westwood in Worcestershire. The nuns in England as in
France were recruited from the highest families, and the abbess
of Fontevrault, who was the superior-general of the whole order,
was usually of the royal family of France.
See P. Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieuses (1718), vi. cc. 12, 13;
Max Heimbucher, Orden und Koneregationen (1907), i. 46; the arts'.
" Fontevrauld " in Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2), and
in Herzpg-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. 3), supply full references
to the literature. The most recent monograph is Edouard, Font-
evrault et ses monuments (1875); for the later history see art. by
Edmund Bishop in Downside Review (1886). (E. C. B.)
FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence
O. Eng. foda; cf. "fodder"; connected with Gr. iranloOai,
to feed), the general term for what is eaten by man and other
creatures for the sustenance of life. The scientific aspect of
human food is dealt with under NUTRITION and DIETETICS.
Infancy. The influence of a normal diet upon the health of
man (we exclude here the question of diet in illness, which must
depend on the abnormal conditions existing) begins at the
earliest stage of his life. No food has as yet been found so suitable
for the young of all animals as their mother's milk. This, however,
has not been from want of seeking. Dr Brouzet (Sur I'tducation
mtdicinale des enfanls, i. p. 165) had such a bad opinion of human
mothers, that he expressed a wish for the state to interfere and
prevent them from suckling their children, lest they should
communicate immorality and disease! A still more determined
pessimist was the famous chemist Van Helmont, who thought
life had been reduced to its present shortness by our inborn
propensities, and proposed to substitute bread boiled in beer
and honey for milk, which latter he calls " brute's food." Baron
Justus von Liebig, as the result of his chemical researches,
introduced a " food for infants," which in more modern days
has been followed by a multiplication of patent foods. A close
imitation of human milk may also be made by the addition to
fresh cow's milk of half its bulk of soft water, in each pint of
which has been mixed a heaped-up teaspoonful of powdered
" sugar of milk " and a pinch of phosphate of lime. These
artificial substitutes for the natural nutriment have their value
where for any reason it is not available. The wholesomest food,
however, for the first six months is certainly mother's milk alone.
A vigorous baby can indeed bear with impunity much rough
usage, and often appears none the worse for a certain quantity
of farinaceous food; but the majority do not get habituated to
it without an exhibition of dislike which indicates rebellion of
the bowels. It is only when the teeth are on their way to the
front, as shown by dribbling, that the parotid glands secrete
an active saliva capable of digesting bread stuffs. Till then
anything but milk must be given tentatively, and considered
in the light of a means of education for its future mode of nutrition.
The time for weaning should be fixed partly by the child's
age, partly by the growth of the teeth. The first group of teeth
nine times out of ten consists of the lower central front teeth,
which may appear any time during the sixth and seventh month.
The mother may then begin to diminish the number of suckling
times; and by a month she can have reduced them to twice
a day, so as to be ready when the second group makes its way
through the upper front gums to cut off the supply altogether.
The third group, the lateral incisors and first grinders, usually
after the first anniversary of birth, give notice that solid food
can be chewed. But it is prudent to let dairy milk form a con-
siderable portion of the fare till the eye-teeth are cut, which
seldom happens till the eighteenth or twentieth month.
Childhood and Youth. At this stage of life the diet must
obviously be the best which is a transition from that of infancy
to that of adult age. Growth is not completed, but yet entire
surrender of every consideration to the claim of growth is not
possible, nor indeed desirable. Moreover, that abundance of
adipose tissue, or reserve new growth, which a baby can bear
is an impediment to the due education of the muscles of the boy
or girl. The supply of nutriment need not be so continuous as
before, but at the same time should be more frequent than /or
6l2
FOOD PRESERVATION
the adult. Up to at least fourteen or fifteen years of age the rule
should be four meals a day, varied indeed, but nearly equal in
nutritive power and in quantity, that is to say, all moderate,
all sufficient. The maturity the body then reaches involves a
hardening and enlargement of the bones and cartilages, and a
strengthening of the digestive organs, which in healthy young
persons enables us to dispense with some of the watchful care
bestowed upon their diet. Three full meals a day are generally
sufficient, and the requirements of mental training may be
allowed to a certain extent to modify the attention to nutrition
which has hitherto been paramount.
Adults. It is only necessary here to refer to the article on
DIETETICS (see also VEGETARIANISM) for a discussion of the food
of normal adults; and to such headings as DIETARY (for fixed
allowances) or COOKERY. Different staple articles of food are
dealt with under their own headings. For animals other than
man see the respective articles on them.
Among numerous books on the subject, in addition to those
enumerated under DIETETICS, see Sir Henry Thompson's Foods and
Feeding (1894) ; Hart's Diet in Sickness and Health (1896) ; Knight,
Food and its Functions (1895).
FOOD PRESERVATION. The preservation of food material
beyond the short term during which it naturally keeps sound and
eatable has engaged human thought from the earliest dawn of
civilization. Necessity compelled man to store the plenitude
of one season or place against the need of another. The hunter
dried, smoked and salted meat and fish, pastoral man preserved
milk in the form of cheese and butter, or fermented grape-juice
into wine. With the separation of country from town, the
development of manufacturing nation as distinct from agricul-
tural and food-producing people, the spreading of civilized man
from torrid to arctic zones, the needs of travellers on land and
sea and of armies on the march, the problem of the prevention
of the natural decomposition to which nearly all food substances
are liable became increasingly urgent, and forms to-day, next
to the production of food, the most important problem in con-
nexion with the feeding and the trade of nations. As long as the
reasons of decomposition were unknown, all attempts at preser-
vation were necessarily empirical, and of the numberless
processes which have during modern times been proposed and
attempted comparatively few have stood the test of experience.
In the light of modern knowledge, however, the guiding principles
appear to be very simple.
Very few organic materials undergo decomposition, as it
were, of their own accord. They may lose water by evaporation,
and fatty substances may alter by the absorption of oxygen
from the air. They are otherwise quite stable and unchangeable
while not attacked and eaten up by living organisms, or while
the life with which they may be endowed is in a state of suspense.
An apple is alive and in breathing undergoes its ripening change;
a grain of wheat is dormant and does not alter. A substance,
in order to be a food material, must be decomposable under the
attack of a living organism; the energy stored in it must be
available to that stream of energy which we call life, whether the
life be in the form of the human consumer or of any lower
organism. All decomposition of food is due to the development
within the food of living organisms. Under conditions under
which living organisms cannot enter or cannot develop food
keeps undecomposed for an indefinite length of time. The
problem of food preservation resolves itself, therefore, into that
of keeping out or killing off all living things that might feed
upon and thus alter the food, and as these organisms mainly
belong to the family of moulds, yeasts and bacteria, modern food
preservation is strictly a subject for the bacteriologist.
The changes which food undergoes on keeping are easily
intelligible when once their biological origin is recognized.
Yeasts cause the decomposition of saccharine substances into
alcohol and carbon dioxide, acetic and lactic ferments produce
from sugar or from alcohol the organic acids causing the souring
of food, moulds as a rule cause oxidation and complete destruc-
tion -of organic matter, nitrogenous or saccharine, while most
bacteria act mainly upon the nitrogenous constituents, producing
albumoses and peptones and breaking up the complex albumen-
molecule into numerous smaller molecules often allied to alka-
loids, generally with the production of evil-smelling gases.
These processes may go on simultaneously, but more frequently
take place successively in the decomposition of food, one set of
organisms taking up the work of destruction as the conditions
become favourable to its development and unfavourable to its
predecessor. The organisms may come from the air, the soil
or from animal sources. The air teems with organisms which
settle and may develop when brought upon a favourable nidus;
the organic matter of the soil largely consists of fungoid life;
while the intestinal canal and other mucous membranes of all
animals harbour bacteria, sarcinae and other organisms in
countless millions. Whenever, therefore, food material is ex-
posed to the air, or touched by the soil or by animals or man,
it becomes infected with living cells, which by their development
lead to its decomposition and destruction.
Fungoid organisms may be killed by heat or by chemicals;
or their development may be arrested by cold, removal of water,
or by the presence of agents inhibiting their growth though not
destroying their life. All successful processes of food preservation
depend upon one or other of these circumstances.
Preservation by Heat. At the boiling-point of water all living
cells perish, but some spores of bacteria may survive for about
three hours. Few adult bacteria can live beyond 75 C. (167 F.)
in the presence of water, though dry heat only kills with certainty
at 140 C. (284 F.). Destruction of life takes place more rapidly
in solutions showing an acid than a feebly alkaline reaction;
hence acid fruit is more easily preserved than milk, which,
when quite fresh, is alkaline. By cooking, therefore, food
becomes temporarily sterile, until a fresh crop of organisms finds
access from the air. By repeated cooking all food can be in-
definitely preserved. One of the most important functions of
cookery is sterilization. Civilized man unwittingly revolts
against the consumption of non-sterile food, and the use of
certain fungus-infected material is an inheritance from barbarous
ages: few materials of animal origin are eaten raw, and in
vegetables some sort of sterilizing process is attempted by
washing (of salads) or removal of the outer skin (of fruits).
All preparation of food for the table, cooking being the most
important, tends towards preservation, but is effectual only for
a few hours or days at most, unless special means are adopted
to prevent reinfection. The housewife covering the jam with
a thin paper soaked in brandy, or the potted meat with a thin
layer of lard, attempts unconsciously to bar the road to bacteria
and other minute organisms. To preserve food in a permanent
manner and on a commercial scale it has to be cooked in a
receptacle which must be sufficiently strong for transport,
cheap, light and unattacked by the material in contact with it.
None of the receptacles at present in use quite fulfils the whole
of these conditions: glass and china are heavy and fragile, and
their carriage is expensive; tinned iron, so-called tin-plate,
is rarely quite unaffected by food materials, but owing to its
strength, tenacity and cheapness, it is used on an ever-increasing
scale. The sheet iron, which formerly was made of soft wrought
iron, now generally consists of steel containing but very little
carbon; it is cleaned by immersion in acid and covered with a
very thin layer of pure tin, all excess of tin being removed by
hot rollers and brushes. The layer of tin, which formerly con-
stituted from 3 to 5% of the total weight of the plate, has,
owing to the increased price of tin and the improvement in
machinery, gradually become so thin that its weight is only from
i to 3%. Not rarely, therefore, the tin-surface is imperfect,
perforated or pin-holed. Tin itself is slightly attacked by all acid
juices of vegetable or animal substances. With the exception
of milk, all human food is slightly acid, and consequently all
food that has been preserved in tin canisters contains variable
traces of dissolved tin. Happily, salts of tin have but little
physiological action. Nevertheless, the employment of tin-
plate for very acid materials, like tomatoes, peaches, &c., is very
objectionable.
The process of preservation in canisters is carried out as
FOOD PRESERVATION
613
follows: The canister, which has been made either by the use
of solder or by folding machinery only, is packed with the material
to be preserved, and a little water having been added to fill the
interstices the lid is secured by soldering or folding, generally
the former. Sterilization is effected by placing the tins in
pressure chambers, which are heated by steam to 120 C. or more.
The tins are exposed to that temperature for such time as
experience has shown to be necessary to heat the contents
throughout to at least 100 C. The temperature is then allowed
to fall slowly to below the boiling-point of water, when the
tins can be taken out of the pressure chamber, or they are placed
in pans filled with water or a solution of calcium chloride and
are therein heated till thoroughly cooked. Sometimes a small
aperture is pierced through the lid, to allow of the escape of the
expanding air, such holes before cooling closed by means
of a drop of solder. This process, which was originally intro-
duced by Francois Appert early in the ipth century, is employed
on an enormous scale, especially in America. The use of
lacquered tins, having the inner surface of the tin covered with
a heat-resisting varnish, is gradually extending. Imperfect
sterilization shows itself in many cases by gas development
within the tin, which causes the ends to become convex and
drummy. More frequently than not the contents of the larger
tins, containing meat or other animal products, are not absolutely
sterile, but the conditions are mostly such that the organisms
which have survived the cooking process cannot develop. When
they can develop without formation of gas dangerous products
of decomposition may be produced without showing themselves
to taste or smell. Numerous cases of so-called ptomaine poison-
ing have thus occurred; these are more frequently associated
with preserved fish and lobster than with meats, although no
class of preserved animal food is free from liability of ptomaine
formation. The formation of poisonous substances has never
been traced to preserved fruit or other material poor in nitrogen.
The mode of preserving food in china or glass is quite similar,
but the losses by breakage are not inconsiderable. Food which
has been preserved in tins is sometimes transferred to glass and
re-sterilized, the feeling against " tinned " food caused by the
" Chicago scandals " not having entirely subsided. Were it not
for the facts that sterilization is rarely quite perfect, and that the
food attacks the tin, the contents of tin canisters ought to keep
for an indefinite length of time. Under existing circumstances,
however, there is a distinct limit to the age of soundness of
canned food.
Preservation by Chemicals. Salt is the oldest chemical pre-
servative and, either alone or in conjunction with saltpetre and
with wood-smoke, has been used for many centuries, mainly as
a meat preservative. It is used either dry in layers strewn on
the surface of the meat or fish to be preserved, or in the form of
brine in which the meat is submerged or which is injected into
the carcasses. The preserving power of salt is but moderate.
It has the great advantage that in ordinary doses it is non-
injurious, that an excess at once betrays itself in the taste, and
that it can be readily removed by soaking in water. When
aided by wood-smoke, which depends for its preservative power
upon traces of creosote and formaldehyde, it is, however, quite
efficient. The addition of saltpetre is principally for the purpose
of giving to the meat a bright pink tint. The strongly saline
taste of pickled meat or salted butter appears gradually to have
become repugnant to a large part of mankind, and other pre-
servatives have come into use, possessing greater bactericidal
power and less taste. The serious objection attaching to them
is discussed in the article ADULTERATION. At the present time
the use of borax or boracic acid is almost universal in England.
Meat which has been exposed to the vapours of formaldehyde,
and has thus been superficially sterilized, is also coming into
commerce in increasing quantities. Formaldehyde in itself is
distinctly poisonous, and has the property of combining with
albuminoids and rendering them completely insoluble in the
digestive secretions. Salicylic and benzoic acids are not in-
frequently used to stop fermentation of saccharine beverages
or deterioration of so-called " potted meats," which are supposed
to last fresh and sweet on the consumer's table for a considerable
length of time. Sulphurous acid and sulphites are chiefly used
in the preservation of thin ales, wine and fruit, and sodium
fluoride has been found in butter. The whole of these substances
possess decided and injurious physiological properties. Alcohol
now rarely forms a preservative of food material, its employment
being confined to small fruit. The use of sugar as a preservative
depends upon the fact that, although in a dilute solution it
is highly prone to fermentation and other decomposition, it
possesses bactericidal properties when in the form of a concen-
trated syrup. A sugar solution containing 30% of water or less
does not undergo, any biological change; in the presence of
organic acids, like those contained in fruit, growth of organisms
is inhibited when the percentage of water is somewhat greater.
Upon this fact depends the use of sugar in the manufacture of
jams, marmalades and jellies. Moulds may grow on the surface
of such saccharine preparations, but the interior remains un-
affected and unaltered.
Preservation by Drying, Food materials in which the percent-
age of moisture is small (not exceeding about 8%) are but little
liable to bacterial growths, at most to the attacks of innocent
Penicillium. Nature preserves the germs in seeds and nuts,
which are laden with otherwise decomposable food material,
by the simple expedient of water removal. The life of cereal
grains and many seeds appears to be unlimited. By the removal
of water the most perishable materials, like meat or eggs, can be
rendered unchangeable, except so far as the inevitable oxidation
of the fatty substances contained in them is concerned and
which is independent of life-action. The drying of meat, upon
which a generation ago inventors bestowed a great deal of
attention, has become almost obsolete, excepting for compara-
tively small articles or animals, like ox tongues or tails and fish.
It has been superseded even among less civilized communities
by the spread of canned food. Fruit, however, is very largely
preserved in the dried state. Grapes are sun-dried and thus form
currants, raisins and sultanas, the last variety being often
bleached by the addition of sulphites. Plums, apples and pears
are artificially dried in ovens on wooden battens or on wire
sieves; from the latter they are apt to become contaminated
with notable quantities of zinc. Excellent preparations of dried
vegetables, including potatoes, carrots, onions, French beans
and cabbages, are also manufactured.
The utilization of meat in the form of meat extract belongs to
some extent to this class of preserved foods. Its origin is due
to J. von Liebig and Max von Pettenkofer, and dates from the
middle of the ipth century. The soluble material is extracted
mainly from beef^in Australia to some extent from mutton,
by means of warm water; the albumen is coagulated by heat
and removed, and the broths thus obtained are evaporated in
vacua until the extract contains no more than about 20% of
water. One pound of extract is obtained from about 25 Ibof lean
beef.
Preservation by Refrigeration. At or below the freezing-point
of water fungoid organisms are incapable of growth and multipli-
cation. Although it has been asserted that many of them perish
when kept for some time in the frozen condition, it is certain that
the vast majority of bacteria and their germs remain merely
dormant. Even so highly organized structures as cereal seeds
do not suffer in vitality on being kept for a considerable length
of time at the far lower temperature of liquid air. Biological
change is, therefore, arrested at freezing-point, and as long as
that temperature is maintained food material remains unaltered,
except for physical changes depending upon the evaporation
of water and of volatile flavouring matters, or chemical altera-
tions due to oxidation.
Refrigeration, therefore, affords the means of keeping for a
reasonably long time, and without the addition of any pre-
servative substance, food in a raw condition. It is the only
process of preservation which from a sanitary point of view is
entirely unobjectionable as ordinarily and properly employed.
Its introduction on a commercial scale has more powerfully
affected the economic conditions of England and, to a less degree,
614
FOOL
of the United States than any other scientific advance since the
establishment of railways and steamboats. Enormous quantities
of frozen carcasses, butter, fruit, vegetables and fish are intro-
duced in the fresh condition into Great Britain and stored until
required. Extreme fluctuations of supply or of price have
become almost impossible, and the abundance of Australian and
New Zealand ranches, and cf West Indian orchards, has been
made readily accessible to the British consumer. For household
purposes cooling in ice-chests or ice-chambers suffices to pre-
serve food on a comparatively small scale. The ice used for the
purpose comes, to a small extent, from natural sources, stored
from the winter or imported from northern countries; a far
larger quantity is artificially produced by the methods described
in the article on REFRIGERATING, which also contains an account
of the means by which low temperatures are produced for
industrial purposes of importation and storage. Fleets of
steamships fitted with refrigerating machinery and insulated
cold-rooms are employed in carrying the food materials, which
are deposited in cold-stores at docks, warehouses, markets and
hotels. The first cargo of frozen meat was shipped in July 1873
from Melbourne, but arrived in October in an unsatisfactory
state. In 1875-1876 sound frozen meat came from America.
The first cargo of frozen meat was successfully brought to the
United Kingdom in 1880 from Australia in the " Strathleven,"
fitted with a Bell-Coleman air machine. The temperature in the
cold-storage rooms is generally kept near 34 F., whilst in the
chilling chambers a somewhat lower, and in the freezing room or
chambers a much lower temperature (between o and 10 F.)
is maintained. The carcasses to be frozen should be cooled
slowly at first to ensure even freezing throughout and to prevent
damage by the unequal expansion of the outer layer of ice.
The carcasses when freezing must be hung separated from each
other, but for storage or transportation they are packed tightly
together. Fish such as salmon is washed, thoroughly cleansed,
and frozen on trays. Butter should be cooled as rapidly as
possible to about 10 F.; its composition as regards proportion
of volatile fatty-acids, &c., remains absolutely unaltered for
years. Cheese should only be cold-stored when nearly ripe and
should not be frozen. Eggs must be carefully selected, each
one being inspected by candle-light. They are placed in cases
holding about three hundred, which are taken first to a room
in which they are slowly cooled to about 33 F., and are then kept
in store just below freezing-point. Particular attention must be
paid to the relative humidity of the air in egg stores. Fruit
should be quite fresh; grapes may be chilled to 26 F., while
lemons cannot safely be kept at a lower temperature than 36.
The time during which soft fruit can be kept even in cold-store
is limited, and does not exceed about six weeks.
In the early days of the chilled-meat trade considerable
prejudice existed against stored meat. While in many cases the
flavour of fresh meat is rather superior, the food value is in no
way altered by cold-storage. 1
Preservation by Pickling other than Salt. For the preservation
of vegetables, vinegar or other solution of acetic acid is used to
a limited extent. Eggs are submerged in lime-water or a dilute
solution of sodium silicate (soluble glass). During the storage
of eggs the more aqueous white of egg yields by endosmosis a
portion of its water to the more concentrated yolk, which thereby
expands and renders its thin containing-membrane liable to
rupture. Fish, such as sardines, sprats and salmon, is preserved
by packing in olive or other oil.
The preservation of the most important dairy product, namely,
milk, deserves a separate notice. It has already been stated that
alkaline liquids, like milk, are more difficult to sterilize by heat
than acid materials. In consequence of the alteration in flavour
which milk undergoes by long continued boiling, and of the fact
1 Per contra, see the article by Mary E. Pennington in the Year-
book for 1907 (1908) of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 197-206,
with illustrations of chickens kept in cold storage for two and three
years. The results there shown cast considerable doubt on the
efficiency of even refrigeration so far as an " indefinite " period is
concerned ; and it is suggested that the consumption of frozen meat
may really account for various modern diseases.
that milk forms perhaps the best medium for the growth and
propagation of bacterial, organisms, there is exceptional difficulty
in its sterilization. As secreted by a healthy cow it is a perfectly
sterile fluid, and, as shown by Sir J. Lister, when drawn under
aseptic conditions and kept under such, it remains definitely
fresh and sweet. Bacterial and other pollution at the time of
milking arises from the animal, the stable, the milker and the
vessels. In animals suffering from tuberculosis and other
bacterial affections the milk may be infected within the udder.
Milk as it reaches the consumer rarely contains less than 50,000
bacteria and often many millions per cubic centimetre. In fresh
country cream 100 millions per cubic centimetre are not unusual.
These bacteria are of many kinds, some of them spore-bearing.
The spores are more difficult to kill than the adult organism.
The first step towards preservation is the removal of the dirt
unavoidably present, to the particles of which a considerable
proportion of the bacteria adhere. Filtration through cloths or,
better, the passing of the milk through centrifugals effects that
removal. Subsequent treatment is preferably preceded by a
breaking-up of the larger fat-globules by the projection of a jet
of the milk under high pressures against a steel or agate plate,
a process known as homogenizing. From homogenized milk the
cream separates slowly, and does not form the coherent layer
thrown up by ordinary milk. Heating is then effected either after
bottling or by passing the milk continuously through pipes in
which it is heated to from 160 to 170 F. By a repetition of
the heating process on two or more succeeding days, complete
sterilization may be effected, although a single treatment is
sufficient to render the milk stable for a few days. Many forms
of pasteurizing apparatus for milk are in use. Since the general
introduction of pasteurization of the skim-milk used in Denmark
for the feeding of calves and pigs, tuberculosis in these animals
has practically disappeared. On the continent of Europe the use
of sterilized milk is now very general. In England it has found
little favour in households, but is making rapid progress on board
ship.
Milk which has been condensed has for many years found a
most extensive sale. The first efforts to condense and thus
preserve milk date from 1835, when an English patent was
granted to Newton. In 1849 C. N. Horsford prepared condensed
milk with the addition of lactose. Commercially successful milk
condensation began in 1856. The milk is heated to about
180 F. and filled into large copper vacuum pans, after having
been mixed with from 10 to 12 parts of sugar per 100 parts of
milk. Evaporation takes place in the pans at about 122 F.,
and is carried on till the milk is boiled down to such concentration
that 100 parts of the condensed milk, including the sugar,
contain the solids of 300 parts of milk. Sweetened condensed
milk, although rarely quite sterile, keeps indefinitely, and is
invariably brought into commerce in tin canisters. The prepara-
tion of sweetened condensed milk forms one of the most important
branches of manufacture in Switzerland and is steadily increasing
in England. Although milk can quite well be preserved in the
form of condensed unsweetened milk, which dietetically possesses
immense advantages over the sweetened milk in which the
balance between carbohydrates and albuminoids is very un-
favourable, such unsweetened milk has found little or no favour.
Milk powder is manufactured under various patents, the most
successful of which depends upon the addition of sodium bi-
carbonate and the subsequent rapid evaporation of the milk on
steam-heated revolving iron cylinders. Milk powder made from
skim-milk keeps well for considerable periods, but full-cream
milk develops rancid or tallowy flavours by the oxidation of the
finely divided butter-fat. It is largely employed in the prepara-
tion of so-called milk chocolates. (O. H.*)
FOOL (O. Fr.fol, modern fou, foolish, from a Late Latin use of
follis, bellows, a ball filled with air, for a stupid person, a jester,
a wind-bag) , a buffoon or jester.
The class of professional fools or jesters, which reached its
culminating point of influence and recognized place and function
in the social organism during the middle ages, appears to have
existed in all times and countries. Not only have there always
FOOLS, FEAST OF
been individuals naturally inclined and endowed to amuse others;
there has been besides in most communities a definite class, the
members of which have used their powers or weaknesses in this
direction as a regular means of getting a livelihood. Savage
jugglers, medicine-men, and even priests, have certainly much in
common with the jester by profession. There existed in ancient
Greece a distinct class of professed fools whose habits were not
essentially different from those of the jesters of the middle ages.
Of the behaviour of one of these, named Philip, Xenophon has
given a picturesque account in the Banquet. Philip of Macedon
is said to have possessed a court fool, and certainly these (as
well as court poets and court philosophers, with whom they have
sometimes been not unreasonably confounded) were common
in a number of the petty courts at that era of civilization. Scurrae
and moriones were the Roman parallels of the medieval witty
fool; and during the empire the manufacture of human mon-
strosities was a regular practice, slaves of this kind being much
in request to relieve the languid hours. The jester again has
from time immemorial existed at eastern courts. Witty stories
are told of Bahalul (see D'Herbelot, s.v.) the jester of Harun al-
Reshid, which have long had a place in Western fiction. On the
conquest of Mexico court fools and deformed human creatures
of all kinds were found at the court of Montezuma. But that
monarch no doubt hit upon one great cause of the favour of
monarchs for this class when he said that " more instruction
was to be gathered from them than from wiser men, for they
dared to tell the truth." Douce, in his essay On the Clowns and
Fools of Shakespeare, has made a ninefold division of English
fools, according to quality and place of employment, as the
domestic fool, the city or corporation fool, the tavern fool, the fool
of the mysteries and moralities. The last is generally called the
" vice," and is the original of the stage clowns so common among
the dramatists of the time of Elizabeth, and who embody so
much of the wit of Shakespeare. A very palpable classification
is that which distinguishes between such creatures as were chosen
to excite to laughter from some deformity of mind or body, and
such as were so chosen for a certain (to all appearance generally
very shallow) alertness of mind and power of repartee, or briefly,
butts and wits. The dress of the regular court fool of the middle
ages was not altogether a rigid uniform. To judge from the prints
and illuminations which are the sources of our knowledge on this
matter, it seems to have changed considerably from time to time.
The head was shaved, the coat was motley, and the breeches tight,
with generally one leg different in colour from the other. The
head was covered with a garment resembling a monk's cowl,
which fell over the breast and shoulders, and often bore
asses' ears, and was crested with a cockscomb, while bells
hung from various parts of the attire. The fool's bauble was
a short staff bearing a ridiculous head, to which was some-
times attached an inflated bladder, by means of which sham
castigations were effected. A long petticoat was also occa-
sionally worn, but seems to have belonged rather to the idiots
than to the wits.
The fool's business was to amuse his master, to excite him
to laughter by sharp contrast, to prevent the over-oppression
of state affairs, and, in harmony with a well-known physiological
precept, by his liveliness at meals to assist his lord's digestion.
The names and the witticisms of many of the official jesters at
the courts of Europe have been preserved by popular or state
records. In England the list is long between Hitard, the fool of
Edmund Ironside, and Muckle John, the fool of Charles I.,
and probably the last official royal fool of England. Many are
remembered from some connexion with general or literary history.
Scogan was attached to Edward IV., and later was published
a collection of poor jests ascribed to him, to which Andrew
Boorde's name was attached, but without authority.
Will Sommers, of the time of Henry VIII., seems to have
been a kind-hearted as well as a witty man, and occasionally
used his influence with the king for good and charitable
purposes. Armin, who, in his Nest of Ninnies, gives a full
description of Sommers, and introduces many popular fools,
says of him
615
" Only this much, he was a poor man's friend,
And helpt the widow often in her end.
The king would ever grant what he would crave,
For well he knew Will no exacting knave."
The literature of the period immediately succeeding his death is
full of allusions to Will Sommers.
Richard Tarleton, famous as a comic actor, cannot be omitted
from any list of jesters. A book of Tarleton's Jests was published
in 1611, and, together with his News out of Purgatory, was re-
printed by Halliwell Phillips for the Shakespeare Society in 1844.
Archie Armstrong, for a too free use of wit and tongue against
Laud, lost his office and was banished the court. The conduct
of the archbishop against the poor fool is not the least item of the
evidence which convicts him of a certain narrow-mindedness
and pettiness. In French history, too, the figure of the court-
jester flits across the gay or sombre scene at times with fantastic
effect. Caillette and Triboulet are well-known characters of the
times of Francis I. Triboulet appears in Rabelais's romance,
and is the hero of Victor Hugo's Le Roi s'amuse, and, with some
changes, of Verdi's opera Rigoletto; while Chicot, the lithe and
acute Gascon, who was so close a friend of Henry III., is por-
trayed with considerable justness by Dumas in his Dame de
Monsoreau. In Germany Rudolph of Habsburg had his Pfaff
Cappadox, Maximilian I. his Kunz von der Rosen (whose features,
as well as those of Will Sommers, have been preserved by the
pencil of Holbein), and many a petty court its jester after jester.
Late in the i6th century appeared Le SoltUissime Asluzie di
Bertoldo,^ which is one of the most remarkable books ever written
about a jester. It is by Giulio Cesare Croce, a street musician of
Bologna, and is a comic romance giving an account of the
appearance at the court of Alboin king of the Lombards of a
peasant wonderful in ugliness, good sense and wit. The book
was for a time the most popular in Italy. A great number of
editions and translations appeared, and it was even versified.
Though fiction, both the character and the career of Bertoldo
are typical of the jester. That the private fool existed as late
as the i8th century is proved by Swift's epitaph on Dicky Pearce,,
the earl of Suffolk's jester.
See Flogel, Geschichte der Hofnarren (Leipzig, 1789); Doran, The
History of Court Fools (1858). (W. HE.)
FOOLS, FEAST OF (Lat. festum stultorum, fatuorum, follorum,
Fr. fete des fous), the name for certain burlesque quasi-religious
festivals which, during the middle ages, were the ecclesiastical
counterpart of the secular revelries of the Lord of Misrule. The
celebrations are directly traceable to the pagan Saturnalia of
ancient Rome, which in spite of the conversion of the Empire
to Christianity, and of the denunciation of bishops and ecclesi-
astical councils, continued to be celebrated by the people on the
Kalends of January with all their old licence. The custom,
indeed, so far from dying out, was adopted by the barbarian
conquerors and spread among the Christian Goths in Spain,
Franks in Gaul, Alemanni in Germany, and Anglo-Saxons in
Britain. So late as the nth century Bishop Burchard of Worms
thought it necessary to fulminate against the excesses connected
with it (Decretum, xix. c. 5, Migne, Patrologia lat. 140, p. 965).
Then, just as it appears to have been sinking into oblivion among
the people, the clergy themselves gave it the character of a
specific religious festival. Certain days seem early to have been
set apart as special festivals for different orders of the clergy:
the feast of St Stephen (December 26) for the deacons, St John's
day (December 27) for the priests, Holy Innocents' Day for the
boys, and for the sub-deacons Circumcision, the Epiphany,
or the nth of January. The Feast of Holy Innocents became
a regular festival of children, in which a boy, elected by his
fellows of the choir school, functioned solemnly as bishop or
archbishop, surrounded by the elder choir-boys as his clergy,
while the canons and other clergy took the humbler seats. At
first there is no evidence to prove that these celebrations were
characterized by any specially indecorous behaviour; but in the
1 2th century such behaviour had become the rule. In 1180
Jean Beleth, of the diocese of Amiens, calls the festival of the
sub-deacons feslum stultorum (Migne, Patrol, lat. 202, p. 79).
6i6
FOOLSCAP FOOT
The burlesque ritual which characterized the Feast of Fools
throughout the middle ages was now at its height. A young
sub-deacon was elected bishop, vested in the episcopal insignia
(except the mitre) and conducted by his fellows to the sanctuary.
A mock mass was begun, during which the lections were read
cum farsia, obscene songs were sung and dances performed,
cakes and sausages eaten at the altar, and cards and dice played
upon it.
This burlesquing of things universally held sacred, though
condemned by serious-minded theologians, conveyed to the
child-like popular mind of the middle ages no suggestion of
contempt, though when belief in the doctrines and rites of
the medieval Church was shaken it became a ready instrument
in the hands of those who sought to destroy them. Of this kind
of retribution Scott in The Abbot gives a vivid picture, the
Protestants interrupting the mass celebrated by the trembling
remnant of the monks in the ruined abbey church, and insisting
on substituting the traditional Feast of Fools.
This naive temper of the middle ages is nowhere more con-
spicuously displayed than in the Feast of the Ass, which under
various forms was celebrated in a large number of churches
throughout the West. The ass had been introduced into the
ritual of the church in the gth century, representing either
Balaam's ass, that which stood with the ox beside the manger
at Bethlehem, that which carried the Holy Family into Egypt,
or that on which Christ rode in triumph into Jerusalem. Often
the ass was a mere incident in the Feast of Fools; but sometimes
he was the occasion of a special festival, ridiculous enough to
modern notions, but by no means intended in an irreverent
spirit. The three most notable celebrations of the Feast of the
Ass were at Rouen, Beauvais and Sens. At Rouen the feast
was celebrated on Christmas Day, and was intended to represent
the times before the coming of Christ. The service opened with
a procession of Old Testament characters, prophets, patriarchs
and kings, together with heathen prophets, including Virgil,
the chief figure being Balaam on his ass. The ass was a hollow
wooden effigy, within which a priest capered and uttered pro-
phecies. The procession was followed, inside the church, by
a curious combination of ritual office and mystery play, the text
of which, according to the Ordo processionis asinorum secundum
Rothomagensem usum, is given in Du Cange.
Far more singular was the celebration at Beauvais, which was
held on the I4th of January, and represented the flight into
Egypt. A richly caparisoned ass, on which was seated the
prettiest girl in the town holding in her arms a baby or a large
doll, was escorted with much pomp from the cathedral to the
church of St Etienne. There the procession was received by
the priests, who led the ass and its burden to the sanctuary.
Mass was then sung; but instead of the ordinary responses to
the Introit, Kyrie, Gloria, &c., the congregation chanted " Hin-
ham " (Hee-haw) three times. The rubric of the mass for this
feast actually runs: In fine Missae Sacerdos versus ad populum
nee, Ite missa est, Hinhannabit: populus vero vice, Deo Gratias,
ter respondebit Hinham, Hinham, Hinham (At the close of the
mass the priest turning to the people instead of saying, Ite missa
est, shall bray thrice: the people, instead of Deo gratias, shall
thrice respond Hee-haw, Hee-haw, Hee-haw).
At Sens the Feast of the Ass was associated with the Feast
of Fools, celebrated at Vespers on the Feast of Circumcision.
The clergy went in procession to the west door of the church,
where two canons received the ass, amid joyous chants, and led
it to the precentor's table. Bizarre vespers followed, sung
falsetto and consisting of a medley of extracts from all the
vespers of the year. Between the lessons the ass was solemnly
fed, and at the conclusion of the service was led by the precentor
out into the square before the church (conductus ad ludos);
water was poured on the precentor's head, and the ass became
the centre of burlesque ceremonies, dancing and buffoonery
being carried on far into the night, while the clergy and the
serious-minded retired to matins and bed.
Various efforts were made during the middle ages to abolish
the Feast of Fools. Thus in 1 198 the chapter of Paris suppressed
its more obvious indecencies; in 1210 Pope Innocent III.
forbade the feasts of priests, deacons and sub-deacons altogether;
and in 1246 Innocent IV. threatened those who disobeyed this
prohibition with excommunication. How little effect this had,
however, is shown by the fact that in 1265 Odo, archbishop of
Sens, could do no more than prohibit the obscene excesses of
the feast, without abolishing the feast itself; that in 1444 the
university of Paris, at the request of certain bishops, addressed
a letter condemning it to all cathedral chapters; and that King
Charles VII. found it necessary to order all masters in theology
to forbid it in collegiate churches. The festival was, in fact,
too popular to succumb to these efforts, and it survived through-
out Europe till the Reformation, and even later in France;
for in 1645 Mathurin de Neure complains in a letter to Pierre
Gassendi of the monstrous fooleries which yearly on Innocents'
Day took place in the monastery of the Cordeliers at Antibes.
" Never did pagans," he writes, " solemnize with such extrava-
gance their superstitious festivals as do they .... The lay-
brothers, the cabbage-cutters, those who work in the kitchen . . .
occupy the places of the clergy in the church. They don the
sacerdotal garments, reverse side out. They hold in their hands
books turned upside down, and pretend to read through spectacles
in which for glass have been substituted bits of orange-peel."
See B. Picart, Ceremonies et coutumes religieuses de tons les peuples
(1723); du Tilliot, Memoires pour servir a I'histoire de la fete des
Fous (Lausanne, 1741); Aime Cherest, Nouvelles recherches sur la
fete des Innocents et la fete des Fous dans plusieurs eglises et notamment
dans celle de Sens (Paris, 1853); Schneegans in Miiller's Zeitschrift
jur deutsche Ktdturgeschichte (1858) ; H. Bohmer, art. "Narrenfest "
in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklop. (ed. 1903) ; Du Cange, Glossarium
(ed. 1884), s.v. " Festum Asinorum."
FOOLSCAP, the cap, usually of conical shape, with a cockscomb
running up the centre of the back, and with bells attached, worn
by jesters and fools (see FOOL); also a conical cap worn by
dunces. The name is given to a size of writing or printing paper,
varying in size from 12 X 15 in. to 17 X 133 in. (see PAPER). The
name is derived from the use of a " fool's cap " as a watermark.
A German example of the watermark dating from 1479 was
exhibited in the Caxton Exhibition (1877). The New English
Dictionary finds no trustworthy evidence for the introduction of
the watermark by a German, Sir John Spielmann, at his paper-
mill at Dartford in 1580, and states that there is no truth in the
familiar story that the Rump Parliament substituted a fool's cap
for the royal arms as a watermark on the paper used for the
journals of parliament.
FOOL'S PARSLEY, in botany, the popular name for Aethusa
Cynapium, a member of the family Umbelliferae, and a common
weed in cultivated ground. It is an annual herb, with a fusiform
root and a smooth hollow branched stem i to 2 ft. high, with
much divided (ternately pinnate) smooth leaves and small com-
pound umbels of small irregular white flowers. The plant has a
nauseous smell, and,like other members of the order (e.g. hemlock,
water-drop wort), is poisonous.
FOOT, the lower part of the leg, in vertebrate animals consisting
of tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges, on which the body rests
when in an upright position, standing or moving (see ANATOMY:
Superficial and Artistic; and SKELETON: Appendicular). The
word is also applied to such parts of invertebrate animals as serve
as a foot, either for movement or attachment to a surface.
" Foot " is a word common in various forms to Indo-European
languages, Dutch, wet, Ger. Fuss, Dan. fod, &c. The Aryan root
is 1 pod-, which appears in Sans, pud, Gr. TroOs, TTO^OS, and Lat.
pes, pedis. From the resemblance to the foot, in regard to its
position, as the base' of anything, or as the lowest member of the
body, or in regard to its function of movement, the word is
applied to the lowest part of a hill or mountain, the plate of a
sewing-machine which holds the material in position, to the part
of an organ pipe below the mouth, and the like. In printing the
bottom of a type is divided by a groove into two portions known
as " feet." Probably referring to the beating of the rhythm
with the foot in dancing, the Gr. iroDs and Lat. pes were applied in
prosody to a grouping of syllables, one of which is stressed,
forming the division of a verse. " Foot," i.e. foot-soldier, was
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE FOOTBALL
formerly, with an ordinal number prefixed, the name of the
infantry regiments of the British army. It is now superseded by
territorial designations, but it still is used in the four regiments of
the infantry of the Household, the Foot Guards. As a lineal
measure of length the " foot " is of great antiquity, estimated
originally by the length of a man's foot (see WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES). For the, ceremonial washing of feet, see MAUNDY
THURSDAY.
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE (Aphthous Fever, Epizootic
Aphtha, Eczema Epizootica) , a virulent contagious and inoculable
malady of animals, characterized by initial fever, followed by the
formation of vesicles or blisters on the tongue, palate and lips,
sometimes in the nostrils, fourth stomach and intestine of
cattle, and on parts of the body where the skin is thin, as on the
udder and teats, between the claws, on the heels, coronet and
pastern. The disease begins suddenly and spreads very rapidly.
A rise of temperature precedes the vesicular eruption, which is
accompanied by salivation and a peculiar " smacking " of the
lips. The vesicles gradually enlarge and eventually break,
exposing a red raw patch, which is very sensitive. The animal
cannot feed so well as usual, suffers much pain and inconvenience,
loses condition, and, if a milk-yielding creature, gives less milk, or,
if pregnant, may abort. More or less lameness is a constant
symptom, and sometimes the feet become very much diseased and
the animal is so crippled that it has to be destroyed. It is often
fatal to young animals. It is transmitted by the saliva and the
discharges from the vesicles, though all the secretions and
excretions are doubtless infective, as well as all articles and
places soiled by them. This disease can be produced by injecting
the saliva, or the lymph of the vesicles, into the blood or the
peritoneal cavity.
If we were to judge by the somewhat vague descriptions of
different disorders by Greek and Roman writers, this disease has
been a European malady for more than 2000 years. But no
reliance can be placed on this evidence, and it is not until we
reach the i7th and i8th centuries that we find trustworthy proof
of its presence, when it was reported as frequently prevailing
extensively in Germany, Italy and France. During the igth
century, owing to the vastly extended commercial relations
between civilized countries, it has, like the lung-plague, become
widely diffused. In the Old World its effects are now experienced
from the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Hungary, Lower
Austria, Bohemia, Saxony and Prussia were invaded in 1834.
Cattle in the Vosges and in Switzerland were attacked in 1837, and
the disease extending to France, Belgium and Holland, reached
England in 1839, and quickly spread over the three kingdoms (see
also under AGRICULTURE). At this time the importation of
foreign animals into England was prohibited, and it was supposed
that the infection must have been introduced by surplus ships'
stores, probably sheep, which had not been consumed during the
voyage. This invasion was followed at intervals by eleven distinct
outbreaks, and since 1902 Great Britain has been free of foot-and-
mouth disease. From the observations of the best authorities it
would appear to be an altogether exotic malady in the west of
Europe, always invading it from the east; at least, this has been
the course noted in all the principal invasions. It was introduced
into Denmark in 1841; and into the United States of America in
1870, from Canada, where it had been carried by diseased cattle
from England. It rapidly extended through cattle traffic from
the state first invaded to adjoining states, but was eventually
extinguished, and does not now appear to be known in North
America. It was twice introduced into Australia in 1872, but was
stamped out on each occasion. It appears to be well known in
India, Ceylon, Burma and the Straits Settlements. In 1870 it
was introduced into the Andaman Islands by cattle imported
from Calcutta, where it was then prevailing, and in the same year
it appeared in South America. In South Africa it is frequently
epizootic, causing great inconvenience, owing to the bullocks
used for draught purposes becoming unfit for work. These cattle
also spread the contagion. It is not improbable that it also
prevails in central Africa, as Schweinfurth alludes to the cattle
of the Dinkas suffering from a disease of the kind.
Though not usually a fatal malady, except in very young
animals, or when malignant, yet it is a most serious scourge.
In one year (1892) in Germany, it attacked 150,929 farms, with
an estimated loss to the owners of 7,500,000 sterling. It is
transmissible to nearly all the domestic animals, but its ravages
are most severe among cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Human
beings are also liable to infection.
The treatment of affected animals comprises a laxative diet,
with salines, and the application of antiseptics and astringents to
the sores. The preventive measures recommended are, isolation
of the diseased animals, boiling the milk before use, and thorough
disinfection of all places and substances which are capable of
conveying the infection.
FOOTBALL, a game between two opposing sides played with
a large inflated ball, which is propelled either by the feet alone or
by both feet and hands.
Pastimes of the kind were known to many nations of antiquity,
and their existence among savage tribes, sucji as the Maoris,
Faroe Islanders, Philippine Islanders, Polynesians and Eskimos,
points to their primitive nature. In Greece the tiriowpos
seems to have borne a resemblance to the modern game. Of this
we read in Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities " It was the game
at football, played in much the same way as with us, by a great
number of persons divided into two parties opposed to one
another." Amongst the Romans the harpastum, derived from
the Greek verb apvafa, I seize, thus showing that carrying the
ball was permissible, bore a certain resemblance. Basil Kennett,
in his Romae antiquae nolilia, terms this missile a " larger kind
of ball, which they played with, dividing into two companies and
striving to throw it into one another's goals, which was the
conquering cast." The harpastum was a gymnastic game and
probably played for the most part indoors. The real Roman
football was played with the inflated follis, which was kicked from
side to side over boundaries, and thus must have closely resembled
the modern Association game. Tradition ascribes its introduction
in northern Europe to the Roman legions. It has been played in
Tuscany under the name of Caldo from the middle ages down to
modern times.
Regarding the origin of the game in Great Britain the Roman
tradition has been generally accepted, although Irish antiquarians
assert that a variety of football has been played in Ireland for
over 2000 years. In early times the great football festival of the
year was Shrove Tuesday, though the connexion of the game
with this particular date is lost in obscurity. William Fitz-
stephen, in his History of London (about 1175), speaks of the
young men of the city annually going into the fields after dinner
to play at the well-known game of ball on. the day quae dicitiir
Carnilevaria. As far as is known this is the first distinct mention
of football in England. It was forbidden by Edward II. (1314)
in consequence of " the great noise in the city caused by hustling
over large balls (rageries de grosses peloles)." A clear reference is
made " ad pilam . . . pedinam " in the Rotuli Clausarum, 39
Edward III. (1365), memb. 23, as one of the pastimes to be
prohibited on account of the decadence of archery, and the same
thing occurs in 12 Richard II. c. 6 (1388). Both Henry VIII. and
Elizabeth enacted laws against football, which, both then and
under the Stuarts and the Georges, seems to have been violent to
the point of brutality, a fact often referred to by prominent
writers. Thus Sir Thomas Elyot, in his Boke named the Governour
(1531), speaks of football as being " nothyng but beastely fury
and extreme violence, whereof proceedeth hurte and conse-
quently rancour and malice to remayne with thym that be
wounded, wherefore it is to be put in perpetual silence." In
Stubbes' Anatomic of Abuses (1583) it is referred to as "a
develishe pastime . . . and hereof groweth envy, rancour and
malice, and sometimes brawling, murther, homicide, and great
effusion of blood, as experience daily teacheth." Fifty years
ater (1634) Davenant is quoted (in Hone's Table-Book) as
remarking, " I would now make a safe retreat, but methinks I am
stopped by one of your heroic games called football; which I
conceive (under your favour) not very conveniently civil in the
streets, especially in such irregular and narrow roads as Crooked
6i8
FOOTBALL
[RUGBY
Lane. Yet it argues your courage, much like your military
pastime of throwing at cocks, since you have long allowed these
two valiant exercises in the streets."
An evidence of its old popularity in Ireland is that the statutes
of Gal way in 1527 forbade every other sport save archery,
excepting " onely the great foot balle." In the time of Charles
II. football was popular at Cambridge, particularly at Magdalene
College, as is evidenced by the following extract from the register
book of that institution under the date 1679:
" That no schollers give or receive at any time any treat or collation
upon account of ye football play, on or about Michaelmas Day,
further than Colledge beere or ale in ye open halle to quench their
thirsts. And particularly that that most vile custom of drinking
and spending money Sophisters and Freshmen together upon ye
account of making or not making a speech at that football time be
utterly left off and extinguished. '
It nevertheless remained for the most part a game for the
masses, and never took root, except in educational institutions,
among the upper classes until the igth century. No clubs or
code of rules had been formed, and the sole aim seems to have
been to drive the ball through the opposing side's goal by fair
means or foul. So rough did the game become that James I.
forbade the heir apparent to play it, and describes the exercise in
his Basilikon Doron as " meeter for laming than making able the
users thereof." Both sexes and all ages seem to have taken part
in it on Shrove Tuesday; shutters had to be put up and houses
closed in order to prevent damage; and it is not to be wondered
that the game fell into bad repute. Accidents, sometimes fatal,
occurred; and Shrove Tuesday " football-day " gradually died
out about 1830, though a relic of the custom still remained in a
few places. For some thirty years football was only practised at
the great English public schools, many of which possessed special
games, which in practically all cases arose from the nature of the
individual ground. Thus the rough, open game, with its charging,
tackling and throwing, which were features of football when it
was taken up by the great public schools, would have been
extremely dangerous if played in the flagged and walled courts
of some schools, as, for example, the old Charterhouse. Hence
at such institutions the dribbling style of play, in which Mr
Montague Shearman (Football, in the " Badminton Library ") sees
the origin of the Association game, came into existence. Only at
Rugby (later at some other schools) , which from the first possessed
an extensive grass field, was the old game preserved and de-
veloped, including even its roughness, for actual " hacking "
(i.e. intentional kicking of an opponent's legs) was not expressly
abolished at Rugby until 1877. The description of the old school
game at Rugby contained in Tom Brown's School Days has
become classic.
i. Rugby Union. We have seen that from early times a
rudimentary game of football had been a popular form of sport in
many parts of Great Britain, and that in the old-established
schools football had been a regular game among the boys. In
different schools there arose various developments of the original
game; or rather, what, at first, must have been a somewhat
rough form of horse-play with a ball began to take shape as a
definite game, with a definite object and definite rules. Rugby
school had developed such a game, and from football played
according to Rugby rules has arisen Rugby football. It was about
the middle of the igth century that football up till that time a
regular game only among schoolboys took its place as a regular
sport among men. To begin with, men who had played the game
as schoolboys formed clubs to enable them to continue playing
their favourite school game, and others were induced to join
them; while in other cases, clubs were formed by men who had
not had the experience of playing the game at school, but who
had the energy and the will to follow the example of those who
had had this experience. In this way football was established as a
regular game, no longer confined to schoolboys. When football
was thus first started, the game was little developed or organized.
Rules were very few, and often there was great doubt as to what
the rules were. But, almost from the first, clubs were formed to
play football according to Rugby rules that is, according to the
rules of the game as played at Rugby school. But even the
Rugby rules of that date were few and vague, and indeed almost
unintelligible to those who had not been at Rugby school. Still,
the fact that play was according to Rugby rules produced a
certain uniformity; but it was not till the establishment of the
English Union, and the commencement of international matches,
that a really definite code of rules was drawn up.
It is an interesting question to ask why it was that the game of
Rugby school became so popular in preference to the games of
other schools, such as Eton, Winchester or Harrow. It was
probably very largely due to the reputation and success of Rugby
school under Dr Arnold, and this also led most probably to its
adoption by other schools; for in 1860 many schools besides
Rugby played football according to Rugby rules. The rapidity
with which the game spread after the middle of the ipth century
was remarkable. The Blackheath club, the senior club of the
London district, was established in 1860, and Richmond, its great
rival, shortly afterwards. Before 1870, football clubs had been
started in Lancashire and Yorkshire; indeed the Sheffield foot-
ball club dates back to 1855. Likewise, in the universities of
Oxford and Cambridge, Rugby football clubs had been formed
before 1870, and by that date the game had been implanted both
in Ireland and South Wales; while in Scotland, before 1860,
football had taken a hold. Thus by 1870 the game had been
established throughout the United Kingdom, and in many
districts had been regularly played for a number of years. Rapid
as, in some ways, had been the spread of the game between the
years 1850 and 1870, it was as nothing to what happened in the
following twenty years; for by 1890 Rugby football, together
with Association football, had become the great winter amuse-
ment of the people, and roused universal interest; while to-day
on any fine Saturday afternoon in winter there are tens of thou-
sands of people playing football, while those who watch the game
can be counted by the hundred thousand. The causes that led to
this great increase in the game and interest taken in it were,
undoubtedly, the establishment of the various national Unions
and the international matches; and, of course, the local rivalry
of various clubs, together with cup or other competitions preva-
lent in certain districts, was a leading factor. The establish-
ment of the English Union led to a codification of the rules
without which development was impossible.
In the year 1871 the English Rugby Union was founded in
London. This Union was an association of some clubs and schools
which joined together and appointed a committee and officials
to draw up a code of rules of the game. From this beginning the
English Rugby Union has become the governing body of Rugby
football in England, and has been joined by practically all the
Rugby clubs in England, and deals with all matters connected
with Rugby football, notably the choosing of the international
teams. In 1873 the Scottish FootbaU Union was founded in
Edinburgh on the same lines, and with the same objects, while
in 1880 the Welsh Football Union, and in 1881 the Irish Rugby
FootbaU Union, were established as the national Unions of Wales
and Ireland, though in both countries there had been previously
Unions not thoroughly representative of the country. All
these Unions became the chief governing body within their own
country, and one of their functions was to make the rules and
laws of the game; but as this had been done to start with by
the English Union, the others adopted the English rules, with
amendments to them from time to time. This state of affairs
had one element of weakness viz. that since all the Unions made
their own rules, if ever a dispute should arise between any of
them, a dead-lock was almost certain to ensue. Such a dispute
did occur in 1884 between the English and Scottish Unions.
This dispute eventually turned on the question of the right of
the English Union to make and interpret the rules of the game,
and to be the paramount authority in the game, and superior
to the other Unions. Scotland, Ireland and Wales resisted this
claim, and finally, in 1889, Lord Kingsburgh and Major Marindin
were appointed as a commission to settle the dispute. The
result was the establishment of the International Board, which
consists of representatives from each Union six from England,
two from each of the others whose duties were to settle any
RUGBY]
FOOTBALL
question that might arise between the different Unions, and to
settle the rules under which international matches were to be
played, these rules being invariably adopted by the various
Unions as the rules of the game.
With the establishment of the International Board the organ-
ization of the game was complete. Still harmony did not prevail,
and in 1895 occurred a definite disruption. A number of leading
clubs in Yorkshire and Lancashire broke off from the English
Union and formed the Northern Union, which since that date
has had many accessions, and has become the leading body in
the north of England. The question in dispute was the payment
of players. Football was originally played by men for the sheer
love of the game, -and by men who were comparatively well-to-do,
and who could give the time to play it; but with the increasing
popularity of the game it became the pastime of all classes of the
people, and clubs began to grow rich by " drawing big gates,"
that is, large numbers of spectators, frequently many thousands
in number, paid for the privilege of witnessing the match. In
these circumstances the temptation arose to reimburse the player
for any out-of-pocket expenses he might be put to for playing
the game, and thus it became universally recognized as legitimate
to pay a player's expenses to and from a match. But in the
case of working men it often meant that they lost part of their
weekly wage when they had to go a distance to play a match,
or to go on tour with their club that is, go off for a few days and
play one or two matches in different parts of the country and
consequently the claim was made on their behalf to recoup them
for their loss of wage; while at the same time rich clubs began
to be willing to offer inducements to good players to join their
club, and these inducements were generally most acceptable
in the form of money. In Association football (see below)
professionalism i.e. the hiring and paying of a player for his
services had been openly recognized. A large section of the
English Union the amateur party would not tolerate anything
that savoured of professionalism, and regarded payments made
to a player for broken time as illegitimate. The result was the
formation of the Northern Union, which allowed such payments,
and has practically recognized professionalism. This body has
also somewhat altered the laws of the game, and reduced the
number of players constituting a team from fifteen to thirteen.
In Scotland and Ireland Rugby footballers are strongly amateur;
but wherever Rugby football is the popular game of the artisan
the professional element is strong.
Besides legislation, one of the functions of the Unions is to
select international teams. On the 2;th of March 1871 the first
international match was played between England and Scotland
in Edinburgh. This was a match between teams picked from
English and Scottish players. These matches from the first
roused widespread interest, and were a great stimulus to the
development of the game. With the exception of a few years,
when there were disputes between their respective Unions, all
the countries of the United Kingdom have annually played one
another England having played Scotland since 1871, Ireland
since 1875 and Wales since 1880. Scotland commenced playing
Ireland in 1877 and Wales in 1883, while Ireland and Wales
met first in 1882 and then in 1884, and since 1887 have played
annually. The qualifications of a player for any country were
at first vaguely considered to be birth; but they were never
definitely settled, and there has been a case of a player playing
for two countries. In 1894, however, the International Board
decided that no player was to play for more than one country,
and this has been the only pronouncement on the question; and
though birth is still looked upon as the main qualification, it is
not essential. Though international matches excite interest
throughout the United Kingdom, the matches between two rival
clubs arouse just as much excitement in their district, particu-
larly when the clubs may be taken as representatives of two
neighbouring rival towns. But when to this rivalry there is
added the inducement to play for a cup, or prize, the excitement
is much more intense. Among Rugby players cup competitions
have never been so popular as among Association, but the com-
petition for the Yorkshire Cup was very keen in the days before
619
the establishment of the Northern Union, and this undoubtedly
was the main cause of the popularity of the game in that county.
Similarly the competition for the South Wales Cup from 1878
to 1887 did a great deal to establish the game in that country.
The method of carrying on these competitions is, that all the
clubs entered are drawn by lot, in pairs, to play together in the
first round; the winners of these ties are then similarly drawn
in pairs for the next round, until for the final round there is
only one pair left, the winner of which takes the cup. An elabora-
tion of this competition is the " League system " of the Association
game. This, likewise, has not been popular with Rugby players.
Still it exists in some districts, especially where clubs are anxious
to draw big gates. In the League system a certain number of
clubs form a league to play one another twice each season; two
points are counted for a win and one for a draw. The club
which at the end of the season comes out with most points wins
the competition. The advantage of this system over a cup
competition is, that interest is kept up during the whole season,
and one defeat does not debar a club from eventually coming
out first.
It is said that wherever Britons go they take their games with
them, and this has certainly been the case with Rugby football,
especially in New Zealand, South Africa and Australia. An
interchange of football visits between these colonies and the
motherland is now an important feature in the game. These
tours date from 1888, when an English team visited Australia
and New Zealand. In the following season, 1889, a team of
New Zealanders, some of whom were native Maories, came over
to England, and by their play even then indicated how well the
grammar of the game had been studied in that colony. Sub-
sequently several British teams visited at intervals New Zealand
and Australia, and in 1905 New Zealand sent home a team
which eclipsed anything previously accomplished. They played
altogether thirty-three matches, including fixtures with England,
Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and only sustained one defeat, viz.
by a try in their match with Wales, a record which speaks for
itself. In 1908 a combined team of English and Welsh players
toured in New Zealand and Australia, and also visited Canada
on their way home. The team was not so strong as could have
been wished, and though they did fairly well in Australia, they
lost all three " test matches " against New Zealand. In South
Africa the game is followed with equal enthusiasm, and the play
is hardly inferior, if at all, to that of the New Zealanders. The
first British team to visit the Cape went in 1891 through the
generosity of Cecil Rhodes, who guaranteed the undertaking
against loss. Teams were also sent out in 1896 and 1903; the
result of matches played in each visit showing the steady improve-
ment of the colonists. In 1906 the South Africans paid their first
visit to England, and the result of their tour proved them to
be equally formidable with the New Zealanders. England
managed to draw with them, but Scotland was the only one
of the home Unions to gain a victory. The success of these
colonial visits, more especially financially, created a development
very foreign to the intentions of their organizers. The Northern
Union as a professional body had drifted into a somewhat parlous
state, through suffering on the one hand from a lack of inter-
national matches, and on the other from the competition of
Association professional teams. The great financial success
resulting from the New Zealand tour of 1905 roused the attention
of the Northern Union authorities, and they quickly entered
into negotiations with New Zealand players to collect a team
who would come over and play the Northern Union clubs, the
visiting players themselves taking a share of the gate-money.
For this purpose a team of New Zealanders toured the north of
England in 1907, and their action caused the introduction of
professional or Northern Union football in both New Zealand
and Australia.
The spread of the game has not, however, been confined to
English-speaking races. In France it has found fruitful soil,
and numerous clubs exist in that country. Since 1906 inter-
national matches have been played between France and England,
and the energy of French players, coupled with their national
620
FOOTBALL
[RUGBY
(Ian, makes them formidable opponents. The Rugby code has
also obtained a firm footing in Canada, India, Ceylon and the
Argentine.
The game itself is essentially a winter pastime, as two requisite
conditions for its enjoyment are a cool atmosphere and a soft
though firm turf. The field of play is an oblong, not more than
1 10 yds. long nor more than 75 yds. broad, and it usually approxi-
mates to these dimensions. The boundaries are marked by lines,
called touch-lines, down the sides, and goal-lines along the ends.
The touch-lines are continued beyond the goal-lines for a distance
of not more than 25 yds.; and parallel to the goal-line and
behind it, at a distance of not more than 25 yds., is drawn a line
called the dead-ball line, joining the ends of the touch-lines
produced. On each goal-line, at an equal distance from the touch-
lines, are erected two posts, termed goal-posts, exceeding n ft.
in height, and generally much more averaging perhaps from
20 to 30 ft. from the ground, and placed 18 ft. 6 in. apart. At a
height of 10 ft. from the ground they are joined by a cross-bar;
and the object of the game is to kick the ball over the cross-bar
between the upright posts, and so obtain a goal. The ball
is egg-shaped (strictly an oblate spheroid), and the official
dimensions are length, n to iij in.; length circumference,
30 to 31 in.; width circumference, 255 to 26 in.; weight, 13
to 145 oz. It is made of indiarubber inflated, and covered with
a leather case. Halfway between the two goal-lines there is
generally drawn the half-way line, but sometimes it is marked
by flags on the touch-line; and 25 yds. from each goal-line there
is similarly marked the 2S-yds. line. In the original game the
side that had gained the majority of goals won the match, and
if no goal had been scored, or an equal number, the game was
said to be left drawn; but a modification was adopted before
long. A goal can be kicked from the field in the ordinary course
of play; but from the very first a try goal could be obtained by
that side one of whose players either carried the ball across his
opponents' goal-line and then touched it down (i.e. on the
ground), or touched it down after it had been kicked across the
goal-line, before any of his opponents. The " try " is then
proceeded with as follows: the ball is taken out by a member
of the side obtaining the try in a straight line from the spot where
it was " touched down," and is deposited in a selected position
on the ground in the field of play, the defending side being all
confined behind their own goal-line until the moment the ball
is so placed on the ground, when another member of the attacking
side endeavours to kick it from the ground (a " place kick ")
over the bar and between the goal-posts. Frequently a goal
is kicked; very often not. The modification first allowed was
to count that side the winner which had gained the majority
of tries, provided no goal or an equal number of goals had been
scored; but a majority of one goal took precedence of any
number of tries. But this, too, was afterwards abolished, and
a system of points instituted by which the side with the majority
of points wins. The numerical value, however, of goals and
tries has undergone several changes, the system in 1908 being
as follows: A try counts 3 points. A goal from a try (in which
case the try shall not count) 5 points. A dropped goal (except
from a mark or a penalty kick) 4 points; a dropped goal being a
goal obtained by a player who drops the ball from his hands and
kicks it the moment it rises off the ground, as in the " half- volley "
at cricket or tennis. A goal from a mark or penalty kick 3 points.
Under the Northern Union code any sort of goal counts 2 points,
a try 3 points; but if a try be converted into a goal, both try
and goal count, i.e. 5 points are scored.
In the game itself not only may the ball be kicked in the
direction of the opponents' goal, but it may also be carried; but
it must not be thrown forward or knocked on that is, in the
direction of the opponents' goal though it may be thrown back.
Thus the game is really a combination of football and handball.
The main principle is that any one who is not " offside " is
in play. A player is offside if he gets in front of the ball that
is, on the opponents' side of the ball, nearer than a colleague in
possession of the ball to the opponents' goal-line; when in this
position he must not interfere with an opponent or touch the
ball under penalty. The leading feature of the game is the
" scrummage." In old days at Rugby school there was practically
no limit to the numbers of players on each side, and not infre-
quently there would be a hundred or more players on one side.
This was never prevalent in club football; twenty a-side was
the usual number to start with, reduced in 1877 to fifteen a-side,
the number still maintained. In the old Rugby big sides the ball
got settled amidst a mass of players, and each side attempted
to drive it through this mass by shoving, kicking, and otherwise
forcing their way through with the ball in front of them. This
was the origin of the scrummage.
The game is played usually for one hour, or one hour and ten
minutes, sometimes for one hour and a half. Each side defends
each goal in turn for half the time of play. Of the fifteen players
who compose a side, the usual arrangement is that eight are called
" forwards," and form the scrummage; two " half-backs " are
posted outside the scrummage; and four " three-quarter-backs,"
a little behind the halves, stretch in a line across the field, their
duties being mainly to run and kick and pass the ball to other
members of their own side, and to prevent their opponents from
doing the same. In recent years, owing to the development of
" passing," the field position of the half-backs has undergone
a change. One stands fairly close to the scrummage and is
known as the " scrum-half," the other takes a position between
the latter and the three-quarters, and is termed the "stand-off-
half." Behind the three-quarters comes the "full-back" or
" back," a single individual to maintain the last line of defence;
his duties are entirely defensive, either to " tackle " an opponent
who has managed to get through, or, more usually, to catch
and return long kicks. Play is started by one side kicking the
ball off from the centre of the field in the direction of the
opponents' goal. The ball is then caught by one of the other
side, who either kicks it or runs with it. In running he goes on
until he is " tackled," or caught, by one of his opponents, unless
he should choose to " pass " or throw it to another of his own
side, who, provided he be not offside, may either kick, or run,
or pass as he chooses. The ball in this way is kept moving
until it crosses the touch-line, or goal-line, or is tackled. If the
ball crosses the touch-line both sides line up at right angles
to the point where it crossed the line, and the ball is thrown in
straight either by one of the same side whose player carried
the ball across the touch-line, or, if the ball was kicked or thrown
out, by one of the opposite side. If the ball crosses the goal-
line either a try is gained, as explained above, or if the defending
side touch it down first, the other side retire to the line 25 yds.
from the goal-line, and the defending side kick it up the field.
If the ball is tackled the player carrying the ball gets up from
the ground as soon as possible, and the forwards at once form
the scrummage by putting down their heads and getting ready
to shove against one another. They shove as soon as the ball
is put down between the two front rows. In the scrummage
the object is, by shoving the opponents back or otherwise
breaking away with the ball in front, to carry the Ball in the
direction of the opponents' goal-line by a series of short kicks
in which the players run after the ball as fast as possible, while
their opponents lie in wait to get the ball, and either by a kick
or other device stop the rush. Instead, however, of the forwards
breaking away with the ball, sometimes they let the ball come
out of the scrummage to their half-backs, who either kick or run
with it, or pass it to the three-quarter-backs, and so the game
proceeds until the ball is once more " dead " that is, brought
to a standstill. The scrummage appears to be an uninteresting
manoeuvre, and a strange relic of bygone times; but it is not
merely a manoeuvre in which weight and strength alone tell
it also needs a lot of dexterity in moving the ball with the feet,
applying the weight to best advantage, and also in outflanking
the opposing side, as it were usually termed wheeling
directing all the force to one side of the scrummage and thus
breaking away. As a rule the game is a lively one, for the players
are rarely at rest; if there is much scrummaging it is called
a slow game, but, if much running and passing, a fast or an open
game. The spectator, unless he be an expert, prefers the open
ASSOCIATION]
FOOTBALL
621
game; but in any case the game is always a hard and exciting
struggle, frequently with the balance of fortune swaying very
rapidly from one side to the other, so that it is a matter of
no surprise to find the British public so ardently attached
toit - (C.J.N.F.; C.J.B.M.)
2. Association. It is generally supposed that the English
game of Association football is the outcome of the game of foot-
ball as played at Cambridge University about the middle of
the ipth century. In October 1863 a committee, consisting of
representatives of the schools of Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Marl-
borough, Shrewsbury and Westminster, drew up a code of laws
which settled the fundamental principle of the " Association "
game, as distinguished from other forms of the game which
permitted of handling and carrying the ball. In Association
football the use of the hands or arms, either for the purpose of
playing the ball or impeding or holding an opponent, is absolutely
prohibited; " dribbling " or kicking the ball with the feet, and
propelling it by the head or body, are the methods to be adopted.
The Cambridge laws specially provided for " kicking " the ball.
Laws 13 and 14 provided that " the ball, when in play, may be
stopped by any part of the body, but may not be held or hit by
the hands, arms or shoulders. All charging is fair, but holding,
pushing with the hands, tripping up and shinning are forbidden."
The laws of Association football first took practical shape
as the outcome of a meeting held on the 26th of October 1863
at the Freemasons' Tavern, London. The clubs which sent
delegates were representative of all classes of football then
played. The meeting was a momentous one, for not only was
the foundation laid of the Football Association, the national
association which has since then controlled the game in England,
but as the outcome of the differences of opinion which existed
as to " hacking " being permissible under the laws, the repre-
sentatives who favoured the inclusion of the practice, which is
now so roundly condemned in both the Association and Rugby
games, withdrew and formed the Rugby Union.
The Cambridge laws were considered by the committee of the
Football Association at their meeting on the 24th of November
1863. They took the view that those laws " embraced the true
principles of the game with the greatest simplicity "; the laws
were " officially " passed on the ist of December 1863, and the
first publication was made in Bell's Life four days later. These
laws have from time to time been modified, but the principles
as laid down in 1863 have been adhered to; and the Association
game itself has altered very little since 1880. The usual dimen-
sions for a ground are 120 yds. long by 80 yds. wide, and
the goals are 8 yds. in width with a cross-bar from post to post
8 ft. from the ground. The ball is about 14 oz. in weight, and
must be a perfect sphere from 27 to 28 in. in circumference, as
distinguished from the elliptical or egg-shaped Rugby ball. A
rectangular space extending to 18 yds. in front of the goals,
and marked with lines on the ground, constitutes the " penalty
area "; within which, at a distance of 12 yds. opposite the centre
of the goal, is the " penalty kick mark." The boundary lines
at the sides of the field are called the " touch-lines "; those at
the ends (in the centre of which are the goals) being the " goal-
lines." The game is started by a place kick from the centre of
the field of play, and none of the opposite side is allowed to
approach within 10 yds. of the ball when it is kicked off. When
the ball passes over the touch line it has to be thrown in by one
of the opposite side, and can be returned into the field of play
in any direction. If it passes over the goal-line at any time
without touching one of the defending side, it has to be kicked
out by the goalkeeper or one of the backs from a line marked in
front of goal, the spot selected being in front of the post nearest
the point where the ball left the field of play. But should it
touch one of the defending side in its transit over the goal-line
the attacking side has the privilege of a free kick from the corner
flag (a " corner kick "). This is often a great advantage, but such
free kick does not produce a goal unless the ball touches one of
the other players on its way to the post. Ordinarily a goal is
scored when the ball goes between the goal-posts and under the
cross-bar, not being thrown, knocked on or carried. The regula-
tion duration of a game is an hour and a half, and ends are
changed at forty-five minutes. The side winning the toss has
the choice of ends or kick-off, and the one obtaining the majority
of goals wins. A goal cannot be scored from a free kick except
when the free kick has been allowed by the referee as a penalty
for certain infringements of the rules by the opposite side; and
if such infringement take place within the penalty area on the
part of a player on the side then defending the goal, and in
the judgment of the referee be intentional, a " penalty kick "
is awarded to the attacking side. The penalty kick is a free
kick from the penalty kick mark, all the players of the defending
side being excluded from the penalty area, except the goal-
keeper, who is confined to the goal-line; the result, therefore,
being an almost certain goal.
A player is always in play as long as there are three of the
opposite side between him and the opposite goal at the time the
ball is kicked. This " offside " rule gives much trouble to the
young player, though why it should do so it is not easy to say.
The rule is simple if the words in italics are remembered. The
ball must not be carried, knocked or wilfully handled under any
pretence whatever, save by the goalkeeper, who is allowed to
use his hands in defence of his goal, either by knocking on or
throwing, within his own half of the field of play. Thus far he
is entitled to go in maintaining his goal, but if he carry the ball
the penalty is a free kick. There are other infringements of the
rules which also involve the penalty of a free kick, among them
the serious offences of^tripping, hacking and jumping at a player.
Players are not allowed to wear nails in their boots (except such
as have their heads driven in flush with the leather), or metal
plates or gutta-percha, and any player discovered infringing this
rule is liable to be prohibited from taking further part in a
match.
In the early 'sixties of the ipth century there were probably
not more than twenty-five organized clubs playing Association
football in the United Kingdom, and these were chiefly confined
in the south of England to the universities and public schools.
But whilst the game was being established in the south it was
making steady progress in the north, particularly in Yorkshire,
where the Sheffield Club had been formed as early as 1854. In
1867 the game had become so well established that it was decided
to play an inter-county match. The match, which was played
" in the wilds of Battersea Park," terminated in a draw, neither
side having obtained a goal; and it did much to stimulate the
growing popularity of the game. During the season 1870-1871,
only three years later, two matches of an international character
were played between Englishmen and Scotsmen in membership
with the Football Association; they were not, however, recognized
as " international " matches. The first real international match,
England v. Scotland, was played on the 3oth of November 1872
at Partick, Glasgow; the first international match between
England and Wales was played at Kennington Oval in 1879;
and that between England and Ireland at Belfast in 1882. In
1896 amateur international matches were inaugurated with
Germany, Austria and Bohemia; and games are now annually
played with Scotland, Wales, Ireland, France, Belgium, Germany,
Holland, Austria and other continental countries. As the out-
come of the international relations with Scotland, Wales and
Ireland, an International Football Association Board was formed
in 1882, when a universal code of laws was agreed upon. Two
representatives from each of the four national associations con-
stitute the board, whose laws are accepted and observed not
only by the clubs and players of the United Kingdom but in
all countries where the Association game is played. At a meeting
held at Paris on the 2ist of May 1004 the " International Federa-
tion of Association Football " was instituted. It consists of the
recognized national associations in the respective countries;
and its objects are to develop and control Association inter-
national football. The countries in federation are: Austria,
Belgium, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Germany,
Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland.
The small number of clubs taking part in the game in the early
days becomes of interest when compared with the magnitude of
622
FOOTBALL
[ASSOCIATION
the game in the zoth century. Association football has become
one of the most popular of all national sports in the United
Kingdom. It is slowly but surely taking a similar position on the
continent of Europe and is making progress even in the Far East,
Japan being one of its latest adherents. In the season of 1871-
1872 the Football Association inaugurated its popular challenge
cup competition which is now competed for by both amateur and
professional clubs. In the first year fifteen clubs entered, all of
which were from the south of England. The first winners of the
cup were the Wanderers, who defeated the Royal Engineers in the
final tie by one goal to nothing. For the first ten years the
competition was mostly limited to the southern clubs, but in the
season of 1881-1882 the Blackburn Rovers were only defeated in
the final tie by the Old Etonians by one goal to nothing. Pro-
fessionalism was then unknown in the game, and comparatively
little interest was taken in it except by the players themselves.
In the following season of 1882-1883 the cup was for the first time
taken north by the Blackburn Olympic Club, and it remained in
the north for the next nineteen years, until in the season of 1900
1 90 1 it was again brought south by the Tottenham Hotspur
Club, who defeated the Sheffield United Club at Bolton by three
goals to one. In the following season the cup was again taken
north by the Bury Club. In the early days of the competition a
few hundred people only attended the final tie, which for many
years was played at Kennington Oval in London. In the course
of time, however, the interest of the public so largely increased
that it became necessary to seek a ground of greater capacity;
accordingly in 1893 the final was played at Fallowfield, Man-
chester, where it was watched by forty thousand people; in 1894
it was played at Everton and in 1895 at the Crystal Palace.
The attendance during the following ten years averaged 80,000
people. The record attendance was in the season of 1900-1901,
when the south were contesting with the north, the spectators
then being upwards of 113,000. In the season of 1908-1909
356 clubs entered the competition; in 1910-11 the number had
increased to 404.
The great development of the game necessitated many changes
in the system of control. About the year 1880 (although contrary
to the rules) a practice of making payment to players crept into
the game in the north of England and slowly developed. After
some years of debate as to the best method of dealing with this
development the Football Association decided in 1885 to legalize
and control the payment of players. The rules define a pro-
fessional player as one who receives remuneration of any sort
above his necessary hotel and travelling expenses' actually paid, or
is registered as a professional. They further provide that training
expenses not paid by the players themselves will be considered as
remuneration beyond necessary travelling and hotel expenses.
Players competing for any money prizes in football contests are
also considered professionals.
In 1888 the Football League, a combination of professional
clubs of the north and midlands of England, was formed; and a
new scheme was inaugurated for the playing of matches on what
is known as the " League " principle, the essential advantage of
which is that the clubs in membership of a league agree to play
with each other " home and home " matches each season, and
also bind themselves under certain penalties to play their best
team in all league matches. Six years later the Southern League
came into existence, primarily with the object of increasing the
interest in the game in the south and west of England. The
Football League and the Southern League very soon had their
imitators, and in 1909 there were upwards of six hundred league
competitions playing under the sanction and control of the Foot-
ball Association . The league system also found favour in Scotland,
Wales and Ireland, and has extended to most of the colonies
where Association football is played. In the season of 1893-1894
the Amateur Cup Competition, restricted to amateur clubs in
membership with the Football Association, was inaugurated.
In the first season 32 clubs entered, and the growing popularity
of the competition is shown by the fact that in the season of 1908-
1909 there were 229 entries.
The Football Association, founded in 1863 with its eleven clubs,
had in 1909 under its jurisdiction upwards of 10,000 amateur
clubs and a quarter of a million of amateur players, and 400
professional clubs with 7000 professional players. It has also
directly affiliated 52 county, district and colonial associations,
and indirectly in membership a large number of minor associa-
tions which are affiliated through the county and district
associations. The Army Association includes 316 army clubs
in Great Britain and Ireland, together with clubs formed by the
various battalions in India, South Africa, Gibraltar and other
army stations; and the Royal Navy Football Association
comprises all ships afloat having Association football clubs.
The regulations of the Football Association, which is the
recognized administrative and legislative body for the game in
England, make provision for the sanction and control of leagues
and competitions; and its rules, regulations, principles and
practices very largely prevail in all national associations. The
king is the patron, and the council consists of 56 members, a
president, 6 vice-presidents, a treasurer, 10 representatives
elected by the clubs in the ten divisions into which the country is
subdivided, together with representatives of the army, the navy
and of county associations in England which have upwards of
50 clubs in membership, each representative being directly
appointed by his association. In 1905 the Football Association
became incorporated under the Joint Stock Companies Acts, and
as a consequence the word " Limited " appears in its title. It is
not, however, a trading body; the shareholders are not entitled
to any dividend, bonus or profit, nor may the members of the
council, who are the directors, receive any payment for their
services. The Scottish Football Association is also an incorpor-
ated body with similar powers. Many of the leading clubs of the
United Kingdom have also become incorporated, but under the
regulations of the Football Association they may not pay a larger
dividend to their shareholders than 5%, nor may any of the
directors receive payment for their services.
The whole policy of legislation in Association football of late
years has been naturally to make the game faster by bringing
every one into full play. The great aim accordingly has been
to encourage combination and to discourage purely individual
efforts. In the early days, though there was a certain amount of
cohesion, a player had to rely mainly on himself. Even up to the
middle of the 'seventies dribbling was looked upon as the great
desideratum; it was the essential for a forward, just as long kicks
were the main object of a back. The development of the game
was cf course bound to change all that. The introduction of
passing, long or short, but long in particular, placed the dribbler
pure and simple at a discount, and necessitated methods with
which he was mostly unacquainted. Combined play gradually
came to be regarded as the keynote to success. Instead of one full
back, as was originally the case, and one half-back, the defence
gradually developed by the addition first of a second half, then of
a second full back, and still later of a third half-back, until it came
to show, in addition to the goalkeeper of course, two full backs
and three half-backs. The eight forwards who used to constitute
the attack in the earliest days of the Association have been
reduced by degrees, as the science of the game became understood,
until they now number only five. The effect of the transition has
been to put the attack and defence on a more equal footing, and
as a natural consequence to make the game more open and
thereby generally more interesting and attractive. Association
football is indeed, from the standpoint of the spectator, a much
brighter game than it was in its infancy, the result of the new
methods bringing every one of the eleven players into full relief
throughtout the game. The players who, as a rule, make or mar
the success of a side in modern football are the centre forward
and the centre half-back. They are the pivot on which the
attack and the defence respectively turn. Instead of close
dribbling and following up, the new formation makes for accuracy
of passing among the forwards, with intelligent support from the
half-backs. The net result is practically the effective combina-
tion of the whole side. To do his part as it ought to be done
every member of an eleven must work in harmony with the rest,
and on a definite system, in all cases subordinating his own.
AMERICAN]
FOOTBALL
623
latitudinal lines only and was therefore popularly called the
" gridiron "; subsequently it was called the " checkerboard."
The end lines are called " goal-lines," the side " touch-lines."
The two lines 25 yds. from each goal-line, and the middle line, or
55 yard-line, are made broader than the rest. In the middle of
each goal-line is a goal, consisting of two uprights exceeding 20 ft.
in length, set 18 ft. 6 in. apart with a crossbar 10 ft. from the
ground. The ball is in shape and material of the English Rugby
type.
A match game consists of two periods (halves) of thirty-five
minutes with an interval of fifteen minutes. Practice games
usually have shorter halves. There are four officials: the umpire,
whose duty it is to watch the conduct of the players and decide
regarding fouls; the referee, who decides questions regarding the
progress of the ball and of play; the field judge who assists
the referee and keeps the time; and the linesman, who (with two
methods and personal interests to promote the general well-being
of the side. (C W A F I W )
The literature of British football is very extensive,' but the following
works are among the best: Football in the " Badminton Library *
(London 1004), where the different games played at Eton, Harrow
Rugby W ' nc hester and other public schools are thoroughly de-
scribed ; Rev. F Marshall, Football; the Rugby Game (London,
Cassels); J E. Vincent , Football; its History for Five Centuries
"n i i J S M v j ' ?. Marriott and C. W. Alcock, Football
(, i ^ e T s ,, 'J, ' Footba1 '. m the Encyclopaedia of Sport; The
Rugby Football Umon Handbook, Richardson, Greenwich, Official
Annual ; and The Football Annual, Merritt and Hatcher (Association
Game), London.
United States. in America the game of football has been
elaborated far more than elsewhere, and involves more complica-
tions than in England. From colonial times until 1871 a kind of
football generally resembling the English Association game was
played on the village greens and by the students of colleges and
academies. There was no running with the
ball, but dribbling, called " babying," was
common. In 1871 a code of rules was drawn
up, but they were unsatisfactory and not in-
variably observed. " Batting the ball," i.e.
striking the ball forward with the fists, was
allowed. There were two backs, sixteen
rushers or forwards, and two rovers or " pea-
nutters," who lurked near the opponents' goal.
During this period the first international foot-
ball game was played at Yale between the
college team and one made up of old Etonians,
the rules being a compromise between the
American and the English.
English Rugby, introduced from Canada,
was first played at Harvard University, and
in 1875 a match under a compromise set of
rules, taken partly from the Rugby Union and
partly from the existing American game, was DIAGRAM OF FIELD
played with Yale. The following year Yale , The {ootba11 rule s P 6 ,. tnat when the ball is put in play in a scrimmage, the
. . . ., i r> u TT j first man who receives the ball, commonly known as the quarter-back, may carry it
adopted the regular Rugby Union rules, and f orwar d beyond the line of scrimmage, provided in so doing he crosses such line at least
played Harvard under these. Later, several 5 yds. from the point where the snapper-back put the ball in play, and furthermore,
other colleges adopted these English rules, that a forward pass may be made provided the ball passes over the line of scrimmage
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ventions were held, which from time to time referee in determining whether the quarter-back runs according to rule, or whether,
altered and amplified the rules. A college in case of a forward pass, such pass is legally made. Thus the football field is changed
. . . from the gridiron as m 1902, to what now resembles a checkerboard, and the above
association was formed, and the game grew in diagram S H OWS exactly how the field should be marked. As the width of the field
popularity. Public criticism of the roughness does not divide evenly into 5 yd. spaces, it is wise to run the first line through the
shown in the play early threatened its exist- middle point of the field and then to mark off the 5 yds. on each side from that middle
ence; indeed at one time the university ! ine -. In order to save labour it may be sufficient to omit t^he full completion of the
' . . , . / longitudinal lines, as the object of these lines is accomplished if their points of inter-
authorities compelled Harvard to abstain sectkm with the transverse lines are distinctly marked, for instance, byalineafootlong.
from the annual game with Yale. Changes
' assistants, one representing each eleven) marks the distance
gained or lost in each play.
In scoring, a " touchdown " (the English Rugby " try ") counts
5 points, a goal from a touchdown 6 (or one added to the 5 for the
touchdown), a " goal from the field," whether from placement or
drop-kick, 4, and a " safety " (the English Rugby " touchdown ")
in the rules were introduced, and the game has been characterized
by less roughness and by increased skill. It has become the
most popular autumn game in the United States, the principal
university matches often attracting crowds of 35,000 and even
40,000 spectators. The association subsequently disbanded, but
a Rules Committee, invited by the University Athletic Club of
New York, made the necessary changes in the rules from time
to time, and these have been accepted by the country at large.
In the West associations were formed; but the game in the East
is played principally under separate agreements between the
contesting universities, all using, however, one code of rules.
Later this Rules Committee amalgamated with a new com-
mittee of wider representation. Amateur athletic clubs as
well as public and private schools have also taken up the
game. The American football season lasts from the middle
of September to the first of December only, owing to the
severity of the American winter. Professional football is not
played in America.
The American Rugby game is played by teams of eleven men
on a field of 330 ft. long and 160 ft. wide, divided by chalk lines
into squares with sides 5 yds. long, leaving a strip 5 ft. wide on
each side of the field. Until 1903 the field was divided by
2. Mutatis mutandis, these are made as in English Rugby.
American Rugby differs from the English game, because in the
scrimmage the men are lined up opposite each other, and, although
separated by the length of the ball, are engaged in a constant
man-to-man contest, and also in that a system of " interference "
is allowed. Furthermore, a player in the American game is put
" on side " when a kicked ball strikes the ground; and forward
passing, i.e. throwing the ball toward the opponents' goal, is
permissible under certain restrictions. The costume usually
consists of a close-fitting jersey with shoulders and elbows padded
and reinforced with leather; short trousers with padded thighs
and knees, heavy stockings and shoes with leather cleats. In the
early period of the game caps were worn, but, as they were
impossible to keep on, they were discarded in favour of the
wearing of long hair, and the " chrysanthemum head " became
the distinguishing mark of the football player. This, however,
624
FOOTBALL
[AMERICAN
proved an inadequate protection, and some players now wear a
" head harness " of soft padded leather. Substitutes are allowed
in the places of injured players.
The object of the game is identical with that of English Rugby,
and the rules in regard to fair catches, punting, drop-kicking,
place-kicking, goal-kicking, passing and gentlemanly conduct are
practically the same, except that, on a free kick after a fair
catch, the opposing players in the American game may not come
up to the mark but must keep 10 yds. in front of it. In the
American game there is no scrummage in the English sense, nor
is the ball thrown in at right angles after going into touch. The
element of chance in both these methods of play was done away
with by the enunciation of the principle of the " possession of the
ball." In America, when the ball has gone out of bounds or a
runner has been tackled and held and the ball downed, the ball is
also put into play by an evolution called a scrimmage, usually
called " line-up," which beyond the name bears no resemblance
to the English scrummage. The ball, at every moment of the
game, belongs theoretically either to one side or to the other.
It may be lost by a fumble, or by the side in possession not being
able to make the required distance of 10 yds. in three successive
attempts or by a voluntary kick. In the line-up the seven line-
men (i.e. forwards) face each other on a line parallel to the goal-
lines on the spot where it was ordered down by the referee. The
ball is placed on the ground by the centre-rush, also called the
snapper-back, who, upon the signal being given by his quarter-
back, " snaps back " the ball to this player, or to the full-back,
by a quick movement of the hand or foot. The moment the ball is
snapped-back it is in play. In every scrimmage it is a foul for the
side having the ball (attacking side) to obstruct an opponent
except with the body (no use may be made of hands or arms);
or for the defending side to interfere with the snap-back. The
defenders may use their hands and arms only to get their
opponents out of the way in order to get at the man with the ball.
Each member of the attacking side endeavours, of course, to
prevent his opponents from breaking through and interfering
with the quarter-back, who requires this protection from his line
in order to have time to pass the ball to one of the backs, whom he
has notified by a signal to be ready. In the United States a
player may be obstructed by an off-side opponent so long as hands
and arms are not used. In the line-up this is called " blocking-off "
and " interference " when done to protect a friend running with
the ball. Interference is one of the most important features of
American football. As soon as the ball is passed to one of the
half-backs for a run, for example, round one end of the line, his
interference must form immediately. This means that one or
more of his fellows must accompany and shield him as he runs,
blocking off any opponent who trys to tackle him. The first
duty of the defence against a hostile run is therefore to break up
the interference, i.e. put these defenders out of the play, so that
the runner may be reached and tackled.
The game begins by the captains tossing for choice of kick-off
or goal. If the winner of the toss chooses the goal, on account
of the direction of wind, the loser must kick off and send the
ball at least 10 yds. into the opponents' territory from a place-
kick from the 55 yds. line. The two ends of the kicking side,
who are usually fast runners, get down the field after the ball
as quickly as possible, in order to prevent the man who catches
the kick-off from running back with the ball. When the kick-off
is caught, the catcher with the aid of interference runs it back
as far as possible, and as soon as he is tackled and held by his
opponents the ball is down and a line-up takes place, the ball
being in the possession of the catcher's side, which now attacks.
In order to prevent the so-called " block game," once prevalent,
in which neither side made any appreciable progress, the rules
provide that the side in possession of the ball must make at
least 10 yds. in three successive attempts, or, failing to do so,
must surrender the ball to the enemy, or, as it is called, " lose
the ball on downs." This is infrequent in actual play, because
if, after two unsuccessful attempts, or partly successful, it becomes
evident that the chances of completing the obligatory jo-yd.
gain on the remaining attempt are unfavourable, a forward
pass or a kick is resorted to, rather than risk losing the ball on
the spot. The kick, although resulting in the loss of the ball,
nevertheless gives it to the enemy much nearer his goal. When
the wind is strong the side favoured by it usually kicks often,
as the other side, not being able to kick back on equal terms,
is forced to play a rushing game, which is always exhausting.
Again, the kicking game is often resorted to by the side that has
the lead in the score, in order to save its men and yet retain the
advantage. The only remaining way to advance the ball is on
a free-kick after a fair catch, as in the English game. The free
kick may be either a punt, a drop-kick or a kick from placement.
Whenever the ball goes over the side line into touch it is brought
back to the point where it crossed the line by the man who
carried it over, or, if kicked or knocked over, by a man of the
side which did not kick it out, and there put in play in one of
two ways. Either it may be touched to the ground and then
kicked at least 10 yds. towards the opponents' goal, or it may be
taken into the field at right angles to the line a distance not
less than 5 yds. nor more than 15, and there put down for a
line-up, the player who takes it in first declaring how far he will
go, so that the opposing team may not be caught napping.
Of the seven men in the line, the centre is chosen for his
weight and ability to handle the ball cleanly in snapping back.
He must also, in case the full-back is to make the next play,
be able to throw the ball from between his legs accurately into
the full-back's hands, thus saving the time that would be wasted
if the quarter-back were used as an intermediary. The two
" guards," who must also be heavy men, form with the centre
the bulk of the line, protecting the backs in offence, and in de-
fence blocking the enemy. The two " tackles " must be heavy
yet active and aggressive men, as they must not only help the
centre and guards in repelling assaults on the middle of the line,
but also assist the ends in stopping runs round the line as well
as those between tackle and end, a favourite point of attack.
The " ends " are chosen for their activity, sure tackling, fast
running and ability to follow up the ball after a kick. Of the
four players behind the line, the full-back must be a sure
catcher and tackier and a fast runner. The two half-backs
must also be fast runners and good dodgers. One of them is
often chosen for his ability to gain ground by " bucking the line,"
i.e. plunging through the opposing team's line. He must there-
fore be over the average weight, while the other half-back is called
upon to gain by running round the opposing ends. The quarter-
back is the commanding general and therefore the most important
member of his side, as with him lies the choice of plays to be
made when on the attack. Courage, coolness, promptness in
decision and discrimination in the choice of plays are the qualities
absolutely required for this position. As soon as his side obtains
the ball, the quarter-back shouts out a signal, consisting of a
series of numbers or letters, or both, which denotes a certain
play that is to be carried through the moment the ball is snapped
back. A good quarter-back thinks rapidly and shouts his signal
for the next play as soon as a down has been called and while
the scrimmage is forming, so that the plays are run off rapidly
and the enemy is given as little time as possible to concentrate.
The signals, which are secret and often changed to guard them
from being solved by the enemy, are formed by designating
every position and every space in the line, as well as kicks and
other open plays, by a number or letter. Some signals are called
sequence-signals, and indicate a prearranged series of plays for
use in certain emergencies. Every manoeuvre of the attacking
side is carried out by every member of the team, the ideal being
" every man in every play every time." As soon as a signal is
given each man should know what part of the ensuing move will
fall to him, in carrying the ball, interfering for the runner, or get-
ting down the field under a punt. Every team has its own code.
About 1890 the system of interference led to momentum and
mass plays (wedge-formations, tandems, &c.), i.e. to the grouping
of bodies of men behind the line, and starting them before the
ball was snapped back, so that they struck the line with an
acquired momentum that was extremely severe, particularly
when met by men equally determined. These plays caused
FOOTE, A. H. FOOTE, SAMUEL
625
frequent injuries and led to legislation against them, the most
important law providing for a limitation to the number of men
who could be dropped back of the line, and practically keeping
seven men drawn up in the line.
Penalties are of three kinds: (i) forfeiture of the game, for
refusing to play when directed to do so by the referee, and for
repeated fouls made with the intention of delaying the game;
(2) disqualification of players for unnecessary roughness or
ungentlemanly conduct; and (3) for infringement of rules, for
which certain distances are taken away from the previous
gains of the side making the fouls.
The game resolves itself into a series of scrimmages inter-
spersed with runs and kicks. The systematized development
of plays places at the disposal of the quarter an infinite variety
of attack, which he seeks to direct at the opposing line with
bewildering rapidity and dash. During the preliminary games
of the season " straight football " is generally played ; that is,
intricate attacks are avoided and kicks and simple plunges
into the line are mainly relied upon. " Trick plays," which
comprise all manoeuvres of an intricate nature, are reserved
for later and more important matches. Among these is the
" fake (false) kick," in which the full-back takes position as if
to receive the ball for a kick, but the ball is passed to a different
player for a run. Another play of this kind is the " wing-shift,"
in which some or all of the players on one side of centre suddenly
change to the other side, thus forming a mass and throwing the
opponents' line out of balance. To this category belong also
" double passes," " false passes," " delayed passes," " delayed
runs " and " criss-crosses."
Training for football in America resembles that for other
sports in regard to food and hygiene. The coaching systems
at the universities differ, but there is generally a head coach,
who is assisted by graduates, each of whom pays especial
attention to one set of men, one to the men in the centre of the
line, one to the backs, another to the ends, &c. Candidates for
the teams are put through a severe course of practice in catching
punts and hard-thrown passes, in quick starts, falling on the
ball, tackling a mechanical dummy, in blocking, breaking through
the line, and all kinds of kicking, although in matches the kicking
is generally left to one or two men who have shown themselves
particularly expert. Every player is taught to dive for the
ball whenever he sees it on the ground, as possession is of
cardinal importance in American football, and dribbling for this
reason is unknown. When running with the ball the player is
taught to take short steps, to follow his interference, that is, not
isolate himself from his defenders, and neither to slow up nor
shut his eyes when striking the opposing line. Tackling well
below the waist is taught, but it is a foul to tackle below the knee.
The general rule for defensive work of all kinds is " play low."
See Walter Camp, How to play Football, and the Official Football
Guide (annual), both in Spalding's Athletic Library; his Book of
College Sports (New York, 1893), his American Football (New York,
1894) and his Football (Boston, 1896) the last in co-operation with
L. F. Deland; R. H. Barbour, The Book of School and College Sports
(New York 1904) ; W. H. Lewis, Primer of College Football (Boston,
1896). ( E - B -; W. CA.)
FOOTE, ANDREW HULL (1806-1863), American admiral, was
born at New Haven, Connecticut, on the I2th of September 1806,
his father, Samuel Augustus Foote (i 780-1846) , beingaprominent
lawyer and Whig politician, who as U.S. senator moved in 1829
" Foote's resolutions " on public lands, in the discussion of which
Daniel Webster made his " reply to Hayne." He entered the
U.S. navy in 1822, and was commissioned lieutenant in 1830.
After cruising round the world (1837-1840) in the " John Adams,"
he was assigned to the Philadelphia Naval Asylum, and later
(1846-1848) to the Boston Navy Yard. In 1849 he was made
commander of the " Perry," and engaged for two years in sup-
pressing the slave trade on the African coast. In 1856, as
commander of the " Portsmouth," he served on the East India
station, under Com. James Armstrong, and he captured the
Barrier Forts near Canton. From October 1858 to the outbreak
of the Civil War, he was in charge of the Brooklyn Navy Yard,
becoming a full captain in 1861. In August 1861 he was assigned
to the command " of the naval operations upon the Western
waters." His exploit in capturing Fort Henry (on the right
bank of the Tennessee river) from the Confederates, on the 6th
of February 1862, without the co-operation of General Grant's
land forces, who had not arrived in time, was a brilliant success;
but their combined attack on Fort Donelson ( 1 2 m. off, on the left
bank of the Cumberland river), whither most of the Fort Henry
garrison had escaped, resulted, before its surrender (Feb. 16),
in heavy losses to Foote's gunboats, Foote himself being severely
wounded. In March-April he co-operated in the capture of
New Madrid (q.v.) and Island No. 10. In June he retired from
his command and in July was promoted rear-admiral, and
became chief of the Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting. On
the 26th of June 1863 he died at New York.
See the life (1874) by Professor James Mason Hoppin (1820-1906).
FOOTE, MARY HALLOCK (1847- ), American author and
illustrator, was born in Milton, New York, on the igth of
November 1847, of English Quaker ancestry. She was educated
at the Poughkeepsie (N.Y.) Female Collegiate Seminary and at
the Cooper Institute School of Design for women, in New York.
In 1876 she married Arthur De Wint Foote, a mining engineer,
and subsequently lived in the mining regions of California,
Idaho, Colorado and Mexico. She is best known for her stories,
in which, as in her drawings, she portrays vividly the rough
picturesque life, especially the mining life, of the West. Some
of her best drawings appear in her own books. Among her
publications are The Led-Horse Claim (1883), John Bodewin's
Testimony (1886), The Chosen Valley (1892), Cceur d'Alene
(1894); The Prodigal (1900), a novelette; The Desert and the
Sown (1902); and several collections of short stories, including
A Touch of Sun and other Stories (1903).
FOOTE, SAMUEL (1720-1777), English dramatist and actor,
was baptized at Truro on the 27th of January 1720. Of his
attachment to his native Cornwall he gives no better proofs
as an author than by making the country booby Timothy (in
The Knights) sound the praises of that county and of its manly
pastimes; but towards his family he showed a loyal and enduring
affection. His father was a man of good family and position.
His mother, Eleanor Goodere, whom he is said in person as
well as in disposition to have strongly resembled, he liberally
supported in the days of his prosperity, and after her death
indignantly vindicated her character from the imputations
recklessly cast upon it by the revengeful spite of the duchess
of Kingston. About the time when Foote came of age, he
inherited his first fortune through the murder of his uncle, Sir
John Dinely Goodere, Bart., by his brother, Captain Samuel
Goodere. Foote was educated at the collegiate school at
Worcester, and at Worcester College, Oxford, distinguishing
himself in both places by mimicry and audacious pleasantries
of all kinds, and, although he left Oxford without taking his
degree, acquiring a classical training which afterwards enabled
him neatly to turn a classical quotation or allusion, and helped
to give to his prose style a certain fluency and elegance.
Foote was " designed " for the law, but certainly not by
nature. In his chambers at the Temple, and in the Grecian
Coffee-house hard by, he learned to know something of lawyers
if not of law, and was afterwards able to jest at the jargon and
to mimic the mannerisms of the bar, and to satirize the Latitats
of the other branch of the profession with particular success.
The famous argument in Hobson v. Nobson, in The Lame Lovers,
is almost as good of its kind as that in Bardell v. Pickwick.
But a stronger attraction drew him to the Bedford Coffee-house
in Covent Garden, and to the theatrical world of which it was
the social centre. After he had run through two fortunes (the
second of which he appears to have inherited at his father's
death), and had then passed through severe straits, he made
his first appearance on the actual stage in 1744. It is said that
he had married a young lady in Worcestershire; but the traces
of his wife (he affirmed himself that he was married to his washer-
woman) are mysterious, and probably apocryphal.
Foote's first appearance as an actor was made little more than
626
FOOTE, SAMUEL
two years after that of Garrick, as to whose merits the critics,
including Foote himself, were now fiercely at war. His own
first venture, as Othello, was a failure; and though he was
fairly successful in genteel comedy parts, and was, after a favour-
able reception at Dublin, enrolled as one of the regular company
at Drury Lane in the winter of 1745-1746, he had not as yet
made any palpable hit. Finding that his talent lay neither in
tragedy nor in genteel comedy, he had begun to wonder " where
the devil it did lie," when his successful performance of the part
of Bayes in The Rehearsal at last suggested to him the true
outlet for his extraordinary gift of mimicry. Following the
example of Garrick, he had introduced into this famous part
imitations of actors, and had added a variety of other satirical
comment in the way of " gag." Engaging a small company
of actors, he now boldly announced for the 22nd of April 1747,
at the theatre in the Haymarket " gratis," " a new entertainment
called the Diversions of the Morning," to which were to be added
a farce adapted from Congreve, and an epilogue " spoken by
the B-d-d Coffee-house." Foote's success in these Diversions
obtained for him the name of " the English Aristophanes,"
an absurd compliment, declined by Foote himself (see his letter
in The Minor). The Diversions consisted of a series of imitations
of actors and other well-known persons, whose various peculi-
arities of voice, gesture, manner or dress were brought directly
before the spectators, while the epilogue introduced the wits
of the Bedford engaged in ludicrous disputation, and specially
" took off " an eminent physician (probably the munificent
Sir William Browne, whom he afterwards caricatured in The
Devil on Two Sticks), and a notori6us quack oculist of the day.
The actors ridiculed in this entertainment having at once procured
the aid of the constables for preventing its repetition, Foote
immediately advertised an invitation to his friends to drink
a dish of tea with him at the Haymarket on the following day at
noon " and 'tis hoped there will be a great deal of comedy
and some joyous spirits; he will endeavour to make the morning
as diverting as possible. Tickets for this entertainment to be
had at St George's coffee-house, Temple-Bar, without which no
person will be admitted. N.B. Sir Dilbury Diddle will be there,
and Lady Betty Frisk has absolutely promised." The device
succeeded to perfection; further resistance was abandoned
as futile by the actors, whom Foote mercilessly ridiculed in the
" instructions to his pupils " which the entertainer pretended
to impart (typifying them under characters embodying their
several chief peculiarities or defects the massive and sonorous
James Quin as a watchman, the shrill-voiced Lacy Ryan as a
razor-grinder, the charming Peg Woffington, whose tones had
an occasional squeak in them, as an orange-woman crying her
wares and the bill of the play); and Mr Foote's Chocolate,
which was afterwards converted into an evening Tea, became
an established favourite with the town.
In spite of this success, he seems to have contrived to spend
a third fortune, and to have found it necessary to eke out his
means by a speculation in small-beer, as is recorded in an amusing
anecdote told of him by Johnson. But he could now command
a considerable income; and when money came he seems to have
freely expended it in both hospitality and charity. During
his engagements at Covent Garden and at Drury Lane, of which
he was joint-manager, and in professional trips to Scotland, and
more especially to Ireland, he appeared both in comedies of
other authors and more especially in his own. He played Hartop
in his Knights ( 1 749, printed 1 7 54) . Taste ( 1 7 5 2) , in which parts
of the Diversions were incorporated, was followed by some
eighteen pieces, the majority of which were produced at the
Haymarket, the favourite home of Foote's entertainments.
In 1760 he succeeded in obtaining for this theatre a licence from
the lord chamberlain, afterwards (in 1766) converted into a
licence for summer performances for life. The entertainments
were a succession of variations on the original idea of the
Diversions and the Tea. Now, it was an Auction of Pictures
(1748), of part of which an idea may be formed from the second
act of the comedy Taste; now, a lecture on Orators (1754),
suggested by some bombastic discourses given by Macklin in
his old age at the Piazza coffee-house in Covent Garden, where
Foote had amused the audience and confounded the speaker
by interposing his humorous comments. The Orators is pre-
served in the shape of a hybrid piece, which begins with a mock
lecture on the art of oratory and its representatives in England,
and ends with a diverting scene of a pot-house forum debate,
to which Holberg's Politician-Tinman can hardly have been a
stranger. At a later date (1773) a new device was introduced
in a Puppet-show. The piece (unprinted) played in this by the
puppets was called Piety in Pattens, and professed to show " by
the moral how maidens of low degree might become rich from
the mere effects of morality and virtue, and by the literature
how thoughts of the most commonplace might be concealed
under cover of words the most high flown." In other words,
it was an attack upon sentimental comedy, which was still not
altogether extinguished. An attack upon Garrick in connexion
with the notorious Shakespeare jubilee was finally left out from
the Puppet-show, and thus was avoided a recurrence of the
quarrel which many years before had led to an interchange
of epistolary thrusts, and an imitation by Woodward of the
imitative Foote.
On the whole, the relations between the two public favourites
became very friendly, and on Foote's part unmistakably
affectionate, and they have not been always generously repre-
sented by Garrick's biographers. A comparison between the
two as actors is of course out of the question; but, though
Foote was a buffoon, and his tongue a scurrilous tongue, there
is no authentic ground for the suggestion that his character
was one of malicious heartlessness. Of Samuel Johnson's
opinions of him many records remain in Boswell; when Johnson
had at last found his way into Foote's company (he afterwards
found it to Foote's own table) he was unable to " resist " him,
and, on hearing of Foote's death, he thought the career just
closed worthy of a lasting biographical record.
Meanwhile most of poor Foote's friendships in high life were
probably those that are sworn across the table, and require
" t'other bottle " to keep them up. It is not a pleasant picture
of Lord Mexborough and his royal guest the duke of York,
and their companions, bantering Foote on his ignorance of horse-
manship, and after he had weakly protested his skill, taking him
out to hounds on a dangerous animal. He was thrown and
broke his leg, which had to be amputated, the " patientee "
(in which character he said he was now making his first appear-
ance) consoling himself with the reflection that he would now
be able to take off " old Faulkner " (a pompous Dublin alderman
with a wooden leg, whom he had brought on the stage as Peter
Paragraph in The Orators) " to the life." The duke of York
made him the best reparation in his power by promising him
a life-patent for the theatre in the Haymarket (1766); and
Foote not only resumed his profession, as if, like Sir Luke Limp,
he considered the leg he had lost " a redundancy, a mere nothing
at all," but ingeniously turned his misfortune to account in two
of his later pieces, The Lame Lover and The Devil on Two Sticks,
while, with the true instinct of a public favourite, making constant
reference to it in plays and prologues. Though the characters
played by him in several of his later plays are comparatively
short and light, he continued to retain his hold over the public,
and about the year 1774 was beginning to think of withdrawing,
at least for a time, to the continent, when he became involved
in what proved a fatal personal quarrel. Neither in his entertain-
ments nor in his comedies had he hitherto (except in Garrick's
case, and it is said in Johnson's) put any visible restraint upon
personal satire. The Author, in which, under the infinitely
humorous character of Cadwallader, he had brought a Welsh
gentleman of the name of Ap-Rice on the stage, had, indeed,
been ultimately suppressed. But in general he bad pursued
his hazardous course, mercilessly exposing to public ridicule and
contempt not only fribbles and pedants, quacks or supposed
quacks in medicine (as in The Devil on Two Sticks), enthusiasts
in religion, such as Dr Dodd (in The Cozeners) and George
Whitefield and his connexion (in The Minor). He had not only
dared the wrath of the whole Society of Antiquaries (in The
FOOTE, SAMUEL
627
Nabob), and been rewarded by the withdrawal, from among
the pundits who rationalized away Whittington's Cat, of Horace
Walpole and other eminent members of the body, but had in
the same play attacked a well-known representative of a very
influential though detested element in English society, the
" Nabobs " themselves. But there was one species of cracked
porcelain which he was not to try to hold up to contempt with
impunity. The rumour of his intention to bring upon the stage,
in the character of Lady Kitty Crocodile in The Trip to Calais',
the notorious duchess of Kingston, whose trial for bigamy was
then (1775) impending, roused his intended victim to the utmost
fury; and the means and influence she had at her disposal
enabled her, not only to prevail upon the lord chamberlain to
prohibit the performance of the piece (in which there is no hint
as to the charge of bigamy itself), but to hire agents to vilify
Foote's character in every way that hatred and malice could
suggest. After he had withdrawn the piece, and letters had been
exchanged between the duchess and him equally characteristic
of their respective writers, Foote took his revenge upon the
chief of the duchess's instruments, a " Reverend Doctor "
Jackson, who belonged to the " reptile " society of the journalists
of the day, so admirably satirized by Foote in his comedy of
The Bankrupt. This man he gibbeted in the character of Viper
in The Capuchin, under which name the altered TriJo_Calais.
was performed in 1776. But the resources of his enemies were
not yet at an end; and a discharged servant of Foote's was
suborned by Jackson to bring a charge of assault and apply
for a warrant against him. Though the attempt utterly broke
down, and Foote's character was thus completely cleared, his
health and spirits had given way in the struggle as to which,
though he seems to have had the firm support of the better part
of the public, including such men as Burke and Reynolds, the
very audiences of his own theatre had been, or had seemed to
be, divided in opinion. He thus resolved to withdraw, at least
for a time, from the effects of the storm, let his theatre to Colman,
and after making his last appearance there in May 1777, set
forth in October on a journey to France. But at Dover he fell
sick on the day after his arrival there, and after a few hours
died (October 2ist). His epitaph in St Mary's church at Dover
(written by his faithful treasurer William Jewell) records that
he had a hand " open as day for melting charity." His resting-
place in Westminster Abbey is without any memorial.
Foote's chief power as an actor lay in his extraordinary gift of
mimicry, which extended to the mental and moral, as well as the
mere outward and physical peculiarities of the personages whose
likeness he assumed. He must have possessed a wonderful flexibility
of voice, though his tones are said to have been harsh when his voice
was not disguised, and an incomparable readiness for rapidly assum-
ing characters, both in his entertainments and in his comedies,
where he occasionally " doubled " parts. The excellent " patter "
of some of his plays, such as The Liar and The Cozeners, must have
greatly depended for its effect upon rapidity of delivery. In person
he was rather short and stout, and coarse-featured; but his over-
flowing humour is said to have found full expression in the irresistible
sparkle of his eyes.
As a dramatic author he can only be assigned a subordinate rank.
He regarded comedy as " an exact representation of the peculiar
manners of that people among whom it happens to be performed;
a faithful imitation of singular absurdities, particular follies, which
are openly produced, as criminals are publicly punished, for the
correction of individuals and as an example to the whole community. "
This he regarded as the utile, or useful purpose, of comedy; the
dulce he conceived to be " the fable, the construction, machinery,
conduct, plot, and incidents of the piece." For part at least of this
view (advanced by him in the spirited and scholarly " Letter " in
which he replied, " to the Reverend Author of the ' Remarks,
Critical and Christian,' on The Minor "), he rather loftily appealed
to classical authority. But he overlooked the indispensableness of
the dulce to the comic drama under its primary aspect as a species
of art. His comic genius was particularly happy in discovering and
reproducing characters deserving of ridicule; and the fact that
he not only took them from real life, but closely modelled them on
well-known living men and women, was not in himself an artistic
sin. Nor indeed was the novelty of this process absolute, though
probably no other comic dramatist has ever gone so far in this
course, or has pursued it so persistently. The public delighted in his
" d d fine originals," because it recognized them as copies; and
he was himself proud that he had taken them from real persons,
instead of their being " vamped from antiquated plays, pilfered from
the French farces, or the baseless beings of the poet's brain." But
the real excellence of many of Foote's comic characters lies in the
fact that, besides being incomparably ludicrous types of manners,
they remain admirable comic types of general human nature. Sir
Gregory Gazette, and his imbecile appetite for news; Lady Pent-
weazel, and her preposterous vanity in her superannuated charms;
Mr Cadwallader, and his view of the advantages of public schools
(where children may " make acquaintances that may hereafter be
useful to them; for between you and I, as to what they learn there,
does not signify twopence 1 '); Major Sturgeon and Jerry Sneak;
Sir Thomas Lofty, Sir Luke Limp, Mrs Mechlin, and a score or two
of other characters, are excellent comic figures in themselves,
whatever their origin ; and many of the vices and weaknesses exposed
by Foote's vigorous satire will remain the perennial subject of comic
treatment so long as a stage exists. The real defect of his plays lies
in the abnormal weakness of their construction, in the absolute
contempt which the great majority of them show for the invention
or conduct of a plot, and in the unwarrantabje subordination of the
interest of the action to the exhibition of particular characters. His
characters are ready-made, and the action is only incidental to them.
With the exception of The Liar (which Foote pretended to have
taken from Lope de Vega, but which was really founded on Steele's
adaptation of Corneille's Le Menteur), and perhaps of The Bankrupt,
there is hardly one of Foote's " comedies " in which the conception
and conduct of the action rise above the exigencies of the merest
farce. Not that sentimental scenes and even sentimental characters
are_ wanting, but these familiar ingredients are as incapable of
exciting real interest as an ordinary farcical action is in itself unable
to produce more than transitory amusement. In his earlier plays
Foote constantly resorts to the most hackneyed device of farce a
disguise. Of course Foote must have been well aware of the short-
comings of his rapidly manufactured productions; he knew that if
he might sneer at " genteel comedy as suited to the dramatists
of the servants' hall, and pronounce the arts of the drama at the great
houses to be " directed by the genius of insipidity," he, like the little
theatre where he held sway, was looked upon as "an eccentric, a
mere summer fly."
At the same time, he was inexhaustible in the devising of comic
scenes of genuine farce. An oration of " old masters," an election
of a suburban mayor, an examination at the College of Physicians,
a newspaper conclave where paragraphs are concocted and reputa-
tions massacred all these and other equally happy situations are
brought before the mere reader with unfailing vividness. And
everywhere the comic dialogue is instinct with spirit and vigour,
and the comic characters are true to themselves with a buoyancy
which at once raises them above the level of mere theatrical con-
ventionalism. Foote professed to despise the mere caricaturing of
national peculiarities as such, and generally used dialect as a mere
additional colouring; he was, however, too wide awake to the
demands of his public not to treat France and Frenchmen as fair
game, and coarsely to appeal to national prejudice. His satire
against those everlasting victims of English comedy and farce, the
Englishman in Paris and the Englishman returned from Paris, was
doubtless well warranted; while at the same time he made fun of
the fact that Englishmen are nowhere more addicted to the society
of their countrymen than abroad. In general, the purposes of
Foote's social satire are excellent, and the abuses against which it
is directed are those which it required courage to attack. The tone
of his morality is healthy, and his language, though not aiming at
refinement, is remarkably free from intentional grossness. He made
occasional mistakes; but he was on the right side in the warfare
against the pretentiousness of Cant and the effrontery of Vice, the
two master evils of the age and the society in which he lived.
The following is a list of Foote's farces or " comedies " as he calls,
them, mostly in three, some in two acts, which remain in print.
The date of production, and the character originally performed by
Foote, are added to the title of each :
The Knights (1748: Hartop, who assumes the character of Sir
Penurious Trifle); Taste (1752), in which part of the Diversions is
incorporated; The Englishman in Paris (1753: Young Buck);
The Englishman returned from Paris (1756: Sir Charles Buck); The
Author (1757: Cadwallader); The Minor (1760: Smirk and Mrs
Cole); The Liar (1762); The Orators (1762: Lecturer); The Mayor
of Garralt (1763: Major Sturgeon and Matthew Mug); The Patron
(1764: Sir Thomas Lofty and Sir Peter Peppercorn); The Com-
missary (1765: Mr Zac. Fungus); The Devil upon Two Sticks
(1768: Devil, alias Dr Hercules Hellebore); The Lame Lover
(1770: Sir Luke Limp); The Maid of Bath (1771: Mr Flint); The
Nabob (1772: Sir Matthew Mite); The Bankrupt (1773: Sir Robert
Riscounter); The Cozeners (1774: Mr Aircastle); The Capuchin, a
second version of The Trip to Calais, forbidden by the censor (1776:
O'Donovan). His dramatic works were collected in 1763-1768.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Foote's biography may be read in W. (" Con-
versation ") Cooke's Memoirs of Samuel Foote (3 vols., 1805), which
contain, amidst other matter, a large collection of his good things *
and of anecdotes concerning him, besides two of his previously
unpublished occasional pieces (with the Tragedy a la mode, part of
the Diversions, in which Foote appeared as Fustian). From this
source seems to have been mainly taken the biographical information
in the rather grandiloquent essay on Foote prefixed by "Jon Bee"
628
FOOTMAN FORAMINIFERA
(John Badcock, fl. 1816-1830, also known as " John Hunds ) to his
useful edition of Foote's Works (3 vols., 1830). Various particulars
will be found in Tate Wilkinson's Wandering Patentee (York, 1795)
and in other sources. There is an admirable essay on Foote, re-
printed with additions, from the Quarterly Review, in John Forster s
Biographical Essays (1858). A recent life of Foote is by Percy
Fitzgerald (1910). (A. W. W.)
FOOTMAN, a name given among articles of furniture to a
metal stand, usually of polished steel or brass, and either oblong
or oval in shape, for keeping plates and dishes hot before a dining-
room fire. In the days before the general use of hot-water dishes
the footman possessed definite utility, but although it is still
in occasional use, it is now chiefly regarded as an ornament.
It was especially common in the hardware counties of England,
where it is still frequently seen; the simple conventionality
of its form is not inelegant.
FOOTSCRAY, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia,
on the Saltwater river, 4 m. W. of and suburban to Melbourne.
Pop. (1901) 18,301. The city has large bluestone quarries from
which most of the building stones in Melbourne and the neighbour-
hood is obtained; it is also an important manufacturing centre,
with numerous sugar-mills, jute factories, soap works, woollen-
mills, foundries, chemical works and many other minor industries.
FOOT-STALL, a word supposed to be a literal translation of
piedestal, or pedestal, the lower part of a pier in architecture
(see BASE).
FOPPA, VINCENZO, Italian painter, was born near Brescia.
The dates of his birth and death used to be given as 1400 and
1492; but there is now good reason for substituting 1427 and
1515. He settled in Pavia towards 1456, and was the head of a
Lombard school of painting which subsisted up to the 'advent
of Leonardo da Vinci. In 1489 he returned to Brescia. His
contemporary reputation was very considerable, his merit in
perspective and foreshortening being recognized especially.
Among his noted works are a fresco in the Brera Gallery, Milan,
the " Martyrdom of St Sebastian "; and a " Crucifixion " in
the Carrara gallery, Bergamo, executed in 1455. He worked
much in Milan and in Genoa, but many of his paintings are
now lost.
See C. J. Ffoulkes and R. Maiocchi, Vincenzo Foppa (1910).
FORAGE, food for cattle or horses, chiefly the provender
collected for the food of the horses of an army. In early usage
the word was confined to the dried forage as opposed to grass.
From this word comes " foray," an expedition in search of
" forage," and hence a pillaging expedition, a raid. The word
" forage," directly derived from the Fr. fourrage, comes from a
common Teutonic origin, and appears in " fodder," food for
cattle. The ultimate Indo-European root, pat, cf. Gr. ira-motf
Lat. pascere, to feed, gives " food," " feed," " foster "; and
appears also in such Latin derivatives as " pastor," " pasture."
FORAIN, J. L. (1852- ), French painter and illustrator,
was born in 1852. He became one of the leading modern
Parisian caricaturists, who in his merciless exposure of the
weaknesses of the bourgeoisie continued the work which was
begun by Daumier under the second Empire. The scathing
bitterness of his satire is as clearly derived from Daumier as his
pictorial style can be traced to Manet and Degas; but even in
his painting he never suppresses the caustic spirit that drives
him to caricature. He has, indeed, been rightly called " a Degas
pushed on to caricature." In his pen-and-ink work he combines
extraordinary economy of means with the utmost power of
expression and suggestion. Forain's popularity dates from the
publication of his ComMie parisienne, a series of two hundred
and fifty sketches republished in book form. He has contributed
many admirable, if sometimes over-daring, pages to the Figaro
Le Rire, L'Assielte au beurre, Le Courrier franQais, and L'ln-
discret. His political drawings for the Figaro were republishec
in book form under the title of Doux Pays.
FORAKER, JOSEPH BENSON (1846- ), American
political leader, was born near Rainsboro, Highland county
Ohio, on the sth of July 1846. He passed his early life on a
farm, enlisted as a private in the Sgth Ohio Volunteer Infantry
in July 1862, served throughout the Civil War, for part of the
ime as an aide on the staff of General H. W. Slocum, and in
1865 received a captain's brevet for " efficient services during
he campaigns in North Carolina and Georgia." After the war
ic spent two years at the Ohio Wesleyan University and two
years at Cornell. In 1869 he was admitted to the Ohio bar and
>egan practice in Cincinnati. He was a judge of the Cincinnati
Superior Court from 1879 to 1882. In 1883 he was the Republican
candidate for governor of Ohio, but was defeated; in 1885
and 1887, however, he was elected, but was again defeated in
[889. He then for eight years practised law with great success
n Cincinnati. In 1896 he was elected United States senator
to succeed Calvin S. Brice (1845-1898); in 1902 was re-elected
and served until 1909. In the Senate he was one of the aggressive
Republican leaders, strongly supporting the administration of
President M'Kinley (whose name he presented to the Republican
National Conventions of 1896 and 1900) in thedebatespreceding,
during, and immediately following the Spanish-American War,
and later, during the administration of President Roosevelt,
was conspicuous among Republican leaders for his independence.
He vigorously opposed various measures advocated by the
^resident, and led the opposition to the president's summary
discharge of certain negro troops after the Brownsville raid of
the I3th of August 1906 (see BROWNSVILLE, Texas).
FORAMINIFERA, in zoology, a subdivision of Protozoa,
the name selected for this enormous class being that given by
A. D'Orbigny in 1826 to the shells characteristic of the majority
of the species. He regarded them as minute Cephalopods,
whose chambers communicated by pores (foramina). Later
on their true nature was discovered by F. Dujardin, working
on living forms, and he referred them to his Rhizopoda, char-
acterized by pseudopodia given off from the sarcode (proto-
plasm) as organs of prehension and locomotion. W. B. Carpenter
in 1862 differentiated the group nearly in its present limits as
Reticularia "; and since then it has been rendered more natural
by the removal of a number of simple forms (mostly freshwater)
with branching but not reticulate pseudopods, to Filosa, a
distinct subclass, now united with Lobosa into the restricted
class of Rhizopoda.
FIG. IA. Lieberkiihnia, with reticulate pseudopodia.
Anatomy. Protista Sarcodina, with simple protoplasmic
bodies of granular surface, emitting processes which branch
and anastomose freely, either from the whole surface or from
one or more elongated processes (" stylopods ") ; nucleus one
or more (not yet demonstrated in some little known simple
forms), usually in genetic relation to granules or strands of
matter of similar composition, the " chromidia " scattered through
the protoplasm; body naked, or provided with a permanent
investment (shell or test), membranous, gelatinous, arenaceous
(of compacted or cemented granules), calcareous, or very rarely
(in deep sea forms) siliceous, sometimes freely perforated, but
never latticed; opening by one or more permanent apertures
(" pylomes ") or crevices between compacted sand-granules,
often very complex; reproduction by fission 'only in simplest
naked forms), or by brood formation; in the latter case one
mode of brood formation (A) eventuates in amoebiform embryos,
the other (B) in flagellate zoospores which are exogamous
FORAMINIFERA
629
gametes, pairing but not with those of their own brood; the
coupled cell (" zygote ") when mature in the shelled species gives
rise to a very small primitive testj-chamber or" microsphere." The
adult microspheric animal gives rise to the amoebiform brood
which have a larger primitive test (" megalosphere ") ; and megalo-
spheric forms appear to reproduce by the A type a series of
similar forms before a B brood of gametes is finally borne, to
pair and reproduce the microspheric type, which is consequently
rare.
The shells require special study. In the lowest forms they
are membranous, sometimes encrusted with sand-grains, always
very simple, the only complication being the doubling of the
pylome in Diplophrys (fig. 2, i), Shepheardella (fig. 2, 3-5),
Amphitrema (fig. 2, n), Diaplwrophodon (fig. 2, 12). The marine
shells are, as we have seen, of cemented particles, or calcareous,
glassy, and regularly perforated, or again calcareous, but porcel-
lanous and rarely perforate. These characters have been used
FIG. IB. Protomyxa aurantiaca, Haeck. (After Haeckel.)
Adult, containing two diatom 2, Adult encysted and segmented.
Flagellate zoospore just freed
from cyst.
Zoospore which
frustules.and three Tintinnid
ciliates, with a large Dino-
flagellate just caught by the
expanded reticulate pseudo-
podia.
has passed
into the amoeboid state.
as a guide to classification; but some sandy forms have so large
a proportion of calcareous cement that they might well be
called encrusted calcareous genera, and are also not very constant
in respect of the character of perforation. The porcellanous
genera, however, form a compact group, the replacement of the
shell by silica in forms dwelling in the red clay of the ocean
abysses, where calcium carbonate is soluble, not really making
any difficulty. Moreover, the shells of this group show a deflected
process or neck of the embryonic chamber (" camptopyle ") at
least in the megalospheric forms, whereas when such a neck
exists in other groups it is straight. The opening of the shell
is called the pylome. This may be a mere hole where the lateral
walls of the body end, or there may be a diaphragmatic ingrowth
so as to narrow the entrance. It may be a simple rounded
opening, oblong or tri-multi-radiate, or branching (fig. 4, i);
or replaced by a number of coarse pores (" ethmopyle ") (fig.
3, 50). Again, it may lie at the end of a narrowed tube
(" stylopyle "), which in Lagena (fig. 3, 0) may project outwards
(" ectoselenial "), or inwards (" entoselenial ") In most groups
the stylopyle is straight; but in the majority of the porcellanous
shells it is bent down on the side of the shell, and constitutes
the " flexopyle " of A. Kemna, which being a hybrid term
should be replaced by " camptopyle." The animal usually forms
a simple shell only after it has attained a certain size, and this
" embryonic chamber " cannot grow further. In Spirillina
and Ammodiscus there is no pylomic end- wall, and the shell
continues to grow as a spiral tube; in Cornuspira (fig. 3, i)
there is a slight constriction indicating the junction of a small
embryonic chamber with a camptopyle, but the rest of the shell
is a simple flat spiral of several turns. In the majority at least
one chamber follows the first, with its own pylome at the distal
end. This second chamber may rest on the first, so that the part
on which it rests serves as a party-wall bounding the front of
678
FIG. 2. Allogromiidea.
10
1, Diplophrys archeri, Barker.
a, Nucleus.
b, Contractile vacuoles.
c, The yellow oil-like body.
Moor pools, Ireland.
2, Allogromia oviformis, Duj.
a, The numerous nuclei ; near
these the elongated bodies
represent ingested diatoms.
Freshwater. Figs. 2, 3, 1 1,
12 belong to Rhizopoda
Filosa, and are included
here to show the character-
istic filose pseudopodia in
contrast with the reticulate
spread of the others.
3, Shepheardella taeniiformis,
Siddall (Quart. Jour. After.
Set., 1880); X 30 diameters.
Marine. The protoplasm is
retracted at both ends into
the tubular case.
a, Nucleus.
5, Shepheardella taeniiformis;
X 15; with pseudopodia
fully expanded.
6-1O, Varying appearance of the
nucleus as it is carried along
in the streaming protoplasm
within the tube.
11, Amphitrema wrightianum,
Archer.showing membranous
shell encrusted with foreign
particles. Moor pools, Ire-
land.
12, Dia-phorophodon mobile,
Archer. [land.
a, Nucleus. Moor pools, Ire-
the newer chamber as well as the back of the older; and this
state prevails for all added chambers in such cases. In the
630
FORAMINIFERA
highest vitreous shells, however, each chamber has its complete
" proper wall "; while a " supplementary skeleton," a deposit
of shelly matter, binds the chambers together into a compact
whole. In all cases the protoplasm from the pylome may
deposit additional matter on the outside of the shell, so as to
produce very characteristic sculpturing of the surface.
Compound or " polythalamic " shells derive their general
form largely from the relations of successive chambers in size,
shape and direction. This is well shown in the porcellanous
Miliolidae. If we call the straight line uniting the two ends of a
chamber the "polar axis," we find that successive chambers
FIG. 3. Various forms of Calcareous Foraminifera.
1, Cornuspira.
2, Spiroloculina.
3, Triloculina.
4, Biloculina.
5, Peneroplis.
8, Orbiculina (spiral). 14, Textularia.
9, Lagena. 15, Discorbina
10, Nodosaria.
11, Cristellaria.
12, Globigerina.
t/ , a CrlGIVptti. 1 Al, \JbVtstgGI tltLt.
6, Orbiculina (cyclical). 13, Polymorphina.
7, Orbiculina (young).
16, Polystomella.
17, Planorbulina.
18, Rotalia.
19, Nonionina.
have their pylomes at alternate poles; but they lie on different
meridians. In Spiroloculina (fig. 3, 2) the divergence between
the meridians is 180, and the chambers are strongly incurved,
so that the whole shell forms a flat spiral, of nearly circular
outline. In the majority, however, the chambers are crescentic
in section, their transverse prolongations being termed " alary "
outgrowths, so that successive chambers overlap; when under
this condition the angle of successive meridians is still 180
we have the form Biloculina (fig. 3, 4), orwith the alary extensions
completely enveloping, Uniloculina; when the angle is 120
we have Triloculina, or 144, Quinqueloculina. Again in Penero-
plis (figs. 3, 5, and 4) the shell begins as a flattened shell which
tends to straighten out with further growth and additional
chambers. In some forms (Spirolina, fig. 22, 3) the chambers
have a nearly circular transverse section, and the adult shell is
thus crozier-shaped. In others (which may have the same sculp-
ture, and are scarcely distinguishable as species) the chambers
are short and wide,
drawn out at right
angles to the axis, but
in the plane of the
spiral, and the growing
shell becomes fan-
shaped or " flabelli-
form" (figs. 3,6,4, 2 ).
This widening may go
on till the outer cham-
bers form the greater
part of a circle, as in
Orbiculina (fig. 3, 6-8)
where, moreover, each
large chamber is sub-
divided by incomplete
vertical bulkheads into
a tier of chamberlets;
each chamberlet has a 2
distinct pylomic pore Fie. 4. Modifications of Peneroplis.
opening to the outside 1 , Dendritina ; 2, Eu-Penerophs.
or to those of the next
outer zone. In OrUtolites (figs. 5, 6) we have a centre on a
somewhat Milioline type; and after a few chambers in spiral
FIG. 5. Shell of simple type of Orbitolites, showing primordial
chamber a, and circumambient chamber 6, surrounded by successive
rings of chamberlets connected by circular galleries which open at
the margin by pores.
succession, complete circles of chambers are formed. In the
larger forms the new zones are of greater height, and horizontal
bulkheads divide
the chamberlets
into vertical tiers,
each with its own
pylomic pore.
The Cheilostomel-
lidae (fig. 3,13) re-
produce among
perforate vitreous
genera what we
have already seen
in the Miliolida:
Orbitoides (fig. io,#)
and Cycloclypeus,
among the Num-
mulite group, with
a very finely per-
forate wall, recall
the porcellanous
Orbiculina and
Orbitolites.
In flat spiral
forms (figs. 22, 1, 7;
FIG. 6. Animal of simple type of Orbito-
lites, showing primordial segment a, and
circumambient segment 6, surrounded by
annuli of sub-segments connected by radial
and circular stolon-processes.
3, 2, 16, 19, &c.) all the chambers may be freely exposed; or the
successive chambers be wider transversely than their predecessors
FORAMINIFERA
631
and overlap by " alary extensions," becoming " nautiloid "; in
extreme cases only the
last turn or whorl is
seen (fig. n). When
the spiral axis is conical
the shell may be " rota-
loid," the larger lower
chambers partially con-
cealing the upper
smaller ones (fig. 3, 12,
15, 17, 18); or they
may leave, as in Paid-
Una, a wide central
conical cavity which,
in this genus, is finally
occupied by later
formed " supplement-
ary " chambers. When
FIG. 7. Section of Rotalia beccarii, the successive chambers
showing the canal system, a, 6, c, in the are disposed around a
substance of the intermediate skeleton; longitudinal central
d, tubulated chamber-wall. axis they may be said
to " alternate " like the leaves of a plant. If the arrangement
FIG. 8. Internal cast of Polystomella craticulata.
o, Retral processes, proceeding
from the posterior margin
of one of the segments.
b, b 1 , Smooth anterior margin of
the same segment.
c, c 1 , Stolons connecting succes-
sive segments and uniting
themselves with the di-
is distichous we get such forms
and Frondicularia (fig. 3, 13, Uf),
verging branches of the
meridional canals.
d, d 1 , d?, Three turns of one of
the spiral canals.
e, e l , e 2 , Three of the meridional
canals.
/, /', f, Their diverging
branches.
as Polymorphina, Textularia
if tristichous, Tritaxia. Such
FIG. 9. Operculina laid open, to show its internal structure.
a, Marginal cord seen in cross interseptal canals, the
section at a', [chambers. general distribution of
b, b, External walls of the which is seen in the septa
c, c, Cavities of the chambers. e, e; the lines radiating
c', c', Their alar prolongations. from e, e point to the
d, d, Septa divided at d', d', and secondary pores.
at d", so as to lay open the g, g. Non-tubular columns,
an arrangement may coexist with a spiral twist of the axis for
at least part of its course, as in the crozier-shaped Spiroplecta.
Two phenomena interfere with the ready availability of the
characters of form for classificatory ends dimorphism and
multiformity.
Dimorphism. The majority of foraminiferal shells show two
types, the rarer with a much smaller central chamber than that
of the more frequent. The chambers are called microsphere
FIG. 10. ?, Piece of Nummulitic Limestone from the Pyrenees,
showing Nummulites laid open by fracture through the median
plane; 2, vertical section of Nummulite; 3, Orbiloides.
and megalosphere, the forms in which they occur microsphaeric
and megalosphaeric forms, respectively. We shall study below
their relation to the reproductive cycle.
Multiformity. Many of the Polythalamia show different
types of chamber-succession at different ages. We have noted
FIG. n. Vertical section of portion of Nummulites, showing the
investment of the earlier whorls by the alar prolongations of the
later.
/, Investing portion of the
outer whorl.
g, g, Spaces left between the in-
vesting portions of succes-
Marginal cord.
Chamber of outer whorl.
Whorl invested by a.
One of the chambers of the
fourth whorl from the
margin. [closed whorls.
e, e'. Marginal portions of the en-
a,
b,
c, c,
d,
sive whorls.
h, h, Sections of the partitions
dividing these.
this phenomenon in such crozier forms as Peneroplis, as well as
in discoid forms; it is very frequent. Thus the microspheric
Biloculina form the first few chambers in quinqueloculine
succession. The microspheric forms attain to a greater size
when adult than the megalospheric; and in Orbitolites the
microsphere has a straight
outlet, orthostyle, instead
of the deflected campto-
style one, so general in
porcellanous types; and
the spiral succession is con-
tinued for more turns before
reaching the fan-shaped
and finally cyclic stage.
Globigerina, whose cham-
bers are nearly spherical, _
. , rlG. 12. Internal surface ot wall
is sometimes seen to be of two charnbers , a , a, of Nummulites,
enclosed in a spherical test, showing the orifices of its minute
perforate, but without a tubuli.
pylome, and known as b < b - The septa containing canals.
rt t, r ,.,, r, L j c, c. Extensions of these canals in the
Orbuhna; the chambered intermediate skeleton.
Globigerina-shell is d, d, Larger pores,
attached at first inside the
wall of the Orbulina, but ultimately disappears. The ultimate
fate of the Orbulina shell is unknown; but it obviously marks
a turning-point in the life-cycle.
Protoplasmic Body and Reproduction. -The protoplasm is not
differentiated into ectb- and endosarc, although it is often denser
632
FORAMINIFERA
in the central part within the shell, and clearer in the pseudopodial
ramifications and the layer (or stalk in the monothalamic forms)
from which it is given off. In pelagic forms like Globigerina the
external layer is almost if not quite identical in structure with the
extracapsular protoplasm of Radiolaria (q.v.), _ being differentiated
into granular strands traversing a clear jelly, rich in large vacuoles
(alveoli), and uniting outside the jelly to form the basal layer of the
pseudopods; these again are radiolarian in character. Hence E. R.
Lankester justly enough compares the shell here to the central
capsule of the Radiolarian, though the comparison must not be
pushed too far. The cyto-
^^-si^sg^js,-^^ plasm contains granules of
'0 BljEifireUidliSmHlHhl various kinds, and the in-
ternal protoplasm is some-
times pigmented. The Chry-
somonad Flagellate, Zooxan-
thella, so abundant in its
resting state the so-called
" yellow cells " -in the ex-
tracapsular protoplasm of
Radiolaria (q.v.) also occurs
in the outer protoplasm of
many Foraminifera, not only
pelagic but also bottonv
dwellers, such as Orbitolites.
The nucleus is single in the
Nuda and Allogromidia and
in the megalospheric forms
FIG. 13. Internal cast of two of higher Foraminifera; but
chambers, a, a, of Nummtdites, the microspheric forms when
radial canals between them passing adult contain many simple
into 6, marginal plexus. similar nuclei. The nucleus
in every case gives off
granules and irregular masses (" chromidia ") of similar reac-
tions, which play an important part in reproduction. During
the maturation of the microsphere the nuclei disappear; and the
cytoplasm breaks up into a large number of zoospores, each
of which is soon provided with a single nucleus, whether entirely
derived from the parent-nucleus or from the coalescence of chromidia,
or from both these sources is still uncertain. These zoospores are
amoeboid; they soon secrete a shell and reveal themselves as
megalospheres, the original state of the megalospheric forms. In
the adult megalosphere the solitary nucleus disappears and is re-
placed by hosts of minute vesicular nuclei, formed by the concen-
tration of chromidia. Each nucleus aggregates around it a proper
zone of dense protoplasm ; by two successive mitotic divisions each
mass becomes quadri-nucleate, and splits up into four biflagellate,
uninucleate zoospores. These are pairing-cells or gametes, though
they v/ill not pair with members of the same brood. In the zygote
resulting from pairing two nuclei soon fuse into one ; but this again
divides into two; an embryonic shell is secreted, and this is the
microspheric type, which is multinuclear from the first. F.
Schaudinn compares the nuclei of the adult Foraminifera with the
(vegetative) meganucleus of Infusora (q.v.) and the chromidial mass
with the micronucleus, whose chief function is reproductive.
Since megalospheric forms are by far the most abundant, it seems
probable that under most conditions they also give rise to megalo-
spheric young like themselves ; and that the production of zoospores,
FIG. 14. Vertical section of tubulated chamber-walls, a, a, of
Nummulites. b, b, Marginal cord; c, cavity of chamber ; d, d, non-
tubulated columns.
pairing to pass into the microspheric form, is only occasional, and
possibly seasonal. This life-history we owe to the researches of
Schaudinn and J. J. Lister.
In several species (notably Patellina) plastogamy, the union of
the cytoplasmic bodies without nuclear fusion, has been noted, as
a prelude to the resolution of the conjoined protoplasm into uni-
nucleate amoebulae.
Calcituba, a pprcellanous type, which after forming the embryonic
chamber with its deflected pylome grows into branching stems,
may fall apart into sections, or the protoplasm may escape and
break up into small amoebulae. Of the reproduction of the simplest
forms we know little. In Mikrogromia the cell undergoes fission
within the test, and on its completion the daughter-cells may
emerge as biflagellate zoospores.
The sandy shells are a very interesting series. In Astrorhiza the
sand grains are loosely agglutinated, without mineral cement;
they leave numerous pores for the exit of the protoplasm, and there
are no true pylomes. In other forms the union of the grains by a
calcareous or ferruginous cement necessitates the existence of
distinct pylomes. Many of the species reproduce the varieties of
form found in calcareous tests; some are finely perforated, others
not. Many of the larger ones have their walls thickened internally
and traversed by complex passages; this structure is called laby-
FIG. 15. Cycloclypeus.
rinthic (fig. 19, g, h). The shell of Endothyra, a form only known to
us by its abundance in Carboniferous and Triassic strata, is largely
composed of calcite and is sometimes perforated.
It is noteworthy that though of similar habitat each species selects
its own size or sort of sand, some utilizing the siliceous spicules of
sponges. Despite the roughness of the materials, they are often
so laid as to yield a perfectly smooth inner wall; and sometimes
the outer wall may be as simple. As we can find no record of a
deflected stylopyle to the primitive chamber of the polythalamous
Arenacea, it is safe to conclude that they have no close alliance with
the Porcellanea.
Classification.
I. NUDA. Protoplasmic body without any pellicle or shell save
in the resting encysted condition, sometimes forming
colonial aggregates by coalescence of pseudopods (Myxo-
dictyum), or even plasmodia (Protomyxa). Brood-cells at
first uniflagellate or amoeboid from birth. Fresh-water
and marine genera Protogenes (Haeckel), Biomyxa (Leidy),
Myxodictyum (Haeckel), Protomyxa (Haeckel) (fig. IB).
This group of very simple forms includes many of
Haeckel's Monera, denned as " cytodes," masses of proto-
plasm without a nucleus. A nucleus (or nuclei) has,
however, been demonstrated by improved methods of
staining in so many that it is probable that this distinction
will fall to the ground.
' II. ALLOGROMiDiACEAE(figs.iA, 2). Protoplasmic body protected
in adult state by an imperforate test with one or two
openings (pylomes) for the exit of the stylopod; test
simple, gelatinous, membranous, sometimes incrusted with
foreign bodies,
never calcareous
nor arenaceous ;
reproduction by
fission alone
known. Fresh-
water or marine
genera Allogromia
(Rhumbl.), Myxo-
theca (Schaud.),
Lieberkuhnia (Cl.
& L.) (fig. IA),
Shephear della
(Siddall) (fig. 2,
3-10), Diplophrys
(Barker), Amphi-
trema (Arch.) (fig.
2, //), Diaphoro-
phodon (Arch.) (fig.
2, 12), are possibly
F i 1 o s a. This
group differs from the preceding in its simple test, but,
like it, includes many fresh-water species, which possess
contractile vacuoles.
III. ASTRORHIZIDIACEAE. Simple forms, rarely polythalamous
(some Rhabdamminidae) , but often branching or radiate;
test arenaceous, loosely compacted and traversed by chinks
for pseudopodia (Astrorhizidae), or dense, and opening by
one or more terminal pylomes at ends of branches. Marine,
4 Fam. The test of some Astrorhizidae is so loose that it
falls to pieces when taken out of water. Haliphysema is
remarkable for its history in relation to the " gastraea
theory." Pilulina has a neat globular shell of sponge-
spicules and fine sand. Genera, Astrorhiza (Sandahl)
FIG. 16.- Heterostegina.
FORAMINIFERA
633
(fig. 22), Pilulina (Carptr.) (fig. 19), Saccammina (Sars)
(fig. 19), Rhabdammina (Sars), Botellina (Carptr.), Hali-
physema (Bowerbank) (fig. 22).
IV. LITUOLIDACEAE. Shell arenaceous, usually fine-grained,
definite and often polythalamic, recalling in structure
calcareous forms. Lituola (Lamk.) (fig. 19), Endothyra
(Phil.), Ammodiscus (Reuss), Loftusia (Brady), Haplo-
phragmium (Reuss) (fig. 22), Thurammina (Brady) (fig. 22).
V. MILIOLIDACEAE. Shells porcellanous imperforate, almost
invariably with a camptostyle leading from the embryonic
VIII.
LAGENIDACEAE. Shells vitreous, often sculptured, mono-
or polythalamic, finely perforate; chambers flask-shaped,
with a protruding or an inturned stylopyle; Lagena
(Walker & Boys) (fig. 4, 9); Nodosaria (Lamk.) (figs.
23, 4; 4, 10); Polymorphina (d'Orb.) (fig. 4, 13);
Crislellaria (Lamk.) (fig. 4, //); Frondicularia (Def.)
(fig. 23, 3).
IX. GLOBIGERINIDACEAE. Shells vitreous, coarsely perforated;
chambers few spheroidal rapidly increasing in size ;
arranged in a trochoid or nautiloid spiral. Globigerina
(Lamk.) (23, 6; 4, 12); Hastigerina
(Wyville Thompson) (fig. 23, 5) ; Orbu-
lina (d'Orb.) (fig. 23, 8).
ROTALIDACEAE. Shells vitreous, finely
perforate; walls thick, often double,
but without an intermediate party-
layer traversed by canals; form usually
spiral or trochoid. Discorbina (Parker
& Jones) (fig. 4, 15); Planorbulina
(d'Orb.) (fig. 4, 17); Rotalia (Lamk.)
(figs. 23, 7, 2; 7,21); Calcarina (d'Orb.)
(fig. 23, 10);
23, 9).
X.
Polytrema (Risso) (fig.
Modified from F. Schaudinn, in Lang's Zoologie.
FIG. 17. Life Cycle of Polystomella crispa.
A, Young megalospheric individual.
B, Adult decalcified.
C, Later stage, resolving itself into two
flagellate gametes.
D, Conjugation. [zygote.
E, M icrospheric individual produced from
F, The same resolved itself into pseudo-
podiospores which are growing into
new megalospheric individuals.
1, Principal nucleus, and 2, subsidiary
nuclei of megalospheric form.
3, Nuclei.
4, Nuclei in multiple division.
5, Chromidia derived from 4-
VI.
VII.
chamber; Cornuspira (Schultze) (fig. 3); Miliola (Lamk.),
including as subgenera Spiroloculina (d'Orb.) (figs. 3 and
22); Triloculina (d'Orb.) (fig. 3); Biloculina (d'Orb.)
(fig. 3); Uniloculina (d'Orb.); Quinqueloculina (d'Orb.);
Peneroplis (Montfort) (figs. 22, 3; 3), with form Dendritina
(fig. 4, 1); Orbiculina (Lamk.) (fig. 3, 6-8) ; Orbilolites
(Lamk.) (figs. 5, 6); Vertebralina (d'Orb.) (fig. 22);
Squamulina (Sch.) (fig. 22); Calcituba (Schaudinn).
TEXTULARIADACEAE. Shells perforate, vitreous or (in the
larger forms) arenaceous, in two or three alternating ranks
(distichous or tristichous). Textularia (Defrance) (fig.
21).
CHEILOSTOMELLACEAE. Shells vitreous, thin-, the chambers
doubling forwards and backwards as in Miliolidae. Cheilo-
stomella (Reuss).
FIG. i8.Biloculina depressa d'Orb., transverse
sections showing dimorphism. (From Lister.)
a, Megalospheric shell X 50, showing uniform
growth, biloculine throughout.
b, M icrospheric shell X 90, showing multiform
growth, quinqueloculine at first, and then
multiform.
XI. NUMMULINIDACEAE. As in Rotalidaceae,
but with a thicker finely perforated
shell, often well developed, and a supple-
mentary skeleton traversed by branch-
ing canals as an additional party-wall
between the proper chamber-walls.
Nonionina (d'Orb.) (fig. 4, 19); Fusu-
lina (Fischer) (fig. 20) ; Polystomella
(Lamk.) (figs. 4, 16; 8); Operculina,
(d'Orb.) (fig. 9) ; Helerostegina (d'Orb.)
(fig. 16); Cyclodypeus (Carptr.) (fig.
15); Nummulites (Lamk.) (figs. 10, n,
12, 13, H)-
"Eozoon canadense," described as a species of this
order by J. W. Dawson and Carpenter, has been
pronounced by a series of enquirers, most of whom
started with a belief in its organic structure, to be merely a com-
plex mineral concretion in ophicalcite, a rock composed of an
admixture of silicates (mostly serpentine and pyroxene) and
calcite.
Distribution in Vertical Space. Owing to their lack of
organs for active locomotion the Foraminifera are all crawling or
attached, with the exception of a few genera (very rich in species,
however) which float near the surface of the ocean, constituting
part of the pelagic plankton (q.v.). Thus the majority are
littoral or deep-sea, sometimes attached to other bodies or even
burrowing in the tests of other Foraminifera; most of the
fresh-water forms are sapropelic, inhabiting the layer of organic
634
FORAMINIFERA
debris at the surface of the bottom mud ditches of pools, ponds
and lakes. The deep-sea species below a certain depth cannot
possess a calcareous shell, for this would be dissolved; and it
is in these that we find limesalts sometimes replaced by silica.
The pelagic floating genera are also specially modified. Their
shell is either thin or extended many times by long slender
tapering spines, and the protoplasm outside has the same
character as that of the Radiolaria (q.v.), being differentiated
into jelly containing enormous vacuoles and traversed by
reticulate strands of granular protoplasm. These coalesce
into a peripheral zone from which protrude the pseudo-
FIG. 19. Arenaceous Foraminifera.
a, Exterior of Saccammina. f, Nautiloid Lituola, exterior.
b, The same laid open.
c, Portion of test more highly
magnified.
d, Pilulina. [magnified.
e, Portion of test more highly
Chambered interior.
Portion of labyrinthic cham-
ber wall, showing component
sand-grains.
pods, here rather radiate than reticulate. Most genera and
most species are cosmopolitan; but local differences are often
marked. Foraminifera abound in the shore sands and the
crevices of coral reefs. The membranous shelled forms decay
without leaving traces. The sandy or calcareous shells of dead
Foraminifera constitute a large proportion of littoral sand,
both below and above tide marks; and, as shown in the boring
on Funafuti, enter largely into the constituents of coral rock.
They may accumulate in the mud of the bottom to constitute
Foraminiferal ooze. The source of these shells in the latter
case is double: (i) shells of bottom-dwellers accumulate on the
spot; (2) shells of dead plankton forms sink down in a continuous
shower, to form a layer at the bottom of the ocean, during which
process the spines are dissolved by the sea-water. Thus is
formed an ooze known as " Globigerina-ooze," being formed
largely of that genus and its ally Hastigerina; below 3000 fathoms
even the tests themselves are dissolved. Casts of their bodies
in glauconite (a green ferrous silicate, whose composition has
not yet been accurately determined) are, however, frequently left.
Glauconitic casts of perforate shells, notably Globigerma, have
been found in Lower Cambrian (e.g. Hollybush Sandstone),
and the shells themselves in Siberian limestones of that age.
It is only when we pass into the Silurian Wenlock limestone
that sandy shells make their appearance. Above this horizon
Foraminifera are more abundant as constituents, partial or
principal of calcareous rocks, the genus Endothyra being indeed
almost confined to Carboniferous beds. The genus Fusulina
(fig. 20) and Saccammina (fig. 19) give their names (from their
FIG. 20. Section of Fusulina Limestone.
respective abundance) to two limestones of the Carboniferous
series. Porcellanous shells become abundant only from the
Lias upwards. The glauconitic grains of the Greensand forma-
tions are chiefly foraminiferal casts. Chalk is well known to
consist largely of foraminiferal shells, mostly vitreous, like
the north Atlantic globigerina ooze. In the Maestricht chalk
more littoral conditions prevailed, and we find such large-sized
FIG. 21. Microscopic Organisms in Chalk from Gravesend.
a, b, c, d, Textularia globulosa ; e, e, e, e, Rotalia aspera ; f, Textularia
aculeata ; g, Planularia hexas ; h, Navicula.
species as Orbiloides (vitreous) and OrUtolites (porcellanous;
figs. 5, 6), &c. In the Eocene Tertiaries the Calcaire Grossier of
the Paris basin is mainly composed of Miliolid forms. Num-
mulites occur in English beds and in the Paris basin; but the
great beds of these, forming reef-like masses of limestone, occur
farther south, extending from the Pyrenees through the southern
and eastern Alps to Egypt, Sinai, and on to north India. The
peculiar structure occurring in the Lower Laurentian limestone,
as well as other limestones of Archean age described as a Num-
mulitaceous genus, " Eozoon," by Carpenter and Dawson, and
abundantly illustrated in the gth edition of his encyclopaedia,
is now universally regarded as of inorganic origin. " Looking
FORAMINIFERA
635
FIG. 22. Imperforata.
/, Spiroloculina planulata, Lamarck, showing five "coils"; porcellanous.
2, Young ditto, with shell dissolved and protoplasm stained so as to show the seven
nuclei n.
j, Spirolina (Peneroplis); a sculptured imperfectly coiled shell; porcellanous.
4, Vertebralina, a simple shell consisting of chambers succeeding one another in a
straight line; porcellanous.
5, 6, Thurammina papillata, Brady, a sandy form. 5 Is broken open so as to show
an inner chamber; recent. X 25.
7, Haplophragmium canariensis, a sandy form; recent.
8, Nucleated reproductive bodies (bud-spores) of Halipkysema.
Q, Squamulina laevis, M. Schultze; X 40; a simple porcellanous Miliolide.
70, Protoplasmic core removed after treatment with weak chromic acid from the shell
of Haliphysetna tiimanoriizii. Bow. , Vesicular nuclei, stained with haematoxylin.
(After Lankester.)
77, ffaliphysema tumanovitzii; X 25 diam.; living specimen, showing the wine-
glass-shaped shell built up of sand-grains and sponge-spiculcs, and the abundant proto-
plasm p, issuing from the mouth of the shell and spreading partly over its projecting
constituents.
7.2, Shell of Astrorhiza limicola. Sand.; X 3; showing the branching of the test on
some of the rays usually broken away in preserved specimens (original).
13, Section of the shell of Marsipella, showing thick walls built of sand-grains.
10
FIG. 23. Perforata.
7 ( Spiral arrangement of simple chambers of a Reticularian shell, as in small Rofalia.
2, Ditto, with double septal walls, and supplemental shell-substance (shaded), as in
large Rotalia.
j, Diagram to show the mode in which successively-formed chambers may com-
pletely embrace their predecessors, as in Frondicularia.
4 t Diagram of a simple straight series of non-embracing chambers, as in Nodo-
saria,
5, Hastigerina murrayi, Wyv. Thomson, a. Bubbly (vacuolated) protoplasm, en-
closing b, the perforated Globiger ma-like shell (conf. central capsuje of Radiolaria).
From the peripheral protoplasm project, not only fine pseudopodia, but hollow spines of
calcareous matter, which are set on the shell, and have an axis of active protoplasm.
Pelagic; drawn in the living state.
6 t Globigerina bulloides, d'Orb., showing the punctiform perforations of the shell and
the main aperture.
7, Fragment of the shell of Globigerina, seen from within, and highly magnified. a,
Fme perforations in the inner shell substances; 6, outer (secondary) shell substance.
Two coarser perforations are seen in section, and one lying among the smaller.
_ 8, Orbulina universa, d'Orb. Pelagic example, with adherent radiating calcareous
spines (hollow), and internally a small Globigerina shell. It is probably a develop-
mental phase of Globigerina. a, Orbulina shell; &, Globigerina shell.
0, Polytrema miniaeewn, Lin.; X 12. Mediterranean. Example of a branched
adherent calcareous perforate Recticularian.
70, Calcarina spengleri, Gmel.; X 10. Tertiary, Sicily. Shell dissected so as to
show the spiral arrangement of the chambers, and the copious secondary shell substance.
a 2 , o3, a*, Chambers of three successive coils in section, showing the thin primary wall
(finely tubulate) of each; b, b, b t b t perforate surfaces of the primary wall of four tiers
of chambers, from which the secondary shell substance has been cleared away; c f , c f t
secondary or intermediate shell substance in section, showing coarse canals; d, section
of secondary shell substance at right angles to c'\ e, tubercles of secondary shell sub-
stance on the surface; /, /, club-like processes of secondary shell substance.
6 3 6
FORBACH FORBES, ARCHIBALD
at the almost universal diffusion of existing Foraminifera and
the continuous accumulation of their shells over vast areas of
the ocean-bottom, they are certainly doing more than any other
group of organisms to separate carbonate of lime from its solution
in sea-water, so as to restore to the solid crust of the earth what
is being continuously withdrawn from it by solution of the
calcareous materials of the land above sea-level." (E. R. Lan-
kester, " Protozoa," Ency. Brit, gth ed.)
Historical. The Foraminifera were discovered as we have
seen by A. d'Orbigny. C. E. Ehrenberg added a large number
of species, but it was to F. Dujardin in 1835 that we owe the
recognition of their true zoological position and the characters
of the living animal. W. B. Carpenter and W. C. Williamson
in England contributed largely to the study of the shell, the
latter being the first to call attention to its multiform character
in the development of a single species, and to utilize the method
of thin sections, which has proved so fertile in results. W. K.
Parker and H. B. Brady, separately, and in collaboration,
described an enormous number of forms in a series of papers,
as well as in the monograph by the latter of the Foraminifera
of the " Challenger " expedition. Munier-Chalmas and Schlum-
berger brought out the fact of dimorphism in the group, which
was later elucidated and incorporated in the full cytological
study of the life-cycle of Foraminifera by J. J. Lister and F.
Schaudinn, independently, but with concurrent results.
LITERATURE. The chief recent books are: F. Chapman, The
For-aminifera (1902), and J. J. Lister, " The Foraminifera," in E. R.
Lankester's Treatise on Zoology (1903), in which full bibliographies
will be found. For a final resume of the long controversy on Eozoon,
see George P. Merrill in Report of the U.S. National Museum (1906),
p. 635. Other classifications of the Foraminifera will be found by
G. H. Theodor Eimer and C. Fickert in Zeitschr.fiir wissenschaftliche
Zoologie, Ixv. (1899), p. 599, and L. Rhumbler in A rchiv fur Protisten-
kunde, iii. (1903-1904) ; the account of the reproduction is based on
the researches of J. J. Lister, summarized in the above-cited work,
and of F. Schaudinn, in Arbeiten des kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamts,
xix. (1903). We must also cite W. B. Carpenter, W. K. Parker and
T. Rymer Jones, Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera (Ray
Society) (1862); W. B. Carpenter, " Foraminifera," in Ency. Brit.,
9th ed.; W. C. Williamson, On the Recent Foraminifera of Great
Britain (Ray Society), (1858); H. B. Brady, " The Foraminifera,"
in Challenger Reports, ix. (1884); A. Kemna, in Ann. de la soc.
royale zoologique et malacologique de Belgique, xxxvii. (1902), p. 60;
xxxix. (1904), p. 7.
Appendix. The XENOPHYOPHORIDAE are asmallgroupof bottom-
dwelling Sarcodina which show a certain resemblance to arenaceous
Foraminifera, though observations in the living state show that the
character of the pseudopodia is lacking. The multinucleate proto-
plasm is contained in branching tubes, aggregated into masses of
definite form, bounded by a common wall of foreign bodies (sponge
spicules, &c.) cemented into a membrane. The cytoplasm contains
granules of BaSp 4 and pellets of faecal matter. All that is known
of reproduction is the resolution of the pellets into uninucleate cells.
(F. E. Schultze, Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der deutschen Tiefsee-
Expedition, vol. xi., 1905, pt. i.) (M. HA.)
FORBACH, a town of Germany in the imperial province of
Alsace-Lorraine, on an affluent of the Rossel, and on the railway
from Metz to Saarbrucken, 5^ m. S. W. of the latter. Pop.
(1905) 8193. It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic (Gothic)
church, a synagogue and a Progymnasium. Its industries
include the manufacture of % tiles, pasteboard wares and gardening
implements, while there are coal mines in the vicinity. After
the battle on the neighbouring heights of Spicheren (6th of August
1870), in which the French under General Frossard were defeated
by the Germans under General von Gliimer, the town was occupied
by the German troops, and at the conclusion of the war annexed
to Germany. On the Schlossberg near the town are the ruins
of the castle of the counts of Forbach, a branch of the counts of
Saarbrucken.
See Besler, Geschichte des Schlosses, der Herrschaft und der Stadt
Forbach (1895).
FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE (1817-1875), Scottish
divine, was born at Edinburgh on the 6th of June 1817. He
was the second son of John Heniy Forbes, Lord Medwyn, a
judge of the court of session, and grandson of Sir William
Forbes of Pitsligo. He studied first at the Edinburgh Academy,
then for two years under the Rev. Thomas Dale, the poet, in
Kent, passed one session at Glasgow University in 1833, and,
having chosen the career of the Indian civil service, completed
his studies with distinction at Haileybury College. In 1836
he went to Madras and secured early promotion, but in conse-
quence of ill-health he was obliged to return to England. He
then entered Brasenose College, Oxford, where in 1841 he obtained
the Boden Sanskrit scholarship, and graduated in 1844. He
was at Oxford during the early years of the movement known
as Puseyism, and was powerfully influenced by association with
Newman, Pusey and Keble. This led him to resign his Indian
appointment. In 1844 he was ordained deacon and priest in
the English Church, and held curacies at Aston, Rowant and
St Thomas's, Oxford; but being naturally attracted to the
Episcopal Church of his native land, then recovering from long
depression, he removed in 1846 to Stonehaven, the chief town
of Kincardineshire. The same year, however, he was appointed
to the vicarage of St Saviour's, Leeds, a church founded to preach
and illustrate Tractarian principles. In 1848 Forbes was called
to succeed Bishop Moir in the see of Brechin. He removed
the episcopal residence to Dundee, where he resided till his death,
combining the pastoral charge of the congregation with the duties
of the see. When he came to Dundee the churchmen were
accustomed owing to their small numbers to worship in a room
over a bank. Through his energy several churches were built,
and among them the pro-cathedral of St Paul's. He was prose-
cuted in the church courts for heresy, the accusation being founded
on his primary charge, delivered and published in 1857, in which
he set forth his views on the Eucharist. He made a powerful
defence of the charge, and was acquitted with " a censure and
an admonition." Keble wrote in his defence, and was present
at his trial at Edinburgh. Forbes was a good scholar, a scientific
theologian and a devoted worker, and was much beloved. He
died at Dundee on the 8th of October 1875.
Principal works: A Short Explanation of the Nicene Creed (1852);
An Explanation of the Thirty-nine Articles (2 vols., 1867 and 1868);
Commentary on the Seven Penitential Psalms (1847); Commentary
on the Canticles (1853). See Mackey's Bishop Forbes, a Memoir.
FORBES, ARCHIBALD (1838-1900), British war correspondent,
the son of a Presbyterian minister in Morayshire, was born on
the 1 7th of April 1838, and was educated at Aberdeen University.
Entering the Royal Dragoons as a private, he gained, while in
the service, considerable practical experience of military life
and affairs. Being invalided from his regiment, he settled in
London, and became a journalist. When the Franco-German
War broke out in 1870, Forbes was sent to the front as war
correspondent to the Morning Advertiser, and in this capacity
he gained valuable information as to the plans of the Parisians
for withstanding a siege. Transferring his services to the Daily
News, his brilliant feats in the transmission of intelligence drew
world-wide attention to his despatches. He was with the
German army from the beginning of the campaign, and he after-
wards witnessed the rise and fall of the Commune. Forbes
afterwards proceeded to Spain, where he chronicled the outbreak
of the second Carlist War; but his work here was interrupted
by a visit to India, where he spent eight months upon a mission
of investigation into the Bengal famine of 1 874. Then he returned
to Spain, and followed at various times the Carlist, the Republican
and the Alfonsist forces. As representative of the Daily News,
he accompanied the prince of Wales in his tour through India
in 1875-1876. Forbes went through the Servian campaign of
1876, and was present at all the important engagements. In
the Russo-Turkish campaign of 1877 he achieved striking jour-
nalistic successes at great personal risk. Attached to the Russian
army, he witnessed most of the principal operations, and re-
mained continuously in the field until attacked by fever. His
letters, together with those of his colleagues, MacGahan and
Millet, were republished by the Daily News. On recovering
from his fever, Forbes proceeded to Cyprus, in order to witness
the British occupation. The same year (1878) he went to India,'
and in the winter accompanied the Khyber Pass force to Jalalabad -
He was present at the taking of Ali Musjid, and marched with
several expeditions against the hill tribes. Burma was Forbes's
next field of adventure, and at Mandalay, the capital, he had
several interesting interviews with King Thibaw. He left Burma
FORBES, DAVID FORBES, DUNCAN
637
hurriedly for South Africa, where, in consequence of the disaster
of Isandlwana, a British force was collecting for the invasion
of Zululand. He was present at the victory of Ulundi, and
his famous ride of 1 20 m. in fifteen hours, by which he was enabled
to convey the first news of the battle to England, remains one
of the finest achievements in journalistic enterprise. Forbes
subsequently delivered many lectures on his war experiences
to large audiences. His closing years were spent in literary
work. He had some years before published a military novel
entitled Drawn from Life, and a volume on his experiences of
the war between France and Germany. These were now followed
by numerous publications, including Glimpses through the
Cannon Smoke (1880); Souvenirs of some Continents (1885);
William I. of Germany : a Biography (1888); Havelock, in the
" English Men of Action" Series (1800); Barracks, Bivouacs,
and Battles (1891); The Afghan Wars, 1830-80 (1892); Czar
and Sultan (1895); Memories and Studies of War and Peace
(1895), in many respects autobiographic; and Colin Campbell,
Lord Clyde (1896). He died on the 3oth of March 1900.
FORBES, DAVID (1828-1876), British mineralogist, metal-
lurgist and chemist, brother of Edward Forbes (<?..), was born
on the 6th of September 1828, at Douglas, Isle of Man, and
received his early education there and at Brentwood in Essex.
When a boy of fourteen he had already acquired a remarkable
knowledge of chemistry. This subject he studied at the university
of Edinburgh, and he was still young when he was appointed
superintendent of the mining and metallurgical works at Espedal
in Norway. Subsequently he became a partner in the firm of
Evans & Askin, nickel-smelters, of Birmingham, and in that
capacity during the years 1857-1860 he visited Chile, Bolivia
and Peru. Besides reports for the Iron and Steel Institute, of
which, during the last years of his life, he was foreign secretary,
he wrote upwards of 50 papers on scientific subjects, among
which are the following: " The Action of Sulphurets on
Metallic Silicates at High Temperatures," Rep. Brit. Assoc.,
1855, pt. ii. p. 62; " The Relations of the Silurian and Meta-
morphic Rocks of the south of Norway," ib. p. 82; " The Causes
producing Foliation in Rocks," Journ. Geol. Soc. xi., 1855;
" The Chemical Composition of the Silurian and Cambrian
Limestones," Phil. Mag. xiii. pp. 365-373, 1857; " The Geology
of Bolivia and Southern Peru," Journ. Geol. Soc. xvii. pp.
7-62, 1861; "The Mineralogy of Chile," Phil. Mag., 1865;
" Researches in British Mineralogy," Phil. Mag., 1867-1868.
His observations on the geology of South America were given
in a masterly essay, and these and subsequent researches threw
much light on igneous and metamorphic phenomena and on
the resulting changes in rock -formations. He also contributed
important articles on chemical geology to the Chemical News
and Geological Magazine (1867 and 1868). In England he was
a pioneer in microscopic petrology. He was elected F.R.S. in
1858. He died in London on the 5th of December 1876.
See Obituary by P. M. Duncan in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol.
xxxiii., 1877, p. 41 ; and by J. Morris in Geol. Mag., 1877, p. 45.
FORBES, DUNCAN, OF CULLODEN (1685-1747), Scottish
statesman, was born at Bunchrew or at Culloden near Inverness
on the loth of November 1685. After he had completed his
studies at the universities of Edinburgh and Leiden, he was
admitted advocate at the Scottish bar in 1 709. His own talents
and the influence of the Argyll family secured his rapid advance-
ment, which was still further helped by his loyalty to the
Hanoverian cause at the period of the rebellion in 1715. In
1722 Forbes was returned member for Inverness, and in 1725
he succeeded Dundas of Arniston as lord advocate. He inherited
the patrimonial estates on the death of his brother in 1734, and
in 1737 he attained to the highest legal honours in Scotland,
being made lord president of the court of session. As lord
advocate, he had laboured to improve the legislation and revenue
of the country, to extend trade and encourage manufactures,
and no less to render the government popular and respected in
Scotland. In the proceedings which followed the memorable
Porteous mob, for example, when the government brought
in a bill for disgracing the lord provost of Edinburgh, for fining
the corporation, and for abolishing the town-guard and city-gate,
Forbes both spoke and voted against the measure as an un-
warranted outrage on the national feeling. As lord president
also he carried out some useful legal reforms; and his term of
office was characterized by quick and impartial administration
of the law.
The rebellion of 1745 found him at his post, and it tried all
his patriotism. Some years before (1738) he had repeatedly
and earnestly urged upon the government the expediency of
embodying Highland regiments, putting them underthe command
of colonels whose loyalty could be relied upon, but officering
them with the native chieftains and cadets of old families in the
north. " If government," said he, " pre-engages the Highlanders
in the manner I propose, they will not only serve well against
the enemy abroad, but will be hostages for the good behaviour
of their relations at home; and I am persuaded that it will be
absolutely impossible to raise a rebellion in the Highlands." In
1739, with Sir Robert Walpole's approval, the original (1730)
six companies (locally enlisted) of the Black Watch were formed
into the famous " Forty-second " regiment of the line. The
credit given to the earl of Chatham in some histories for this
movement is an error; it rests really with Forbes and his friend
Lord Islay, afterwards 3rd duke of Argyll (see the Autobio-
graphy of the 8th duke of Argyll, vol. i. p. 8 sq., 1906).
On the first rumour of the Jacobite rising Forbes hastened
to Inverness, and through his personal influence with the chiefs
of Macdonald and Macleod, those two powerful western clans
were prevented from taking the field for Charles Edward; the
town itself also he kept loyal and well protected at the commence-
ment of the struggle, and many of the neighbouring proprietors
were won over by his persuasions. His correspondence with
Lord Lovat, published in the Culloden papers, affords a fine
illustration of his character, in which the firmness of loyal
principle and duty is found blended with neighbourly kindness
and consideration. But at this critical juncture of affairs, the
apathy of the government interfered considerably with the
success of his negotiations. Advances of arms and money arrived
too late, and though Forbes employed all his own means and
what money he could borrow on his personal security, his re-
sources were quite inadequate to the emergency. It is doubtful
whether these advances were ever fully repaid. Part was doled
out to him, after repeated solicitations that his credit might be
maintained in the country; but it is evident he had fallen into
disgrace in consequence of his humane exertions to mitigate
the impolitic severities inflicted upon his countrymen after
their disastrous defeat at Culloden. The ingratitude of the
government, and the many distressing circumstances connected
with the insurrection, sunk deep into the mind of Forbes. He
never fairly rallied from the depression thus caused, and after a
period of declining health he died on the loth of December 1747.
Forbes was a patriot without ostentation or pretence, a true
Scotsman with no narrow prejudice, an accomplished and even
erudite scholar without pedantry, a man of genuine piety without
asceticism or intolerance. His country long felt his influence
through her reviving arts and institutions; and the example
of such a character in that coarse and venal age, and among a
people distracted by faction, political strife, and national anti-
pathies, while it was. invaluable to his contemporaries in a man
of high position, is entitled to the lasting gratitude and veneration
of his countrymen. In his intervals of leisure he cultivated with
some success the study of philosophy, theology and biblical
criticism. He is said to have been a diligent reader of the
Hebrew Bible. His published writings, some of them of im-
portance, include A Letter to a Bishop, concerning some Important
Discoveries in Philosophy and Theology (1732); Some Thoughts
concerning Religion, natural and revealed, and the Manner of
Understanding Revelation (1735); and Reflections on Incredulity
(2nd ed., 1750).
His correspondence was collected and published in 1815, and a
memoir of him (from the family papers) was written by Mr Hill
Burton, and published alone with a Life of Lord Lovat, in 1847.
His statue by Roubillac stands in the Parliament House, Edinburgh.
6 3 8
FORBES, E. FORBES, J. D.
FORBES, EDWARD (1815-1854), British naturalist, was
born at Douglas, in the Isle of Man, on the i2th of February
1815. While still a child, when not engaged in reading, or in
the writing of verses and drawing of caricatures, he occupied
himself with the collecting of insects, shells, minerals, fossils,
plants and other natural history objects. From his fifth to his
eleventh year, delicacy of health precluded his attendance at
any school, but in 1828 he became a day scholar at Athole
House Academy in Douglas. In June 1831 he left the Isle of
Man for London, where he studied drawing. In October, how-
ever, having given up all idea of making painting his profession,
he returned home; and in the following month 'he matriculated
as a student of medicine in the university of Edinburgh. His
vacation in 1832 he spent in diligent work on the natural history
of the Isle of Man. In 1833 he made a tour in Norway, the
botanical results of which were published in Loudon's Magazine
of Natural History for 1835-1836. In the summer of 1834 he
devoted much time to dredging in the Irish Sea; and in the
succeeding year he travelled in France, Switzerland and Germany.
Born a naturalist, and having no relish for the practical
duties of a surgeon, Forbes in the spring of 1836 abandoned the
idea of taking a medical degree, resolving to devote himself
to science and literature. The winter of 1836-1837 found him
at Paris, where he attended the lectures at the Jardin des Plantes
on natural history, comparative anatomy, geology and mineralogy.
Leaving Paris in April 1837, he went to Algiers, and there
obtained materials for a paper on land and freshwater Mollusca,
published in the Annals of Natural History, vol. ii. p. 250. In
the autumn of the same year he registered at Edinburgh as a
student of literature; and in 1838 appeared his first volume,
Malacologia Monensis, a synopsis of the species of Manx Mollusca.
During the summer of 1838 he visited Styria and Carniola, and
made extensive botanical collections. In the following autumn
he read before the British Association at Newcastle a paper on
the distribution of terrestrial Pulmonifera in Europe, and was
commissioned to prepare a similar report with reference to the
British Isles. In 1841 was published his History of British
Star-fishes, embodying extensive observations and containing
120 illustrations, inclusive of humorous tail-pieces, all designed
by the author. On the lyth of April of the same year Forbes,
accompanied by his friend William Thompson, joined at Malta
H.M. surveying ship " Beacon," to which he had been appointed
naturalist by her commander Captain Graves. From that date
until October 1842 he was employed in investigating the botany,
zoology and geology of the Mediterranean region. The results
of these researches were made known in his " Report on the
Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea, presented to the
British Association in 1843," and in Travels in Lycia, published
in conjunction with Lieut, (afterwards Admiral) T. A. B. Spratt
in 1847. In the former treatise he discussed the influence of
climate and of the nature and depth of the sea bottom upon
marine life, and divided the Aegean into eight biological zones;
his conclusions with respect to bathymetrical distribution,
however, have naturally been modified to a considerable extent
by the more recent explorations of the deep seas.
Towards the end of the year 1842 Forbes, whom family
misfortunes had now thrown upon his own resources, sought
and obtained the curatorship of the museum of the Geological
Society of London. To the duties of that post he added in 1843
those of the professorship of botany at King's College. In
November 1844 he resigned the curatorship of the Geological
Society, and became palaeontologist to the Geological Survey
of Great Britain. Two years later he published in the Memoirs
of the Geological Survey, i. 336, his important essay " On the
Connexion between the distribution of the existing Fauna and
Flora of the British Isles, and the Geological Changes which
have affected their Area, especially during the epoch of the
Northern Drift." It is therein pointed out that, in accordance
with the theory of their origin from various specific centres, the
plants of Great Britain may be divided into five well-marked
groups: the W. and S.W. Irish, represented in the N. of Spain,
the S.E. Irish and S.W. English, related to the flora of the Channel
Isles and the neighbouring part of France; the S.E. English,
characterized by species occurring on the opposite French coast;
a group peculiar to mountain summits, Scandinavian in type;
and, lastly, a general or Germanic flora. From a variety of argu-
ments the conclusion is drawn that the greater part of the
terrestrial animals and flowering plants of the British Islands
migrated thitherward, over continuous land, at three distinct
periods, before, during and after the glacial epoch. On this
subject Forbes's brilliant generalizations are now regarded as
only partially true (see C. Reid's Origin of the British Flora, 1899).
In the autumn of 1848 Forbes married the daughter of General
Sir C. Ashworth; and in the same year was published his
Monograph of the British Naked-eyed Medusae (Ray Society).
The year 1851 witnessed the removal of the collections of the
Geological Survey from Craig's Court to the museum in Jermyn
Street, and the appointment of Forbes as professor of natural
history to the Royal School of Mines just established in con-
junction therewith. In 1852 was published the fourth and
concluding volume of Forbes and S. Hanley's History of British
Mollusca; also his Monograph of the Echinodermata of the
British Terliaries (Palaeontographical Soc.).
In 1853 Forbes held the presidency of the Geological Society
of London, and in the following year he obtained the fulfilment
of a long-cherished wish in his appointment to the professorship
of natural history in the university of Edinburgh, vacant by
the death of R. Jameson, his former teacher. Since his return
from the East in 1842, the determination and arrangement of
fossils, frequent lectures, and incessant literary work, including
the preparation of his palaeontological memoirs, had precluded
Forbes from giving that attention to the natural history pursuits
of his earlier life which he had earnestly desired. It seemed that
at length he was to find leisure to reduce to order his stores of
biological information. He lectured at Edinburgh, in the
summer session of 1854, and in September of that year he occupied
the post of president of the geological section at the Liverpool
meeting of the British Association. But he was taken ill just
after he had commenced his winter's course of lectures in
Edinburgh, and after not many days' illness he died at Wardie,
near Edinburgh, on the i8th of November 1854.
See Literary Gazette (November 25, 1854); Edinburgh New Philo-
sophical Journal (New Ser.), (1855) ; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (May
1855); G. Wilson and A. Geikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes (1861),
in which, pp. 575-583, is given a list of Forbes's writings. See also
Literary Papers, edited by Lovell Reeve (1855). The following
works were issued posthumously: " On the Tertiary Fluviomarine
Formation of the Isle of Wight " (Geol. Survey), edited by R. A. C.
Godwin-Austen (1856); "The Natural History of the European
Seas," edited and continued by R. A. C. Godwin-Austen (1859).
FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1800-1868), Scottish physicist,
was the fourth son of Sir William Forbes, 7th baronet of Pitsligo,
and was born at Edinburgh on the 2oth of April 1 809. He entered
the university of Edinburgh in 1825, and soon afterwards began
to contribute papers to the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal
anonymously under the signature " A." At the age of nineteen
he became a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in
1 83 2 he was elected to the Royal Society of London. A year later
he was appointed professor of natural philosophy in Edinburgh
University, in succession to Sir John Leslie and in competition
with Sir David Brewster, and during his tenure of that office,
which he did not give up till 1860, he not only proved himself
an active and efficient teacher, but also did much to improve
the internal conditions of the university. In 1859 he was ap-
pointed successor to Brewster in the principalship of the United
College of St Andrews, a position which he held until his death
at Clifton on the 3ist of December 1868.
As a scientific investigator he is best known for his researches
on heat and on glaciers. Between 1836 and 1844 he published
in the Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed. four series of " Researches on Heat,"
in the course of which he described the polarization of heat by
tourmaline, by transmission through a bundle of thin mica
plates inclined to the transmitted ray, and by reflection from the
multiplied surfaces of a pile of mica plates placed at the polariz-
ing angle, and also its circular polarization by two internal
FORBES, SIR J. FORCELLINI
639
reflections in rhombs of rock-salt. His work won him the Rumf ord
medal of the Royal Society in 1838, and in 1843 he received its
Royal medaj for a paper on the " Transparency of the Atmosphere
and the Laws of Extinction of the Sun's Rays passing through it."
In 1846 he began experiments on the temperature of the earth
at different depths and in different soils near Edinburgh, which
yielded determinations of the thermal conductivity of trap-tufa,
sandstone and pure loose sand. Towards the end of his life
he was occupied with experimental inquiries into the laws of
the conduction of heat in bars, and his last piece of work was
to show that the thermal conductivity of iron diminishes with
increase of temperature. His attention was directed to the
question of the flow of glaciers in 1840 when he met Louis
Agassiz at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association, and
in subsequent years he made several visits to Switzerland and
also to Norway for the purpose of obtaining accurate data. His
observations led him to the view that a glacier is an imperfect
fluid or a viscous body which is urged down slopes of a certain
inclination by the mutual pressure of its parts, and involved
him in some controversy with Tyndall and others both as to
priority and to scientific principle. Forbes was also interested
in geology, and published memoirs on the thermal springs of
the Pyrenees, on the extinct volcanoes of the Vivarais (Ardeche),
on the geology of the Cuchullin and Eildon hills, &c. In addition
to about 150 scientific papers, he wrote Travels through the Alps
of Savoy and Other Parts of the Pennine Chain, with Observations
on the Phenomena of Glaciers (1843); Norway and its Glaciers
(i8$3);Occasional Papers onthe Theory of Glaciers (1859); A Tour
of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa (1855). He was also the author
(1852) of the " Dissertation on the Progress of Mathematical
and Physical Science," published in the 8th edition of the
Encyclopaedia Brilannica.
See Forbes' s Life and Letters, by Principal Shairp, Professor P. G.
Tait and A. Adams-Reilly (1873); Professor Forbes and his Bio-
graphers, by J. Tyndall (1873).
FORBES, SIR JOHN (1787-1861), British physician, was born
at Cuttlebrae, Banffshire, in 1787. He attended the grammar
school at Aberdeen, and afterwards entered Marischal College.
After serving for nine years as a surgeon in the navy, he graduated
M.D. at Edinburgh in 1817, and then began to practise in
Penzance, whence he removed to Chichester in 1822. He took
up his residence in London in 1840, and in the following year
was appointed physician to the royal household. He was
knighted in 1853, and died on the i3th of November 1861 at
Whitchurch in Berkshire. Sir John Forbes was better known
as an author and editor than as a practical physician. His
works include the following: Original Cases . . illustrating
the Use of the Stethoscope and Percussion in the Diagnosis of
Diseases of the Chest (1824); Illustrations of Modern Mesmerism
(1845); A Physician's Holiday (ist ed., 1849); Memorandums
made in Ireland in the Autumn of 1852 (2 vols., 1853); Sight-
seeing in Germany and the Tyrol in the Autumn of 1855 (1856).
He was joint editor with A. Tweedie and J. Conolly of The
Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine (4 vols., 1833-1835); and in
1836 he founded the British and Foreign Medical Review, which,
after a period of prosperity, involved its editor in pecuniary
loss, and was discontinued in 1847, partly in consequence of
the advocacy in its later numbers of doctrines obnoxious to
the profession.
FORBES, a municipal town of Ashburnham county, New
South Wales, Australia, 289 m. W. by N. from Sydney, on the
Lachlan river, and with a station on the Great Western railway.
Pop. (1901) 4313. Its importance as a commercial centre is due
to its advantageous position between the northern and southern
markets. It has steam-sawing and flour-mills, breweries and
wool-scouring establishments; while the surrounding country
produces good quantities of cereals, lucerne, wine and fruit.
FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON (1853- ), English
actor, was the son of John Forbes-Robertson of Aberdeen, an
art critic. He was educated at Charterhouse, and studied at
the Royal Academy schools with a view to becoming a painter.
But though he kept up his interest in that art, in 1874 he turned
to the theatre,making his first appearance in LondonasChastelard,
in Mary, Queen of Scots. He studied under Samuel Phelps, from
whom he learnt the traditions of the tragic stage. He played
with the Bancrofts and with John Hare, supported Miss Mary
Anderson in both England and America, and also acted at
different times with Sir Henry Irving. His refined and artistic
style, and beautiful voice and elocution made him a marked
man on the English stage, and in Pinero's The Profligate at the
Garrick theatre (1889), under Hare's management, he established
his position as one of the most individual of London actors.
In 1893 he started under his own management at the Lyceum
with Mrs Patrick Campbell, producing Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet,
Macbeth and also some modern plays; his impersonation as
Hamlet was especially fine, and his capacity as a romantic
actor was shown to great advantage also in John Davidson's
For the Crown and in Maeterlinck's Pelleas and Melisande. In
1900 he married the actress Gertrude Elliott, with whom, as his
leading lady, he appeared at various theatres, producing in
subsequent years The Light that Failed, Madeleine Lucette
Riley's Mice and Men, and G. Bernard Shaw's Caesar and
Cleopatra, Jerome K. Jerome's Passing of the Third Floor Back,
&c. His brothers, Ian Robertson (b. 1858) and Norman Forbes
(b. 1859), had also been well-known actors from about 1878
onwards.
FORBIN, CLAUDE DE (1656-1733), French naval commander,
was born in Provence, of a family of high standing, in 1656.
High-spirited and ungovernable in his boyhood, he ran away
from his home, and through the influence of an uncle entered
the navy, serving his first campaign in 1675. For a short time
he quitted the navy and entered the army, but soon returned to
his first choice. He made under D'Estrees the American campaign,
and under Duquesne that of Algiers in 1683, on all occasions
distinguishing himself by his impetuous courage. The most
remarkable episode of his life was his mission to Siam. During
the administration of the Greek adventurer Phaulcon in that
country, the project was formed of introducing the Christian
religion and European civilization, and the king sent an embassy
to Louis XIV. In response a French embassy was sent out,
Forbin accompanying the chevalier de Chaumont with the
rank of major. When Chaumont returned to France, Forbin
was induced to remain in the service of the Siamese king, and
accepted, though with much reluctance, the posts of grand
admiral, general of all the king's armies and governor of Bangkok.
His position, however, was soon made untenable by the jealousy
and intrigues of the minister Phaulcon; and at the end of two
years he left Siam, reaching France in 1688. He was afterwards
fully engaged in active service, first with Jean Bart in the war
with England, when they were both captured and taken to
Plymouth. They succeeded in making their escape and were
soon serving their country again. Forbin was wounded at the
battle of La Hogue, and greatly distinguished himself at the
battle of Lagos. He served under D'Estrees at the taking of
Barcelona, was sent ambassador to Algiers, and in 1702 took a
brilliant part in the Mediterranean in the War of the Spanish
Succession. In 1706 he took command of a squadron at Dunkirk,
and captured many valuable prizes from the Dutch and the
English. In 1708 he was entrusted with the command of the
squadron which was to convey the Pretender to Scotland; but
so effectually were the coasts guarded by Byng that the expedi-
tion failed, and returned to Dunkirk. Forbin was now beginning
to be weighed down with the infirmities of age and the toils of
service, and in 1710 he retired to a country house near Marseilles.
There he spent part of his time in writing his memoirs, published
in 1730, which are full of interest and are written in a graphic
and attractive style. Forbin died on the 4th of March 1733.
FORCELLINI, EGIDIO (1688-1768), Italian philologist, was
born at Fener in the district of Treviso and belonged to a very
poor family. He went to the seminary at Padua in 1704, studied
under Facciolati, and in due course attained to the priesthood.
From 1724 to 1731 he held the office of rector of the seminary
at Ceneda, and from 1731 to 1765 that of father confessor in
the seminary of Padua. The remaining years of his life were
640
FORCHHAMMER FORD, E. O.
mainly spent in his native village. He died at Padua in 1768
before the completion of the great work on which he had long
co-operated with Facciolati. This was the vast Latin Lexicon
(see FACCIOLATI), which has formed the basis of all similar
works that have since been published. He was engaged with his
Herculean task for nearly 35 years, and the transcription of the
manuscript by Luigi Violate occupied eight years more.
FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG (1794-1865), Danish
mineralogist and geologist, was born at Husum, Schleswig, on
the 24th of July 1794, and died at Copenhagen on the i4th of
December 1865. After studying at Kiel and Copenhagen from
1815 to 1818, he joined Oersted and Lauritz Esmarch in their
mineralogical exploration of Bornholm, and took a considerable
share in the labours of the expedition. In 1820 he obtained
his doctor's degree by a chemical treatise De mangano, and
immediately after set out on a journey through England, Scotland
and the Faeroe Islands. In 1823 he was appointed lecturer
at Copenhagen University on chemistry and mineralogy; in
1829 he obtained a similar post in the newly established poly-
technic school; and in 1831 he was appointed professor of
mineralogy in the university, and in 1848 became curator of the
geological museum. From 1835 to 1837 he made many contribu-
tions to the geological survey of Denmark. On the death of
H. C. Oersted in 1851, he succeeded him as director of the
polytechnic school and secretary of the Academy of Sciences.
In 1850 he began with J. Steenstrup and Worsaae various
anthropological publications which gained a high reputation.
As a public instructor Forchhammer held a high place and con-
' tributed potently to the progress of his favourite studies in his
native country. He interested himself in such practical questions
as the introduction of gas into Copenhagen, the establishment
of the fire-brigade at Rosenberg and the boring of artesian wells.
Among his more important works are Loerebog i de enkelte
Radicalers Chemi (1842); Danmarks geognostiske Forhold (1835);
Om de Bornholmske Kulformalioner (1836) ; Dit myere Kridt i Dan-
mark (1847); Bidrag til Skildringen af Danmarks geographiske
Forhold (1858). A list of his contributions to scientific periodicals,
Danish, English and German, will be found in the Catalogue of
Scientific Papers published by the Royal Society of London. One
of the most interesting and most recent is " On the Constitution of
Sea Water at Different Depths and in Different Latitudes," in the
Proceedings of the Roy. Soc. xii. (18621863).
FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHELM (1801-1894), German
classical archaeologist, was born at Husum in Schleswig on the
23rd of October 1801 . He was educated at the Liibeck gymnasium
and the university of Kiel, with which he was connected for
nearly 65 years. In 1830-1834 and 1838-1840 he travelled in
Italy, Greece, Asia Minor and Egypt. In 1843 he was appointed
professor of philology at Kiel and director of the archaeological
museum founded by himself in co-operation with Otto Jahn.
He died on the 8th of January 1894. Forchhammer was a
democrat in the best sense of the word, and from 1871 to 1873
represented the progressive party of Schleswig-Holstein in the
German Reichstag. His published works deal chiefly with
topography and ancient mythology. His travels had convinced
him that a full and comprehensive knowledge of classical
antiquity could only be acquired by a thorough acquaintance
with Greek and Roman monuments and works of art, and a
detailed examination of the topographical and climatic condi-
tions of the chief localities of the ancient world. These principles
are illustrated in his Hellenika. Griechenland. 1m Neuen das
Alte (1837), which contains his theory of the origin and explana-
tion of the Greek myths, which he never abandoned, in spite of
the attacks to which it was subjected. According to him, the
myths arose from definite local (especially atmospheric and
aquatic) phenomena, and represented the annually recurring
processes of nature as the acts of gods and heroes; thus, in
Achill (1853), the Trojan War is the winter conflict of the elements
in that district. Other similar short treatises are: Die Grilndung
Roms (1868); Daduchos (1875), on the language of the myths
and mythical buildings; Die Wanderungen der Inachostochler
lo (1880) ; Prolegomena zur Mythologie als Wissenschaft und
Lexikon der Mythensprache (1891). Amongst his topographical
works mention may be made of: Topographic von Alhen (1841);
Beschreibung der Ebene von Troja (1850), a commentary on a
map of the locality executed by T. A. Spratt (see Journal of
the Royal Geographical Society, xii., 1842); Topographia The-
barum Heptapylarum (1854); Erkliirung der Ilias (1884), on
the basis of the topographical and physical peculiarities of the
plain of Troy. His Demokratenbuchlein (1849), in the main a
discussion of the Aristotelian theory of the state, and Die
Alhener und Sokrates (1837), in which, contrary to the almost
universal opinion, he upheld the procedure of the Athenians
as perfectly legal and their verdict as a perfectly just one, also
deserve notice.
For a full list of his works see the obituary notice by E. Alberti in
C. Bursian's Biographisches Jahrbuchfiir Altertumskunde, xx. (1897);
also J. Sass in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, and A. Hoeck and
L. C. Pertsch, P. W. Forchhammer (1898).
FORCHHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
near the confluence of theWiesent and the Regnitz, 16 m. S.S.E.
of Bamberg. Pop. (1905) 8417. It has four Roman Catholic
churches, including the Gothic Collegiate church and a Pro-
testant church. Among the other public buildings are the
progymnasium and an orphanage. The industries of the town
include spinning and weaving, bleaching and dyeing, bone and
glue works, brewing and paper-making. The spacious chateau
occupies the site of the Carolingian palace which was destroyed
in 1246.
Forchheim is of very early origin, having been the residence
of the Carolingian sovereigns, including Charlemagne, in the
9th century. Consequently many diets were held here, and
here also Conrad I. and Louis the Child were chosen German
kings. The town was given by the emperor Henry II. in 1007
to the bishopric of Bamberg, and, except for a short period
during the nth century, it remained in the possession of the
bishops until 1802, when it was ceded to Bavaria. In August
1796 a battle took place near Forchheim between the French
and the Austrians. The fortifications of the town were dis-
mantled in 1838.
See Hiibsch, Chronik der Stadt Forchheim (Nuremberg, 1867).
FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW (1852-1901), English sculptor,
was born in London. He received some education as a painter
in Antwerp and as a sculptor in Munich under Professor Wag-
miiller, but was mainly self-taught. His first contribulion to
the Royal Academy, in 1875, was a bust of his wife, and in
portraiture he may be said to have achieved his greatest success.
His busts are always extremely refined and show his sitters at
their best. Those (in bronze) of his fellow-artists Arthur Hacker
(1894), Briton Riviere and Sir W. Q. Orchardson (1895), Sir
L. Alma Tadema (1896), Sir Hubert von Herkomer and Sir
John Millais (1897), and of A. J. Balfour are all striking likenesses,
and are equalled by that in marble of Sir Frederick Bramwell
(for the Royal Institution) and by many more. He gained
the open competition for the statue of Sir Rowland Hill, erected
in 1882 outside the Royal Exchange, and followed it in 1883
with " Henry Irving as Hamlet," now in the Guildhall art
gallery. This seated statue, good as it is, was soon surpassed
by those of Dr Dale (1898, in the city museum, Birmingham)
and Professor Huxley (1900), but the colossal memorial statue
of Queen Victoria (1901), for Manchester, was less successful.
The standing statue of W. E. Gladstone (1894, for the City Liberal
Club, London) is to be regarded as one of Ford's better portrait
works. The colossal " General Charles Gordon," eamel-mounted,
for Chatham, " Lord Strathnairn," an equestrian group for
Knightsbridge, and the " Maharajah of Mysore " (1900) comprise
his larger works of the kind. A beautiful nude recumbent
statue of Shelley (1892) upon a cleverly-designed base, which is
not quite impeccable from the point of view of artistic taste,
is at University College, Oxford, and a simplified version was
presented by him to be set up on the shore of Viareggio, where
the poet's body was washed up. Ford's ideal work has great
charm and daintiness; his statue " Folly " (1886) was bought
by the trustees of the Chantrey Fund, and was followed by other
statues or statuettes of a similar order: " Peace " (1890), which
secured his election as an associate of the Royal Academy,
"Echo" (1895), on which he was elected full member, "The
FORD, J.
641
Egyptian Singer " (1889), " Applause " (1893), " Glory to the
Dead " (1901) and " Snowdrift " (1902). Ford's influence on
the younger generation of sculptors was considerable and of
good effect. His charming disposition rendered him extremely
popular, and when he died a monument was erected to his
memory (C. Lucchesi, sculptor, J. W. Simpson, architect) in
St John's Wood, near to where he dwelt.
See SCULPTURE; also M. H. Spielmann, British Sculpture and
Sculptors of To-day (London, 1901).
FORD, JOHN (1586-^1640), English dramatist, was baptized
on the 1 7th of April 1586 at Ilsington in north Devon. He came
of a good family; his father was in the commission of the peace
and his mother was a sister of Sir John Popham, successively
attorney-general and lord chief justice. The name of John
Ford appears in the university register of Oxford as matriculating
at Exeter College in 1601. Like a cousin and namesake (to whom,
with other members of the society of Gray's Inn, he dedicated
his play of The Lover's Melancholy), the future dramatist entered
the profession of the law, being admitted of the Middle Temple
in 1602; but he seems never to have been called to the bar.
Four years afterwards he made his first appearance as an author
with an elegy called Fame's Memorial, or the Earl of Devonshire
deceased, and dedicated to the widow of the earl (Charles Blount,
Lord Mountjoy, " coronized," to use Ford's expression, by King
James in 1603 for his services in Ireland) a lady who would
have been no unfitting heroine for one of his own tragedies of
lawless passion, the famous Penelope, formerly Lady Rich.
This panegyric, which is accompanied by a series of epitaphs
and is composed in a strain of fearless extravagance, was, as
the author declares, written "unfee'd"; it shows that Ford
sympathized, as Shakespeare himself is supposed to have done,
with the " awkward fate " of the countess's brother, the earl of
Essex. Who the " flint-hearted Lycia " may be, to whom the
poet seems to allude as his own disdainful mistress, is unknown;
indeed, the record of Ford's private life is little better than a
blank. To judge, however, from the dedications, prologues and
epilogues of his various plays, heseemsto have enjoyed the patron-
age of the earl, afterwards duke, of Newcastle, " himself a muse "
after a fashion, and Lord Craven, the supposed husband of the
ex-queen of Bohemia. Ford's tract of Honor Triumphant, or the
Peeres Challenge (printed 1606 and reprinted by the Shakespeare
Society with the Line of Life, in 1843), and the simultaneously pub-
lished verses The Monarches Meeting, or the King of Denmarkes
Welcome into England, exhibit him as occasionally meeting the
festive demands of court and nobility; and a kind of moral
essay by him, entitled A Line of Life (printed 1620), which
contains references to Raleigh, ends with a climax of fulsome
praise to the address of King James I. Yet at least one of Ford's
plays (The Broken Heart, iii. 4) contains an implied protest
against the absolute system of government generally accepted
by the dramatists of the early Stuart reigns. Of his relations
with his brother-authors little is known; it was natural that he
should exchange complimentary verses with James Shirley,
and that he should join in the chorus of laments over the death
of Ben Jonson. It is more interesting to notice an epigram in
honour of Ford by Richard Crashaw, morbidly passionate in
one direction as Ford was in another. The lines run:
" Thou cheat'st us, Ford; mak'st one seem two by art:
What is Love's Sacrifice but the Broken Heart?"
It has been concluded that in the latter part of his life he
gratified the tendency to seclusion for which he was ridiculed
in The Time Poets (Choice Drollery, 1656) by withdrawing from
business and from literary life in London, to his native place;
but nothing is known as to the date of his death. His career
as a dramatist very probably began by collaboration with other
authors. With Thomas Dekker he wrote The Fairy Knight
and The Bristowe Merchant (licensed in 1624, but both unpub-
lished), with John Webster A late Murther of the Sonne upon
the Mother (licensed in 1624). A play entitled An ill Beginning
has a good End, brought on the stage as early as 1613 and attri-
buted to Ford, was (if his) his earliest acted play; whether
Sir Thomas Overbury's Life and untimely Death (1615) was a
x. 21
play is extremely doubtful; some lines of indignant regret by
Ford on the same subject are still preserved. He is also said
to have written, at dates unknown, The London Merchant
(which, however, was an earlier name for Beaumont and Fletcher's
Knight of the Burning Pestle) and The Royal Combat; a tragedy
by him, Beauty in a Trance, was entered in the Stationers'
Register in 1653, but never printed. These three (or four)
plays were among those destroyed by Warburton's cook. The
Queen, or the Excellency of the Sea, a play of inverted passion,
containing some fine sensuous lines, printed in 1653 by Alexander
Singhe for private performance, has been recently edited by W.
Bang (Materialienzur Kunde d. dlleren engl. Dramas, 13, Louvain,
1906), and is by him on internal evidence confidently claimed
as Ford's. Of the plays by Ford preserved to us the dates span
little more than a decade the earliest, The Lover's Melancholy,
having been acted in 1628 and printed in 1629, the latest, The
Lady's Trial, acted in 1638 and printed in 1639.
When writing The Lover's Melancholy, it would seem that
Ford had not yet become fully aware of the bent of his own
dramatic genius, although he was already master of his powers
of poetic expression. He was attracted towards domestic tragedy
by an irresistible desire to sound the depths of abnormal conflicts
between passion and circumstances, to romantic comedy by a
strong though not widely varied imaginative faculty, and by
a delusion that he was possessed of abundant comic humour.
In his next two works, undoubtedly those most characteristic-
ally expressive of his peculiar strength, 'Tis Pity she's a Whore
(acted c. 1626) and The Broken Heart (acted c. 1629), both
printed in 1633 with the anagram of his name Fide Honor, he
had found horrible situations which required dramatic explana-
tion by intensely powerful motives. Ford by no means stood
alone among English dramatists in his love of abnormal subjects;
but few were so capable of treating them sympathetically, and
yet without that reckless grossness or extravagance of expression
which renders the morally repulsive aesthetically intolerable,
or converts the horrible into the grotesque. For in Ford's
genius there was real refinement, except when the " supra-
sensually sensual " impulse or the humbler self-delusion referred
to came into play. In a third tragedy, Love's Sacrifice (acted
c. 1630; printed in 1633), he again worked on similar materials;
but this time he unfortunately essayed to base the interest of
his plot upon an unendurably unnatural possibility doing
homage to virtue after a fashion which is in itself an insult.
In Perkin Warbeck (printed 1634; probably acted a year later)
he chose an historical subject of great dramatic promise and
psychological interest, and sought to emulate the glory of the
great series of Shakespeare's national histories. The effort is
one of the most laudable, as it was by no means one of the least
successful, in the dramatic literature of this period. The Fancies
Chaste and Noble (acted before 1636, printed 1638), though it
includes scenes of real force and feeling, is dramatically a failure,
of which the main idea is almost provokingly slight and feeble;
and The Lady's Trial (acted 1638, printed 1639) is only redeemed
from utter wearisomeness by an unusually even pleasingness
of form. There remain two other dramatic works, of very
different kinds, in which Ford co-operated with other writers,
the mask of The Sun's Darling (acted 1624, printed 1657),
hardly to be placed in the first rank of early compositions, and
The Witch of Edmonton (printed 1658, but probably acted about
1621), in which we see Ford as a joint writer with Dekker and
Rowley of one of the most powerful domestic dramas of the
English or any other stage.
A few notes may be added on some of the more remarkable of the
plays enumerated. A wholly baseless anecdote, condensed into a
stinging epigram by Endymion Porter, asserted that The Lover's
Melancholy was stolen by Ford from Shakespeare's papers. Un-
doubtedly, the madness of the hero of this play of Ford's occasionally
recalls Hamlet, while the heroine is one of the many, and at the same
time one of the most pleasing, parallels to Viola. But neither of
them is a copy, as Friar Bonaventura in Ford's second play may be
said to be a copy of Friar Lawrence, whose kindly pliability he
disagreeably exaggerates, or as D'Avolos in Love's Sacrifice is clearly
modelled on lago. The plot of The Lover's Melancholy, which is
ineffective because it leaves no room for suspense in the mind of
642
FORD, J.
the reader, seems original; in the dialogue, on the other hand, a
justly famous passage in Act i. (the beautiful version of the story
of the nightingale's death) is translated from Strada; while the
scheme of the tedious interlude exhibiting the various forms of
madness is avowedly taken, together with sundry comments, from
Barton's Anatomy of Melancholy. Already in this play Ford
exhibits the singular force of his pathos; the despondent misery
of the aged Meleander, and the sweetness of the last scene, in which
his daughter comes back to him, alike go to the heart. A situation
hazardous in spite of its comic substratum between Thaumasta
and the pretended Parthenophil is conducted, as Gifford points out,
with real delicacy; but the comic scenes are merely stagy, not-
withstanding, or by reason of, the effort expended on them by the
author.
'Tis Pity she's a Whore has been justly recognized as a tragedy
of extraordinary power. Mr Swinburne, in his eloquent essay on
Ford, has rightly shown what is the meaning of this tragedy, and
has at the same time indicated wherein consists its poison. He
dwells with great force upon the different treatment applied by Ford
to the characters of the two miserable lovers brother and sister.
" The sin once committed, there is no more wavering or flinching
possible to him, who has fought so hard against the demoniac posses-
sion ; while she who resigned body and soul to the tempter, almost
at a word, remains liable to the influences of religion and remorse."
This different treatment shows the feeling of the poet the feeling
for which he seeks to evoke our inmost sympathy to oscillate
between the belief that an awful crime brings with it its awful
punishment (and it is sickening to observe how the argument by
which the Friar persuades Annabella to forsake her evil courses
mainly appeals to the physical terrors of retribution), and the
notion that there is something fatal, something irresistible, and
therefore in a sense self -justified, in so dominant a passion. The
key-note to the conduct of Giovanni lies in his words at the close of
the first scene
" All this I'll do, to free me from the rod
Of vengeance; else I'll swear my fate's my god."
Thus there is no solution of the conflict between passion on the one
side, and law, duty and religion on the other; and passion triumphs,
in the dying words of " the student struck blind and mad by
passion "
" O, I bleed fast!
Death, thou'rt a guest long look'd for; I embrace
Thee and thy wounds : O, my last minute comes!
Where'er I go, let me enjoy this grace
Freely to view my Annabella's face."
It has been observed by J. A. Symonds that " English poets have
given us the right key to the Italian temperament. . . . The love
of Giovanni and Annabella is rightly depicted as more imaginative
than sensual." It is difficult to allow the appositeness of this
special illustration ; on the other hand, Ford has even in this case
shown his art of depicting sensual passion without grossness of
expression; for the exception in Annabella's language to Soranzo
seems to have a special intention, and is true to the pressure of
the situation and the revulsion produced by it in a naturally weak
and yielding mind. The entire atmosphere, so to speak, of the play
is stifling, and is not rendered less so by the underplot with Hippolita.
'Tis Pity she's a Whore was translated into French by Maurice
Maeterlinck under the title of Annabella, and represented at the
Theatre de 1'QEuvre in 1894. The translator prefixes to the version
an eloquent appreciation of Ford's genius, especially in his portraits
of women, whose fate it is to live "dans les tenebres, lescrainteset
les larmes."
Like this tragedy, The Broken Heart was probably founded upon
some Italian or other novel of the day; but since in the latter
instance there is nothing revolting in the main idea of the subject,
the play commends itself as the most enjoyable, while, in respect of
many excellences, an unsurpassed specimen of Ford's dramatic
genius. The complicated plot is constructed with greater skill
than is usual with this dramatist, and the pathos of particular
situations, and of the entire character of Penthea a woman doomed
to hopeless misery, but capable of seeking to obtain for her brother
a happiness which his cruelty has condemned her to forego has an
intensity and a depth which are all Ford's own. Even the lesser
characters are more pleasing than usual, and some beautiful lyrics
are interspersed in the play.
Of the other plays written by Ford alone, only The Chronicle His-
torie of Perkin Warbeck. A Strange Truth, appears to call for special
attention. A repeated perusal of this drama suggests the judgment
that it is overpraised when ranked at no great distance from Shake-
speare's national dramas. Historical truth need not be taken
into consideration in the matter; and if, notwithstanding James
Gairdner's essay appended to his Life and Reign of Richard III.,
there are still credulous persons left to think and assert that Perkin
was not an impostor, they will derive little satisfaction from Ford's
play, which with really surprising skill avoids the slightest indication
as to the poet's own belief on the subject. That this tragedy should
have been reprinted in 1714 and acted in 1745 only shows that the
public, as is often the case, had an eye to the catastrophe rather
than to the development of the action. The dramatic capabilities
of the subject are, however, great, and it afterwards attracted
Schiller, who, however, seems to have abandoned it in favour of
the similar theme of the Russian Demetrius. Had Shakespeare
treated it, he would hardly have contented himself with investing
the hero with the nobility given by Ford to this personage of his
play, for it is hardly possible to speak of a personage as a character
when the clue to his conduct is intentionally withheld. Nor could
Shakespeare have failed to bring out with greater variety and
distinctness the dramatic features in Henry VII., whom Ford depicts
with sufficient distinctness to give some degree of individuality to
the figure, but still with a tenderness of touch which would have been
much to the credit of the dramatist's skill had he been writing in the
Tudor age. The play is, however, founded on Bacon's Life, of
which the text is used by Ford with admirable discretion, and on
Thomas Gainsford's True and Wonderful History nf Perkin Warbeck
(1618). The minor characters of the honest old Huntley, whom the
Scottish king obliges to bestow his daughter's hand upon Warbeck,
and of her lover the faithful " Dalyell," are most effectively drawn;
even " the men of judgment," the adventurers who surround the
chief adventurer, are spirited sketches, and the Irishman among
them has actually some humour; while the style of the play is, as
befits a " Chronicle History," so clear and straightforward as to
make it easy as well as interesting to read.
The Witch of Edmonton was attributed by its publisher to William
Rowley, Dekker, Ford, " &c.," but the body of the play has been
generally held to be ascribable to Ford and Dekker only. The
subject of the play was no doubt suggested by the case of the reported
witch, Elizabeth Sawyer, who was executed in 1621. Swinburne
agrees with Gifford in thinking Ford the author of the whole of the
first act; and he is most assuredly right in considering that " there
is no more admirable exposition of a play on the English stage."
Supposing Dekker to be chiefly responsible for the scenes dealing
with the unfortunate old woman whom persecution as a witch
actually drives to become one, and Ford for the domestic tragedy
of the bigamist murderer, it cannot be denied that both divisions
of the subject are effectively treated, while the more important part
of the task fell to the share of Ford. Yet it may be doubted whether
any such division can be safely assumed; and it may suffice to
repeat that no domestic tragedy has ever taught with more effective
simplicity and thrilling truthfulness the homely double lesson of the
folly of selfishness and the mad rashness of crime.
With Dekker Ford also wrote the mask of The Sun's Darling;
or, as seems most probable, they founded this production upon
Phaeton, an earlier mask, of which Dekker had been sole author.
Gifford holds that Dekker's hand is perpetually traceable in the
first three acts of The Sun's Darling, and through the whole of its
comic part, but that the last two acts are mainly Ford's. If so, he
is the author of the rather forced occasional tribute on the accession
of King Charles I., of which the last act largely consists. This
mask, which furnished abundant opportunities for the decorators,
musicians and dancers, in showing forth how the seasons and their
delights are successively exhausted by a " wanton darling," Ray-
bright the grandchild of the Sun, is said to have been very popular.
It is at the same time commonplace enough in conception; but
there is much that is charming in the descriptions, Jonson and
Lyly being respectively laid under contribution in the course of the
dialogue, and in one of the incidental lyrics.
Ford owes his position among English dramatists to the
intensity of his passion, in particular scenes and passages where
the character, the author and the reader are alike lost in the
situation and in the sentiment evoked by it; and this gift is
a supreme dramatic gift. But his plays with the exception of
The Witch of Edmonton, in which he doubtless had a prominent
share too often disturb the mind like a bad dream which ends
as an unsolved dissonance; and this defect is a supreme dramatic
defect. It is not the rigid or the stolid who have the most reason
to complain of the insufficiency of tragic poetry such as Ford's;
nor is it that morality only which, as Ithocles says in The Broken
Heart, " is formed of books and school-traditions," which has
a right to protest against the final effect of the most powerful
creations of his genius. There is a morality which both
" Keeps the soul in tune,
At whose sweet music all our actions dance,"
and is able to physic
" The sickness of a mind
Broken with griefs." i
Of that morality or of that deference to the binding power
within man and the ruling power above him tragedy is the
truest expounder, even when it illustrates by contrasts; but
the tragic poet who merely places the problem before us, and
bids us stand aghast with him at its cruelty, is not to be reckoned
among the great masters of a divine art.
FORD, R. FORDUN, JOHN OF
643
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best edition of Ford is that by Gifford, with
notes and introduction, revised with additions to both text and
notes by Alexander Dyce (1869). An edition of the Dramatic Works
of Massinger and Ford appeared in 1840, with an introduction by
Hartley Coleridge. The Best Plays of Ford were edited for the
" Mermaid Series " in 1888, with an introduction by W. H. Havelock
Ellis, and reissued in 1903. A. C. Swinburne's " Essay on Ford "
is reprinted among his Essays and Studies (1875). Perkin Warbeck
and 'Tis Pity were translated into German by F. Bodenstedt in
1860; and the latter again by F. Blei in 1904. The probable sources
of the various plays are discussed in Emil Koeppel's Quellenstudien
zu den Dramen George Chapman's, Philip Massinger's und John
Ford's (1897). (A. W. W.)
FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858), English author of one of the
earliest and best of travellers' Handbooks, was the eldest son of
Sir Richard Ford, who in 1789 was member of parliament for
East Grinstead, and for many years afterwards chief police
magistrate of London. His mother was the daughter and
heiress of Benjamin Booth, a distinguished connoisseur in art.
He was called to the bar, but never practised, and in 1830-1833
he travelled in Spain, spending much of his time in the Alhambra
and at Seville. His first literary work (other than contributions
to the Quarterly Review) was a pamphlet, An Historical Inquiry
into the Unchangeable Character of a War in Spain (Murray,
1837), in reply to one called the Policy of England towards Spain,
issued under the patronage of Lord Palmerston. He spent the
winter of 1830-1840 in Italy, where he added largely to his
collection of majolica; and soon after his return he began, at
John Murray's invitation, to write his Handbook for Travellers
in Spain, with which his name is chiefly associated. He died on
the ist of September 1858, leaving a fine private collection of
pictures to his widow (d. 1910), his third wife, a daughter of Sir
A. Molesworth.
FORD, THOMAS (b. c. 1580), English musician, of whose
life little more is known than that he was attached to the court
of Prince Henry, son of James I. His works also are few, but
they are sufficient to show the high stage of efficiency and musical
knowledge which the English school had attained at the beginning
of the 1 7th century. They consist of canons and other concerted
pieces of vocal music, mostly with lute accompaniment. The
chief collection of his works is entitled Musike of Sundrie Kinds
set forth in Two Books, &c. (1607), and the histories of music by
Burney and Hawkins give specimens of his art. Together with
Dowland, immortalized in one of Shakespeare's sonnets, Ford
is the chief representative of the school which preceded Henry
Lawes.
FORDE, FRANCIS (d. 1770), British soldier, first appears in
the army list as a captain in the 3Qth Foot in 1 746. This regiment
was the first of the king's service to serve in India (hence its
motto Primus in Indis), and Forde was on duty there when in
1755 he became major, at the same time as Eyre Coote, soon to
become his rival, was promoted captain. At the express invita-
tion of Clive, Forde resigned his king's commission to take the
post of second in command of the E.I. Company's troops in
Bengal. Soon after Plassey, Forde was sent against the French
of Masulipatam. Though feebly supported by the motley
rabble of an army which Anandraz, the local ally, brought into
the field, Forde pushed ahead through difficult country and
came upon the enemy entrenched at Condore. For four days
the two armies faced one another; on the fifth both commanders
resolved on the offensive and an encounter ensued. In spite
of the want of spirit shown by Anandraz and his men, Forde in
the end succeeded in winning the battle, which was from first
to last a brilliant piece of work. Nor did he content himself
with this; on the same evening he stormed the French camp,
and his pursuit was checked only by the guns of Masulipatam
itself. The place was quickly invested on the land side, but
difficulties crowded upon Forde and his handful of men. For
fifty days little advance was made; then Forde, seeing the last
avenues of escape closing behind him, ordered an assault at
midnight on the 25th of January 1759. The Company's troops
lost one-third of their number, but the storm was a brilliant
and astounding success. Forde received less than no reward.
The Company refused to confirm his lieut. -colonel's commission,
and he found himself junior to Eyre Coote, his old subaltern
in the 39th Foot. Nevertheless he continued to assist Clive,
and on the 25th of November 1759 won a success comparable
to Condore at Chinsurah (or Biderra) against the Dutch. A
year later he at last received his commission, but was still
opposed by a faction of the directors which supported Coote.
Clive himself warmly supported Forde in these quarrels. In
1769, with Vansittart and Scrafton, Colonel Forde was sent out
with full powers to investigate every detail of Indian administra-
tion. Their ship was never heard of after leaving the Cape of
Good Hope on the 2 7th of December.
Monographs on Condore, Masulipatam and Chinsurah will be
found in Malleson's Decisive Battles of India.
FORDHAM, formerly a village of Westchester county, New
York, U.S.A., and now a part of New York City. It lies on the
mainland, along the eastern bank of the Harlem river, E. of the
northern end of Manhattan Island. It is the seat of Fordham
University (Roman Catholic), founded in 1841 as St John's
College, and since 1846 conducted by the Society of Jesus.
In 1907 the institution was rechartered as Fordham University,
and now includes St John's College high school and grammar
school, St John's College, the Fordham University medical school
(all in Fordham), and the Fordham University law school (42
Broadway, New York City). In 1907-1908 the university had
96 instructors and (exclusive of 364 students in the high school)
236 students, of whom 105 were in St John's College, 31 in the
medical school, and 100 in the law school. In Fordham still
stands the house in which Edgar Allan Poe lived from 1844 to
1849 and in which he wrote " Annabel Lee," " Ulalume," &c.
The hamlet of Fordham was established in 1669 by Jan Arcer
(a Dutchman, who called himself " John Archer " after coming
to America), who in that year received permission from Francis
Lovelace, colonial governor of New York, to settle sixteen
families on the mainland close by a fording-place of the Spuyten
Duyvil Creek, near where that stream enters the Harlem river.
Between 1655 and 1671 Archer bought from the Indians the
tract of land lying between Spuyten Duyvil Creek and the
Harlem river on the east and the Bronx river on the west, and
extending from the hamlet of Fordham to what is now High
Bridge. In 1671 Governor Lovelace erected this tract into the
manor of Fordham. In 1846 it was included with Morrisanta
in the township of West Farms; and in 1872 with part of the
township of Yonkers was erected into the township of Kings-
bridge, which in 1874 was annexed to the city of New York, and
in 1898 became a part of the borough of the Bronx, New York
City.
FORDUN, JOHN OF (d. c. 1384), Scottish chronicler. The
statement generally made that the chronicler was born at
Fordoun (Kincardineshire) has not been supported by any
direct evidence. It is certain that he was a secular priest, and
that he composed his history in the latter part of the i4th
century; and it is probable that he was a chaplain in the
cathedral of Aberdeen. The work of Fordun is the earliest
attempt to write a continuous history of Scotland. We are
informed that Fordun's patriotic zeal was roused by the removal
or destruction of many national records by Edward III. and that
he travelled in England and Ireland, collecting material for his
history. This work is divided into five books. The first three
are almost entirely fabulous, and form the groundwork on which
Boece and Buchanan afterwards based their historical fictions,
which were exposed by Thomas Innes in his Critical Essay
(i. pp. 201-214). The 4th and sth books, though still mixed
with fable, contain much valuable information, and become
more authentic the more nearly they approach the author's own
time. The 5th book concludes with the death of King David I.
in 1153. Besides these five books, Fordun wrote part of another
book, and collected materials for bringing down the history to
a later period. These materials were used by a continuator who
Vvrote in the middle of the isth century, and who is identified
with Walter Bower (q.v.), abbot of the monastery of Inchcolm.
The additions of Bower form eleven books, and bring down
the narrative to the death of King James I. in 1437. According
644
FORECLOSURE FOREST LAWS
to the custom of the time, the continuator did not hesitate to
interpolate Fordun's portion of the work with additions of his
own, and the whole history thus compiled is known as the
Scotichronicon.
The first printed edition of Fordun's work was that of Thomas
Gale in his Scriptores quindecim (vol. iii.), which was published in
1691. This was followed by Thomas Hearne's (5 vols.) edition in
1722. The whole work, including Bower's continuation, was pub-
lished by Walter Goodall at Edinburgh in 1759. In 1871 and 1872
Fordun's chronicle, in the original Latin and in an English transla-
tion, was edited by William F. Skene in The Historians of Scotland.
The preface to this edition collects all the biographical details and
gives full bibliographical references to MSS. and editions.
FORECLOSURE, in the law of mortgage, the extinguishment
by order of the court of a mortgagor's equity of redemption.
In the law of equity the object of every mortgage transaction
is eventually the repayment of a debt, the mortgaged property
being incidental by way of security. Therefore, although the
day named for repayment of the loan has passed and the mort-
gagor's estate is consequently forfeited, equity steps in to
mitigate the harshness of the common law, and will decree a
reconveyance of the mortgaged property on payment of the
principal, interest and costs. This right of the mortgagor to
relief is termed his " equity of redemption." But the right
must be exercised within a reasonable time, otherwise he will
be foreclosed his equity of redemption and the mortgagee's
possession converted into an absolute ownership. Such fore-
closure is enforced in equity by a foreclosure action. An action
is brought by the mortgagee against the mortgagor in the
chancery division of the High Court in England, claiming that
an account may be taken of the principal and interest due to
the mortgagee, and that the mortgagor may be directed to pay
the same, with costs, by a day to be appointed by the court
and that in default thereof he may be foreclosed his equity of
redemption. English county courts have jurisdiction in fore-
closure actions where the mortgage or charge does not exceed
500, or where the mortgage is for more than 500, but less than
that sum has been actually advanced. In a Welsh mortgage
there is no right to foreclosure. (See also MORTGAGE.)
FOREIGN OFFICE, that department of the executive of the
United Kingdom which is concerned with foreign affairs. The
head of the Foreign Office is termed principal secretary of state
for foreign affairs and his office dates from 1782. Between
that date and the Revolution there had been only two secretaries
of state, whose duties were divided by a geographical division
of the globe into northern and southern departments. The
duties of the secretary of the northern department of Europe
comprised dealings with the northern powers of Europe, while
the secretary of the southern department of Europe communi-
cated with France, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Italy, Turkey,
and also looked after Irish and colonial business, and carried
out the work of the Home Office. In 1782 the duties of these
two secretaries were revised, the northern department becoming
the Foreign Office. The secretary for foreign affairs is the official
agent of the crown in all communications between Great Britain
and foreign powers; his intercourse is carried on either through
the representatives of foreign states in Great Britain or through
representatives of Great Britain abroad. He negotiates ah 1
treaties or alliances with foreign states, protects British subjects
residing abroad, and demands satisfaction for any injuries they
may sustain at the hands of foreigners. He is assisted by two
under-secretaries of state (one of them a politician, the other
a permanent civil servant), three assistant under-secretaries
(civil servants), a librarian, a head of the treaty department
and a staff of clerks. The departments of the Foreign Office
are the African, American, commercial and sanitary, consular,
eastern (Europe), far eastern, western (Europe), parliamentary,
financial, librarian and keeper of the papers, treaties and registry.
In the case of important despatches and correspondence, these,
with the drafts of answers, are sent first to the permanent'
under-secretary, then to the prime minister, then to the sovereign
and, lastly, are circulated among the members of the cabinet.
The salary of the secretary for foreign affairs is 5000 per annum,
that of the permanent under-secretary 2000, the parliamentary
under-secretary and the first assistant under-secretary, 1500,
and the other assistant under-secretaries 1200.
See Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, part ii.
FORELAND, NORTH and SOUTH, two chalk headlands on
the Kent coast of England, overlooking the Strait of Dover,
the North Foreland forming the eastern projection of the Isle
of Thanet, and the South standing 3 m. N.E. of Dover. Both
present bold cliffs to the sea, and command beautiful views over
the strait. On the North Foreland (51 22^' N., i 27' E.) there
is a lighthouse, and on the South Foreland (51 8' N., i 23' E.)
there are two. There is also a Foreland on the north coast of
Devonshire, 2\ m. N.E. of Lynmouth, a fine projection of the
highlands of Exmoor Forest, overlooking the Bristol Channel,
and forming the most northerly point of the county.
FORESHORE, that part of the seashore which lies between
high- and low- water mark at ordinary tides. In the United
Kingdom it is ordinarily and prima facie vested in the crown,
except where it may be vested in a subject by ancient grant or
charter from the crown, or by prescription. Although numerous
decisions, dating from 1795, have confirmed the prima facie
title of the crown, S. A. Moore in his History of the Foreshore
contends that the presumption is in favour of the subject rather
than of the crown. But a subject can establish a title by proving
an express grant from the crown or giving sufficient evidence
of user from which a grant may be presumed. The chief acts
showing title to foreshore are, taking wreck or royal fish, right
of fishing, mining, digging and taking sand, seaweed, &c., em-
banking and enclosing. There is a public right of user in that
part of the foreshore which belongs to the crown, for the purpose
of navigation or fishery, but there is no right of passage over lands
adjacent to the shore, except by a particular custom. So that,
in order to make the right available, there must be a highway
or other public land giving access to the foreshore. Thus it
has been held that the public have no legal right to trespass on
land above high-water mark for the purpose of bathing in the
sea, though if they can get to it they may bathe there (Blundell
v. Calteral, 1821, 5 B. & Ad. 268). There is no right in the public
to take sand, shells or seaweed from the shore, nor, except in
certain places by local custom, have fishermen the right to use
the foreshore or the soil above it for drawing up their boats, or
for drying their nets or similar purposes.
See S. A. Moore, History of the Foreshore and the Law relating
thereto (1888); Coulson and Forbes, Law of Waters (1902).
FORESTALLING, in English criminal law, the offence of buying
merchandise, victual, &c., coming to market, or making any
bargain for buying the same, before they shall be in the market
ready to be sold, or making any motion for enhancing the price,
or dissuading any person from coming to market or forbearing
to bring any of the things to market, &c. See ENGROSSING.
FOREST LAWS, the general term for the old English restric-
:ion laws, dealing with forests. One of the most cherished
Drerogatives of the king of England, at the time when his
sower was at the highest, was that of converting any portion
of the country into a forest in which he might enjoy the
pleasures of the chase. The earliest struggles between the
dng and the people testify to the extent to which this pre-
rogative became a public grievance, and the charter by which
ts exercise was bounded (Carta de Foresta) was in substance
>art of the greatest constitutional code imposed by his barons
upon King John. At common law it appears to have been the
right of the king to make a forest where he pleased, provided
hat certain legal formalities were observed. The king having a
continual care for the preservation of the realm, and for the peace
and quiet of his subjects, he had therefore amongs't many privi-
eges this prerogative, viz. to have his place of recreation
wheresoever he would appoint. 1 Land once afforested became
iubject to a peculiar system of laws, which, as well as the for-
malities required to constitute a valid afforestment, have been
carefully ascertained by the Anglo-Norman lawyers. " A forest,"
1 Coke, 4 Inst., 300.
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
645
says Man wood, " is a certain territory of woody grounds and
fruitful pastures, privileged for wild beasts and fowls of forest,
chase, and warren to rest, and abide there in the safe protection
of the king, for his delight and pleasure; which territory of
ground so privileged is mered and bounded with unremovable
marks, meres and boundaries, either known by matter of record
or by prescription; and also replenished with wild beasts of
venery or chase, and with great coverts of vert, for the succour
of the said beasts there to abide: for the preservation and
continuance of which said place, together with the vert and
venison there are particular officers, laws, and privileges belong-
ing to the same, requisite for that purpose, and proper only to a
forest and to no other place." l And the same author distin-
guishes a forest, as " the highest franchise of princely pleasure,"
from the inferior franchises of chase, park and warren named
in the order of their importance. The forest embraces all these,
and it is distinguished by having laws and courts of its own,
according to which offenders are justiceable. An offender in
a chase is to be punished by the common law; an offender in a
forest by the forest law. A chase is much the same as a park,
only the latter is enclosed, and all of them are distinguished
according to the class of wild beasts to which the privilege
extended. Thus beasts of forest (the " five wild beasts of
venery ") were the hart, the hind, the hare, the boar and the
wolf. The beasts of chase were also five, viz. the buck, the doe,
the fox, the marten and the roe. The beasts and fowls of warren
were the hare, the coney, the pheasant and the partridge.
The courts of the forest were three in number, viz. the court
of attachments, swainmote and justice-seat. The court of
attachments (called also the wood-mote) is held every forty
days for the foresters to bring in their attachments concerning
any hurt done to vert or venison (in viridi et venatione) in the
forest, and for the verderers to receive and mark the same, but
no conviction takes place. The swainmote, held three times in
the year, is the court to which all the freeholders within the forest
owe suit and service, and of which the verderers are the judges.
In this court all offences against the forest laws may be tried,
but no judgment or punishment follows. This is reserved for
the justice-seat, held every third year, to which the rolls of
offences presented at the court of attachment, and tried at the
swainmote, are presented by verderers. The justice-seat is the
court of the chief justice in eyre, who, says Coke, " is commonly
a man of greater dignity than knowledge of the laws of the forests ;
and therefore where justice-seats are to be held some other
persons whom the king shall appoint are associated with him,
who together are to determine omnia placita forestae." There
were two chief justices for the forests infra and ultra Trentam
respectively. The necessary officers of a forest are a steward,
verderers, foresters, regarders, agisters and woodwards. The
verderer was a judicial officer chosen in full county by the free-
holders in the same manner as the coroner. His office was to
view and receive the attachments of the foresters, and to mark
them on his rolls. A forester was " an officer sworn to preserve
the vert and venison in the forest, and to attend upon the wild
beasts within his bailiwick." The regarders were of the nature
of visitors: their duty was to make a regard (visitalio nemorum)
every third year, to inquire of all offences, and of the concealment
of such offences by any officer of the forest. The business of the
agister was to look after the pasturage of the forest, and to receive
the payments for the same by persons entitled to pasture their
cattle in the forests. Both the pasturage and the payment were
called " agistment." The woodward was the officer who had
the care of the woods and vert and presented offences at the
court of attachment.
The legal conception of a forest was thus that of a definite
territory within which the code of the forest law prevailed to
the exclusion of the common law. The ownership of the soil
might be in any one, but the rights of the proprietor were limited
by the laws made for the protection of the king's wild beasts.
These laws, enforced by fines often arbitrary and excessive, were
a great grievance to the unfortunate owners of land within or
1 Manwood's Treatise of the Forest Laws (4th edition, 1717).
in the neighbourhood of the forest. The offence of " purpresture "
may be cited as an example. This was an encroachment on the
forest rights, by building a house within the forest, and it made
no difference whether the land belonged to the builder or not.
In either case it was an offence punishable by fines at discretion.
And if a man converted woodlands within the forest into arable
land, he was guilty of the offence known as " assarting," whether
the covert belonged to himself or not.
The hardships of the forest laws under the Norman kings,
and their extension to private estates by the process of afforest-
ment, were among the grievances which united the barons and
people against the king in the reign of John. The Great Charter
of King John contains clauses relating to the forest laws, but
no separate charter of the forest. The first charter of the forest
is that of Henry III., issued in 1217. " As an important piece
of legislation," said Stubbs, 2 " it must be compared with the forest
assize of 1 184, and with 44th, 47th and 48th clauses of the charter
of John. It is observable that most of the abuses which are
remedied by it are regarded as having sprung up since the
accession of Henry II.; but the most offensive afforestations
have been made under Richard and John. These latter are at
once disafforested; but those of Henry II. only so far as they
had been carried out to the injury of the landowners and outside
of the royal demesne." Land which had thus been once forest
land and was afterwards disafforested was known as purlieu
derived by Man wood from the French pur and lieu, i.e. " a place
exempt from the forest." The forest laws still applied in a
modified manner to the purlieu. The benefit of the disafforest-
ment existed only for the owner of the lands; as to all other
persons the land was forest still, and the king's wild beasts were
to " have free recourse therein and safe return to the forest,
without any hurt or destruction other than by the owners of
the lands in the purlieu where they shall be found, and that only
to hunt and chase them back again towards the forest without
any forestalling " (Manwood, On the Forest Laws article
" Purlieu ").
The revival of the forest laws was one of the means resorted
to by Charles I. for raising a revenue independently of parliament,
and the royal forests in Essex were so enlarged that they were
hyperbolically said to include the whole county. The 4th earl
of Southampton was nearly ruined by a decision that stripped
him of his estate near the New Forest. The boundaries of
Rockingham Forest were increased from 6 m. to 60, and
enormous fines imposed on the trespassers, Lord Salisbury
being assessed in 20,000, Lord Westmoreland in 19,000, Sir
Christopher Hatton in 12,000 (Hallam's Constitutional History
of England, c. viii.). By the statute 16 Charles I. c. 16 (1640)
the royal forests were determined for ever according to their
boundaries in the twentieth year of James, all subsequent
enlargements being annulled.
The forest laws, since the Revolution, have fallen into complete
disuse.
FORESTS AND FORESTRY. Although most people know
what a forest (Lat. foris, " out of doors ") is, a definition of it
which suits all cases is by no means easy to give. Manwood, in
his treatise of the Lawes of the Forest (1598), defines a forest as
" a certain territory of woody grounds, fruitful pastures, privi-
leged for wild beasts and fowls of forest, chase and warren, to
rest and abide in, in the safe protection of the king, for his princely
delight and pleasure." This primitive definition has, in modern
times, when the economic aspect of forests came more into the
foreground, given place to others, so that forest may, in a general
way, now be described as " an area which is for the most part set
aside for the production of timber and other forest produce,
or which is expected to exercise certain climatic effects, or to
protect the locality against injurious influences."
As far as conclusions can now be drawn, it is probable that
the greater part of the dry land of the earth was, at some time,
covered with forest, which consisted of a variety of trees and
shrubs grouped according to climate, soil and configuration of
the several localities. When the old trees reached their limit
* Documents Illustrative of English History, p. 338.
6 4 6
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
of life, they disappeared, and younger trees took their place.
The conditions for an uninterrupted regeneration of the forest
were favourable, and the result was vigorous production by the
creative powers of soil and climate. Then came man, and by
degrees interfered, until in most countries of the earth the area
under forest has been considerably reduced. The first decided
interference was probably due to the establishment of domestic
animals; men burnt the forest to obtain pasture for their flocks.
Subsequently similar measures on an ever-increasing scale were
employed to prepare the land for agricultural purposes. More
recently enormous areas of forests were destroyed by reckless
cutting and subsequent firing in the extraction of timber for
economic purposes.
It will readily be understood that the distribution and character
of the now remaining forests must differ enormously (see PLANTS:
Distribution). Large portions of the earth are still covered with
dense masses of tall trees, while others contain low scrub or grass
land, or are desert. As a general rule, natural forests consist of
a number of different species intermixed; but in some cases
certain species, called gregarious, have succeeded in obtaining
the upper hand, thus forming more or less pure forests of one
species only. The number of species differs very much. In
many tropical forests hundreds of species may be found on a
comparatively small area, in other cases the number is limited.
Burma has several thousand species Of trees and shrubs, Sind
has only ten species of trees. Central Europe has about forty
species, and the greater part of northern Russia, Sweden and
Norway contains forests consisting of about half a dozen species.
Elevation above the sea acts similarly to rising latitude, but the
effect is much more rapidly produced. Generally speaking, it
may be said that the Tropics and adjoining parts of the earth,
wherever the climate is not modified by considerable elevation,
contain broad-leaved species, palms, bamboos, &c. Here most
of the best and hardest timbers are found, such as teak, mahogany
and ebony. The northern countries are rich in conifers. Taking
a section from Central Africa to North Europe, it will be found
that south and north of the equator there is a large belt of dense
hardwood forest; then comes the Sahara, then the coast of the
Mediterranean with forests of cork oak; then Italy with oak,
olive, chestnut, gradually giving place to ash, sycamore, beech,
birch and certain species of pine; in Switzerland and Germany
silver fir and spruce gain ground. Silver fir disappears in central
Germany, and the countries around the Baltic contain forests
consisting chiefly of Scotch pine, spruce and birch, to which,
in Siberia, larch must be added, while the lower parts of the
ground are stocked with hornbeam, willow, alder and poplar.
In North America the distribution is as follows: Tropical
vegetation is found in south Florida, while in north Florida it
changes into a subtropical vegetation consisting of evergreen
broad-leaved species with pines on sandy soils. On going north
in the Atlantic region, the forest becomes temperate, containing
deciduous broad-leaved trees and pines, until Canada is reached,
where larches, spruces and firs occupy the ground. Around
the great lakes on sandy soils the broad-leaved forest gives
way to pines. On proceeding west from the Atlantic region
the forest changes into a shrubby vegetation, and this into the
prairies. Farther west, towards the Pacific coast, extensive
forests are found consisting, according to latitude and elevation
above the sea, of pines, larches, fir, Thujas and Tsugas. In
Japan a tropical vegetation is found in the south, comprising
palms, figs, ebony, mangrove and others. This is followed on
proceeding north by subtropical forests containing evergreen
oaks, Podocarpus, tree-ferns, and, at higher elevations, Crypto-
tneria and Chamaecyparis. Then follow deciduous broad-leaved
forests, and finally firs, spruces and larches. In India the char-
acter of the forests is governed chiefly by rainfall and elevation.
Where the former is heavy evergreen forests of Guttiferae,
Dipterocarpeae, Leguminosae, Euphorbias, figs, palms, ferns,
bamboos and india-rubber trees are found. Under a less copious
rainfall deciduous forests appear, containing teak and sal
(Shorea robusta) and a great variety of other valuable trees.
Under a still smaller rainfall the vegetation becomes sparse,
containing acacias, Dalbergia sissoo and Tamarix. Where the
rainfall is very light or nil, desert appears. In the Himalayas,
subtropical to arctic conditions are found, the forests containing,
according to elevation, pines, firs, deodars, oaks, chestnuts,
magnolias, laurels, rhododendrons and bamboos. Australia,
again, has its own particular flora of eucalypts, of which some
two hundred species have been distinguished, as well as wattles.
Some of the eucalypts attain an enormous height.
Utility of Forests. In the economy of man and of nature
forests are of direct and indirect value, the former chiefly through
the produce which they yield, and the latter through the in-
fluence which they exercise upon climate, the regulation of
moisture, the stability of the soil, the healthiness and beauty
of a country and allied subjects. The indirect utility will be
dealt with first. A piece of land bare of vegetation is, throughout
the year, exposed to the full effect of sun and air currents, and
the climatic conditions which are produced by these agencies.
If, on the other hand, a piece of land is covered with a growth
of plants, and especially with a dense crop of forest vegetation,
it enjoys the benefit of certain agencies which modify the
effect of sun and wind on the soil and the adjoining layers of
air. These modifying agencies are as follows: (i) The crowns
of the trees intercept the rays of the sun and the falling rain;
they obstruct the movement of air currents, and reduce radiation
at night. (2) The leaves, flowers an{l fruits, augmented by
certain plants which grow in the shade of the trees, form a layer
of mould, or humus, which protects the soil against rapid changes
of temperature, and greatly influences the movement of water
in it. (3) The roots of the trees penetrate into the soil in all
directions, and bind it together. The effects of these agencies
have been observed from ancient times, and widely differing
views have been taken of them. Of late years, however, more
careful observations have been made at so-called parallel stations,
that is to say, one station in the middle of a forest, and another
outside at some distance from its edge, but otherwise exposed
to the same general conditions. In this way, the following
results have been obtained: (i) Forests reduce the temperature
of the air and soil to a moderate extent, and render the climate
more equable. (2) They increase the relative humidity of the
air, and reduce evaporation. (3) They tend to increase the
precipitation of moisture. As regards the actual rainfall, their
effect in low lands is nil or very small; in hilly countries it is
probably greater, but definite results have not yet been obtained
owing to the difficulty of separating the effect of forests from
that of other factors. (4) They help to regulate the water supply,
produce a more sustained feeding of springs, tend to reduce
violent floods, and render the flow of water in rivers more
continuous. (5) They assist in preventing denudation, erosion,
landslips, avalanches, the silting up of rivers and low lands
and the formation of sand dunes. (6) They reduce the velocity
of air-currents, protect adjoining fields against cold or dry winds,
and afford shelter to cattle, game and useful birds. (7) They
may, under certain conditions, improve the healthiness of a
country, and help in its defence. (8) They increase the beauty
of a country, and produce a healthy aesthetic influence upon
the people.
The direct utility of forests is chiefly due to their produce,
the capital which they represent, and the work which they pro-
vide. The principal produce of forests consists of timber and
firewood. Both are necessaries for the daily life of the people.
Apart from a limited number of broad-leaved species, the conifers
have become the most important timber trees in the economy
of man. They are found in greatest quantities in the countries
around the Baltic and in North America. In modern times
iron and other materials have, to a considerable extent, replaced
timber, while coal, lignite, and peat compete with firewood;
nevertheless wood is still indispensable, and likely to remain
so. This is borne out by the statistics of the most civilized
nations. Whereas the population of Great Britain and Ireland,
during the period 1880-1900, increased by about 20%, the imports
of timber, during the same period, increased by 45%; in other
words, every head of population in 1900 used more timber than
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
647
twenty years earlier. Germany produced in 1880 about as much
timber as she required; in 1899 she imported 4,600,000 tons,
valued at 14,000,000, and her imports are rapidly increasing,
although the yield capacity of her own forests is much higher
now than it was formerly. Wood is now used for many purposes
which formerly were no.t thought of. The manufacture of the
wood pulp annually imported into Britain consumes at least
2,000,000 tons of timber. A fabric closely resembling silk
is now made of spruce wood. The variety of other, or minor,
produce yielded by forests is very great, and much of it is
essential for the well-being of the people and for various industries.
The yield of fodder is of the utmost importance in countries
subject to periodic droughts; in many places field crops could
not be grown successfully without the leaf-mould and brushwood
taken from the forests. As regards industries, attention need
only be drawn to such articles as commercial fibre, tanning
materials, dye-stuffs, lac, turpentine, resin, rubber, gutta-
percha, &c. Great Britain and Ireland alone import every year
such materials to the value of 12,000,000, half of this being
represented by rubber.
The capital employed in forests consists chiefly of the value
of the soil and growing stock of timber. The latter is, ordinarily,
of much greater value than the former wherever a sustained
annual yield of timber is expected from a forest. In the case of
a Scotch pine forest, for instance, the value of the growing stock
is, under the above-mentioned condition, from three to five times
that of the soil. The rate of interest yielded by capital invested
in forests differs, of course, considerably according to circum-
stances, but on the whole it may, under proper management,
be placed equal to that yielded by agricultural land; it is lower
than the agricultural rate on the better classes of land, but
higher on the inferior classes. Hence the latter are specially
indicated for the forest industry, and the former for the pro-
duction of agricultural crops. Forests require labour in a great
variety of ways, such as (i) general administration, formation,
tending and harvesting; (2) transport of produce; and (3)
industries which depend on forests for their prime material.
The labour indicated under the first head differs considerably
according to circumstances, but its amount is smaller than that
required if the land is used for agriculture. Hence forests provide
additional labour only if they are established on surplus lands.
Owing to the bulky nature of forest produce its transport forms
a business of considerable magnitude, the amount of labour
being perhaps equal to half that employed under the first head.
The greatest amount of labour is, however, required in the
working up of the raw material yielded by forests. In this
respect attention may be drawn to the chair industry in and
around High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire, where more than
20,000 workmen are employed in converting the beech, grown
on the adjoining chalk hills, into chairs and tools of many
patterns. Complete statistics for Great Britain are not available
under this head, but it may be mentioned that in Germany the
people employed in the forests amount to 2-3 % of the total
population; those employed on transport of forest produce
1-1%; labourers employed on the various wood industries,
8-6 %; or a total of 12 %. An important feature of the work
connected with forests and their produce is that a great part of
it can be made to fit in with the requirements of agriculture ;
that is to say, it can be done at seasons when field crops do not
require attention. Thus the rural labourers or small farmers
can earn some money at times when they have nothing else to
do, and when they would probably sit idle if no forest work were
obtainable.
Whether, or how far, the utility of forests is brought out in a
particular country depends on its special conditions, such as
(i) the position of a country, its communications, and the control
which it exercises over other countries, such as colonies; (2)
the quantity and quality of substitutes for forest produce
available in the country; (3) the value of land and labour, and
the returns which land yields if used for other purposes; (4)
the density of population; (5) the amount of capital available
for investment; (6) the climate and configuration, especially
Per-
Per-
Area of
centage
of Total
centage
of Forest
Forest
Area per
Countries.
Forests, in
Area of
Area be-
Head of
Acres.
Country
longing
Popula-
under
to the
tion, in
Forest.
State.
Acres.
Sweden ...
j 9,000,000
48
33
9-5
Norway ....
17,000,000
21
28
7-6
Russia, including Fin-
land
518,000,000
40
61
5-9
Bosnia and Herze-
govina .' . . .
6,400,000
50
78
4-0
Bulgaria ....
7,600,000
30
30
2-3
Turkey
11,200,000
2O
7
Servia
3,900,000
32
37
5
Rumania ....
6,400,000
18
40
3
Spain
21,200,000
17
84
2
Hungary ....
22,500,000
28
15
2
Austria
24,000,000
3 2
7
9
Greece
2,000,000
13
80
85
Luxemburg
200,000
30
82
Switzerland
2,100,000
20
5
7
Germany ....
35,000,000
26
34
6
France
24,000,000
18
12
6
Italy .....
10,400,000
15
4
3
Denmark ....
600,000
6
24
25
Belgium ....
1,300,000
IS
5
2
Portugal ....
770,000
3-5
8
15
Holland ....
560,000
7
?
I
Great Britain .
3,000,000
4
3
07
the geographical position, whether inland or on the border of
the sea, &c. No general rule can be laid down, showing whether
forests are required in a country, or, if so, to what extent; that
question must be answered according to the special circumstances
of each case.
The subjoined table shows the forests of various European
states:
These data exhibit considerable differences, since the per-
centage of the forest area varies from 3-5 to 50, and the area
per head of population from -07 to 9-5 acres. Russia, Sweden
and Norway may as yet have more forest than they require
for their own population. On the other hand, Great Britain
and Ireland, Germany, Denmark, Portugal, Holland, and even
Belgium, France and Italy have not a sufficient forest area
to meet their own requirements; at the same time, they are
all sea-bound countries, and importation is easy, while most
of them are under the influence of moist sea winds, which reduces
to a subordinate position the importance of forests for climatic
reasons.
Intimately connected with the area of forests in a country
is the state of ownership) whether they belong to the state,
corporations or to private persons. Where, apart from the
financial aspect and the supply of work, forests are not required
for the sake of their indirect effects, and where importation
from other countries is easy and assured, the government of
the country need not, as a rule, trouble itself to maintain or
acquire forests. Where the reverse conditions exist, and especi-
ally where the cost of transport over long distances becomes
prohibitive, a wise administration will take measures to assure
the maintenance of a suitable proportion of the country under
forest. This can be done either by maintaining or constitut-
ing a suitable area of state forests, or by exercising a certain
amount of control over corporation and even private forests.
Such measures are more called for in continental countries
than in those which are sea-bound, as is proved by the above
statistics.
Supply of Timber Imports and Exports. The following
table shows the net imports and exports of European countries
(average data, calculated from the returns of recent years).
The only timber-exporting countries cf Europe are Russia,
Sweden, Norway, Austria-Hungary and Rumania; all the others
either have only enough for their own consumption, or import
timber. Great Britain and Ireland import now upwards of
10,000,000 tons a year, Germany about 4,600,000 tons, and
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
Belgium about 1,300,000 tons. Holland, France, Portugal,
Spain and Italy are all importing countries, as also are Asia
Minor, Egypt and Algeria. The west coast of Africa exports
hardwoods, and imports coniferous timber. The Cape and Natal
import considerable quantities of pine and fir wood. Australasia
Net Imports and Exports of European Countries.
Quantities in Tons.
Value in Sterling.
Countries.
Imports.
Exports.
Imports.
Exports.
United Kingdom .
10,004,000
26,540,000
Germany
4,600,000
14,820,000
Belgium
1,300,000
5,040,000
France.
1,230,000
3,950,000
Italy .
620,000
2,100,000
Spain .
470,000
1,500,000
Denmark
470,000
1,250,000
Switzerland
204,000
480,000
Holland
180,000
720,000
Servia .
110,000
160,000
Portugal
60,000
200,000
Greece .
35-000
130,000
Rumania
400,000
840,000
Norway
1,300,000
2,200,000
Austria - Hungary
with Bosnia and
Herzegovina
3,996,000
. t
11,400,000
Sweden
4,460,000
7,930,000
Russia with Fin-
land.
6,890,000
10,440,000
Total . .
19,283,000
17,046,000
56,890,000
32,810,000
Net Imports .
2,237,000
24,080,000
These net imports are received from non-European countries.
They consist chiefly of valuable hardwoods, like teak, mahogany,
eucalypts and others.
exports hardwoods and some Kauri pine from New Zealand,
but imports larger quantities of light pine and fir timber. British
India and Siam export teak and small quantities of fancy woods.
The West Indies and South America export hardwoods, and
import pine and fir wood. The United States of America will
not much longer be a genuine exporting country, since they
import already almost as much timber from Canada as they
export. Canada exports considerable quantities of timber.
The Dominion has still a forest area of 1,250,000 sq. m., equal
to 38 % of the total area, and giving 165 acres of forest for every
inhabitant. Although only about one-third of the forest area
can be called regular timber land, Canada possesses an enormous
forest wealth, with which she might supply permanently nearly
all other countries deficient in material, if the governing bodies
in the several provinces would only determine to stop the present
fearful waste caused by axe and fire, and to introduce a regular
system of management. As matters stand, the supplies of the
most valuable timber of Canada, the white or Weymouth pine
(Pinus strobus), are nearly exhausted, the great stores of spruce
in the eastern provinces are being rapidly destroyed, and the
forests of Douglas fir in the western provinces have been attacked
for export to the United States and to other countries.
Taking the remaining stocks of the whole earth together, it
may be said that a sufficient quantity of hardwoods is available,
but the only countries which are able to supply coniferous timber
for export on a considerable scale are Russia, Sweden, Norway,
Austria and Canada. As these countries have practically to
supply the rest of the world, and as the management of their
forests is far from satisfactory, the question of supplying light
pine and fir timber, which forms the very staff of life of the wood
industries, must become a very serious matter before many years
have passed. Unmistakable signs of the coming crisis are every-
where visible to all who wish to see, and it is difficult to over-state
the gravity of the problem, when it is remembered, for instance,
that 87 % of all the timber imported into Great Britain consists
of light pine and fir, and that most of the other importing
countries are similarly situated. In some of these countries
little or no room exists for the extension of woodland, but this
statement does not apply to Great Britain and Ireland, which
contain upwards of 1 2,000,000 acres of waste land, and 1 2,500,000
acres of mountain and heath land used for light grazing. One-
fourth of that area, if put under forest, would produce all the
timber now imported which can be grown in Britain, that is to
say, about 95 % of the total.
The subjoined table shows the movements of timber within
the greater part of the British empire:
Net Imports and Exports into and from the British Empire.
Countries.
Annual Average
during the Years
1884-1888.
Annual Average
during the Years
1900-1903.
Net
Imports.
Net
Exports.
Net
Imports.
Net
Exports.
United Kingdom .
Australasia
Africa ....
West Indies,
Honduras and
Guiana .
India, Ceylon and
Mauritius .
Dominion of
Canada .
Total . .
15,000,000
1,284,000
72,000
i
207,000
528,000
4,025,000
26,540,000
568,000
737,000
I
71,000
580,000
4,789,000
16,356,000
4,760,000
27,845,000
5,440,000
Net Imports .
Total increase in
16 years
Average annual
increase of net
imports
11,596,000
22,405,000
10,809,000
675-562
Forest Management. In early times there was practically
no forest management. As long .as the forests occupied con-
siderable areas, their produce was looked upon as the free gift
of nature, like air and water; men took it, used it, and even
destroyed it without let or hindrance. With the gradual increase
of population and the consequent reduction of the forest area,
proprietary ideas developed; people claimed the ownership of
certain forests, and proceeded to protect them against outsiders.
Subsequently the law of the country was called in to help in
protection, leading to the promulgation of special forest laws.
By degrees it was found that mere protection was not sufficient,
and that steps must be taken to enforce a more judicious treat-
ment, as well as to limit the removal of timber to what the forests
were capable of producing permanently. The teaching of natural
science and of political economy was brought to bear upon the
subject, so that now forestry has become a special science. This
is recognized in many countries, amongst which Germany stands
first, closely followed by France, Austria, Denmark and Belgium.
Of non-European countries the palm belongs to British India,
and then follow Ceylon, the Malay States, the Cape of Good
Hope and Japan. The United States of America have also
turned their attention to the subject. Most of the British
colonies are, in this respect, as yet in a backward state, and the
matter has still to be fought out in Great Britain and Ireland,
though many writers have urged the importance of the question
upon the public and the government. There can be no doubt
that all civilized countries must, sooner or later, adopt a rational
and systematic treatment of their forests.
For details as to the separate countries, see the articles under
the country headings; in this article only some of the more
important countries are dealt with, in so far as the history of
their forestry is important. A few notes on Germany and France
will be given, because in these countries forest management
has been brought to highest perfection; Italy is mentioned,
because she has allowed her forests to be destroyed; and a
short description of forestry in the United Kingdom and in India
follows. A separate section is devoted to the United States.
Germany is in general well-wooded. The winters being long
and severe, an abundant supply of fuel is almost as essential
as a sufficient supply of food. This necessity has led, along
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
649
with a passion for the chase, to the preservation of forests, and
to the establishment of an admirable system of forest cultivation,
almost as carefully conducted as field tillage. The Black Forest
stretches the whole length of the grand-duchy of Baden and part
of the kingdom of Wiirttemberg, from the Neckar to Basel and
the Lake of Constance. The vegetation resembles that of the
Vosges; forests of spruce, silver fir, Scotch pine, and, mingled
with birches, beech and oak, are the chief woods met with.
Until comparatively recent times large quantities of timber
derived from these forests were floated down the Rhine to Holland
and also shipped to England. Now the greater part of it is used
locally for construction, or it is converted into paper pulp. In
the grand-duchy of Hesse the Odenwald range of mountains,
stretching between the Main and the Neckar, contains the chief
supply of timber. In the province of Nassau there are the large
wooded tracts of the Taunus mountain range and the Westerwald.
In Rhenish Prussia valuable forests lie partly in the Eifel,
on the borders of Belgium, and on the mountains overhanging
the Upper Moselle, but they do not furnish such stately trees
as the Black Forest and the Odenwald. The Spessart, near
Aschaffenburg in Bavaria, is one of the most extensive forests
of middle Germany, containing large masses of fine oak and beech,
with plantations of coniferous trees, such as spruce, Scotch pine
and silver fir. Bavaria possesses other fine forest tracts, such
as the Baierischewald on the Bohemian frontier, the Kranzberg
near Munich, and the Frankenwald in the north of the kingdom.
North Germany has extensive forests on the Harz and Thiiringian
Mountains, while in East Prussia large tracts of flat ground are
covered with Scotch pine, spruce, oak and beech.
Every German state has its forest organization. In Prussia
the department is presided over by the Oberland Forstmeister
at Berlin, while each province, or part of a province, has an
Oberforstmeister, under whom a number of Oberforsters admini-
strate the state and communal forests. These, again, are assisted
by a lower class of orfkials called Forsters. The Oberforsters
throughout Germany are educated at special schools of forestry,
of which in 1909 the following nine existed:
In Prussia: at Eberswalde and Miinden.
In Bavaria: at Munich and Aschaffenburg.
In Saxony: at Tharand.
In Wiirttemberg: at Tubingen.
In Baden: at Carlsruhe.
In Hesse: at Giessen.
In the grand-duchy of Saxony: at Eisenach.
The schools at Munich, Tubingen and Giessen form part of
the universities at these places; that at Carlsruhe is attached
to the technical high school; the others are academies for the
study of forestry only, but there is a tendency to transfer them
all to the universities. The subordinate staff are trained for
their work in so-called silvicultural schools, of which a large
number exist. In this way the German forests have been brought
to a high degree of productiveness, but the material derived from
them falls far short of the requirements, although the forests
occupy 26 % of the total area of the country; hence the net
imports of timber amount already to 4,600,000 tons a year, and
they are steadily rising.
France. The principal timber tree of France is the oak. The
cork oak is grown extensively in the south and in Corsica. The
beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, walnut, chestnut and poplar are all
important trees, while the silver fir and spruce form magnificent
forests in the Vosges and Jura Mountains, and the Aleppo and
maritime pines are cultivated in the south and south-west. About
one-seventh of the entire territory is still covered with wood.
Forest legislation took its rise in France about the middle of
the 1 6th century, and the great minister Sully urged the enforce-
ment of restrictive forest laws. In 1669 a fixed treatment of
state forests was enacted. Duhamel in 1755 published his famous
work on forest trees. Reckless destruction of the forests, however,
was in progress, and the Revolution of 1789 gave a fresh stimulus
to the work of devastation. The usual results have followed in
the frequency and destructiveness of floods, which have washed
away the soil from the hillsides and valleys of many districts,
especially in the south, and the frequent inundations of the last
fifty years are no doubt caused by the deforesting of the sources
of the Rhone and Sa6ne. Laws were passed in 1860 and 1864,
providing for the reforesting, " reboisement," of the slopes of
mountains, and these laws take effect on private as well as
state property. Thousands of acres are annually planted in the
departments of Hautes and Basses Alpes; and during the summer
of 1875, when much injury was done by floods in the south of
France, the Durance, formerly the most dangerous in this respect
of French rivers, gave little cause for anxiety, as it is round the
head waters of this river that the chief plantations have been
formed. While tracts formerly covered with wood have been
replanted, plantations have been formed on the shifting sands
or dunes along the coast of Gascony. A forest of Pinus pinaster,
150 m. in length, now stretches from Bayonne to the mouth of
the Gironde, raised by means of sowing steadily continued since
1789; the cultivation of the pine, along with draining, has
transformed low marshy grounds into productive soil extending
over an area of about two million acres. The forests thus created
provide annually some 600,000 tons of pit timber for the Welsh
coal mines.
The state forest department is administered by the director-
general, who has his headquarters at Paris, assisted by a board
of administration, charged with the working of the forests,
questions of rights and law, finance and plantation works.
The department is supplied with officers from the forest
school at Nancy. This institution was founded in 1824, when
M. Lorentz, who had studied forestry in Germany, was appointed
its first director.
Italy. The kingdom of Italy comprises such different climates
that within its limits we find the birch and pines of northern
Europe, and the olive, fig, manna-ash, and palm of more southern
latitudes. By the republic of Venice and the duchy of Genoa
forestal legislation was attempted at various periods from the
1 5th century downwards. These efforts were not successful,
as the governments were lax in enforcing the laws. In 1789
Pius VI. issued regulations prohibiting felling without licence,
and later orders were published by his successors in the pontifical
states. In Lombardy the woods, which in 1830 reached nearly
down to Milan, have almost disappeared. The province of Como
contains only a remnant of the primitive forests, and the same
may also be said of the southern slopes of Tirol. At Ravenna
there is still a large forest of stone pine, Pinus pinea, though it
has been much reduced. The plains of Tuscany are adorned
with planted trees, the olive, mulberry, fig and almond. Sardinia
is rich in woods, which cover one-fifth of the area, and contain
a large amount of oak, Quercus suber, robur and cerris. In Sicily
the forests have long been felled, save the zone at the base of
Mount Etna.
The destruction of woods has been gradual but persistent;
at the end of the I7th century the effects of denudation were
first felt in the destructive force given to mountain torrents
by the deforesting of the Apennines. The work of devastation
continued until a comparatively recent time.
In 1867 the monastic property of Vallombrosa, Tuscany,
30 m. from Florence, was purchased by government for the
purposes of a forest academy, which was opened in 1869. As
only 4 % of the total forest area belongs to the state, it is doubtful
whether much good can now be done.
Great Britain and Ireland. The British Isles were formerly
much more extensively wooded than at present. The rapid
increase of population led to the disforesting of woodland; the
climate required the maintenance of household fires during a
great part of the year, and the increasing demand for arable
land and the extension of manufacturing industries combined
to cause the diminution of woodland. The proportion of forest
is now very small, and yields but a fraction of the required annual
supply of timber which is imported with facility from America,
northern Europe and the numerous British colonies.
Owing to the nature of the climate of the British Islands,
with its abundance of atmospheric moisture and freedom from
such extremes of heat and cold as are prevalent in continental
650
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
Europe, a great variety of trees are successfully cultivated.
In England and Ireland oak and beech are on the whole the most
plentiful trees in the low and fertile parts; in the south of
Scotland the beech and ash are perhaps most common, while
the Scotch fir and birch are characteristic of the arboreous
vegetation in the Highlands. Although few extensive forests
now exist, woods of small area, belts of planting, clumps of trees,
coppice and hedgerows, are generally distributed over the country,
constituting a mass of wood of considerable importance, giving
a clothed appearance in many parts, and affording illustrations
of skilled arboriculture not to be found in any other country.
The principal state forests in England are Windsor Park,
14,000 acres; the New Forest, &c., in Hampshire, 76,000 acres;
and the Dean Forest in Gloucestershire, 22,500 acres. The total
extent of crown forests is about 125,000 acres. A large pro-
portion of the crown forests, having been formed with the
object of supplying timber for the navy, consists of oak. The
largest forests in Scotland are in Perthshire, Inverness-shire
and Aberdeenshire. Of these the most notable are the earl of
Mansfield's near Scone (8000 acres), the duke of Atholl's larch
plantations near Dunkeld (10,000 acres), and in Strathspey a
large extent of Scotch pine, partly native, partly planted, be-
longing to the earl of Seafield. In the forests of Mar and Inver-
cauld, the native pine attains a great size, and there are also
large tracts of indigenous birch in various districts. Ireland
was at one time richly clothed with wood; this is proved by
the abundant remains of fallen trees in the bogs which occupy
a large surface of the island. In addition to the causes above
alluded to as tending to disforest England, the long unsettled state
of the country also conduced to the diminishing of the woodlands.
The forests of Great Britain and Ireland, in spite of the large
imports of timber, have not been appreciably extended up to
the present time because (i) the rate at which foreign timber
has been laid down in Britain is very low, thus keeping down the
price of home-grown timber; (2) foreign timber is preferred
to home-grown material, because it is in many cases of superior
quality, while the latter comes into the market in an irregular
and intermittent manner; (3) nearly the whole of the waste
lands is private property. As regards prices, it can be shown
that the lowest point was reached abput the year 1888, in con-
sequence of the remarkable development of means of communica-
tion, that prices then remained fairly stationary for some years,
and that about 1894 a slow but steady rise set in, showing during
the years 1894-1904 an increase of about 20 % all round. This
was due to the gradual approach of the coming crisis in the
supply of coniferous timber to the world. It can be shown
that even with present prices the growing of timber can be
made to pay, provided it is carried on in a rational and economic
manner. Improved silvicultural methods must be applied, so
as to produce a better class of timber, and the forests must be
managed according to well-arranged working plans, which provide
for a regular and sustained out-turn of timber year by year,
so as to develop a healthy and steady market for locally-grown
material. Unfortunately the private proprietors of the waste
lands are in many cases not in a financial position to plant.
Starting forests demands a certain outlay in cash, and the pro-
prietor must forgo the income, however small, hitherto derived
from the land until the plantations begin to yield a return. In
these circumstances the state may well be expected to help in
one or all of the following ways: (i) The equipment of forest
schools, where economic forestry, as elaborated by research,
is taught; (2) the management of the crown forests on economic
principles, so as to serve as patterns to private proprietors;
(3) advances should be made to landed proprietors who desire
to plant land, but are short of funds, just as is done in the case
of improvements of agricultural holdings; and (4) the state
might acquire surplus lands in certain parts of the country,
such as congested districts, and convert them into forests.
Action in these directions would soon lead to substantial benefits.
The income of landed proprietors would rise, a considerable
sum of money now sent abroad would remain in the country,
and forest industries would spring up, thus helping to counteract
the ever-increasing flow of people from the country into the large
towns, where only too many must join the army of the unem-
ployed. Even within a radius of 50 m. of London 700,000 acres
of land are unaccounted for in the official agricultural returns.
In Ireland more than 3,000,000 acres are waiting to be utilized,
and it is well worth the consideration of the Irish Land Com-
missioners whether the lands remaining on their hands, when
buying and breaking up large estates, should not be converted
into state forests. Such a measure might become a useful
auxiliary in the peaceful settlement of the Irish land question.
No doubt success depends upon the probable financial results.
There are at present no British statistics to prove such success;
hence, by way of illustration, it may be stated what the results
have been in the kingdom of Saxony, which, from an industrial
point of view, is comparable with England. That country
has 432,085 acres of state forests, of which about one-eighth
are stocked with broad-leaved species, and seven-eighths with
conifers. Some of the forests are situated on low lands, but the
bulk of the area is found in the hilly parts of the country up to
an elevation of 3000 ft. above the sea. The average price realized
of late years per cubic foot of wood amounts to sd., and yet to such
perfection has the management been brought by a well-trained
staff, that the mean annual net' revenue, after meeting all
expenses, comes to 2 is. an acre all round. There can be no doubt
that, under the more favourable climate of Great Britain, even
better results can be obtained, especially if it is remembered
that foreign supplies of coniferous timber must fall off, or, at
any rate, the price per cubic foot rise considerably.
These things have been recognized to some extent, and a
movement has been set on foot to improve matters. The
Commissioners of Woods and a number of private proprietors
had rational working plans prepared for their forests, and
instruction in forestry has been developed. There is now a well-
equipped school of forestry connected with the university of
Oxford, while Cambridge is following on similar lines; instruction
in forestry is given at the university of Edinburgh, the Durham
College of Science, at Bangor, Cirencester and other places.
The Commissioners of Woods have purchased an estate of
12,500 acres in Scotland, which will be converted into a crown
forest, so as to serve as an example. The experience thus gained
will prove valuable should action ever be taken on the lines
suggested by a Royal Commission on Coast Erosion, Reclamation
of Tidal Lands and Afforestation, which reported on the last
subject in 1909.
India. The history of forest administration in India is exceed-
ingly instructive to all who take an interest in the welfare of
the British Empire, because it places before the reader an account
of the gradual destruction of the greater part of the natural
forests, a process through which most other British colonies
are now passing, and then it shows how India emerged trium-
phantly from the self-inflicted calamity. As far as information
goes, India was, in the early times, for the most part covered
with forest. Subsequently settlers opened out the country
along fertile valleys and streams, while nomadic tribes, moving
from pasture to pasture, fired alike hills and plains. This process
went on for centuries. With the advent of British rule forest
destruction became more rapid than ever, owing to the increase
of population, extension of cultivation, the multiplication of
herds of cattle, and the universal firing of the forests to produce
fresh crops of grass. Then railways came, and with their ex-
tension the forests suffered anew, partly on account of the
increased demand for timber and firewood, and partly on
account of the fresh impetus given to cultivation along their
routes. Ultimately, when failure to meet the requirements of
public works was brought to notice, it was recognized that a
grievous mistake had been made in allowing the 'forests to be
recklessly destroyed. Already in the early part of the i9th
century sporadic efforts were made to protect the forests in
various parts of the country, and these continued intermittently;
but the first organized steps were taken about the year 1855,
when Lord Dalhousie was governor-general. At that time
conservators of forests existed in Bombay, Madras and Burma.
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
651
Soon afterwards other appointments followed, and in 1864 an
organized state department, presided over by the inspector-
general of forests, was established. Since then the Indian Forest
Department has steadily grown, so that it has now become of
considerable importance for the welfare of the people, as well
as for the Indian exchequer.
The first duty of the department was to ascertain the position
and extent of the remaining forests, and more particularly
of that portion which still belonged to the state. Then a special
forest law was passed, which was superseded in 1878 by an im-
proved act, providing for the legal formation of permanent state
forests; the determination, regulation, and, if necessary, com-
mutation of forest rights; the protection of the forests against
unlawful acts and the punishment of forest offences; the protec-
tion of forest produce in transit; the constitution of a staff of
forest officers, provision to invest them with suitable legal powers,
and the determination of their duties and liabilities. The officers
who administered the department in its infancy were mostly
botanists and military officers. Some of these became excellent
foresters. In order to provide a technically trained staff arrange-
ments were made in 1866 by Sir Dietrich Brandis, the first
inspector-general of forests, for the training of young Englishmen
at the French Forest School at Nancy and at similar institutions
in Germany. In 1876 the students were concentrated at Nancy,
and in 1885 an English forest school for India was organized
in connexion with the Royal Indian Engineering College at
Cooper's Hill. In 1 905 the school was transferred to the university
of Oxford. The imperial forest staff of India consisted in 1909
of officers not specially trained before entering the department,
17; officers trained in France and Germany, 23; officers trained
at Cooper's Hill, 143 total 184.
In 1878 a forest school was started at Dehra Dun, United
Provinces, for the training of natives of India as executive
officers on the provincial staff. Since then a similar school,
though on a smaller scale, has been established at Tharrawaddy
in Burma. About 500 officers of this class have been appointed.
In addition, there are about 11,000 subordinates, foresters and
forest guards, who form the protective staff. The school at
Dehra Dun has lately been converted into the Imperial Forest
College.
The progress made since 1864 is really astonishing. According
to the latest available returns, the areas taken under the manage-
ment of the department are reserved state forests, or permanent
forest estates, 91,272 sq. m.; other state forests, 141,669 sq. m.;
or a total of 232,941 sq. m., equal to 24 % of the area over which
they are scattered. At present, therefore, the average charge
of each member of the controlling staff comprises 1266 sq. m.;
that of each executive officer, 446 sq. m.; and that of each
protective official, 21 sq. m. It is the intention to increase the
executive and protective staff considerably, in the same degree
as the management of the forests becomes more detailed. Of
the above-mentioned area the Forest Survey Branch, established
in 1872, has up to date surveyed and mapped about 65,000 sq. m.
From 1864 onwards efforts were made to introduce systematic
management into the forests, based upon working plans, but,
as the management had been provincialized, there was no central
or continuous control. This was remedied in 1884, when a
central Working Plans Office, under the inspector-general of
forests, was established. This officer has since then controlled
the preparation and execution of the plans, a procedure which
has led to most beneficial results. Plans referring to about
38,000 sq. m. are now (1909) in operation, and after a reasonable
lapse of time there should not be a single forest of importance
which is not worked on a well-regulated plan, and on the principle
of a sustained yield. While the danger of overworking the forests
is thus being gradually eliminated, their yield capacity is in-
creased by suitable silvicultural treatment and by fire protection.
Formerly most of the important forests were annually or period-
ically devastated by jungle fires, sometimes lighted accidentally,
in other cases purposely. Now 38,000 sq. m. of forest are actually
protected against fire by the efforts of the department, and it is
the intention gradually to extend protection to all permanent
state forests. Grazing of cattle is of great importance in India;
at the same time it is liable to interfere seriously with the repro-
duction of the forests. To meet both requirements careful and
minute arrangements have been made, according to which at
present 38,000 sq. m. are closed to grazing; 19,000 sq. m. are
closed only against the grazing of goats, sheep and camels; while
176,000 sq. m. are open to the grazing of all kinds of cattle.
The areas closed in ordinary years form a reserve of fodder in
years of drought and scarcity. During famine years they are
either opened to grazing, or grass is cut in them and transported
to districts where the cattle are in danger of starvation. The
service rendered in this way by a wise forest administration
should not be underrated, since one of the most serious calamities
of a famine the want of cattle to cultivate the land is thus,
if not avoided, at any rate considerably reduced. During 1907
the government of India established a Research Institute, with
six members engaged in collecting data regarding silviculture,
forest botany, forest zoology, forest economics, working plans,
and chemistry in connexion with forest produce and production.
The institute is likely to lead to further substantial progress in
the management of the forests.
The financial results of forest administration in India for the
years 1865 to 1905 show the progress made:
Period.
Mean Annual
Net Revenue.
Percentage of
Annual Increase
during Period.
1865-1870 .
1870-1875 .
1875-1880 .
1880-1885 .
1885-1890 .
1890-1895 .
1895-1900 .
1900-1905 .
Rupees.
1,372,733
1,783,248
2,224,687
3,385,745
5,066,671
7-370,572
7,923,484
9,004,367
30
25
52
50
44
7
12
The highest percentage of increase occurred in the period
1880-1885. The revenue since 1886 has been considerably
increased by the annexation of Upper Burma.
Apart from the net revenue, large quantities of produce are
given free of charge, or at reduced rates, to the people of the
country. Thus, in 1904-1905, the net revenue amounted to
Rs. 11,062,094, while the produce given free or at reduced rates
was valued at Rs. 3,500,661, making a total net benefit derived
from the state forests during that year of Rs. 14,562,755, or in
round figures one million pounds sterling. The out-turn during
the same year amounted to 252 million cub. ft. of timber and
fuel and 215 million bamboos. The receipts from the sale of
other forest produce came to 9 million rupees, out of a total
gross revenue of 24 million rupees.
These results are highly creditable to the government of India,
which has led the way towards the introduction of rational forest
management into the British empire, thus setting an example
which has been followed more or less by various colonies. Even
the movement in the United Kingdom during late years is due
to it. Apart from India, substantial progress has been made in
Cape Colony, Ceylon, the Straits Settlements and the Federated
Malay States. Other British colonies are more backward in this
respect. Energetic action is urgently wanted, especially in
Canada and Australasia, where an enormous state property is
threatened by destruction.
LITERATURE. The following works of special interest may be
mentioned: W. Schlich, A Matiual of Forestry (London) (vols. i.,
ii. and iii. by W. Schlich; vols. iv. and v. by W. R. Fisher; 3rd ed.
of vol. i., 1906, of vol. ii., 1904, of vol. iii., 1905; 2nd ed. of vol. iv.,
1907; 2nd ed. of vol. v., 1908); Baden-Powell, Forest Law (London,
1893); Brown, The Forester (ed. by Nisbet, Edinburgh and London,
1905); Broilliard, Le Traitement des bois (Paris, 1894); Huffel,
Economie forestiere (Paris, 1904-1907) ; Lorey, Handbuch der
Forstwissenschaft (2nd ed. by Stoetzer, Tubingen, 1903) ; Ross-
massler, Der Wold. (W. Sen.)
UNITED STATES
The Forest Regions. The great treeless region east of the
Rocky Mountains separates the wooded area of the United
652
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
States into two grand divisions, which may be called the Eastern
and the Western forests. The Eastern forest is characterized
by the predominance, on the whole, of broad-leafed trees, the
comparative uniformity of its general types over wide areas,
and its naturally unbroken distribution. In the Western forest
conifers are conspicuously predominant; the individual species
often reaches enormous and even unequalled dimensions, the
forest is frequently interrupted by treeless areas, and the tran-
sitions from one type to another are often exceedingly abrupt.
Both divisions are botanically and commercially rich in species.
The Eastern forest may conveniently be subdivided into three
members:
1. The Northern forest, marked by great density and large
volume of standing timber, and a comparative immunity, in its
virgin condition, from fire. The characteristic trees are maples,
birches and beech (Fagus atropunicea) , among the hardwoods
and white pine (Pinus strobus), spruce (Picea rubens and Picea
mariana) and hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis) among conifers.
2. The Southern forest is on the whole less dense than the
Northern, and more frequently burned over. Among its char-
acteristic trees are the longleaf (Pinus palustris) and other pines,
oaks, gums, bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and white cedar
(Chamaecyparis thy aides).
3. The Central Hardwood forest, which differs comparatively
little from adjacent portions of the Northern and Southern
forests except in the absence of conifers. Among its trees are
the chestnut (Castanea denlata), hickories, ashes and other
hardwoods already mentioned.
The Western division has two members:
1. The Pacific Coast forest, marked by the great size of its
trees and the vast accumulations of merchantable timber.
Among its characteristic species are the redwood (Sequoia semper-
virens) and the big tree (S. Washingtoniana), the Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga taxifolia), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) , western
hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) , giant arborvitae (Thuja plicata)
and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis).
2. The Rocky Mountain forest, whose characteristic species
are the western yellow pine (Pinus ponder osa), Engelmann spruce
(Picea engelmanni) and lodgepole pine (Pinus murrayana). This
forest is frequently broken by treeless areas of greater or less
extent, especially towards the south, and it suffers greatly from
fire. Subarid in character, except to the north and at high
elevations, the vast mining interests of the region and its treeless
surroundings give this forest an economic value out of proportion
to the quantities of timber it contains.
This distribution of the various forests is indicated on the first
of the two accompanying maps. The second map shows the
situation of the national forests hereafter mentioned.
The forests of Alaska fall into two main divisions: the com-
mercial though undeveloped forests of the south-east coast,
which occur along the streams and on the lower slopes of the
mountains and consist chiefly of western hemlock (Tsuga
heterophylla), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), yellow cedar
(Chamaecyparis nootkalensis) and giant arborvitae (Thuja
plicata), usually of large size and uninjured by fire; and the vast
interior forests, swept by severe fires, and consisting chiefly of
white and black spruces (Picea canadensis and nigra), paper birch
(Betula papyrifera) and aspen (Populus tremuloides) , all of small
size but of great importance in connexion with mining. Northern
Alaska and the extreme western coast regions are entirely barren.
The National Forest Policy. The forest policy of the United
States may be said to have had its origin in 1 799 in the enactment
of a law which authorized the purchase of timber suitable for
the use of the navy, or of land upon which such timber was
growing. It is true that laws were in force under the early
governments of Massachusetts, New Jersey and other colonies,
providing for the care and protection of forest interests in
various ways, but these laws were distinctly survivals of tend-
encies acquired in Europe, and for the most part of little use.
It was not until the apparent approach of a dangerous shortage
in certain timber supplies that the first real step in forest policy
was taken by the United States. Successive laws passed from
181 7 to 1831 strove to give larger effect to the original enactment,
but without permanent influence towards the preservation of the
live oak (Quercus iiirginiana Mill.), which was the object in view.
A long period of inaction followed these early measures. In
\. v ,~:
"W." .
FOREST REGIONS
OF THE
UNITED STATES
The unshaded areas are treeless, except along the Streams
United Suici Dcpjftmtrn ol A gr (cult me, FortM Strvlct
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
653
1831 the solicitor of the treasury assumed a partial responsibility
for the care and protection of the public timber lands, and in
1855 this duty was transferred to the commissioner of the general
land office in the Department of the Interior. The effect of
these changes upon forest protection was unimportant. When,
however, at the close of the Civil War railway building in the
United States took on an unparalleled activity, the destruction
of forests by fire and the axe increased in a corresponding ratio,
and public sentiment began to take alarm. Action by several
of the states slightly preceded that of the Federal government,
but in 1876 Congress, acting under the inspiration of a memorial
from the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
authorized the appointment of an officer (Dr Franklin B. Hough)
under the commissioner of agriculture, to collect and distribute
information upon forest matters. His office became in 1880 the
division of forestry in what is now the United States Department
of Agriculture.
As the railways advanced into the treeless interior, public
interest in tree-planting became keen. In 1873 Congress passed
and later amended and repealed the timber culture acts, which
granted homesteads on the treeless public lands to settlers who
planted one-fourth of their entries with trees. Though these
measures were not successful in themselves they directed atten-
tion towards forestry. The act which repealed them in 1891
contained a clause which lies at the foundation of the present
forest policy of the United States. By it the president was
authorized to set aside " any part of the public lands wholly or
in part covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of com-
mercial value or not, as public reservations, and the President
shall, by public proclamation, declare the establishment of such
reservations and the limits thereof." Some eighteen million
acres had been proclaimed as reservations at the time when, in
1896, the National Academy of Sciences was asked by the
secretary of the interior to make an investigation and report
upon " the inauguration of a rational forest policy for the forest
lands of the United States." Upon the recommendation of a
commission named by the Academy, President Cleveland estab-
lished more than twenty-one million acres of new reserves on
the 22nd of February 1897. His action was widely misunder-
stood and attacked, but it awakened a public interest in forest
questions without which the rapid progress of forestry in the
United States since that time could never have been made.
Within a few months after the proclamation of the Cleveland
reserves the present national forest policy took definite shape.
Under this policy the national government holds and manages,
in the common interest of all users of the forests or its products,
such portions of the public lands as have been set aside by
presidential proclamation in accordance with the act of 1891.
These lands are held against private acquisition under the Home-
stead Act (except as to agricultural lands as hereafter mentioned) ,
the Timber and Stone Act, and other laws under which the
United States disposes of its unappropriated public domain,
but not against private acquisition under the Mineral Land Laws.
They are selected from lands believed to be more valuable for
forest purposes than for agriculture, and are managed with the
purpose of securing from them the best and largest possible
returns, present and future, whether in the form of water for
irrigation or power, of timber, of forage for stock, or of any other
beneficial product. The aggregate area of the reserves, or
national forests, has been steadily increased until they now
include nearly all the timber lands left of the public domain.
The general lines of this policy were in part laid down by
the commission already mentioned, in its report submitted to
the secretary of the interior, May i, 1897, and by the act of
June 4, 1897, which was largely shaped by the work of the
commission. Until this act was passed the national forests had
been in theory closed against any form o< use; nor had the
possibility of securing forest preservation by wise use received
much thought from those who had favoured their creation. Such
a state of affairs could not continue. Before long public opinion
would have forced the opening to use of the resources thus
arbitrarily locked up, and in the absence of any administrative
system providing for conservative use, the national forests would
inevitably have been abolished, and the whole policy of govern-
ment forest holdings would have ceased. The act of June 4,
1897 was therefore of the first importance. This act con-
ferred upon the secretary of the interior general powers for the
proper management of the national forests through the general
land office of his department. It provided for the designation
and sale of dead, mature and large timber; authorized the
secretary to permit free use of timber in small quantities by
settlers, miners and residents; empowered him to " make such
rules and regulations and establish such service as will insure the
objects of such reservations, namely, to regulate their occupancy
and use and to preserve the forests thereon from destruction ";
and made violation of the act or of such rules and regulations a
misdemeanour. The statute limited the power to establish forest
reservations to the purpose of improving and protecting the forest,
securing favourable conditions of water flows, and furnishing a
continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens
of the United States. Lands found, upon due examination,
to be more valuable for other purposes than for forest uses
might be eliminated from any reservation, and all mineral lands
within the reservations were left open to private appropriation
under the mineral laws. The rights of settlers and claimants
were safeguarded, and civil and criminal jurisdiction, except so
far as the punishment of offences against the United States in
the reservations was concerned, was reserved to the States.
While the administration of the national forests was entrusted
to the general land office, the same act assigned the surveying
and mapping of them to the United States Geological Survey,
which has published descriptions and maps of some of the more
important.
No attempt was made in the general land office to develop
a technical forest service. There were, indeed, at the time of
passage of the act, less than ten trained foresters in the United
States, no means of training more, and very little conception
of what forestry actually meant. The purpose of the administra-
tion was therefore mainly protection against trespass and fire,
particularly the latter. Regulations were made giving effect
to the provisions of the act of June 4, set forth above, but
in the absence of technical knowledge as to what might safely
be done, the tendency was rather to restrict than to extend the
use of the forest. Meanwhile, however, there was rapidly develop-
ing in another branch of the government service an organization
qualified for actual forest management.
One year after the passage of the act of June 4, 1897, the
division of forestry in the Department of Agriculture ceased
to be merely a bureau of information, and became an active
agency for introducing the actual practice of forestry among
private owners and for conducting the investigations upon
which a sound American forest practice could be based. The
work awakened great interest among forest owners, and exerted
a powerful educational influence upon the country at large.
The division extended its work and became (July i, 1901) the
Bureau of Forestry. It drew into its employment for a time
nearly all the men who were preparing themselves in increasing
numbers (at first abroad, then in the newly-founded schools in
the United States) for the profession of forestry, and was soon
recognized as qualified to speak authoritatively on technical
questions connected with the administration of the national
forests. This led to a request from the secretary of the interior
for the advice of the bureau on such questions. Working plans
were accordingly undertaken for a number of the forests. The
general land office, however, was not ready to attempt active
forest management. Though some timber was sold and the
grazing of stock regulated to some extent, the main object of
the land office administration continued to be protection against
fire. Many of the regulations which it made could not be enforced.
The disadvantages of dispersal of the Federal government
forest work among three separate agencies grew more and more
apparent, until, on the ist of February 1905, control of the
63,000,000 acres of forest reserves which up to that time had
been set aside was transferred from the general land office to
654
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
North Dafc<> ta \ ^
NATIONAL FORESTS
and
NATIONAL PARKS
of the
UNITED STATES
2 District Boundaries and Humbert
United StMet Detriment of Agriculture, forest Servke.
the Bureau of Forestry. In recognition of its new duties the
designation of the bureau became the Forest Service.
Other provisions of the act which affected the transfer were
that forest supervisors and rangers should be selected, so far
as possible, from qualified citizens of the state or territory in
which each forest was situated, and that all money received
from the sale of any products or the use of any land or resources
of the national forests should be covered into the treasury and
constitute a special fund for their protection, administration,
improvement and extension. Five days later a statute gave
forest officers the power to arrest trespassers; and on the 3rd
of March the lieu land selection law was repealed. This law had
opened the way for grave abuses through the exchange of worth-
less land by private owners within the forests for an equal area
of valuable timber lands outside.
The law has been modified since by the change of the old
name " Forest Reserves " to " National Forests." The act
of June ii, 1906, opened to homestead entry lands within
national forests found by examination to be chiefly valuable for
agriculture. The administration and improvement of the national
forests are now provided for directly by congressional appro-
priation. The power to create national forests conferred on the
president by the act of March 1891 has been repealed for the
states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming and
Colorado, but for no others.
The Forest Service began in earnest the development of all
the resources of the national forests. Mature timber was sold
wherever there was a demand for it and the permanent welfare
of the forests and protection of the streams permitted, but
always so as to prevent waste, guard against fire, protect young
growth and ensure reproduction. Regulations were adopted
which allowed small sales to be made without formality or delay,
secured for the government the full value of timber sold, and
eliminated unnecessary routine. Care was taken to safeguard
the interests of the government and provide for the maintenance
of good technical standards. The conduct of local business
was entrusted to local officers. Large transactions with general
policies were controlled from Washington, but with careful
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
655
provision for first-hand knowledge and close touch with the work
in the field. B usiness efficiency and the convenience of the public
were carefully studied. In short, an organization was created
capable of handling safely, speedily and satisfactorily the com-
plex business of making useful a forest property of vast extent,
scattered through sixteen different states of an aggregate area
of over 1,500,000 sq. m. and with a population of 9,000,000.
The growth since the ist of July 1897 of the area of the
national forests, of the expenditures of the government for
forestry, and of the receipts from the national forests, is shown
by the statement which follows. Though the act of June 4,
1897, became effective immediately upon its passage, the fiscal
year 1899 was the first of actual administration, because the
first for which Congress made the appropriation necessary to
carry out the law.
forest is ripe for the axe, the demand is strong, and control by
trained men makes it safe to cut more freely. The increase is
marked both in small and in large sales, but a score of sales for
less than $5000 are made against one for more. The total cut
is still far below the annual increment of the forests. As the
demand grows restrictions must increase in order to husband
the present supply until the next crop matures.
3. The stumpage price would seem on the face of the figures
to have risen from about one dollar to more than three dollars
per thousand board-feet. The receipts, however, for any one
year are not exclusively for the timber cut in that year, since
payments are made in advance. In the year 1907 the average
price obtained was something less than $2-50 per thousand.
It is therefore true that stumpage prices have risen greatly,
although conditions new to the American lumbermen are im-
Area of National Forests, Annual Expenditures of the Federal Government for Forestry and National Forest Administration,
and Receipts from National Forests, 1898-1909.
Area of
Fiscal
Year. 1
National Forests
at Close of Year
Division of Forestry
(Bureau of Forestry,
General
Land Office.
Receipts from
National Forests.
Receipts from
National Forests,
Expenditures upon
National Forests,
(June 30).
Forest Service).
per Acre.
per Acre.
Acres.
$
f
$
$
$
1898
40,866,184
20,000-00
1899
46,168,439
28,520-00
175,000-00
7-534-83
0-00016
0-0038
1900
46,515.039
48,520-00
210,000-00
36,754-02
00078
0045
1901
46,324,479
88,520-00
325,000-00
29,250-88
00063
0070
1902
51,896,357
185,440-00
300,000-00
25,43i-87
00049
0060
1903
62,211,240
291,860-00
304,135-00
45,838-08
00074
0054
1904
62,611,449
350,000-00
375,000-00
58,436-19
00093
0072
1905
85,693,422
632,232-36 2
217,907-64'
73-276-I5
00085
0059
1906
106,994,018
1,191,400-21
767,219-96
00717
0089
1907
150,832,665
1,800,595-20
1,571,059-44
01041
0097
1909
167,677,749
2,948,153-08
1,807,276-66
00931
0151
Until 1906, the sole source of receipts was the sale of timber.
In the fiscal year 1907, however, timber sales furnished less
than half the receipts. The following statement concerning
the timber sales of the fiscal years 1904-1907 will serve to bring
out the change that followed the transfer of control to the forest
service in the midst of the fiscal year 1905:
Fiscal
Year.
Amount of
Timber Sold.
Amount of
Timber Cut.
Receipts from
Timber Sales.
1904
1905
1906
1907
Bd.-ft.
"2,773,710
113,661,508
328,230,326
1,044,855,000
Bd.-ft.
58,435,000
68,475,000
138,665,000
194,872,000
$
58,436-19
73-270-15
245,013-49
686,813-12
These figures show (i) a large excess each year in the amount
of timber sold over that cut and paid for; (2) nine times as much
timber sold at the end of the four-year period as at the beginning
and three times as much cut; and (3) a much higher price
obtained per thousand board-feet at the end of the period than
at the beginning. Each of these matters calls for comment.
The sales are of stumpage only; the government does no logging
on its own account.
.1. More timber is sold each year than is cut and paid for,
because many of the sales extend over several years. With
increasing sales the amount sold each year for future removal
has exceeded the amount to be removed during that year under
sales of earlier years. Large sales covering a term of years are
made because the national forests contain much overmature
timber, which needs removal, but which is frequently too in-
accessible to be saleable in small amounts. To prevent specula-
tion the time allowed for cutting is never more than five years,
and cutting must begin at once and be continued steadily.
2. The volume of sales has increased rapidly because much
1 The United States fiscal year ends June 30, and receives its
designation from the calendar year in which it terminates. Thus,
the fiscal year 1898 is the year July I, l897-June 30, 1898.
2 Administration transferred to Bureau of Forestry, February I,
1905.
posed. Full utilization of all merchantable material, care of
young growth in felling and logging, and the piling of brush,
to be subsequently burned by the forest officers if burning is
necessary, are among these conditions. Timber to be cut must
first be marked by the forest officers. Sales of more than $100
in value are made only after public advertisement.
Only the simplest forms of silviculture have as yet been
introduced. The vast area of the national forests, the com-
paratively sparse population of the West, the rough and broken
character of the forests themselves, and the newness of the
problems which their management presents, make the general
application of intensive methods for the present impracticable.
Natural reproduction is secured. The selection system is most
used, often under the rough and ready method of an approximate
diameter limit, with the reservation of seed trees where needed.
The tendency, however, is strongly towards a more flexible and
effective application of the selection principle, as a better trained
field force is developed and as market conditions improve.
One conspicuous achievement was the reduction of loss by
fires on the national forests. During the unusually dry season
of 1905 there were only eight fires of any importance, and the
area burned over amounted only to about -16 of i % of the
total area. In 1906 about -12 of i% was burned. This was
accomplished by efficient patrol, co-operation of the public, and
by preventive measures, such as piling and burning the brush
on cut-over areas.
Since the beginning of 1906 the largest source of income from
the national forests was their use for grazing. Stock-raising is
one of the most important industries of the West. Formerly
cattle and sheep grazed freely on all parts of the public domain.
In the early days of the national forests the wisdom of permitting
any grazing at all upon them was sharply questioned. Un-
restricted grazing had led to friction between individuals, the
deterioration of much of the range through overstocking, and
serious injury to the forests and stream flow. The forests of
the West, however, are largely of open growth and contain
many grassy parks, the results of old fires, and many high
mountain meadows. Under proper regulations the grass and
656
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
other forage plants which they produce in great quantity can
be used without detriment to the forests themselves, and with
great benefit to the stock industry, which often can find summer
pasturage nowhere else. Except in southern California grazing
is now permitted on all national forests unless the watersheds
furnish water for domestic use; but the time of entering and
leaving, the number of head to be grazed by each applicant, and
the part of the range to be occupied are carefully prescribed.
Planted areas and cut-over areas are closed to stock until the
young growth is safe from harm, and goats are allowed only in
the brushland of the foothills.
The results of regulation, in addition to the protection of
forest growth and streams, are the prevention of disputes,
improved range, better stock, stable conditions in the stock
industry, and the best use of the range in the interest of progress
and development. The first right to graze stock on the forests
is given to residents, small owners and those who have used the
range before. Thus the crowding out of the weaker by the
stronger and of the settler by the roving outsider has been
stopped. In 1906 the forest service began to impose a moderate
charge for the use of the national forest range. The following
statement shows the amount of stock grazed on the national
forests 1904-09, and the receipts for the grazing charge:
Year.
Number of
Cattle and Horses.
Number of
Sheep and Goats.
Receipts.
1904
1905
1906
1907
1909
610,091
692,124
1,015,148
1,200,158
1,581,404
1,806,722
1,709,987
5-763,100
6,657,083
7,819,594
$
514,692-87
863,920-32
1,032,185-70
A work of enormous magnitude which has now begun is planting
on the national forests. At present, with low stumpage prices
and incomplete utilization of forest products, clear cutting
with subsequent planting is not practicable. There are, however,
many million acres of denuded land within the national forests
which require planting. Such planting is still confined chiefly
to watersheds which supply cities and towns with water. The
first planting was done in 1892, in California. Since then
similar work has been done on city watersheds in Colorado,
Utah, Idaho and New Mexico. Other plantations are in the
Black Hills national forest, where large areas of cut-over and
burned-over land are entirely without seed trees, and in the
sandhill region of Nebraska. Up to 1 908 about 2 ,000,000 seedlings
had been planted, on over 2000 acres a small beginning, but
the work was entirely new and presented many hard problems.
The nursery operations of the forest service are concentrated
at seven stations, located in southern California, Nebraska,
Colorado, New Mexico (2), Utah and Idaho, where stock is
raised for local planting and for shipment elsewhere. These
nurseries are small . Their annual product! ve capacity is bet ween
8,000,000 and 10,000,000 seedlings. Each nursery is practically
an experimental forest-planting station, at which a large variety
of species are grown and various methods are tried.
The organization of the administrative work of the national
forests is by single forests. On the ist of January 1908 the total
number of forests was 165 with a total area of 162,023,190 acres
(on April 7, 1909, the numbers were 146 national forests in the
U.S. with 167,672,467 acres, besides two in Alaska with 26,761,626
and one in Porto Rico with 65,950 acres). In charge of each
forest is a forest supervisor. Under the supervisors are forest
rangers and forest guards, whose duties include patrol, marking
timber and scaling logs, enforcing the regulations and conducting
some of the minor business arising from the use of the forests.
Guards are temporary employes; rangers are employed by the
year. The supervisors report directly to and receive instructions
from the central office at Washington. In this office there are
four branches operation, grazing, silviculture and products
each of which directs that part of the work which belongs to it,
dealing directly with the supervisor. For inspection purposes,
however, the forests are separated into six districts, in each of
which is located a chief inspector with a corps of assistants.
The inspectors are without administrative authority, but assist
by their counsel the supervisors, and through inspection reports
keep the Washington office informed of the condition of all lines
of administrative work in progress. Administrative officers
alternate frequently between field and office duties.
The number of forest officers in the several grades on the xst
of January 1908 were: 6 chief inspectors, 26 inspectors, 106
forest supervisors, 41 deputy forest supervisors, 820 forest
rangers and 283 forest guards. The total number of employes
of the forest service on the same date, including the clerical
force, was 2034.
Besides the administration of the national forests, the forest
service conducts general investigations, carries on an extensive
educational work, and co-operates with private owners who
contemplate forest management upon their own tracts. This
last work is undertaken because of the need of bringing forestry
into practice, the lack of trained foresters outside of the employ
of the government, and the lack of information as to how to
apply forestry and what returns may be obtained. Co-operation
takes the form of advice upon the ground and, on occasion, of
the making of working plans. The educational work of the service
is performed chiefly through publications, the purpose of which
is to spread very widely a knowledge of the importance of forestry
to the nation and of the principles upon which its practice rests.
The investigations which the service conducts extend from studies
of the natural distribution and classification of American forests
and of their varied silvicultural problems to statistics of lumber
production and laboratory researches which bear upon the
economical utilization of forest products. As examples of these
researches may be mentioned tests of the strength of timber,
studies of the preservative treatment of wood for various uses,
wood-pulp investigations and studies in wood chemistry.
Forest Instruction. Most of the men now in the forest service
received their training in the United States. There are several
professional schools of forestry. The Yale Forest School, which
was opened as a department of Yale University in September
1900, offers a two-years' graduate course with abundant field
work, and also conducts a summer school of forestry, especially
adapted to the training of forest rangers and special students,
at Milford, Pennsylvania. The university of Michigan and
Harvard University also offer a two-years' graduate course in
forestry. The Pennsylvania State College has recently established
a four-years' undergraduate course in forestry. The Biltmore
Forest School in North Carolina, the oldest of all these schools,
offers a one-year course in technical forestry. A large number
of the agricultural colleges give instruction in forestry. Among
these are Nebraska, Minnesota, Maine, Michigan, Washington
and Mississippi agricultural colleges, the university of Georgia and
Iowa State College. Berea College, Kentucky, deserves special
mention as a college which has done valuable work in teaching
forestry without attempting to turn out professional foresters.
Forestry among the States. Among the states forestry has
hardly reached the stage of practical application on the ground.
New York holds i ,500,000 acres of forest land. It has a commis-
sion to care for its forest preserve, and to protect the forest land
throughout the state from fire. The constitution of the state,
however, prohibits the cutting of timber on state land, and thus
confines the work entirely to protection of the forest and to the
planting of waste areas. Pennsylvania is at present showing
the most efficient activity in working out a forest policy. It has
state forests of 820,000 acres, a good fire law more and more
satisfactorily enforced, and eight nurseries for growing planting
material. In 1905, 160,000 white pine seedlings were set out.
It has also a school for forest rangers, to be employed on the
state forests, and it has just established a state professional
school of forestry.
Twenty-six of the states have regularly appointed forest officers,
six have carried on studies of forest conditions in co-operation
with the forest service, and there if scarcely one which is not
actively interested in forestry. Laws, generally good, to prevent
damage from forest fires, have been enacted by practically all
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
657
the states, but their enforcement has unfortunately been lax.
Public sentiment, however, is making rapid progress. Among
the best laws are those of Maine, New Hampshire, Minnesota,
New York, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. The New York law,
for example, provides for the appointment of one or more fire-
wardens in each town of the counties in which damage by fire
is especially to be feared. In other counties supervisors of towns
are ex-officio fire-wardens.' A chief fire-warden has general
supervision of their work. The wardens, half of the cost of whose
services is paid by the state, receive compensation only for the
time actually employed in fighting fires. They may command
the service of any citizen to assist them. Setting fire to woods
or waste lands belonging to the state or to another, if such fire
results in loss, is punishable by a fine not exceeding $250 or
imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both, and damages
are provided for the person injured. Since fire is beyond question
the most dangerous enemy of forests in the United States, the
measures taken against it are of vital importance.
The following table shows the amount of forest land held by
the different states, and by the territory of Hawaii:
Area of Stale Forest Reservations, 1907.
Connecticut 1, 360 acres
Hawaii
Indiana .
Maryland
Michigan.
Minnesota
New Jersey
New York
Pennsylvania
Wisconsin
117,532
2,000
3,540
39,000
42,800
2,474
1-439-998
820,000
254,072
Forestry on Private Lands. The practice of forestry among
private owners is of old date. One of the earliest instances
was that of Jared Eliot, who, in 1730, began the systematic
cutting of timber land to supply charcoal for an iron furnace
at Old Salisbury, Connecticut. The successful planting of waste
lands with timber trees in Massachusetts dates from about ten
years later. But such examples were comparatively rare until
recent times. At present the intelligent harvesting of timber
with a view to successive crops, which is forestry, is much more
common than is usually supposed. Among farmers it is especially
frequent. It was begun among lumbermen by the late E. S.
Coe, of Bangor, Maine, who made a practice of restricting the
cut of spruce from his forests to trees 10, 12 or sometimes even
14 in. in diameter, with the result that much of his land yielded,
during his life, a second crop as plentiful as the first. Many
owners of spruce lands have followed his example, but until
very recently without improving upon it. Systematic forestry
on a large scale among lumbermen was begun in the Adirondacks
during the summer of 1898 on the lands of Dr W. S. Webb and
Hon. W. C. Whitney, of a combined area of over 100,000 acres,
under the superintendence of the then Division of Forestry.
In these forests spruce, maple, beech and birch predominate,
but the spruce alone is at present of the first commercial import-
ance. The treatment is a form of the selection system. Under
it a second crop of equal yield would be ripe for the axe in thirty-
five years. Spruce and pine are the only trees cut. The work
had been executed, at least up to the year 1902, with great
satisfaction to the owners and the lumbering contractors, as
well as to the decided benefit of the forest. The lumbering is
regulated by the following rules, and competent inspectors are
employed to see that they are rightly carried out: (i) No
trees shall be cut which are not marked. (2) All trees marked
shall be cut. (3) No trees shall be left lodged in the woods, and
none shall be overlooked by the skidders or haulers. (4) All
merchantable logs which are as large as 6 in. in diameter at the
small end must be utilized. (5) No stumps shall be cut more
than 6 in. higher than the stump is wide. (6) No spruce shall
be used for bridges, corduroy, skids, slides, or for any purpose
except building camps, dams or booms, unless it is absolutely
necessary on account of lack of other timber. (7) All merchant-
able spruce used for skidways must be cut into logs and hauled
out. (8) Contractors must not do any unnecessary damage
to young growth in lumbering; and if any is done, they must
discharge the men who did it.
These two instances of forestry have been most useful and
effective among lumbermen and other owners of forest land in
the north-east. Among those which have followed their example
are the Berlin Mills Paper Company in northern New Hampshire,
the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company in northern Michigan, and
the Delaware and Hudson Railroad Company in New York, all
of which have employed professional foresters.
The most notable instance of forestry in the south is on the
estate of George W. Vanderbilt at Biitmore, N.C. This was the
first case of systematic forestry under regular working plans in
the United States. It was begun in 1891 on about 4000 acres,
and has since been extended until it now covers about 100,000
acres. A professional forester with a corps of trained rangers
under him is in charge of the work. The Pennsylvania Railroad
has recently employed a trained forester and several assistants
and has undertaken systematic forestry on a large scale.
The effect of the work of the forest service in assisting private
owners is evidenced by the fact that down to the year 1908
670 wood lots and timber tracts had been examined by agents
of the forest service, of which 250 were tracts over 400 acres in
extent, and planting plans had been made for 436 owners
covering a total area of 80,000 acres. Expert advice is also
given to wood lot owners upon application by many of the state
foresters.
American Practice. The conditions under which forestry
is practised in Europe and in America differ so widely that
rules which are received as axiomatic in the one must often
be rejected in the other. Among these conditions in America
are the highly developed and specialized methods and machinery
of lumbering, the greater facilities for transportation and conse-
quent greater mobility of the lumber trade, the vast number
of small holdings of forest land, and the enormous supply of
low-grade wood in the timbered regions. High taxes on forest
properties, cut-over as well as virgin, notably in the north-western
pineries, and the firmly established habits of lumbermen, are
factors of great importance. From these and other considera-
tions it follows that such generally accepted essentials of European
methods of forestry as a sustained annual yield, a permanent
force of forest labourers, a permanent road system and the like,
are in most cases utterly inapplicable in the United States at
the present day in private forestry. Methods of forest manage-
ment, to find acceptance, must there conform as closely as possible
to existing methods of lumbering. Rules of marked simplicity,
the observance of which will yet secure the safety of the forest,
must open the way for more refined methods in the future. For
the present a periodic or irregular yield, temporary means of
transport, constantly changing crews, and an almost total
ignorance of the silvics of all but a few of the most important
trees all combine to enforce the simplest silvicultural treatment
and the utmost concentration of purpose on the two main objects
of forestry, which are the production of a net revenue and the
perpetuation of the forest . Such concentration has been followed
in practice by complete success.
The forests with which the American forester deals are rich
in species,usually endowed with abundant powers of reproduction,
and, over a large part of their range, greatly dependent for their
composition and general character upon the action of forest
fires. Of the commercially valuable trees there may be said to be,
in round numbers, a hundred out of a total forest flora of about
500 species, but many trees not yet of importance in the lumber
trade will become so hereafter, as has already happened in many
cases. The attention of the forester must usually be concen-
trated upon the growth and reproduction of a single species, and
never of more than a very few. Thus the silvicultural problems
which must be solved in the practice of forestry in America are
fortunately less complicated than the presence of so many kinds
of trees in forests of such diverse types would naturally seem
to indicate.
The forest fire problem is one of the most difficult with which
the American forester has to deal. It is probable that forest
658
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
fires have had more to do with the character and distribution of
forests in America than any other factor except rainfall. With
an annual range over thousands of square miles, in many portions
of the United States they occur regularly year after year on the
same ground. Trees whose thick bark or abundant seeding
gives them peculiar powers of resistance, frequently owe their
exclusive possessions of vast areas purely to the action of fire.
On the economic side fire is equally influential. The probability,
or often the practical certainty, of fire after the first cut, commonly
determines lumbermen to leave no merchantable tree standing.
Forest fires are thus the most effective barriers to the intro-
duction of forestry. Excessive taxation of timber land is another
of almost equal effect. Because of it lumbermen hasten to cut,
and afterwards often to abandon, lands which they cannot
afford to hold. This evil, which only the progress of public
sentiment can control, is especially prevalent in certain portions
of the white pine belt.
Forest Associations. Public sentiment in favour of the pro-
tection of forests is now widespread and increasingly effective
throughout the United States. As the general understanding
of the objects and methods of forestry becomes clearer, the
tendency, formerly very marked, to confound ornamental tree
planting and botanical matters with forestry proper is rapidly
growing less. At the same time, the number and activity of
associations dealing with forest matters is increasing with notable
rapidity. There are now about thirty such associations in the
United States. One of these, the Society of American Foresters,
is composed exclusively of professional foresters. The American
Forestry Association is the oldest and largest. It has been
influential in preparing the ground work of popular interest in
forestry, and especially in advocating and securing the adoption
of the federal forest reservation policy, the most important step
yet taken by the national government. It publishes as its
organ a monthly magazine called Forestry and Irrigation. The
Pennsylvania Forestry Association has been instrumental in
placing that state in the forefront of forest progress. Its organ
is a bi-monthly publication called Forest Leaves. Other states
which have associations or societies of special influence in forest
matters are California, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Colorado,
New Hampshire, Georgia and Oregon. Arbor Day, instituted
in Nebraska in 1872 as a day for shade-tree planting by farmers
who had settled on the treeless prairies, has been taken up as a
means of interesting school children in the planting of trees,
and has spread until it is now observed in every state and
territory. It continues to serve an admirable purpose.
Lumbering. According to the census report for 1905 the
capital invested in logging operations in the United States was
$90,454,596, the number of employes engaged 146,596, and
their wages $66,990,000; sawmills represented an invested
capital of $381,621,000, and employed 223,674 persons, whose
wages were $100,311,000, while planing mills represented a
capital of $222,294,000 and employed 132,030 persons whose
wages were $66,434,000.
All the operations of the lumber trade in the United States are
controlled, and to no small degree determined, by the peculiar
unit of measure which has been adopted. This unit, the board-
foot, is generally Hefined as a board one foot long, one foot wide
and one inch thick, but in reality it is equivalent to 144 cub. in.
of manufactured lumber in any form'. To purchase logs by this
measure one must first know about what each log will yield
in one-inch boards. For this purpose a scale or table is used,
which gives the contents of logs of various diameters and lengths
in board feet. Under such a standard the purchaser pays for
nothing but the saleable lumber in each log, the inevitable
waste in slabs and sawdust costing him nothing.
The table at foot gives the estimated consumption of wood for
certain purposes in the United States in 1906.
In addition to this amount, an immense quantity of wood is
used each year for fuel, posts and other domestic purposes, and
the total annual consumption is not less than 20 billion cub. ft.
The years 1890 to 1906 were marked by rapid changes in the
rank of the important timber trees with reference to the amount
of timber cut, and a shifting of the important centres of produc-
tion. Among coniferous trees, white pine has yielded suc-
cessively to yellow pine and Douglas fir, while the scene of greatest
activity has shifted from the Northern forest to the Southern,
and from there is rapidly shifting to the Pacific Coast. The total
cut of coniferous lumber has increased steadily, but that of the
hardwoods is falling off, and in 1906 it was 15% less than in
1899, while inferior hardwoods are gradually assuming more
and more importance, and the scene of greatest activity has passed
from the middle west to the south and the Appalachian region.
Conifers. The coniferous supply of the country is derived
from four forest regions: (i) The Northern forest ; (2) the
Southern forest; (3) the Pacific Coast forest; and (4) the Rocky
Mountain forest.
i. The Northern forest was long the chief source of the coni-
ferous lumber production in the United States. The principal
timber tree of this region is the white pine, usually known in
Europe as the Weymouth pine. It has an average height when
mature of no ft., with a diameter a little less than 3 ft., but the
virgin timber is approaching exhaustion. White pine was one
of the first trees to be cut extensively in the United States, and
Maine, the pine tree state, was at first the centre of production.
In 1851 the cut of white pine on the Penobscot river was 144
million ft., that of spruce 14 million and of hemlock n million.
Thirty years later the pine cut had sunk to 23 million, spruce
had risen to 118 million, and hemlock had passed pine by a
million feet. Meanwhile, the centre of production had passed
from the north woods to the Lake States, and for many years
this region was the scene of the most vigorous lumbering activity
in the world. The following figures show the cut for the Lake
Product.
Output 1906.
Equivalent
Wood Volume.
Estimated
Woods Waste. l
Estimated
Mill Waste. 2
Total Wood
Volume Consumed.
Million
Million
Million
Million
cub. ft.
cub. ft.
cub. ft.
cub. ft.
Lumber
Conifers
30,200,000 thousand bd. ft.
2517
H73
2170
5860
Hardwoods
7,300,000 ,, ,,
612
577
461
1650
Shingles .
11,900,000 ,, ,,
107
54
109
270
Pulpwood
2,900,000 cords
261
79
34
Wood distillation
1,200,000
1 08
12
1 20
Heading .
146,000,000 sets
32
33
45
no
Staves
Tight cooperage
267,000,000
22
36
32
90
Slack cooperage
1,097,000,000
27
22
21
70
Poles
3,500,000
35
15
50
Veneer
300,000 thousand bd. ft.
50
3
80
Round mine timbers
165,000,000 cub. ft. '
165
35
200
Hewn cross ties
77,500,000
207
503
710
4H3
2569
2838
955
1 Woods waste includes tops, stumps, cull logs and butts, but does not include defective trees left or trees used for road purposes.
2 Mill waste includes bark, kerf, slabs and edgings.
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
659
1873 . .
3,993,780,000
1890 .
1874 . .
3,75i,3o6,ooo
1891 .
1875 . .
. 3,968,553,000
1892 .
1876 . .
3,879,046,000
1893 -
1877 . .
3,595,333,496
1894 .
1878 . .
. 3,629,472,759
1895
1879 . .
. 4,806,943,000
1896 .
1880 . .
. 5,651,295,000
1897 .
1881 . .
. 6,768,856,749
1898 .
1882 . .
7,552,150,744
1899 .
1883 . .
. 7,624,789,786
1900 .
1884 . .
- 7-935,033,054
1901 .
1885 . .
. 7,053,094,555
1902 .
1886 . .
. 7,425,368,443
1903 -
1887 . .
7,757,916,784
1904 .
1888 . .
. 8,388,716,460
1905
1889 . .
. 8,183,050,755
1906 .
States from 1873 to 1006. It is certain that the remarkable
decline in the cut of white pine which these figures show will
continue still farther.
8,597,659,352
7,879,948,349
. 8,594,222,802
. 7,326,263,782
. 6,821,516,412
. 7,050,669,235
5,725,763-035
6,233,454,000
6,155,300,000
. 6,056,508,000
. 5,485,261,000
. 5,336,000,000
. 5,294,000,000
. 4,792,000,000
. 4,220,000,000
3,777,ooo,ooo
. 3,032,000,000
Second to the white pine among the coniferous lumber trees
of the Northern forest is the hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). It is
used chiefly for construction purposes and furnishes a com-
paratively low grade of lumber.
The spruce (Picea rubens) is used chiefly for lumber, but it
is in large and increasing demand in the manufacture of paper
pulp. For the latter purpose hemlock, poplar (Populus tremu-
loides and P. grandidentata) and several other woods are also
employed, but on a smaller scale. The total consumption of
wood for paper in the United States for 1906 was 3,660,000
cords, of which 2,500,000 was spruce. Of this, however, 720,000
cords were imported from Canada.
2. The chief product of the Southern forest is the yellow
pine. This is the collective term for the longleaf, shortleaf,
loblolly and Cuban pines. Of these the longleaf pine (Pinus
palustris Mill.) , called pitch-pine in Europe, is the most important.
Its timber is probably superior in strength and durability to
that of any other member of the genus Pinus, and in addition
to its value as a timber tree it is the source of naval stores in the
United States. The average size of the mature longleaf pine is
90 ft. in height and 20 in. in diameter. Shortleaf (Pinus echinata)
and loblolly (P. taeda) are other important members of this
group. Their wood very closely resembles that of the longleaf
pine and is often difficult to distinguish from it. The trees are
also of about the same size and height. Loblolly is, however,
of more rapid growth. The total cut of yellow pine in 1906 was
11,661,000,000 board ft.; it has perhaps not yet reached its
maximum, but is certainly near it.
Another important coniferous tree of the Southern forest
is the bald cypress (Taxodium distichum), which grows in the
swamps. The cut in 1906 was 839,000,000 board ft., a gain of
69% over 1899.
3. But the great supply of coniferous timber is now on the
Pacific Coast. The Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxi/alia), also
known as Douglas spruce, red fir and Oregon pine, is the foremost
tree in Oregon and Washington, and the redwood in California.
When mature the Douglas fir averages 200 ft. in height and 4 ft.
in diameter, and the redwood 225 ft. in height and 8 ft. in
diameter. Other important trees of the Pacific Coast are sugar
pine (Pinus lambertiana) , western red cedar (Thuja plicata),
western larch (Larix occidentalis) , Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis),
western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and western yellow
pine (Pinus ponderosa). These trees wil all be of increasing
importance.
Logging on the Pacific Coast is characterized by the use of
powerful machinery and by extreme skill in handling enormous
weights. This is especially true in California, where the logs
of redwood and of the big tree (Sequoia W ashingtoniana) are
often more than 10 ft. in diameter. Logging is usually done by
wire cables operated by donkey-engines. The journey to the
mill is usually by rail. The mills are often of great size, built on
piles over tide water and so arranged that their product is
delivered directly from the saws and dry kilns to vessels moored
alongside. The products of the Pacific Coast forest make their
way over land to the markets of the central and eastern states
and into foreign markets. Among the lumber-producing states,
Washington has in seven years jumped from fifth place to first,
and its output has increased from 1,428,000,000 board ft. in
1899 to 4,305,000,000 ft. in 1906. Oregon and California have
increased their output from 734,000,000 each in 1899 to
1,605,000,000 and 1,349,000,000 ft. respectively in 1906. Of
the total output of these three states '(7,259,000,000 ft.)
4,880,000,000 ft. is Douglas fir and 660,000,000 redwood.
4. The important lumber trees of the Rocky Mountain forest
are the western yellow pine, the lodgepole pine, the Douglas
fir and the Engelmann spruce. The Douglas fir, here extremely
variable in size and value, reaches in this region average dimen-
sions of perhaps 80 ft. in height by 2 ft. in diameter, the western
yellow pine 90 ft. by 3 ft. and the Engelmann spruce 60 ft. by
2 ft. Mining, railroad and domestic uses chiefly absorb the
annual timber product, which is considerable in quantity, and
of vast importance to the local population. The lumber output
of the Rocky Mountain region is, however, increasing very
rapidly both in the north and in the south-west. One of the
largest mills in the United States is in Idaho.
The following table summarizes the cut of the important coniferous
species during the years 1899-1906:
Per Cent Increase
Kind.
1899.
1904.
1906.
(+) or Decrease
( ) since 1899.
Million
Million
Million
ft.
ft.
ft.
Yellow Pine .
9,659
H-533
11,661
+ 20-7
Douglas Fir
1,737
2,928
4,970
+ 186-2
White Pine
7,742
5,333
4,584
- 40-8
Hemlock .
3,421
3,269
3,537
+ 3-4
Spruce .
1,448
1,304
1,645
+ 13-6
Western Pine
944
1,279
1-387
+ 46-9
Cypress
496
750
839
+ 69-3
Redwood .
360
519
683
+ 83-2
Cedar .
233
223
358
+ 53-7
26,040
27,138
29,664
+ H
Hardwoods. The hardwood supply of the country is derived
almost entirely from the eastern half of the continent, and
comes from each of the three great Eastern forest regions.
The following table shows the cut of the important species of
hardwoods for 1899 and 1906:
Per Cent
Kind.
1899.
1906.
Increase (+)
or Decrease ( ).
Thousand
Thousand
Feet.
Feet.
Oak. ....
4-438,027
2,820,393
- 36-5
Maple ....
633,466
882,878
+ 39-4
Poplar ....
1,115,242
693,076
- 37-9
Red gum .
285,417
453,678
+ 59-o
Chestnut .
206,688
407,379
+ 97-1
Basswood .
308,069
376,838
+ 22-3
Birch ....
132,601
370,432
+ 179-4
Cottonwood .
415,124
263,996
- 36-4
Beech ....
(a)
275,661
Elm ....
456,731
224,795
- 50-8
Ash ....
269,120
214,460
- 20-8
Hickory
96,636
148,212
+ 53-4
Tupelo.
(a)
47,882
Walnut. .
38,681
48,174
+ 24-5
Sycamore .
29,715
(a)
All other .
208,504
87,637
- '58-0
Total . .
8,634,021
7,315,491
- iS-3
a Not separately reported.
Oak, which in 1899 furnished over half the entire output,
has fallen off 36-5 %. Yellow poplar, which in 1899 was second
among the hardwoods, has fallen off 38 % and now occupies
third place; and elm, the great stand-by in slack cooperage,
has fallen 50-8 %. On the other hand less valuable species
like maple and red gum have advanced 39 and 59 % respectively.
The decrease is largely due to the fact that the hardwoods
grow naturally on the better classes of soil, and in the eastern
66o
FOREY FORFARSHIRE
United States where the population has always been the densest,
and as a consequence of this, a large proportion of the original
hardwood land has been cleared up and put under cultivation.
The hardwood supply of the future must be obtained chiefly
from the Appalachian region, where the conditions are less
favourable to agriculture.
In addition to the lumber cut, enormous quantities of hard-
woods are used each year for railroad ties, telephone and other
poles, piles, fence posts and fuel, and there is a great amount
of waste in the course of lumbering and manufacture.
AUTHORITIES. Sargent, Silva of North America (Boston, 1891-
1897), Manual of Trees of North America (Boston, 1903); Lemmon,
Handbook of West American Cone-Bearers (San Francisco, 1895);
Bruncken, North American Forests and Forestry (New York, 1900);
Fernow, Economics of Forestry (New York, 1902); Pinchot, The
Adirondack Spruce (New York, 1898); Pinchot and Graves, The
White Pine (New York, 1896). See also the various publications
of the U.S. forest service, including especially the following general
works : Forest Influences ; Primer of Forestry ; the Timber Supply
of the United States; the Waning Hardwood Supply; Forest Products
of the United States in 1906; Exports and Imports of Forest Products
in 1906 ; Federal and Stale Forest Laws \ Regulations and Instructions
for the Use of the National Forests; The Use of the National Forests;
also part v. of the Nineteenth and of the Twenty-first Annual Reports
of the United States Geological Survey, and vol. ix. of the loth Census
Report on the Forests of North America; and Reports of the State
Forestry Commissions of New York, New Hampshire, Maine,
Pennsylvania, Michigan, Ohio, &c., and of the State Geological
Surveys of New Jersey, Maryland and North Carolina. (G. P.)
FOREY, tLIE FREDERIC (1804-1872), tnarshal of France,
was born at Paris on the sth of January 1804, and entered the
army from St Cyr in 1824. He took part in the earlier Algerian
campaigns, and became captain in 1835. Four years later he
was given command of a battalion of chasseurs a pied and in
1844 he became colonel. At the Revolution of 1848 Cavaignac
made him a general of brigade. He took an active part in the
coup d'etat of the 2nd of December 1851, and Napoleon III.
made him a general of division shortly afterwards. He held a
superior command in the Crimean War, and in the Italian
campaign of 1859 distinguished himself very greatly in the action
of Montebello (aoth May). In 1862 Forey was placed in command
of the French expeditionary corps in Mexico, with the fullest
civil and military powers, and he crowned a successful campaign
by the capture of Mexico city in May 1863, receiving as his
reward the marshal's baton. From December 1863 to 1867 he
held high commands in France, but in the latter year he was
struck with paralysis and had to retire. Marshal Forey died
at Paris on the 2oth of June 1872.
FORFAR, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and capital
of the county of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 12,117.
It lies at the east end of the Loch of Forfar in the valley of
Strathmore, and is 13 m. N. by E. of Dundee by road and 2ij m.
by the Caledonian railway. It is also situated on the same
company's main line to Aberdeen and sends off a branch to
Brechin. The principal buildings comprise the court house,
the county hall (with portraits by Raeburn, Romney, Opie and
others), the town hall, the Meffan Institute (including the free
library), the infirmary, poorhouse and the Reid hall, founded
by Peter Reid, a merchant in the burgh who also gave the public
park. The burgh unites with Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin and
Inverbervie (the Montrose group of burghs) in returning one
member to parliament. The Loch of Forfar, 1 1 m. long by j m.
wide, is drained by Dean Burn, and contains pike and perch.
On a gravel bank or spit in the north-west of the lake stood
a castle which was sometimes used as a residence by Margaret,
queen of Malcolm Canmore. The staple industries are linen
and jute manufactures, but brewing, tanning, bleaching, rope-
making and iron-founding are also carried on.
Forfar is at least as old as the time of Malcolm Canmore, for
the first parliament after the defeat of Macbeth met in the old
. castle, which stood on a mound on the northern side of the
town. The parliaments of William the Lion, Alexander II.
and Robert II. also assembled within its walls. The town,
which was created a royal burgh by David I., was burnt down
about the middle of the i3th century. Edward I. captured the
castle on one of his incursions, but in 1307 Robert Bruce seized
it, put its defenders to the sword and then destroyed it, its site
being now marked by the town cross. Previous to the reign of
James VI. the weekly market was held on Sunday, but after
the union of the crowns parliament enacted that it should be
held on Friday. The town sided with Charles I. during the
Civil War, and Charles II. presented the Cross to it out of regard
for the loyalty shown to his father. Forfar seems to have played
a less reputable part in the persecution of witches. In 1661 a
crown commission was issued for the trial of certain miserable
creatures, some of whom were condemned to be burnt. In the
same year one John Ford for his services as a witch-finder was
admitted a burgess along with Lord Kinghorne. The witches'
bridle, a gag to prevent them from speaking whilst being led to
execution, is still preserved in the county hall. One mile to the
E. lie the ruins of Restennet Priory, where a son of Robert
Bruce was buried. For twenty five years after the Reformation
it was used as the parish church and afterwards by the Episco-
palians, until they obtained a chapel of their own in 1822.
FORFARSHIRE, or ANGUS, an eastern county of Scotland,
bounded N. by the shires of Kincardine and Aberdeen, W. by
Perthshire, S. by the Firth of Tay and E. by the North Sea.
It has an area of 559,171 acres, or 873-7 sq. m. The island of
Rossie and the Bell Rock belong to the shire.
Forfarshire is characterized by great variety of surface and
may be divided physically into four well-marked sections. In
the most northerly of these many of the rugged masses of the
Grampians are found; this belt is succeeded by Strathmore,
or the Howe of Angus, a fertile valley, from 6 to 8 m. broad,
which is a continuation of the Howe of the Mearns, and runs
south-westwards till it enters Strathtarn, to the south-west of
Perth; then come the Sidlaw Hills and a number of isolated
heights, which in turn give way to the plain of the coast and the
Firth. The mountains are all in the northern division and belong
to the Binchinnin group (sometimes rather inexactly called the
Braes of Angus) of the Grampian ranges. Among the highest
masses, most of which lie on or near the confines of the bordering
counties, are Glas Maol (3502 ft.) on the summit of which the
shires of Aberdeen, Forfar and Perth meet, Cairn-na-Glasha
(3484), Fafernie (3274), Broad Cairn (3268), Creag Leacach
(3238), Tolmount (3143), Tom Buidhe (314), Driesh (3105),
Mount Keen (3077) and Mayar (3043), while peaks of upwards of
2000 ft. are numerous. The Sidlaw Hills the greater part of
which, however, belongs to Perthshire are much less lofty
and of less striking appearance. They have a breadth of from
3 to 6 m., the highest points within the county being Craigowl
Hill (1493 ft.), Auchterhouse Hill (1399) and Gallow Hill (1242).
None of the rivers is navigable, and only three are of any im-
portance. The Isla, rising in Cairn-na-Glasha, flows southwards,
then turns S.E. and finally S.W. till it enters the Tay after a
course of 45 m. Its chief tributaries on the right are the Alyth,
Ericht and Lunan, and on the left the Newton, Melgam and
Dean. Near Bridge of Craig is the fall of Reekie Linn (70 ft.),
so named from the fact that when the stream is in flood the spray
rises in a dense cloud like smoke (reek). Near old Airlie Castle
are the cascades called the Slugs of Auchrannie. The North Esk,
formed by the confluence of the Lee and Mark at Invermark,
after a south-easterly course of 28 m. enters the North Sea
3 m. N. of Montrose. On the right bank it receives the West
Water and Cruick and on the left the Tarf and Luther. It gives
the title of earl of Northesk to a branch of the Carnegie family.
The South Esk rises in the Grampians near Mount Fafernie and
not far from its source forms the Falls of Bachnagairn; after
flowing towards the south-east, it bends eastwards near Tannadice
and reaches the North Sea at Montrose, the length of its course
being 48 m. Its principal affluents are the Prosen on the right
and the Noran on the left. It supplies the title of earl of Southesk
to another branch of the Carnegies. The lakes are small, the
two largest being the Loch of Forfar and the mountain-girt
Loch Lee (i m. long by j m. wide). Lintrathen (circular in shape
and about f m. across), to the north of Airlie Castle, supplies
Dundee with drinking water. The glens of the Forfarshire
FORFARSHIRE
661
Grampians are remarkable for their beauty, and several of them
for the wealth of their botanical specimens. The largest and
finest of them are Glen Isla, in which are the ruins of Forter
Castle, destroyed by Argyll in 1640, and the earl of Airlie's
shooting-lodge of the Tulchan; Glen Clova, near the entrance
to which stands Cortachy Castle, the seat of the earl of Airlie;
Glen Esk and Glen Prosen.
Geology. A great earth fracture traverses this county from near
Edzell on the N.E. to Lintrathen Loch on the S.W. Between
Cortachy and the south-western boundary this fault runs in Old
Red Sandstone, but north-east of that place it forms the junction
line of Silurian and Old Red ; and in a general way we may say
that on the N.W. side of the fault the metamorphosed Silurian rocks
are found, while the remainder of the county is occupied by the Old
Red Sandstone. On the margin of the disturbance the Silurian
rocks are little-altered grey and green clay slates with bands of
pebbly grit; farther towards the N.W. we find the same rocks
metamorphosed into mica schists and gneisses with pebbly quartzites.
Rising up through the schists between Carn Bannock and Mount
Battock is a great mass of granite. The Old Red Sandstone extends
from this county into Perthshire and Kincardineshire ; here some
20,000 ft. of these deposits are seen; an important part being formed
of volcanic tuffs and lavas which are regularly interbedded in the
sandstones and conglomerates. North of Dundee some of the lower
beds are traversed by intrusive dolerites, and Dundee Law is probably
the remains of an old vent through which some of the contempor-
aneous lavas, &c., were discharged. The Old Red Rocks have been
subjected to a good deal of folding, as may be seen along the coast.
The principal direction of strike is from N.E. to S.W. A synclinal
fold occupies Strathmore, and between Longforgan and Montrose
the northern extension of the Sidlaw Hills is an anticlinal fold.
Two fish-bearing beds occur in the county ; from the lower one many
large Eurypterids have been obtained. The well-known paving
flags of Arbroath belong to the lower part of the formation. The
Upper Old Red Sandstone is found only in one spot about a mile
north of Arbroath. During the Glacial period the ice travelled
south-eastward across Strathmore and over the Sidlaw Hills;
abundant evidence of this transporting agent is to be seen in the
form of morainic deposits, the most striking of which is the great
transverse barrier of Glenairn in the valley of the S. Esk, half a mile
in length and about 200 ft. high. Relics of the same period are
found round the coast in the form of raised beaches at 100, 50 and
25 ft. above the present sea-level.
Climate and Agriculture. On the whole the climate is healthy
and favourable to agricultural pursuits. The mean temperature
for the year is 47-3 F., for January 38 and for July 59. The
average annual rainfall is 34 in., the coast being considerably
drier than the uplands. In the low-lying districts of the south
the harvest is nearly as early as it is in the rest of Scotland, but
in the north it is often late. The principal wheat districts are
Strathmore and the neighbourhood of Dundee and Arbroath;
and the yield is well up to the best Scottish average. Barley,
an important crop, has increased steadily. Oats, however,
though still the leading crop, have somewhat declined. Potatoes
are mostly grown near the seaboard in the higher ground; turnips
also are largely raised. The northern belt, where it is not waste
land, has been turned into sheep walks and deer forests. The
black-faced sheep are the most common in the mountainous
country; cross-bred sheep in the lowlands. Though it is their
native county (where they date from 1808), polled Angus
are not reared so generally as in the neighbouring shire of
Aberdeen, but shorthorns are a favourite stock and Irish cattle
are imported for winter-feeding. Excepting in the vicinity of
the towns there are no dairy farms. Horses are raised success-
fully, Clydesdales being the commonest breed, but the small
native garrons are now little used. Pigs also are reared. Save
perhaps in the case of the crofts, or very small holdings of
less than 10 acres, farm management is fully abreast of the
times.
Other Industries. The staple industries are the jute and
flax manufactures. Their headquarters are in Dundee, but
they nourish also at other places. Shipbuilding is carried on at
Dundee, Arbroath and Montrose. The manufactures of jams,
confectionery, leather, machinery, soap and chemicals, are all
of great and growing value. Sandstone quarries employ many
hands and the deep-sea fisheries, of which Montrose is the centre,
are of considerable importance. The netting of salmon at the
mouth of the North Esk is also a profitable pursuit.
Two railway companies serve the county. The North British,
entering from the south by the Tay Bridge, follows the coast
north-eastwards, sending off at Montrose a branch to Bervie.
The Caledonian runs up Strathmore to Forfar, whence it diverges
due east to Guthrie, where it again resumes its north-easterly
course to Dubton and Marykirk; it reaches Dundee from Perth
by the shore of the estuary of the Tay, and sends branches from
Dundee to Kirriemuir via Monikie and Forfar and to Alyth
Junction via Newtyle, while a short line from Dubton gives it
touch with Montrose.
Population and Government. The population was 277,735 in
1891, and 284,083 in 1901, when 1303 spoke Gaelic and English,
and 13 Gaelic only. The chief towns are Arbroath (pop. in 1901,
22,398), Brechin (8941), Broughty Ferry (10,484), Carnoustie
(5204), Dundee (161,173), Forfar (11,397), Kirriemuir (4096),
Monifieth (2134) and Montrose (12,427). Forfarshire returns
one member to Parliament. It is a sheriffdom and there is a
resident sheriff -substitute at Dundee and another at Forfar,
the county town, and courts are held also at Arbroath. In
addition to numerous board schools there are secondary schools
at Dundee, Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Kirriemuir,
and technical schools at Dundee and Arbroath. Many of the
elementary schools earn grants for higher education. The county
council and the Dundee and Arbroath town councils expend the
" residue " grant in subsidizing science and art and technical
schools and classes, including University College, the textile
school, the technical institute, the navigation school, and the
workshop schools at Dundee, the technical school at Arbroath,
besides cookery, dairy, dress-cutting, laundry, plumbing and
veterinary science classes at different places.
History. In the time of the Romans the country now known
as Forfarshire was inhabited by Picts, of whose occupation
there are evidences in remains of weems, or underground houses.
Traces of Roman camps and stone forts are common, and there
are vitrified forts at Finhaven, Dumsturdy Muir, the hill of
Laws near Monifieth and at other points. Spearheads, battle-
axes, sepulchral deposits, Scandinavian bronze pins, and other
antiquarian relics testify to periods of storm and stress before
the land settled down into order, towards which the Church
was a powerful contributor. In the earliest days strife was
frequent. The battle in which Agricola defeated Galgacus is
supposed to have occurred in the Forfarshire Grampians (A.D.
84); the Northumbrian King Egfrith and the Pictish king
Burde fought near Dunnichen in 685, the former being slain;
conflicts with the Danes took place at Aberlemno and other
spots; Elpin king of the Scots was defeated by Aengus in the
parish of Liff in 730; at Restennet, about 835, the Picts and
Scots had a bitter encounter. In later times the principal
historical events, whether of peace or war, were more immediately
connected with burghs than with the county as a whole. There
is some doubt whether the county was named Angus, its title
for several centuries, after a legendary Scottish prince or from
the hill of Angus to the east of the church of Aberlemno. It
was early governed by hereditary earls and was made a hereditary
sheriffdom by David II. The first earl of Angus (by charter of
1389) was George Douglas, an illegitimate son of the ist earl
of Douglas by Margaret Stuart, who was countess of Angus in
her own right. On the death of the ist and only duke of Douglas,
who was also i3th earl of Angus, in 1761, the earldom merged
in the dukedom of Hamilton. Precisely when the shire became
known by the name of the county town has not been ascertained,
but probably the usage dates from the i6th century. Among
old castles are the roofless square tower of Red Castle at the
mouth of the Lunan; the tower of the castle of Auchinleck;
the stronghold of Inverquharity near Kirriemuir; the castle of
Finhaven; the two towers of old Edzell Castle; the ruins of
Melgund Castle, which are fairly complete; the small castle of
Newtyle, and the old square tower and gateway of the castle
of Craig.
See A. Jervise, Memorials of Angus and Mearns (Edinburgh,
1895); Land of the Lindsays (Edinburgh, 1882); Epitaphs and
Inscriptions (Edinburgh, 1879); Earl of Crawford, Lives of the
662
FORFEITURE FORGERY
Lindsays (London, 1835) ; Sir W. Eraser, History of the Carnegies
(Edinburgh, 1867); A. H. Millar, Historical Castles and Mansions
(Paisley, 1890); G. Hay, History of Arbroath (Arbroath, 1876);
D. D. Black, History of Brechin (Edinburgh, 1867).
FORFEITURE (from "forfeit," originally an offence, and
hence a fine exacted as a penalty for such; derived through the
O. Fr. forfait, from the late Lat. joris faclum, a trespass, that
which is done foris, outside), in English law, the term applied
(i) to loss or liability to the loss of property in consequence of
an offence or breach of contract; (2) to the property of which
the party is deprived.
Under the common law, conviction and attainder on indict-
ment for treason or felony was followed not only by forfeiture
of the life of the offender, but also by forfeiture of his lands and
goods. In the case of treason all the traitor's lands of whomso-
ever holden were forfeited to the king; in the case of felony
(including felo-de-se, or suicide), the felon's lands escheated
(exceciderunt) to his immediate lord, subject to the king's right
to waste them for a year and a day. This rule did not apply
to lands held in gavelkind in the county of Kent. The goods
of traitors and felons were forfeited to the king. The desire of
the king and his officers to realize the profits of these forfeitures
was one of the chief motives for instituting the circuits of the
king's justices throughout England; and from time to time
conflicts arose from attempts by these justices to extend the
law of treason under which the king levied all the forfeitures
at the expense of felony, in which the lord of the felon benefited
by the escheats. As regards theft, the king's rights overrode
those of the. owner of the stolen property, until, in the reign of
Henry VIII., provision was made for restitution of the goods
to the owner if he prosecuted the thief to conviction. In Pepys's
Diary, 2ist of January 1667-1668, will be found an illustration
of the working of the old law. We find that on the suicide
of his brother-in-law, Pepys at once applied to the king personally
and obtained a grant of the brother-in-law's estate in favour
of his widow and children should the inquest find a verdict of
felo-de-se. It was common practice for persons anticipating
conviction for treason or felony to assign all their property to
others to avoid the forfeiture; and in some instances the accused
refused to plead to the indictment and endured the peine forte
et dure, until death supervened, to avoid these consequences
of conviction. The royal rights to forfeitures arising within
particular areas were frequently granted by charter to corpora-
tions or individuals. In 1897 the courts had to interpret such
charters granted to the town of Nottingham in 1399 and 1448.
All forfeitures and escheats with respect to conviction and
attainder for treason and felony were aboh'shed as from the
4th of July 1870, except forfeitures consequent upon the now
disused process of outlawry, and the forfeitures included in the
penalties of praemunire.
The term " forfeit " is also applied to penalties imposed by
statute for acts or omissions which are neither treasonable nor
felonious. In such statutes the forfeiture enures in favour of
the crown unless the statute indicates another destination;
and unless a particular method of enforcing the forfeiture is
indicated it is enforceable as a debt to the crown and has priority
as such. The words " forfeit and pay " are often used in imposing
a pecuniary penalty for a petty misdemeanour, and where they
are used the court dealing with the case must not only convict
foe offender but adjudicate as to the forfeiture.
Statutory forfeitures in some cases extend to specific chattels,
e.g. of a British merchant-ship when her character as such
is fraudulently dissimulated (Merch. Shipp. Act 1894, ss. 70, 76),
or of goods smuggled in contravention of the customs acts or
books introduced in violation of the copyright acts. Recognis-
ances are said to be forfeited when the conditions are broken
and an order of court is made for their enforcement as a crown
debt against the persons bound by them.
The term " forfeiture " is now most commonly used with
reference to real property, i.e. with reference to the rights of
lords of the manor or lessors to determine the estate or interest
of a copyholder or lessee for breach of the customary or con-
tractual terms of tenure. It is also applied to express the
deprivation of a limited owner of settled property, real or personal,
for breach of the conditions by which his rights are limited;
e.g. by becoming bankrupt or attempting to charge or alienate
his interest. As a general rule, the courts " lean against for-
feitures " of this kind; and are astute to defeat the claim of the
superior landlord or other person seeking to enforce them.
By legislation of 1881 and 1892 there is jurisdiction to grant
relief upon terms against the forfeiture of a lease for breach of
certain classes of covenant, e.g. to pay rent or to insure.
FORGERY (derived through the French from Latin fabricare,
to construct), in English law, " the fraudulent making or altera-
tion of a writing to the prejudice of another man's right," or
" the false making, or making malo animo, of any written
instrument for the purpose of fraud or deceit." This definition,
it will be seen, comprehends all fraudulent tampering with
documents. ."Not only the fabrication and false making of the
whole of a written instrument, but a fraudulent insertion, altera-
tion or erasure, even of a letter, in any material part of a true
instrument whereby a new operation is given to it, will amount
to forgery, and this though it be afterwards executed by
another person ignorant of the deceit " (Russell on Crimes and
Misdemeanours, vol. ii.). Changing the word Dale into Sale
in a lease, so that it appears to be a lease of the manor of Sale
instead of the manor of Dale, is a forgery. And when a country
banker's note was made payable at the house of a banker in
London who failed, it was held to be forgery to alter the name
of such London banker to that of another London banker with
whom the country banker had subsequently made his notes
payable. As to the fraud, " an intent to defraud is presumed
to exist if it appears that at the time when the false document
was made there was in existence a specific person, ascertained
or unascertained, capable of being defrauded thereby; and this
presumption is not rebutted by proof that the offender took or
intended to take measures to prevent such person from being
defrauded in fact, nor by the fact that he had or thought he had
a right to the thing to be obtained by the false document"
(Stephen's Digest of the Criminal Law). Thus when a man
makes a false acceptance to a bill of exchange, and circulates it,
intending to take it up and actually taking it up before it is
presented for payment, he is guilty of forgery. Even if it be
proved as a matter of fact that no person could be defrauded
(as when A forges a cheque in B's name on a bank from which
B had withdrawn his account), the intent to defraud will be
presumed. But it would appear that if A knew that B had
withdrawn his account, the absence of fraudulent intention
would be inferred. A general intention to cheat the public is
not the kind of fraud necessary to constitute forgery. Thus if
a quack forges a diploma of the college of surgeons, in order
to make people believe that he is a member of that body, he is
not guilty of forgery.
The crime of forgery in English law has been from time to
time dealt with in an enormous number of statutes. It was
first made a statutory offence in 1562, and was punishable by
fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut off, the
nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land and perpetual
imprisonment. It was made capital, without benefit of clergy
in 1634. The most notable cases of those who have suffered
the extreme penalty of the law are those of the Rev. Dr W.
Dodd in 1777, for forging Lord Chesterfield's name on a bond,
and Henry Fauntleroy, a partner in the banking-house of
Marsh, Sibbald & Co., for the appropriation by means of
forged instruments of money entrusted to the bank, in 1824.
" Anthony Hammond, in the title Forgery of his Criminal Code,
has enumerated more than 400 statutes which contain provisions
against the offence " (Sir J. T. Coleridge's notes to Blackstone) .
Blackstone notices the increasing severity of the legislature
against forgery, and says that " through the number of these
general and special provisions there is now hardly a case possible
to be conceived wherein forgery that tends to defraud, whether
in the name of a real or fictitious person, is not made a capital
crime." These acts were consolidated in 1830. The later
FORGET-ME-NOT FORGING
663
statutes, fixing penalties from penal servitude for life downwards,
were consolidated by the Forgery Act 1861. It would take too
much space to enumerate all the varieties of the offence with
their appropriate punishments. The following condensed
summary is based upon chapter xlv. of Sir J. Stephen's Digest
of the Criminal Law.
1. Forgeries punishable with penal servitude for life as a maximum
are
(a) Forgeries of the great seal, privy seal, &c.
(6) Forgeries of transfers of stock, India bonds, exchequer bills,
bank-notes, deeds, wills, bills of exchange, &c.
(c) Obliterations or alterations of crossing on a cheque.
(d) Forgeries of registers of birth, &c., or of copies thereof and
others.
2. Forgeries punishable with fourteen years penal servitude are
(a) Forgeries of debentures.
(6) Forgeries of documents relating to the registering of deeds, &c.
(c) Forgeriesof instruments purporting to be made by the account-
ant general and other officers of the court of chancery, &c.
(d) Drawing bill of exchange, &c., on account of another, per
procuration or otherwise, without authority.
(e) Obtaining property by means of a forged instrument, knowing
it to be forged, or by probate obtained on a forged will, false oath, &c.
3. Forgeries punishable with seven years' penal servitude:
Forgeries of seals of courts, of the process of courts, of certificates,
and of documents to be used in evidence, &c.
By the Merchandise Marks Acts 1887 and 1891, forgery of
trade marks is an offence punishable on conviction by indictment
with imprisonment not exceeding two years or to fine, or both,
and on conviction by summary proceedings with imprisonment
not exceeding four months or with a fine.
The Forged Transfers Act 1891, made retrospective by the
Forged Transfers Act 1892, enables companies and local
authorities to make compensation by a cash payment out of
their funds for any loss arising from a transfer of their stocks,
shares or securities through a forged transfer.
United Stales. Forgery is made a crime by statute in most
if not all the states, in addition to being a common law cheat.
These statutes have much enlarged the common definition of
this crime. It is also made a crime by a Federal statute (U.S.
Rev. Stat., ch. 5), which includes forgery of national banknotes,
letters patent, public bid, record, signature of a judge, land
warrants, powers of attorney, ships' papers or custom-house
documents, certificates of naturalization, &c.; the punishment
is by fine or by imprisonment from one to fifteen years with or
without hard labour.
In Illinois, fraudulently connecting together different parts
of several banknotes or other genuine instruments so as to pro-
duce one additional note or instrument with intent to pass all
as genuine, is a forgery of each of them (Rev. Stats. 1901, ch.
38, 108). The alleged instrument must be apparently capable
of defrauding (Goodman v. People [1907], 228, 111. 154).
In Massachusetts, forgery of any note, certificate or bill ol
credit issued by the state treasurer and receiver general, or by
any other officer, for a debt of that commonwealth, or a bank
bill of any bank, is punishable by imprisonment for life or any
term of years (Rev. Laws 1902, ch. 209, 4 and 5).
In New York, forgery includes the false making, counterfeiting
alteration, erasure or obliteration of a genuine instrument
(Penal Code, 520). An officer or agent of a corporation who
with intent to defraud sells, pledges or issues a fraudulent scrip
share certificate, is guilty of forgery in third degree. Falsely
making any instrument which purports to be issued by a corpora-
tion bearing a pretended signature of a person falsely indicatec
as an officer of the company, is forgery just as if such person
were in truth such officer (id. 519). Counterfeiting railroac
tickets is forgery in the third degree. Falsely certifying tha
the execution of a deed has been acknowledged is forgery (id
511). So also is the forging a fictitious name (People v. Brown:
[1907], 103 N.Y. suppl. 903). Punishment for forgery in the
first degree may be twenty years, in the second degree ten years
in the third degree five years.
In Pennsylvania, fraudulently making, signing, altering, utter
ing or publishing any written instrument other than bank bills
cheques or drafts, was punishable by fine and imprisonmen
' by separate or solitary confinement at labour for a term not
xceeding ten years " (L. 1860, March 31); forging bank bills,
kc., for a term not exceeding five years. Defacing, removing,
>r counterfeiting brands from lumber floating in any river is
unishable by imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years
r a fine (L. 1887, May 23). Fraudulently using the registered
mark of another on lumber is punishable by fine or imprisonment
iy solitary confinement for a term not exceeding three years (id.).
In Tennessee, forgery may be committed by typewriting the
>ody of and signature to an instrument which may be the subject
of forgery (1906; State v. Bradley, 116 Tenn. 711).
In Vermont, the act of 1904, p. 135, no. 115, 24, authorizes
icensees to sell intoxicating liquors only on the written pre-
scription of a legally qualified physician stating that it " is given
and necessary for medicinal use." It was held that a prescription
containing no such statement was invalid and the alteration
thereof was not forgery (1906; Stale v. McManus, 78 St. 433).
AUTHORITIES. Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law;
Stephen, Digest of Criminal Law; History of Criminal Law; L. O.
Pike, History of Crime in England, 1873-1876; Russell, On Crimes;
Archbold, Criminal Pleadings.
FORGET-ME-NOT, or SCORPION-GRASS (Ger. Vergissmein-
nicht, Fr. gremillet, scorpionne), the name popularly applied to
the small annual or perennial herbs forming the genus Myosotis
of the natural order Boraginaceae, so called from the Greek
Os, a mouse, and o5s, an ear, on account of the shape of the
leaves. The genus is represented in Europe, north Asia, North
America and Australia, and is characterized by oblong or linear
stem-leaves, flowers in terminal scorpioid cymes, small blue,
pink or white flowers, a five-cleft persistent calyx, a salver-
or funnel-shaped corolla, having its mouth closed by five short
scales and hard, smooth, shining nutlets. The common or true
forget-me-not, M. palustris, is a perennial plant growing to a
height of 6 to 18 in., with rootstock creeping, stem clothed
with lax spreading hairs, leaves light green, and somewhat
shining, buds pink, becoming blue as they expand, and corolla
rotate, broad, with retuse lobes and bright blue with a yellow
centre. The divisions of the calyx extend only about one-third
the length of the corolla, whereas in the other British species
of Myosotis it is deeply cleft. The forget-me-not, a favourite
with poets, and the symbol of constancy, is a frequent ornament
of brooks, rivers and ditches, and, according to an old German
tradition, received its name from the last words of a knight who
was drowned in the attempt to procure the flower for his lady.
It attains its greatest perfection under cultivation, and, as it
flowers throughout the summer, is used with good effect for
garden borders; a variety, M . slrigulosa, is more hairy and erect,
and its flowers are smaller. In M. vcrsicolor the flowers are
yellow when first open and change generally to a dull blue;
sometimes they are permanently yellowish-white. Of the species
in cultivation, M. dissiliflora, 6 to 8 in., with large handsome
abundant sky-blue flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering
from February onwards; it does well in light cool soils, prefer-
ring peaty ones, and should be renewed annually from seeds or
cuttings. M. rupicola, or M. alpestris, 2 to 3 in., intense blue,
is a fine rock plant, preferring shady situations and gritty
soil; M. azorica (a native of the Azores) with purple, ultimately
blue flowers about half an inch across, has a similar habit but
larger flowers; M. sylvalica, i ft., blue, pink or white, used for
spring bedding, should be sown annually in August.
FORGING, the craft of the smith, or " blacksmith," exercised
on malleable iron and steel, in the production of works of con-
structive utility and of ornament. It differs from founding
(q.v.) in the fact that the metal is never melted. It is essentially
a moulding process, the iron or steel being worked at a full red,
or white, heat when it is in a plastic and more or less pasty
condition. Consequently the tools used are in the main counter-
parts of the shapes desired, and they mould by impact. All the
operations of forging may be reduced to a few very simple ones:
(i) Reducing or drawing down from a larger to a smaller section
("fullering" and "swaging"); (2) enlargement of a smaller
to a larger portion (" upsetting "); (3) bending, or turning round
664
FORGING
to any angle or curvature; (4) uniting one piece of metal to
another (" welding "); (s) the formation of holes by punching;
and (6) severance, or cutting off. These include all the operations
that are done at the anvil. In none of these processes, the last
excepted, is the use of a sharp cutting tool involved, and therefore
there is no violence done to the fibre of the malleable metal. Nor
have the tools of the smith any sharp edges, except the cutting-
off tools or " setts." The essential fact of the flow of the metal,
which is viscous when at a full red heat, must never be lost sight
of; and in forging wrought iron the judgment of the smith must
be exercised in arranging the direction of the fibre in a way best
calculated to secure maximum strength.
Fullering denotes the preliminary roughing-down of the material
between tools having convex edges; swaging, the completion or
finishing process between swages, or dies of definite shape,
Fullering near i y hemispherical in form. When a bar has to be re-
""' duced from larger to smaller dimensions, it is laid upon a
swaging. fu , ler or roun{ j.f ac ed stake, set in the anvil, or, in some
cases, on a flat face (fig. l), and blows are dealt upon that portion
of the face which lies exactly
opposite with a fullering
tool A, grasped by a rather
loosely-fitting handle and
struck on its head by a
sledge. The position of the
piece of work is quickly
changed at brief intervals
. in order to bring successive
portions under the action
of the swages until the re-
duction is completed; the
upper face, and if a bottom
fuller is used the under face also, is thus left corrugated slightly.
These corrugations are then removed either by a flatter, if the sur-
faces are plane (fig. 2), or by hollow swages, if the cross section is
circular (fig. 3). Spring swages (fig. 4) are frequently used instead
of separate " top and bottom tools." Frequently swaging is prac-
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
tised at once, without the preliminary detail of fullering. It is
adopted when the amount of reduction is slight, and also when a
steam hammer or other type of power hammer is available. This
process of drawing down or fullering is, when practicable, adopted in
preference to either upsetting or welding, because it is open to no
objection, and involves no risk of damage to the material, while it
improves the metal
by consolidating its
fibres. But its
limitations in anvil
work lie in the
tediousness of the
FIG. 4.
operation, when the part to be reduced is very much less in
diameter, and very much longer, than the original piece of bar.
Then there are other alternatives.
If a long bar is required to have an enlargement at any portion of
its length, not very much larger in diameter than the bar, nor of
Upsetting S reat length, upsetting is the method adopted. The part
' to be enlarged is heated, the parts adjacent remaining
cold, and an end is hammered, or else lifted and dropped heavily
on the anvil or on an iron plate, with the result that the heated por-
tion becomes both shortened and enlarged (figs. 5 and 6). This
process is only suitable for relatively short lengths, and has the dis-
advantage that the fibres of wrought iron are liable to open, and so
cause weakening of the upset portion. But steel, which has no
direction of fibre, can be upset without injury; this method is
therefore commonly adopted in steel work, in power presses to an
equal extent with drawing down. The alternative to upsetting is
generally to weld a larger to a smaller bar or section, or to encircle
the bar with a ring and weld the two (fig. 7), and then to impart
any shape desired to the ring in swages.
Bending is effected either by the hammer or by the simple exercise
of leverage, the heated bar being pulled round a fulcrum. It is
always, when practicable, preferable to cutting out a. curved or
angular shape with a hot sett or to welding. The continuity of
the fibre in iron is preserved by bending, and the risk of an im-
perfect weld is avoided. Hence it is a simple and safe ..
process which is constantly being performed at the anvil.
An objection to sharp bends, or those having a small radius, is that
the fibres become extended on the outer radius, the cross section being
FIG. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 7.
at the same time reduced below that of the bar itself. This is met by
imparting a preliminary amount of upsetting to the part to be bent,
sufficient to counteract the amount of reduction due to extension
of the fibres. A familiar example is seen in the corners of dip
cranks.
The property possessed by pieces of iron or steel of uniting auto-
geneously while in a condition of semi-fusion is very valuable.
When portions which differ greatly in dimensions have to vyeUlag
be united, welding is the only method practicable at the
anvil. It is also generally the best to adopt when union has to be
made between pieces at right angles, or when a piece on which
much work has to be done is required at the end of a long plain bar,
as in the tension rods of cranes and other structures with eyes.
The art of welding depends chiefly on having perfectly clean joint
FlG.8. FIG. 9.
faces, free from scale, so that metal can unite to metal; union
would be prevented by the presence of oxide or of dirt. Also it is
essential to have a temperature sufficiently high, yet not such as to
overheat the metal. A dazzling white, at which small particles of
metal begin to drop off, is suitable for iron, but steel must not be
made so hot. A very few hammer blows suffice to effect the actual
union; if the joint be faulty, no amount of subsequent hammering
will weld it. The forms of weld-joints include the scarf (figs. 8 and
9), the butt (fig. 10), the V (fig. n) and the glut, one form of which
FIG. 10.
FIG. ii.
is shown in fig. 12 ; the illustrations are of bars prepared for welding.
These forms give the smith a suitable choice for different conditions.
A convexity is imparted to the joint faces in order to favour the
expulsion of slag and dirt during the closing of the joint; these
undesirable matters become entangled between concave faces.
The ends are upset or enlarged in order to leave enough metal to be
dressed down flush, by swaging or by flattering. The proportional
lengths of the joint faces shown are those which conform to good
practice. The fluxes used for welding are numerous. Sand alone
is generally dustefl on wrought iron, but
steel requires borax applied on the joint
while in the fire, and also dusted on the
joint at the anvil and on the face of the
latter itself. Electric welding is largely
taking the place of the hand process,
but machines are required to maintain
the parts in contact during the passage
of the current. Butt joints are employed,
and a large quantity of power is absorbed, but the output is im-
mensely greater than that of hand-made welds.
When holes are not very large they are formed by punching,
but large holes are preferably produced by bending a rod round
and welding it, so forming an eye (fig. 13). Small holes ft, ne ft/ n -
are often punched simply as a preliminary stage in the
formation of a larger hole by a process of drifting. A piece of work
to be punched is supported either on the anvil or on a ring of metal
termed a bolster, laid on the anvil, through which the burr, when
severed, falls. But in making small holes through a thick mass,
no burr is produced, the metal yielding sideways and forming an
enlargement or boss. Examples occur in the wrought iron stanchions
FIG. 12.
FORGING
665
FIG. 13.
that carry light hand railing. In such cases the hole has to be
punched from each face, meeting in the centre. Punching under
power hammers is done similarly, but occupies less time.
The cutting-off or severance of material is done either on hot or
cold metal. In the first case the chisels used, " hot setts," have
keener cutting angles than those employed for the second,
cutt/flf termec l - co ld setts." One sett is held in a hole in the
anvil face, the " anvil chisel," the other is handled and
struck with a sledge.
The difference between iron and steel at the forge is that iron
possesses a very marked fibre whereas steel does not. Many
forgings therefore must be made differently according as they are
in iron or in steel. In the first the fibre must never be allowed
to run transversely to the axis of greatest tensile or bending
stress, but must be in line therewith. For this reason many
forgings, of which a common eye or loop (fig. 13)
is a typical example, that would be stamped
from a solid piece if made in steel, must be
bent round from bar and welded if in wrought
iron. Further, welding which is practically
uniformly trustworthy in wrought iron, is dis-
trusted in steel. The difference is due to the
very fibrous character of iron, the welding of
which gives much less anxiety to the smith
than that of steel. Welds in iron are frequently
made without any flux, those in steel never.
Though mention has only been made of iron and
steel, other alloys are forged, as those of
aluminium, delta metal, &c. But the essential operations are
alike, the differences being in temperature at which the forging
is done and nature of the fluxes used for welding. For
hardening and tempering, an important section of smith's work,
see ANNEALING.
Die Forging. The smith operating by hand uses the above
methods only. There is, however, a large and increasing volume
of forgings produced in other ways, and comprehended under
the general terms, " die forging " or " drop forging."
Little proof is needed to show that the various operations
done at the anvil might be performed in a more expeditious
way by the aid of power-operated appliances; for the elementary
processes of reducing, and enlarging, bending, punching, &c.,are
extremely simple, and the most elaborate forged work involves
only a repetition of these. The fact that the material used is
entirely plastic when raised to a white heat is most favourable
to the method of forging in matrices or dies. A white hot mass
of metal can be placed in a matrix, and stamped into shape in a
few blows under a hammer with as much ease as a medal can be
stamped in steel dies under a coining press. But much detail
is involved in the translation of the principle into practice. The
parallel between coining dies and forging dies does not go far.
The blank for the coin is prepared to such exact dimensions that
no surplus material is left over by the striking of the coin, which
is struck while cold. But the blank used in die forging is generally
a shapeless piece, taken without any preliminary preparation,
a mere lump, a piece of bar or rod, which may be square or round
irrespective of whether the ultimate forging is to be square, or
round, or flat or a combination of forms. At the verge of the
welding heat to which it is raised, and under the intensity of
the impact of hammer blows rained rapidly on the upper die,
the metal yields like lead, and flows and fills the dies.
Herein lies a difference between striking a coin and moulding
a forging. A large amount of metal is squeezed out beyond the
concavity of the forging dies, and this would, if allowed to flow
over between the joints, prevent the dies from being closed on
the forging. There are two methods adopted for removing this
" fin," or " flash " as it is termed, one being that of suppression,
applicable to circular work, the other that of stripping, applied
to almost all other cases.
The suppression of fin means that the circular bar is rotated in the
dies (fig. 14) through a small arc, alternating between every few
blows, with the result that the fin is obliterated immediately when
formed, this being done at the same time that reduction of section
is being effected over a portion or the whole of the bar.
Stripping means that when a considerable amount of fin has
7
been formed, it is removed by laying the forging on a die pierced
right through with an opening of the same shape and area as the
forging, and then dealing the forging a blow with the hammer.
The forging is thus knocked through the die, leaving the severed
or stripped fin behind. The
forging is then returned to
the dies and again treated,
and the stripping may be
repeated twice, or even
oftener, before the forging
caabe completed.
Figs. 15 and 16 illustrate
the bottom dies of a set for
forging in a particular form
of eye, the top dies being of
exactly the same shape. The
first operation takes place in
fig. 15, in which a bar of
metal is reduced to a globular
and cylindrical form, being
constantly rotated mean-
while. The shank portion is
then drawn down in the
parallel recess to the left.
The shape of the eye is com- (
pleted in fig. 16, and the
shank in the recess to the left
1
FIG. 14.
of that. Fig. 17 shows how a lever is stamped between top and
bottom dies. The hole in the larger boss is formed by punching,
the punches nearly meeting in the centre, and the centre for the hole
to be drilled subsequently in the smaller boss is located by a conical
projection in the top die.
FIG. 15.
FIG. 16.
It is evident that the methods of die forging, though only explained
here in barest outline, constitute a principle of extensive application.
An intricate or ornamental forging, which might occupy a smith a
quarter of a day in making at the anvil, can often be produced in
dies within five minutes (fig. 18). On the other hand, there is the
cost of the preparation of the dies, which is often heavy, so that the
question of method is resolved into the relative one of the cost of
FIG. 17.
FIG. 18.
dies, distributed over the number of identical forgings required.
From this point of view it is clear that given say a thousand forgings,
ordered all alike, the cost of even expensive dies distributed over
the whole becomes only an infinitesimal amount per forging.
There is, further, the very important fact that forgings which
are produced in dies are uniform and generally of more exact dimen-
sions than anvil-made articles. This is seen to be an advantage
when forgings have to be turned or otherwise tooled in the engineer's
machine shop, since it lessens the amount of work required there.
666
FORK FORLORN HOPE
Besides, for many purposes such forgings do not require tooling at
all, or only superficial grinding, while anvil-made ones would, in
consequence of their slight inaccuracies.
Yet again, die forging is a very elastic system, and herein lies
much of its value. Though it reaches its highest development when
thousands of similar pieces are wanted, it is also adaptable to a
hundred, or even to a dozen, similar forgings.
In such cases economy is secured by using dies
of a very cheap character; or, by employing
such dies as supplementary to anvil work for
effecting neat finish to more precise dimen-
sions than can be ensured at the anvil. In
the first case use is made of dies of cast iron
moulded from patterns (fig. 19) instead of
having their matrices laboriously cut in steel
with drills, chisels and milling tools. In the
second, preliminary drawing down is done
under the steam hammer, and bending and
welding at the anvil, or under the steam
hammer.until the forgings are brought approxi-
mately to their final shape and dimensions.
FIG. 19.
Then they are reheated and inserted in the dies, when a few blows
under the steam or drop hammer suffice to impart a neat and accurate
finish.
The limitations of die forging are chiefly those due to large dimen-
sions. The system is most successful for the smallest forgings and
dies which can be handled by one man without the assistance of
cranes; and massive forgings are not required in such large numbers
as are those of small dimensions. But there are many large articles
manufactured which do not strictly come under the term forgings,
in which the aid of dies actuated by powerful hydraulic presses is
utilized. These include work that is bent, drawn and shaped
from steel plate, of which the fittings of railway wagons constitute
by far the largest proportion. The dies used for some of these are
massive, and a single squeeze from the ram of the hydraulic press
employed bends the steel plate between the dies to shape at once.
Fairly massive forgings are also produced in these presses.
Die forging in its highest developments invades the craft of the
skilled smith. In shops . where it is adopted entirely, the only
craftsmen required are the few who have general charge of the
shops. The men who attend to the machines are not smiths,
but unskilled helpers. (J. G. H.)
FORK (Lat. furca), an implement formed of two or more
prongs at the end of a shaft or handle, the most familiar type
of which is the table-fork for use in eating. In agriculture and
horticulture the fork is used for pitching hay, and other green
crops, manure, &c.; commonly this has two prongs, "tines";
for digging, breaking up surface soil, preparing for hand weeding
and for planting the three-pronged fork is used. The word is
also applied to many objects which are characterizedby branching
ends, as the tuning-fork, with two branching metal prongs,
which on being struck vibrates and gives a musical note, used to
give a standard of pitch; to the branching into two streams
of a river, or the junction where a tributary runs into the main
river; and in the huhian body, to that part where the legs
branch off from the trunk.
The furca, two pieces of wood fastened together in the form
of the letter A, was used by the Romans as an instrument of
punishment. It was placed over the shoulders of the criminal,
and his hands were fastened to it, condemned slaves were com-
pelled to carry it about with them, and those sentenced to be
flogged would be tied to it; crucifixions were sometimes carried
out on a similar shaped instrument. From the great defeat of
the Romans by the Samnites at the battle of the Caudine Forks
(Furculae Caudinae), a narrow gorge, where the vanquished
were compelled to pass under the yoke (jugum), as a sign of
submission, the expression " to pass through or under the forks "
has been loosely used of such a disgraceful surrender. The
" forks " in any allusion to this defeat should refer to the topo-
graphical name and not to the jugum, which consisted of two
upright spears with a third placed transversely as a cross-bar.
FORKEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1749-1818), German
musician, was born on the 22nd of February 1749 at Meeder
in Coburg. He was the son of a cobbler, and as a practical
musician, especially as a pianoforte player, achieved some
eminence; but his claims to a more abiding name rest chiefly
upon his literary skill and deep research as an historian of musical
science and literature. He was an enthusiastic admirer of J. S.
Bach, whose music he did much to popularize. His library,
which was accumulated with care and discrimination at a time
when rare books were cheap, forms a valuable portion of the
royal library in Berlin and also of the library of the Koniglicher
Institut fur Kirchenmusik. He was organist to the university
church of Gottingen, obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy,
and in 1778 became musical director of the university. He died
at Gottingen on the 2oth of March 1818. The following is a list
of his principal works: Uber die Theorie der Musik (Gottingen,
\Tli);Miisikalisch kritische Bibliothek (Gotha, 1778); Allgemeine
Geschichte der Musik (Leipzig, 1788). The last is his most im-
portant work. He also wrote a Dictionary of Musical Literature,
which is full of valuable material. To his musical compositions,
which are numerous, little interest is to-day to be attached.
But it is worth noting that he wrote variations on the English
national anthem " God save the king " for the clavichord, and
that Abt Vogler wrote a sharp criticism on them, which appeared
at Frankfort in 1793 together with a set of variations as he
conceived they ought to be written.
FORL! (anc. Forum Livii), a town and episcopal see of Emilia,
Italy, the capital of the province of Forli, 40 m. S.E. of Bologna
by rail, 108 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 15,461 (town);
43,321' (commune). Forli is situated on the railway between
Bologna and Rimini. It is connected by steam tramways with
Ravenna and Meldola, and by a road through the Apennines
with Pontassieve. The church of S. Mercuriale stands in the
principal square, and contains, besides paintings, some good
carved and inlaid choir stalls by Alessandro dei Bigni. The
facade has been considerably altered, but the campanile, erected
in 1178-1180, still exists; it is 252 ft. in height, square and built
of brickwork, and is one of the finest of Lombard campauili.
The pictures in this church are the work of Marco Palmezzano
(1456-1537) and others; S. Biagio and the municipal picture
gallery also contain works by him. The latter has other interest-
ing pictures, including a fresco representing an apprentice with
pestle and mortar (Pestapepe), the only authentic work in Forli
of Melozzo da Forli (1438-1494), an eminent master whose style
was formed under the influence of Piero della Francesca, and
who was the master of Palmezzano; the frescoes in the Sforza
chapel in SS. Biagio e Girolamo are from the former's designs,
though executed by the latter. The church also contains the
fine tomb (1466) of Barbara Manfredi. The cathedral (Santa
Croce) has been almost entirely rebuilt since 1844. The Palazzo
del Podesta, now a private house, is a brick building of the isth
century. The citadel (Rocca Ravaldina), constructed about
1360-1370, and later rebuilt, is now used as a prison. Flavio
Biondo, the first Renaissance writer on the topography of ancient
Rome (1388-1463), was a native of Forli.
Of the ancient Forum Livii, which lay on the Via Aemilia,
hardly anything is known. In the i2th century we find Forli
in league with Ravenna, and in the i3th the imperial count of
the province of Romagna resided there. In 1275 Forli defeated
Bologna with great loss. Martin IV. sent an army to besiege
it in 1282, which was driven out after severe fighting in the streets;
but the town soon afterwards surrendered. In the i4th and
1 5th centuries it was under the government of the Ordelaffi;
and in 1500 was taken by Caesar Borgia, despite a determined
resistance by Caterina Sforza, widow of Girolamo Riario. Forii
finally became a part of the papal state in 1504. (T. As.)
FORLIMPOPOLI (anc. Forum Popillil), a village of Emilia,
Italy, in the province of Forli, from which it is 5 m. S.E. by rail,
105 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2299 (town); 5795 (com-
mune) . The ancient Forum Popillii, a station on the Via Aemilia,
was destroyed by Grimuald in 672. Whether its site is occupied
by the present town is not certain; the former should perhaps
be sought a mile or so farther to the S.E., where were found most
of the inscriptions of which the place of discovery is certain.
Forlimpopoli was again destroyed by Cardinal Albornoz in 1360,
and rebuilt by Sinibaldo Ordelaffi, who constructed the well-
preserved medieval castle (1380), rectangular with four circular
towers at the corners. (T. As.)
FORLORN HOPE (through Dutch iierloren hoop, from Ger.
verlorene Haufe = " lost troop "; Haufe, " heap," being equiva-
lent in the I7th century to " body of troops "; the French
FORM FORMAN, A.
667
equivalent isenfanls perdus) , a military term (sometimes shortened
to " forlorn "), used in the i6th and i7th centuries for a body
of troops thrown out in front of the line of battle to engage the
hostile line, somewhat after the fashion of skirmishers, though
they were always solid closed bodies. These troops ran great
risks, because they were often trapped between the two lines of
battle as the latter closed upon one another, and fired upon or
ridden down by their friends; further, their mission was to
facilitate the attacks of their own main body by striking the
first blow against or meeting the first shock of the fresh and
unshaken enemy. In the following century (i8th), when lines
of masses were no longer employed, a thin line of skirmishers
alone preceded the three-deep line of battle, but the term
" forlorn hope " continued to be used for picked bodies of men
entrusted with dangerous tasks, and in particular for the storming
party at the assault of a fortress. In this last sense " forlorn
hope," is often used at the present time. The misunderstanding
of the word " hope " has led to various applications of " forlorn
hope " such as to an enterprise offering little chance of success,
or, further still from the original meaning, to the faint or desperate
hope of such success.
FORM (Lat. forma), in general, the external shape, appearance,
configuration of an object, in contradistinction to the matter of
which it is composed; thus a speech may contain excellent
arguments, the mailer may be good, while the style, grammar,
arrangement, the form is bad. The term, with its adjective
" formal " and the derived nouns " formality " and " formalism,"
is hence contemptuously used for that which is superficial,
unessential, hypocritical: chap, xxiii. of Matthew's gospel is
a classical instance of the distinction between the formalism
of the Pharisaic code and genuine religion. With this may be
compared the popular phrases " good form " and " bad form "
applied to behaviour in society: so " format " (from the French)
is technically used of the shape and size, e.g. of a book (octavo,
quarto, &c.) or of a cigarette. The word " form " is also applied
to certain definite objects: in printing a body of type secured
in a chase for printing at one impression (" form " or " forme ") ;
a bench without a back, such as is used in schools (perhaps to
be compared with O. Fr. s'asseoir en forme, to sit in a row) ; a
mould or shape on or in which an object is manufactured; the
lair or nest of a hare. From its use in the sense of regulated order
comes the application of the term to a class in a school (" sixth
form," " fifth form," &c.); this sense has been explained without
sufficient ground as due to the idea of all children in the same
class sitting on a single form (bench).
The word has been used technically in philosophy with various
shades of meaning. Thus it is used to translate the Platonic
idea, eldos, the permanent reality which makes a thing what
it is, in contrast with the particulars which are finite and subject
to change. Whether Plato understood these forms as actually
existent apart from all the particular examples, or as being of the
nature of immutable physical laws, is matter of discussion. For
practical purposes Aristotle was the first to distinguish between
matter (uX?j) and form (et5os). To Aristotle matter is the
undifferentiated primal element: it is rather that from which
things develop (inoKtl^vov , dvvafjus) than a thing in itself
(evfpjfia). The development of particular things from this
germinal matter consists in differentiation, the acquiring of
particular forms of which the knowable universe consists (cf.
CAUSATION for the Aristotelian " formal cause ") . The perfection
of the form of a thing is its entelechy (pTeXex etc O m virtue of
which it attains its fullest realization of function (De anima,
ii. 2, i) filv v\t] 8vva.iJ.is 76 6e eiSos ^crtXex*"*)- Thus the
entelechy of the body is the soul. The origin of the differentia-
tion process is to be sought in a " prime mover " (TTQUTOV KIVOVV),
i.e. pure form entirely separate (xupurrov) from all matter,
eternal, unchangeable, operating not by its own activity but by
the impulse which its own absolute existence excites in matter
(o ipw^tvov, ov KIVOUIMVOV) . The Aristotelian conception of
form was nominally, though perhaps in most cases unintelligently,
adopted by the Scholastics, to whom, however, its origin in the
observation of the physical universe was an entirely foreign
idea. .The most remarkable adaptation is probably that of
Aquinas, who distinguished the spiritual world with its " sub-
sistent forms " (formae separalae) from the material with its
" inherent forms " which exist only in combination with matter.
Bacon, returning to the physical standpoint, maintained that all
true research must be devoted to the discovery of the real nature
or essence of things. His induction searches for the true " form "
of light, heat and so forth, analysing the external " form " given
in perception into simpler " forms " and their " differences."
Thus he would collect all possible instances of hot things, and
discover that which is present in all, excluding all those qualities
which belong accidentally to lone or more of the examples
investigated: the " form " of heat is the residuum common to
all. Kant transferred the term from the objective to the sub-
jective sphere. All perception is necessarily conditioned by
pure " forms of sensibility," i.e. space and time: whatever is
perceived is perceived as having special and temporal relations
(see SPACE AND TIME; KANT). These forms are not obtained
by abstraction from sensible data, nor are they strictly speaking
innate: they are obtained " by the very action of the mind from
the co-ordination of its sensation."
FORMALIN, or FORMALDEHYDE, CH 2 O or H-CHO, the first
member of the series of saturated aliphatic aldehydes. It is
most readily prepared by passing the vapour of methyl alcohol,
mixed with air, over heated copper or platinum. In order to
collect the formaldehyde, the vapour is condensed and absorbed,
either in water or alcohol. It may also be obtained, although
only in small quantities, by the distillation of calcium formate.
At ordinary temperatures formaldehyde is a gas possessing
a pungent smell; it is a strong antiseptic and disinfectant,
a 40% solution of the aldehyde in water or methyl alcohol,
sold as formalin, being employed as a deodorant, fungicide
and preservative. It is not possible to obtain the alde-
hyde in a pure condition, since it readily polymerizes. It is
a strong reducing agent; it combines with ammonia to form
hexamelhylene letramine, (CH 2 )eN4, and easily " condenses "
in the presence of many bases to produce compounds which
apparently belong to the sugars (q.v.). It renders glue or gelatin
insoluble in water, and is used in the coal-tar colour industry
in the manufacture of para-rosaniline, pyronines and rosamines.
Several polymers have been described. Para-formaldehyde, or
trioxymethylene, obtained by concentrating solutions of form-
aldehyde in vacua, is a white crystalline solid, which sublimes at
about 100 C. and melts at a somewhat higher temperature,
changing back into the original form. It is insoluble in cold
water, alcohol and ether. A diformaldehyde is supposed to
separate as white flakes when the vapour is passed into chloro-
form (Ko'rber, Pharm. Zeit., 1904, xlix. p. 609); F. Auerbach
and H. Barschall (Chem. Zentr., 1907, ii. p. 1734) obtained three
polymers by acting with concentrated sulphuric acid on solutions
of formaldehyde, and a fourth by heating one of the forms so
obtained. The strength of solutions of formaldehyde may be
ascertained by the addition of excess of standard ammonia to the
aldehyde solution (hexamethylene tetramine being formed),
the excess of ammonia being then estimated by titration with
standard acid. On the formation of formaldehyde by the
oxidation of methane at high temperatures, see W. A. Bone
(Journ. Chem. Soc., 1902, 81, p. 535; 1903, 83, p. 1074). Form-
aldehyde also appears to be a reduction product of carbon
dioxide (see Annual Reports of the Chemical Society).
FORMAN, ANDREW (c. 1465-1521), Scottish ecclesiastic, was
educated at the university of St Andrews and entered the service
of King James IV. about 1489. He soon earned the favour of
this king, who treated him with great generosity and who on
several occasions sent him on important embassies to the English,
the French and the papal courts. In 1501 he became bishop of
Moray and in July 1513 Louis XII. of France secured his appoint-
ment as archbishop of Bourges, while pope Julius II. promised
to make him a cardinal. In 1514 during a long absence from his
own land Foiman was nominated by Pope Leo X. to the vacant
archbishopric of St Andrews and was made papal legate in
Scotland, but it was some time before he secured possession of
668
FORMAN, S. FORMIC ACID
the see owing to the attempts of Henry VIII. to subject Scotland
to England and to the efforts of his rivals, Gavin Douglas, the
poet, and John Hepburn, prior of St Andrews, and their sup-
porters. Eventually, however, he resigned some of his many
benefices, the holding of which bad made him unpopular, and
through the good offices of the regent, John Stewart, duke of
Albany, obtained the coveted archbishopric and the primacy
of Scotland. Afterwards he was one of the vice-regents of the
kingdom and he died on the i ith of March 1521. As archbishop
he issued a series of constitutions which are printed in J. Robert-
son's Concilia Scotiae (1866). Mr Andrew Lang (History of
Scotland, vol. i.) describes Forman as " the Wolsey of Scotland,
and a fomenter of the war which ended at Flodden."
See the biography of the archbishop which forms vol. ii. of The
Archbishops of St Andrews, by J. Herkless and R. K. Hannay (1909).
FORMAN, SIMON (1552-1611), English physician and astro-
loger, was born in 1552 at Quidham, a small village near Wilton,
Wiltshire. At the age of fourteen he became apprentice to a
druggist at Salisbury, but at the end of four years he exchanged
this profession for that of a schoolmaster. "Shortly afterwards
he entered Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied chiefly
medicine and astrology. After continuing the same studies in
Holland he commenced practice as a physician in Philpot Lane,
London, but as he possessed no diploma, he on this account
underwent more than one term of imprisonment. Ultimately,
however, he obtained a diploma from Cambridge university,
and established himself as a physician and astrologer at Lambeth,
where he was consulted, especially as a physician, by many
persons of rank, among others by the notorious countess of
Essex. He expired suddenly while crossing the Thames in a
boat on the i2th of September 1611.
A list of Forman's works on astrology is given in Bliss's edition
of the Athenae Oxonienses; many of his MS. works are contained
in the Bodleian Library, the British Museum and the Plymouth
Library. A Brief Description of the Forman MSS. in the Public
Library, Plymouth, was published in 1853.
FORHERET, a French architectural term for the wall-rib
carrying the web or filling-in of a vault (q.v.).
FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL (1711-1797),
Franco-German author, was born of French parentage at Berlin
on the 3 ist of May 1 7 1 1 . He was educated for the ministry, and
at the age of twenty became pastor of the French church at
Brandenburg. Having in 1736 accepted the invitation of a
congregation in Berlin, he was in the following year chosen pro-
fessor of rhetoric in the French college of that city and in 1739
professor of philosophy. On the organization of the academy
of Berlin in 1744 he was named a member, and in 1748 became
its perpetual secretary. He died at Berlin on the 7th of March
1797. His principal works are La Belle Wolfienne (1741-1750,
6 vols.), a kind of novel written with the view of enforcing the
precepts of the Wolfian philosophy; Bibliotheque critique, ou
mfmoires pour seroir a I'histoire litteraire ancienne et moderne
(1746); Le Philosophe chrftien (17.50); L'mile chritien (1764),
intended as an answer to the mile of Rousseau; and Souvenirs
d'un citoyen (Berlin, 1789). He also published an immense
number of contemporary memoirs in the transactions of the
Berlin Academy.
FORMIA (anc. Formiae, called Mola di Gaeta until recent
times), a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta,
from which it is 48 m. W.N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 5514
(town); 8452 (commune). It is situated at the N.W. extremity
of the Bay of Gaeta, and commands beautiful views. It lay on
the ancient Via Appia, and was much frequented as a resort by
wealthy Romans. There was considerable imperial property
here and along the coast as far as Sperlonga, and there are
numerous remains of ancient villas along the coast and on the
slopes above it. The so-called villa of Cicero contains two well-
preserved nymphaea with Doric architecture. Its site is now
occupied by the villa Caposele, once a summer residence 'of the
kings of Naples. There are many other modern villas, and the
sheltered hillsides (for the mountains rise abruptly behind the
town) are covered with lemon, orange and pomegranate gardens.
The now deserted nromontory of the Monte Scauri to the E. is
also covered with remains of ancient villas; the hill is crowned
by a large tomb, known as Torre Giano. To the E. at Scauri is
a large villa with substructions in " Cyclopean " work. The
ancient Formiae was, according to the legend, the home of the
Laestrygones, and later a Spartan colony ('Opjuieu 81.0. TO efiopiiov,
Strabo v. 3. 6, p. 233). It was a Volscian town, and, like Fundi,
received the civilas sine suffragio from Rome in 338 (or 332 B.C.)
because the passage through its territory had always been secure.
This was strategically important for the Romans, as the military
road definitely constructed by Appius Claudius in 312 B.C., still
easily traceable by its remains, and in part followed by the
high-road, traversed a narrow pass, which could easily be blocked,
between Fundi and Formiae. In 188 B.C., with Fundi, it received
the full citizenship, and, like it, was to a certain extent under
the control of a praefectus sent from Rome, though it retained
its three aediles. Mamurra was a native of Formia. Cicero
possessed a favourite villa here, and was murdered in its vicinity
in 43 B.C., but neither the villa nor the tomb can be identified
with any certainty. It was devastated by Sextus Pompeius,
and became a colony, with duoviri as chief magistrates, under
Hadrian. Portus Caietae (the modern Gaeta) was dependent
upon it.
See T. Ashby, " Dessins inedits de Carlo Labruzzi," in Melanges
de I'ecolefrangaise de Rome (1903), 410 seq. (T. As.)
FORMIC ACID, H 2 CO 2 or H-COOH, the first member of the
series of aliphatic monobasic acids of the general formula
C n H 2n O 2 . It is distinguished from the other members of the
series by certain characteristic properties; for example, it
shows an aldehydic character in reducing silver salts to metallic
silver, and it does not form an acid chloride or an acid anhydride.
Its nitrile (prussic acid) has an acid character, a property not
possessed by the nitriles of the other members of the series;
and, by the abstraction of the elements of water from the acid,
carbon monoxide is produced, a reaction which finds no parallel
in the higher members of the series. Finally, formic acid is, as
shown by the determination of its affinity constant, a much
stronger acid than the other acids of the series. It occurs
naturally in red ants (Lat. formica), in stinging nettles, in some
mineral waters, in animal secretions and in muscle. It may be
prepared artificially by the oxidation of methyl alcohol and of
formaldehyde; by the rapid heating of oxalic acid (J. Gay-
Lussac, Ann. Mm. phys., 1831 [2] 46, p. 218), but best by heating
oxalic acid with glycerin, at a temperature of 100-110 C. (M.
Berthelot, Ann., 1856, 98, p. 139). In this reaction a glycerol
ester is formed as an intermediate product, and undergoes
decomposition by the water which is also produced at the same
time.
C 3 H6(OH) 2 O-CHO+H 2 O = C 3 H 6 (OH)j-i-H 2 CO 2 .
Many other synthetical processes for the production of the acid
or its salts are known. Hydrolysis of hydrocyanic acid by means
of hydrochloric acid yields formic acid. Chloroform boiled with
alcoholic potash forms potassium formate (J. Dumas, Berzelius
Jahresberichte, vol. 15, p. 371), a somewhat similar decomposition
being shown by chloral and aqueous potash (J. v. Liebig, Ann.,
1832, i, p. 198). Formates are also produced by the action of
moist carbon monoxide on soda lime at 190-220 C. (V. Merz and
J. Tibigira, Ber., 1880, 13, p. 23; A. Geuthcr, Ann., 1880, 202.
P- 317)1 or by the action of moist carbon dioxide on potassium
(H. Kclbe and R. Schmitt, Ann., 1861, 119, p. 251). H. Moissau
(Comptes rend., 1902, 134, p. 261) prepared potassium formate by
passing a current of carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide over heated
potassium hydride,
KH+CO 2 = KHCO 2 and KH+2CO = KHCO 2 +C.
A concentrated acid may be obtained from the diluted acid either
by neutralization with soda, the sodium salt thus obtained being
then dried and heatd with the equivalent quantity of anhydrous
oxalic acid (Lorin, Bull. soc. chim., 37, p. 104), or the lead or copper
salt may be decomposed by dry sulphuretted hydrogen at 130 C.
L. Maquenne (Bull. soc. chim., 1888, 50, p. 662) distils the commercial
acid, in vacua, with concentrated sulphuric acid below 75 C.
Formic acid is a colourless, sharp-srnelling liquid, which crystal-
lizes at p C., melts at 8-6 C. and boils at 100-8 C. Its specific
gravity is 1-22 (2O/4). It is miscible in all proportions with water,
alcohol and ether. When heated with zinc dust, the acid decomposes
into carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The sodium and potassium
salts, when heated to 400 C., give oxalates and carbonates of the
FORMOSA
669
alkali metals, but the magnesium, calcium and barium salts yield
carbonates only. The free acid, when heated with concentrated
sulphuric acid, is decomposed into water and pure carbon monoxide ;
when heated with nitric acid, it is oxidized first to oxalic acid and
finally to carbon dioxide. The salts of the acid are known as for-
mates, and are mostly soluble in water, those of silver and lead being
the least soluble. They crystallize well and are readily decomposed.
Concentrated sulphuric acid converts them into sulphates, with
simultaneous liberation of carbon monoxide. The calcium salt,
when heated with the calcium salts of higher homologues, gives
aldehydes. The silver and mercury salts, when heated, yield the
metal, with liberation of carbon dioxide and formation of free
formic acid; and the ammonium salt, when distilled, gives some
formamide, HCONH 2 . The esters of the acid may be obtained
by distilling a mixture of the sodium or potassium salts and the
corresponding alcohol with hydrochloric or sulphuric acids.
Formamide, HCONH 2 , is obtained by heating ethyl formate with
ammonia; by heating ammonium formate with urea to 140 C.,
2HCO-ONH 4 +CO(NH 2 ) 2 =2HCONH 2 +(NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 ;
by heating ammonium formate in a sealed tube for some hours at
230 C., or by the action of sodium amalgam on a solution of
potassium cyanate (H. Basarow, Ber., 1871, 4, p. 409). It is a liquid
which boils in vacua at 150, but at 192-195 C. under ordinary
atmospheric pressure, with partial decomposition into carbon
monoxide and ammonia. It dissolves mercuric oxide, with the
formation of mercuric formamide, (HCONH) 2 Hg.
FORMOSA, a northern territory of the Argentine republic,
bounded N. by Bolivia, N.E. and E. by Paraguay, S. by
the Chaco Territory, and W. by Salta, with the Pilcomayo
and Bermejo forming its northern and southern boundaries.
Estimated area, 41,402 sq. m. It is a vast plain, sloping gently
to the S.E., covered with marshes and tropical forests. Very
little is known of it except small areas along the Bermejo and
Paraguay rivers, where attempts have been made to form
settlements. The unexplored interior is still occupied by tribes
of wild Indians. The climate is hot, the summer tempera-
ture rising to a maximum of 104 F. Timber-cutting is the
principal occupation of the settlers, though stock-raising and
agriculture engage some attention in the settlements on the
Paraguay. The capital, Formosa (founded 1879), is a small
settlement on the Paraguay with a population of about 1000 in
1900. The settled population of the territory was 4829 in 1895,
which it was estimated had increased to 13,431 in 1905. The
nomadic Indians are estimated at 8000.
FORMOSA (called Taiwan by the Chinese, and following
them by the Japanese, into whose possession it came after their
war with China in 1895), an island in the western Pacific Ocean,
between the Southern and the Eastern China Sea, separated
from the Chinese mainland by the Formosa Strait, which has
a width of about 90 m. in its narrowest part. The island is
225 m. long and from 60 to 80 m. broad, has a coast-line measuring
731 m., an area of 13,429 sq. m. being thus nearly the same
size as Kiushiu, the most southern of the four chief islands
forming the Japanese empire proper and extends from 20 56'
to 25 15' N. and from 120 to 122 E. It forms part of the long
line of islands which are interposed as a protective barrier
between the Asiatic coast and the outer Pacific, and is the cause
of the immunity from typhoons enjoyed by the ports of China
from Amoy to the Yellow Sea. Along the western coast is a low
plain, not exceeding 20 m. in extreme width; on the east coast
there is a rich plain called Giran, and there are also some fertile
valleys in the neighbourhood of Karenko and Pinan, extending
up the longitudinal valleys of the rivers Karenko and Pinan,
between which and the east coast the Taito range intervenes;
but the rest of the island is mountainous and covered with virgin
forest. In the plains the soil is generally of sand or alluvial
clay, covered in the valleys with a rich vegetable mould. The
scenery of Formosa is frequently of majestic beauty, and to
this it is indebted for its European name, happily bestowed by
the early Spanish navigators.
On the addition of Formosa to her dominions, Fuji ceased
to be Japan's highest mountain, and took the third place on the
list. Mount Morrison (14,270 ft.), which the Japanese re-named
Niitaka-yama (New High Mountain), stands first, and Mount
Sylvia (12,480 ft.), to which they give the name of Setzu-zan
(Snowy Mountain), comes second. Mount Morrison stands
nearly under the Tropic of Cancer. It is not volcanic, but consists
of argillaceous schist and quartzite. An ascent made by Dr
Honda of the imperial university of Japan showed that, up to
a height of 6000 ft., the mountain is clothed with primeval
forests of palms, banyans, cork trees, camphor trees, tree ferns,
interlacing creepers and dense thickets of rattan or stretches
of grass higher than a man's stature. The next interval of 1000
ft. has gigantic cryptomerias and chamoecyparis; then follow
pines; then, at a height of 9500 ft., a broad plateau, and then
alternate stretches of grass and forest up to the top, which
consists of several small peaks. There is no snow. Mount
Morrison, being surrounded by high ranges, is not a conspicuous
object. Mount Sylvia lies in 24 30' N. lat. There are many
other mountains of considerable elevation. In the north is
Getsurobi-zan (4101 ft.); and on either side of Setzu-zan, with
which they form a range running due east and west across the
island, are Jusampunzan (4698 ft.) and Kali-zan (7027 ft.).
Twenty-two miles due south of Kali-zan stands Hakumosha-zan
(5282 ft.), and just 20 m. due south of Hakumosha-zan begins
a chain of three peaks, Suisha-zan (6200 ft.), Hoo-zan (4928),
and Niitaka-yama. These five mountains, Hari-zan, Hakumosha-
zan, Suisha-zan, Hoo-zan and Niitaka-yama, stand almost
exactly under 1 2 1 E. long. , in the very centre of the island. But
the backbone of the island lies east of them, extending S. from
Setzu-zan through Gokan-zan, and Noko-zan and other peaks
and bending S.W. to Niitaka-yama. Yet farther south, and
still lying in line down the centre of the island, are Sankyakunan-
zan (3752 ft.), Shurogi-zan (5729 ft.), Poren-zan (4957 ft.), and
Kado-zan (9055 ft.), and, finally, in the south-east Arugan-zan
(4985 ft.). These, it will be observed, are all Japanese names,
and the heights have been determined by Japanese observers.
In addition to these remarkable inland mountains, Formosa's
eastern shores show magnificent cliff scenery, the bases of the
hills on the seaside taking the form of almost perpendicular
walls as high as from 1500 to 2500 ft. Volcanic outbreaks of
steam and sulphur-springs are found. Owing to the precipitous
character of the east coast few rivers of any size find their way to
the sea in that direction. The west coast, on the contrary, has
many streams, but the only two of any considerable length
are the Kotansui, which rises on Shurogi-zan, and has its mouth
at Toko after a course of some 60 m. and the Seirakei, which
rises on Hakumosha-zan, and enters the sea at a point 57 m.
farther north after a course of 90 m.
The climate is damp, hot and malarious. In the north, the
driest and best months are October, November and December;
in the south, December, January, February and March. The
sea immediately south of Formosa is the birthplace of innumer-
able typhoons, but the high mountains of the island protect it
partially against the extreme violence of the wind.
Flora and Fauna. The vegetation of the island is charac-
terized by tropical luxuriance, the moutainous regions being
clad with dense forest, in which various species of palms, the
camphor-tree (Laurus Camphora), and the aloe are conspicuous.
Consul R. Swinhoe obtained no fewer than 65 different kinds of
timber from a large yard in Taiwanfu; and his specimens are
now to be seen in the museum at Kew. The tree which supplies
the materials for the pith paper of the Chinese is not uncommon,
and the cassia tree is found in the mountains. Travellers are
especially struck with the beauty of some of the wild flowers,
more especially with the lilies and convolvuluses; and European
greenhouses have been enriched by several Formosan orchids and
other ornamental plants. The pine-apple grows in abundance.
In the lowlands of the western portion, the Chinese have intro-
duced a large number of cultivated plants and fruit trees. Rice
is grown in such quantities as to procure for Formosa, in former
days, the title of the " granary of China '*; and the sweet potato,
taro, millet, barley, wheat and maize are also cultivated.
Camphor, sugar, tea, indigo, ground peanuts, jute, hemp, oil
and rattans are all articles of export.
The Formosan fauna has been but partially ascertained; but
at least three kinds of deer, wild boars, bears, goats, monkeys
(probably Macacus speciosus), squirrels, and flying squirrels
6?o
FORMOSA
are fairly common, and panthers and wild cats are not unfrequent.
A poisonous but beautiful green snake is often mentioned by
travellers. Pheasants, ducks, geese and snipe are abundant,
and Dr C. Collingwood in his Naturalist's Rambles in the China
Seas mentions Ardea prasinosceles and other species of herons,
several species of fly-catchers, kingfishers, shrikes and larks,
the black drongo, the Cotyle sinensis and the Prinia sonitans,
Dogs are kept by the savages for hunting. The horse is hardly
known, and his place is taken by the ox, which is regularly bridled
and saddled and ridden with all dignity. The rivers and neigh-
bouring seas seem to be well stocked with fish, and especial
mention must be made of the turtles, flying-fish, and brilliant
coral-fish which swarm in the waters warmed by the Kurosiwo
current, the gulf-stream of the Pacific. Shell-fish form an
important article of diet to both the Chinese and the aborigines
along the coast a species of Cyrena, a species of Tapes, Cytheraea
petechiana and Modiola leres being most abundant.
Population. The population of Formosa, according to a
census in 1904, is estimated at 3,022,687, made up as follows:
aborigines 104,334, Chinese 2,860,574 and Japanese 51,770.
The inhabitants of Formosa may be divided into four classes:
the Japanese, who are comparatively few, as there has not been
much tendency to immigration; the Chinese, many of whom
immigrated from the neighbourhood of Amoy and speak the
dialect of that district, while others were Hakkas from the
vicinity of Swatow; the subjugated aborigines, who largely
intermingled with the Chinese; and the uncivilized aborigines
of the eastern region who refuse to recognize authority and
carry on raids as opportunity occurs. The semi-civilized
aborigines, who adopted the Chinese language, dress and customs,
were called Pe-pa-hwan (Anglice Pepo-hoans), while their
wilder brethren bear the name of Chin-hwan or " green savages,"
otherwise Sheng-fan or " wild savages." They appear to belong
to the Malay stock, and their language bears out the supposition.
They are broken up into almost countless tribes and clans,
many of which number only a few hundred individuals, and
their language consequently presents a variety of dialects, of
which no classification has yet been effected: in the district
of Posia alone a member of the Presbyterian mission distin-
guished eight different mutually unintelligible dialects. The
people themselves are described as of " middle height, broad-
chested and muscular, with remarkably large hands and feet,
the eyes large, the forehead round, and not narrow or receding
in many instances, the nose broad, the mouth large and disfigured
with betel." The custom of tattooing is universal. In the north
of the island at least, the dead are buried in a sitting posture
under the bed on which they have expired. Petty wars are
extremely common, not only along the Chinese frontiers, but
between the neighbouring clans; and the heads of the slain are
carefully preserved as trophies. In some districts the young
men and boys sleep in the skull-chambers, in order that they
may be inspired with courage. Many of the tribes that had
least intercourse with the Chinese show a considerable amount
of skill in the arts of civilization. The use of Manchester prints
and other European goods is fairly general; and the women,
who make a fine native cloth from hemp, introduce coloured
threads from the foreign stuffs, so as to produce ornamental
devices. The office of chieftain is sometimes held by women.
The chie f town is Taipe (called by the Japanese Taihoku),
which is on the Tamsui-yei river, and has a population of about
118,000, including 5850 Japanese. Taipe may be said to have
two ports; one, Tamsui, at the mouth of the river Tamsui-yei,
10 m. distant on the north-west coast, the other Kelung (called
by the Japanese Kiirun), on the north-east shore, with which
it is connected by rail, a run of some 18 m. The foreign settle-
ment at Taipe lies outside the walls of the city, and is called
Twatutia (Taitotei by the Japanese). Kelung (the ancient
Pekiang) is an excellent harbour, and the scenery is very beauti-
ful. There are coal-mines in the neighbourhood. Tamsui
(called Tansui by the Japanese) is usually termed Hobe by
foreigners. It is the site of the first foreign settlement, has a
population of about 7000, but cannot be made a good harbour
without considerable expenditure. On the west coast there is
no place of any importance until reaching Anping (23 N. lat.),
a port where a few foreign merchants reside for the sake of the
sugar trade. It is an unlovely place, surrounded by mud flats,
and a hotbed of malaria. It has a population of 4000 Chinese
and 200 Japanese. At a distance of some 2\ m. inland is the
former capital of Formosa, the walled city of Tainan, which has
a population of 100,000 Chinese, 2300 Japanese, and a few
British merchants and missionaries. Connected with Anping
by rail (26 m.) and laying south of it is Takau, a treaty port. It
has a population of 6800, and is prettily situated on two sides
of a large lagoon. Six miles inland from Takau is a prosperous
Chinese town called Fengshan (Japanese, Hozan). The anchor-
ages on the east coast are Soo, Karenko and Pinan, which do
not call for special notice. Forty-seven m. east of the extreme
south coast there is a little island called Botel-tobago (Japanese,
Koto-sho), which rises to a height of 1914 ft. and is inhabited
by a tribe whose customs differ essentially from those of the
natives on the main island.
Administration and Commerce. The island is treated as an
outlying territory; it has not been brought within the full
purview of the Japanese constitution. Its affairs are administered
by a governor-general, who is also commander-in-chief of the
forces, by a bureau of civil government, and by three prefectural
governors, below whom are the heads of twenty territorial
divisions called cho; its finances are not included in the general
budget of the Japanese empire; it is garrisoned by a mixed
brigade taken from the home divisions; and its currency is on
a silver basis. One of the first abuses with which the Japanese
had to deal was the excessive use of opium by the Chinese
settlers. To interdict the importation of the drug altogether,
as is done in Japan, was the step advocated by Japanese public
opinion. But, influenced by medical views and by the almost
insuperable difficulty of enforcing any drastic import veto in
the face of Formosa's large communications by junk with China,
the Japanese finally adopted the middle course of licensing the
preparation and sale of the drug, and limiting its use to persons
in receipt of medical sanction. Under the administration of the
Japanese the island has been largely developed. Among other
industries gold-mining is advancing rapidly. In 1902 48,400
oz. of gold representing a value of 168,626 were obtained from
the mines and alluvial washings. Coal is also found in large
quantities near Kelung and sulphur springs exist in the north
of the island.
An extensive scheme of railway construction has been planned,
the four main lines projected being (i) from Takau to Tainan;
(2) from Tainan to Kagi; (3) from Kagi to Shoka; and (4) from
Shoka to Kelung; these four forming, in effect, a main trunk
road running from the south-west to the north-east, its course
being along the foot of the mountains that border the western
coast-plains. The Takau-Tainan section (26 m.) was opened to
traffic on the 3rd of November 1900, and by 1905 the whole line
of 259 m. was practically complete. Harbour improvements also
are projected, but in Formosa, as in Japan proper, paucity of
capital constitutes a fatal obstacle to rapid development.
There are thirteen ports of export and import, but 75 % of the
total business is done at Tamsui. Tea and camphor are the
staple exports. The greater part of the former goes to Amoy
for re-shipment to the west, but it is believed that if harbour
improvements were effected at Tamsui so as to render it accessible
for ocean-going steamers, shipments would be made thence direct
to New York. The camphor trade being a government monopoly,
the quantity exported is under strict control.
History. The island of Formosa must have been known from
a very early date to the Chinese who were established in the
Pescadores. The inhabitants are mentioned in the official works
of the Yuan dynasty as Tung-fan or eastern barbarians; and
under the Ming dynasty the island begins to appear as Kilung.
In the beginning of the i6th century it began to be known to
the Portuguese and Spanish navigators, and the latter at least
made some attempts at establishing settlements or missions.
The Dutch were the first, however, to take footing in the island;
FORMOSUS (POPE)
671
in 1624 they built a fort, Zelandia, on the east coast, where
subsequently rose the town of Taiwan, and the settlement was
maintained for thrity-seven years. On the expulsion of the
Ming dynasty in China, a number of their defeated adherents
came over to Formosa, and under a leader called in European
accounts Coxinga, succeeded in expelling the Dutch and taking
possession of a good part of the island. In 1682 the Chinese
of Formosa recognized the emperor K'ang-hi, and the island
then began to form part of the Chinese empire. From the close
of the 1 7th century a long era of conflict ensued between the
Chinese and the aborigines. A more debased population than
the peoples thus struggling for supremacy could scarcely be
conceived. The aborigines, Sheng-fan, or " wild savages,"
deserved the appellation in some respects, for they lived by the
chase and had little knowledge even of husbandry; while the
Chinese themselves, uneducated labourers, acknowledged no
right except that of might. The former were not implacably
cruel or vindictive. They merely clung to their homesteads, and
harboured a natural resentment against the raiders who had
dispossessed them. Their disposition was to leave the Chinese in
unmolested possession of the plain. But some of the most
valuable products of the island, as camphor and rattan, are to be
found in the upland forests, and the Chinese, whenever they
ventured too far in search of these products, fell into ambushes
of hill-men who neither gave nor sought quarter, and who
regarded a Chinese skull as a specially attractive article of
household furniture. A violent rebellion is mentioned in 1788,
put down only after the loss, it is said, of 100,000 men by disease
and sword, and the expenditure of 2,000,000 taels of silver.
Reconciliation never took place on any large scale, though it is
true that, in the course of time, some fitful displays of ad-
ministrative ability on the part of the Chinese, and the opening
of partial means of communication, led to the pacification of a
section of the Sheng-fan, who thenceforth became known as
Pe-pa-hwan (Pepohoan).
In the early part of the ipth century the island was chiefly
known to Europeans on account of the wrecks which took place
on its coasts, and the dangers that the crews had to run from
the cannibal propensities of the aborigines, and the almost
equally cruel tendencies of the Chinese. Among the most
notable was the loss in 1842 of the British brig " Ann," with
fifty-seven persons on board, of whom forty-three were executed
at Taichu. By the treaty of Tientsin (1860) Taichu was opened
to European commerce, but the place was found quite unsuitable
for a port of trade, and the harbour of Tam-sui was selected
instead. From 1859 both Protestant and Presbyterian missions
were established in the island. An attack made on those at
Feng-shan (Hozan) in 1868 led to the occupation of Fort Zelandia
and Anping by British forces; but this action was disapproved
by the home government, and the indemnity demanded from
the Chinese restored. In 1874 the island was invaded by the
Japanese for the purpose of obtaining satisfaction for the murder
of a shipwrecked crew who had been put to death by one of the
semi-savage tribes on the southern coast, the Chinese govern-
ment being either unable or unwilling to punish the culprits.
A war was averted through the good offices of the British
minister, Sir T. F. Wade, and the Japanese retired on payment
of an indemnity of 500,000 taels. The political state of the
island during these years was very bad; in a report of 1872
there is recorded a proverb among the official classes, ' every
three years an outbreak, every five a rebellion "; but subsequent
to 1877 some improvement was manifested, and public works
were pushed forward by the Chinese authorities. In 1884, in
the course of belligerent proceedings arising out of the Tongking
dispute, the forts at Kelung on the north were bombarded by
the French fleet, and the place was captured and held for some
months by French troops. An attack on the neighbouring town
of Tamsui failed, but a semi-blockade of the island was main-
tained by the French fleet during the winter and spring of
1884-1885. The troops were withdrawn on the conclusion of
peace in June 1885.
In 1895 the island was ceded to Japan by the treaty of
Shimonoseki at the close of the Japanese war. The resident
Chinese officials, however, refused to recognize the cession, declared
a republic, and prepared to offer resistance. It is even said they
offered to transfer the sovereignty to Great Britain if that
power would accept it. A formal transfer to Japan was made
in June of the same year in pursuance of the treaty, the ceremony
taking place on board ship outside Kelung, as the Chinese
commissioners did not venture to land. The Japanese were
thus left to take possession as best they could, and some four
months elapsed before they effected a landing on the south of
the island. Takau was bombarded and captured on the 1 5th of
October, and the resistance collapsed. Liu Yung-fu, the notori-
ous Black Flag general, and the back-bone of the resistance,
sought refuge in flight. The general state of the island when the
Japanese assumed possession was that the plain of Giran on
the eastern coast and the hill-districts were inhabited by semi-
barbarous folk, the western plains by Chinese of a degraded type,
and that between the two there existed a traditional and con-
tinuous feud, leading to mutual displays of merciless and
murderous violence. By many of these Chinese settlers the
Japanese conquerors, when they came to occupy the island,
were regarded in precisely the same light as the Chinese them-
selves had been regarded from time immemorial by the abori-
gines. Insurrections occurred frequently, the insurgents receiv-
ing secret aid from sympathizers in China, and the difficulties
of the Japanese being increased not only by their ignorance of
the country, which abounds in fastnesses where bandits can find
almost inaccessible refuge, but also by the unwillingness of
experienced officials to abandon their home posts for the purpose
of taking service in the new territory.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. C. Imbault-Huart, L'lle Formose, histoire et
description (Paris, 1893), 4; J. D. Clark, Formosa (Shanghai,
1896); W. A. Pickering, Pioneering in Formosa (London, 1898);
George Candidius, A Short Account of the Island of Formosa in the
Indies . . ., vol. i. ; Churchill's Collection of Voyages (1744);
Robert Swinhoe, Notes on the Island of Formosa, read before the
British Association (1863); W. Campbell, "Aboriginal Savages of
Formosa," Ocean Highways (April 1873) ; H. J. Klaproth, Description
de I'Ue de Formose, mem. rel. a I'Asie (1826); Mrs T. F. Hughes,
Notes of a Six Years' Residence in Formosa (London, 1881); Y.
Takekoshi, Japanese Rule in Formosa (transl. by G. Braithwaite)
(London, 1907).
FORMOSUS, pope from 891 to 896, the successor of Stephen
V. (or VI.). He first appears in history when, as bishop of Porto,
he was sent on an embassy to the Bulgarians. Having afterwards
sided with a faction against John VIII., he was excommunicated,
and compelled to take an oath never to return to Rome or again
to assume his priestly functions. From this oath he was, however,
absolved by Marinus, the successor of John VIII., and restored
to his dignities; and on the death of Stephen V. in 891 he was
chosen pope. At that time the Holy See was engaged in a struggle
against the oppression of the princes of Spoleto, and a powerful
party in Rome was eager to obtain the intervention of Arnulf,
king of Germany , agai nst these dangerous neighbours. Formosus
himself shared this view; but he was forced to yield to circum-
stances and to consecrate as emperor Lambert, the young son
of Guy of Spoleto. Guy had already been consecrated by
Stephen V., and died in 894. In the following year Arnulf
succeeded in seizing Rome, and Formosifs crowned him emperor.
But, as he was advancing on Spoleto against Lambert, Arnulf
was seized with paralysis, and was forced to return to Germany.
Overwhelmed with chagrin, Formosus died on the 4th of April
896. The discords in which he had been involved continued
after his death. The validity of his acts was contested on the
pretext that, having been originally bishop of Porto, he could
not be a legitimate pope. The fundamental factor in these
dissensions was the rivalry between the princes of Spoleto and
the Carolingian house, represented by the king of Germany.
The body of Formosus was disinterred in 897 by Stephen VI.,
and treated with contumely as that of a usurper of the papal
throne; but Theodore II. restored it to Christian burial, and at
a council presided over by John IX. the pontificate of Formosus
was declared valid and all his acts confirmed. (L. D.*)
672
FORMULA FORREST, SIR J.
FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c.,
especially used of rules of judicial procedure), in general, a
stereotyped form of words to be used on stated occasions, for
specific purposes, ceremonies, &c. In the sciences, the word
usually denotes a symbolical statement of certain facts; for
example, a chemical formula exhibits the composition of a sub-
stance (see CHEMISTRY) ; a botanical formula gives the differentia
of a plant; a dentition formula indicates the arrangement and
number of the teeth of an animal.
FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO (1756-1799), Spanish
satirist and scholar, was born at Merida (Badajoz) on the 23rd
of February 1756, studied at the university of Salamanca, and
was called to the bar at Madrid in 1783. During the next few
years under the pseudonyms of " Tome Cecial," " Pablo
Segarra," "Don Antonio Varas," " Bartolo," "Pablo Igno-
causto," " El Bachiller Reganadientes," and " Silvio Liberio "
Forner was engaged in a series of polemics with Garcia de la
Huerta, Iriarte and other writers; the violence of his attacks
was so extreme that he was finally forbidden to publish any
controversial pamphlets, and was transferred to a legal post at
Seville. In 1796 he became crown prosecutor at Madrid, where
he died on the i7th of March 1799. Forner's brutality is almost
unexampled, and his satirical writings give a false impression of
his powers. His Oracidn apologetica par la Espana y su merito
liter ario (1787) is an excellent example of learned advocacy,
far superior to similar efforts made by Denina and Antonio
Cavanilles; and his posthumous Exequias de la lengua castellana
(printed in the Biblioteca de autores espanoles, vol. Ixiii.) testifies
to his scholarship and taste.
FORRES (Gaelic, far uis, " near water "), a royal and police
burgh of Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 3971; (1901)
4317. It is situated on the Findhorn, which sweeps past the town
and is crossed by a suspension bridge about a mile to the W.,
ii m. W. of Elgin by the Highland railway, and 6 m. by road
from Findhorn, its port, due north. It is one of the most ancient
towns in the north of Scotland. King Donald (892-900), son
of Constantine, died in Forres, not without suspicion of poisoning,
and in it King Duff (961-967) was murdered. Macbeth is said
to have slain Duncan in the first structure that gave its name
to Castlehill, which was probably the building demolished in
1297 by the adherents of Wallace. The next castle was a royal
residence from 1189 to 1371 and was occupied occasionally by
William the Lion, Alexander II. and David II. It was burned
down by the Wolf of Badenoch in 1390. The ruins on the hill,
however, are those of a later edifice and are surmounted by a
granite obelisk, 65 ft. high, raised to the memory of Surgeon
James Thomson, a native of Cromarty, who at the cost of his
life tended the Russian wounded on the field of the Alma. The
public buildings include the town hall, a fine and commodious
house on the site of the old tolbooth; the Falconer museum,
containing among other exhibits several valuable fossils, and
named after Dr Hugh Falconer (1808-1865), the distinguished
palaeontologist and botanist, a native of the town; the mechanics'
institute; the agricultural and market hall; Leanchoil hospital
and Anderson's Institution for poor boys. The cross, in Decorated
Gothic, stands beside the town hall. Adjoining the town on
the south-east is the beautifully-wooded Cluny Hill, a favourite
public resort, carrying on its summit the tower, 70 ft. high, which
was erected in 1806 to the memory of Nelson, and on its southern
slopes a well-known hydropathic. An excellent golf-course
extends from Kinloss to Findhorn. The industries comprise
the manufacture of chemicals and artificial manures, granite
polishing, flour and sawmills, boot- and shoe-making, carriage-
building and woollen manufactures. There is also considerable
trade in cattle.
Sueno's Stone, about 23 ft. high, probably the finest sculptured
monolith in Scotland, stands in a field to the east of the town.
Its origin and character have given rise to endless surmises.
It is carved with figures of soldiers, priests, slaughtered men and
captives on one side, and on the other with a cross and Runic
ornamentation. One theory is that it is a relic of the early
Christian church, symbolizing the battle of life and the triumph
of good over evil. According to an older tradition it was named
after Sueno, son of Harold, king of Denmark, who won a victory
on the spot in 1008. A third conjecture is that it commemorates
the expulsion of the Danes from Moray in 1014. Skene's view
is that it chronicles the struggle in 900 between Sigurd, earl of
Orkney, and Maelbrigd, Maormor of Moray. Another storied
stone is called the Witches' Stone, because it marks the place
near Forres where Macbeth is said to have encountered the
weird sisters.
Forres is one of the Inverness district group of parliamentary
burghs, the other members being Nairn, Fortrose and Inverness.
The town is amongst the healthiest in Scotland and has the lowest
rainfall in the county.
Within 2 m. of Forres, to the S.W., lie the beautiful woods of
Altyre, the seat of the Gordon-Cummings. Three miles farther
south is Relugas House, the favourite residence of Sir Thomas
Dick Lauder, romantically situated on a height near the con-
fluence of the Divie and the Findhorn. Not far away stand the
ruins of the old castle of Dunphail. On the left bank of the
Findhorn, 3! m. W. of Forres, is situated Brodie Castle, partly
ancient and partly modern. The Brodies the old name of
their estate was Brothie, from the Irish broth, a ditch, in allusion
to the trench that ran from the village of Dyke to the north of
the house were a family of great consequence at the period
of the Covenant. Alexander Brodie (1617-1680), the fourteenth
laird, was one of the commissioners who went to the Hague to
treat with Charles II., and afterwards became a Scottish lord of
session and an English judge. He and his son were regarded
as amongst the staunchest of the Presbyterians. Farther south
is the forest of Darnaway, famous for its oaks, in which stands
the earl of Moray's mansion of Darnaway Castle. It occupies
the site of the castle which was built by Thomas Randolph,
the first earl. Attached to it is the great hall, capable of accommo-
dating 1000 men, with an open roof of fine dark oak, the only
remaining portion of the castle that was erected by Archibald
Douglas, earl of Moray, in 1450. Queen Mary held a council
in it in 1562. Earl Randolph's chair, not unlike the coronation
chair, has been preserved. Kinloss Abbey, now in ruins, stands
some 2| m. to the N.E. of Forres. It was founded in 1150 by
David I., and remained in the hands of the Cistercians till its
suppression at the Reformation. Robert Reid, who ruled from
1526 to 1540, was its greatest abbot. His hobby was gardening,
and it is believed that many of the 123 varieties of pears and 146
varieties of apples for which the district is famous were due to
his skill and enterprise. Edward I. stayed in the abbey for a
short time in 1303 and Queen Mary spent two nights in it in
1562.
FORREST, EDWIN (1806-1872), American actor, was born
at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the gth of March 1806, of
Scottish and German descent . He made his first stage appearance
on the 27th of November 1820, at the Walnut Street theatre, in
Home's Douglas. In 1826 he had a great success in New York
as Othello. He played at Drury Lane in the Gladiator in 1836,
but his Macbeth in 1845 was hissed by the English audience, and
his affront to Macready in Edinburgh shortly afterwards when
he stood up in a private box and hissed him, was fatal to his
popularity in Great Britain. His jealousy of Macready resulted
in the Astor Place riot in 1 849. In 1 83 7 he had married Catherine,
daughter of John Sinclair, an English singer, and his divorce
suit in 1852 was a cause celebre which hurt his reputation and
soured his temper. His last appearance was as Richelieu in
Boston in 1871. He died on the izth of December 1872. He
had amassed a large fortune, much of which he left by will to
found a home for aged actors.
See Lawrence Barrett's Edwin Forrest (Boston, 1881).
FORREST, SIR JOHN ( 1 847- ) , West Australian statesman
and explorer, son of William Forrest, of Bunbury, West Australia,
was born near Bunbury, on the 22nd of August 1847, and
educated at Perth, W.A. In 1865 he became connected with
the Government Survey Department at Perth, and in 1869 led
an exploring expedition into the interior in search of D. Leichardt,
penetrating through bush and salt-marshes as far inland as
FORREST, N. B. FORSSELL
673
123" E. In 1870 he again made an expedition from Perth to
Adelaide, along the southern shores. In 1874, with his brother
Alexander Forrest (born 1849), he explored eastwards from
Champion Bay, following as far as possible the 26th parallel,
and striking the telegraph line between Adelaide and Port
Darwin; a distance of about 2000 m. was covered in about five
months with horses and without carriers, a particularly fine
achievement (see AUSTRALIA: Exploration). John Forrest also
surveyed in 1878 the north-western district between the rivers
Ashburton and Lady Grey, and in 1882 the Fitzroy district.
In 1876 he was made deputy surveyor-general, receiving the
thanks of the colony for his services and a grant of 5000 acres
of land; for a few months at the end of 1878 he acted as com-
missioner of crown lands and surveyor-general, being given the
full appointment in 1883 and retaining it till 1890. When the
colony obtained in 1890 its constitution of self-government,
Sir John Forrest (who was made K.C.M.G. in 1891, and G.C.M.G.
in 1901) became its first premier, and he held that position till
in 1901 he joined the Commonwealth government, first as
minister for defence, later as minister for home affairs and
postmaster-general, resigning the office of federal treasurer in
July 1907. His influence in West Australia was one of an
almost autocratic character, owing to the 'robust vigour of his
personality and his success in enforcing his views (see WESTERN
AUSTRALIA: History). In 1897 he was made a member of the
Privy Council. Sir John Forrest married in 1876 Margaret
Hamersley. He published Explorations in Australia (1876) and
Notes on Western Australia (1884-1887).
FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD (1821-1877), Confederate
cavalry general in the American Civil War, was born near Chapel
Hill, Tennessee, on the i3th of July 1821. Before his father's
death in 1837 the family had removed to Mississippi, and for
some years thereafter it was supported principally by Nathan,
who was the eldest son. Thus he never received any formal
education (as witnessed by the uncouth phraseology and spelling
of his war despatches) , but he managed to teach himself with very
fair success, and is said to have possessed considerable ability
as a mathematician. He was in turn a horse and cattle trader in
Mississippi, and a slave dealer and horse trader in Memphis, until
1859, when he took to cotton planting in north-western Missis-
sippi, where he acquired considerable wealth. At the outbreak
of the Civil War in 1861 he volunteered as a private, raised a
cavalry battalion, of which he was lieut.-colonel, and in February
1862 took part in the defence of Fort Donelson, and refusing, like
Generals Floyd and Pillow, to capitulate with the rest of the
Confederate forces, made his way out, before the surrender, with
all the mounted troops there. He was promptly made a colonel
and regimental commander, and fought at Shiloh with distinction,
receiving a severe wound. Shortly after this he was promoted
brigadier-general (July 1862). At the head of a mounted brigade
he took a brilliant part in General Bragg's autumn campaign,
and in the winter of 1862-1863 he was continually active in
raiding the hostile lines of communication. These raids have
been the theme of innumerable discussions, and on the whole
their value seems to have been overrated. At the same time,
and apart from the question of their utility, Forrest's raids were
uniformly bold and skilful, and are his chief title to fame in the
history of the cavalry arm. Indeed, next to Stuart and Sheridan,
he was the finest cavalry leader of the whole war. One of the
most remarkable of his actions was his capture, near Rome,
Georgia, after five days of marching and fighting, of an entire
cavalry brigade under Colonel A. D. Streight (April 1863). He
was present at the battle of Chickamauga in September, after
which (largely on account of his criticism of General Bragg, the
army commander) he was transferred to the Mississippi. Forrest
was made a major-general in December 1863. In the winter of
1863-1864 he was as active as ever, and in the spring of 1864 he
raided as far north as Paducah, Ky. On the i2th of April 1864
he assaulted and captured Fort Pillow, in Tennessee on the
Mississippi; U.S. negro troops formed a large part of the garrison
and according to survivors many were massacred after the fort
had surrendered. The " Massacre of Fort Pillow " has been the
x. 22
subject of much controversy and there is much conflicting
testimony regarding it, but it seems probable that Forrest himself
had no part in it. On the loth of June Forrest decisively defeated
a superior Federal force at Brice's Cross Roads, Miss., and
throughout the year, though the greatest efforts were made by the
Federals to crush him, he raided in Mississippi, Tennessee and
Alabama with almost unvarying success. He was once more with
the main Confederate army of the West in the last disastrous
campaign of Nashville, and fought stubborn rearguard actions to
cover the retreat of the broken Confederates. In February 1865
he was made a lieut. -general, but the struggle was almost at
an end and General James H. Wilson, one of the ablest of the
Union cavalry generals, rapidly forced back the few Confederates,
now under Forrest's command, and stormed Selma, Alabama,
on the 2nd of April. The surrender of General Forrest and his
whole command, under the agreement between General Richard
Taylor and General E. S. Canby, followed on the 9th of May.
After the war he lived in Memphis. He sold his cotton plantation
in 1867, and for some years was president of the Selma, Marion
and Memphis Railroad. He died at Memphis, Tennessee, on the
29th of October 1877.
The military character of General Forrest, apart from questions
of his technical skill, horsemastership and detail special to his
arm of the service, was admittedly that of a great leader. He
never commanded a large force of all arms. He was uneducated,
and had neither experience of nor training for the strategical
handling of great armies. Yet his personality and his natural
soldierly gifts were such that General Sherman considered him
" the most remarkable man the Civil War produced on either
side." Joseph Johnston, the Confederate general whose great-
ness lay above all in calm and critical judgment, said that Forrest,
had he had the advantage of a thorough military training, " would
have been the great central figure of the war."
See the biographies by J. A. Wyeth (1899) and J. H. Mathes (1902).
FORSKAL, PETER (1736-1763), Swedish traveller and
naturalist, was born in Kalmar in 1 736. He studied at Gottingen,
where he published a dissertation entitled Dubia de principals
philosophiae recentioris (1756). Thence he returned to his
native country, which, however, he had to leave after the publica-
tion of a pamphlet entitled Pensees sttr la liberte civile (1759).
By Linnaeus he was recommended to Frederick V. of Denmark,
who appointed him to accompany Carsten Niebuhr in an expedi-
tion to Arabia and Egypt in 1761. He died of the plague at
Jerim in Arabia on the nth of July 1763.
His friend and companion, Niebuhr, was entrusted with the
care of editing his MSS., and published in 1775 Descripliones
animalium, avium, amphibiorum, piscium, insectorum, vermium,
quae in itin. Orient, observavit Petrus Forskal. In the same year
appeared also his account of the plants of Arabia Felix and of lower
Egypt, under the title of Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica.
FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG (1843-1901), Swedish historian
and political writer, the son of Adolf Forssell, a distinguished
mathematician, was born at Gefle, where his father was pro-
fessor, on i4th January 1843. At the age of sixteen he became
a student in Upsala University, where he distinguished himself,
and where, in 1866, having taken the degree of doctor, he was
appointed reader in history. At the age of thirty, however,
Forssell, who had already shown remarkable business capacity,
was called to Stockholm, where he filled one important post
after another in the Swedish civil service. In 1875 he was
appointed head of the treasury, and in 1880 was transferred to
the department of inland revenue, of which he continued to be
president until the time of his death. In addition to the re-
sponsibilities which these offices devolved upon him, Forssell
was constantly called to serve on royal commissions, and his
political influence was immense. In spite of all these public
duties, which he carried through with the utmost diligence,
Forssell also found leisure for an abundant literary activity. Of
his historical writings the most important were: The Ad-
ministrative and Economical History of Sweden after Gustavus I.
(1869-1875) and Sweden in 1571 (1872). He was also for several
years, in company with the poet Wirsen, editor of the Swedish
Literary Review. He published two volumes of Studies and
674
FORST- -FORSTER, J. G. A.
Criticisms (1875, 1888). In the year 1881, at the death of the
historian Anders Fryxell, Forssell was elected to the vacant seat
on the Swedish Academy. The energy of Forssell was so great,
and he understood so little the economy of strength, that he
unquestionably overtaxed his vital force. His death, however,
which occurred with great suddenness on the 2nd of August 1901
while he was staying at San Bernardino in Switzerland, was
wholly unexpected. There was little of the typical Swedish
urbanity in Forssell's exterior manner, which was somewhat dry
and abrupt. Like many able men who have from early life
administered responsible public posts, there appeared a certain
want of sympathy in his demands upon others. His views were
distinct, and held with great firmness; for example, he was a
free-trader, and his consistent opposition to what he called " the
new system " had a considerable effect on Swedish policy. He
was not exactly an attractive man, but he was a capable, upright
and efficient public servant. In 1867 he married Miss Zulamith
Eneroth, a daughter of the well-known pomologist of Upsala;
she survived him, with two sons and two daughters. (E. G.)
FORST (originally FORSTA or FORSTE), a town of Germany,
in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the Neisse, 44 m.
S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder. Pop. (1905) 33,757. It has two
Evangelical, a Roman Catholic and an Old Lutheran church;
there are two schools and two hospitals in the town. The chief
industry of Forst is the manufacture of cloth, but spinning,
dyeing and the making of artificial flowers are also carried on.
Founded in the i3th century, Forst passed in 1667 to the duke
of Saxe-Merseburg, becoming part of electoral Saxony in 1740.
It was ceded to Prussia in 1815.
FORSTER, FRANCOIS (1790-1872), French engraver, was
born at Locle in Neufchatel, on the 22nd of August 1790. In
1805 he was apprenticed to an engraver in Paris, and he also
studied painting and engraving simultaneously in the Ecole des
Beaux-Arts. His preference was ultimately fixed on the latter
art, and on his obtaining in 1814 the first " grand prix de gravure,"
the king of Prussia, who was then with the allies in Paris,
bestowed on him a gold medal, and a pension of 1 500 francs for
two years. With the aid of this sum he pursued his studies in
Rome, where his attention was devoted chiefly to the works
of Raphael. In 1844 he succeeded Tardieu in the Academy.
He died at Paris on the 27th of June 1872. Forster occupied
the first position among the French engravers of his time, and
was equally successful in historical pieces and in portraits.
Among his works may be mentioned The Three Graces, and
La Vierge de la legende, after Raphael; La Vierge au bas-relief,
after Leonardo da Vinci; Francis I. and Charles V., after Gros;
St Cecilia, after Paul Delaroche; Albert Diirer and Henry IV.,
after Porbus; Wellington, after Gerard; and Queen Victoria,
after Winterhalter.
FORSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1791-1868), German
historian and poet, was the second son of Karl Christoph Forster
(1751-1811), and consequently a brother of the painter, Ernest
Joachim Forster (1800-1885). Born at Munchengosserstadt on
the Saale on the 24th of September 1791, he received his early
education at Altenburg, and after a course of theology at Jena,
devoted some time to archaeology and the history of art. At
the outbreak of the War of Liberation in 1813, he joined the army,
quickly attaining the rank of captain; and by his war-songs
added to the national enthusiasm. On the conclusion of the
war he was appointed professor at the school of engineering and
artillery in Berlin, but on account of some democratic writings
he was dismissed from this office in 1817. He then became
connected with various journals until about 1829, when he
received an appointment at the royal museum in Berlin, with
the title of court councillor (Hofrat). He was the founder and
secretary of the Wissenschaftlicher Kunstiierein in Berlin, and
died in Berlin on the 8th of November 1868. Forster's principal
v/orks are: Beitrage zur neueren Kriegsgeschichte (Berlin, 1816);
Grundzuge der Geschichte des preussischen Staates (Berlin, 1818);
Der Feldmarschall Blucher und seine Umgebungen (Leipzig,
1820); Friedrich der Grosse, Jugendjahre, Bildung und Geist
(Berlin, 1822); Albrecht von Wallenstein (Potsdam, 1834);
Friedrich Wilhelml., Konigwn Preussen (Potsdam, 1834-1835);
Die Hofe und Kabinette Europas im 18. Jahrhundert (Potsdam,
1836-1839); Leben und Taten Friedrichs des Grossen (Meissen,
1840-1841); Wallensleins Prozess (Leipzig, 1844); and Preussens
Helden in Krieg und Frieden, neuere und neueste preussische
Geschichte, 7 volumes (Berlin, 1849-1860). The three concluding
volumes of this work contain the history of the war of liberation
of 1813-14-15. He brought out an edition of Hegel's works,
adapted several of Shakespeare's plays for the theatre, wrote a
number of poems and an historical drama, Gustaii Adolf (Berlin,
1832).
Many of bis lesser writings were collected and published as
Krifgslicder, Romanzen, Erzdhlungen und Legenden (Berlin, 1838).
The beginning of an autobiography of Forster, edited by H. Kletke.
has been publishad under the title, Kunst und Leben (Berlin, 1873).
FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM (1754-1794), German
traveller and author, was born at Nassenhuben, a small village
near Danzig, on the 27th of November 1754. His father, Johann
Reinhold Forster, a man of great scientific attainments but an
intractable temper, was at that time pastor of the place; the
family are said to have been of Scottish extraction. In 1765 the
elder Forster was commissioned by the empress Catherine
to inspect the Russian colonies in the province of Saratov,
which gave his son an opportunity of acquiring the Russian
language and the elements of a scientific education. After a
few years the father quarrelled with the Russian government,
and went to England, where he obtained a professorship of
natural history and the modern languages at the famous non-
conformist academy at Warrington. His violent temper soon
compelled him to resign this appointment, and for two years
he and his son earned a precarious livelihood by translations in
London a practical education, however, exceedingly useful
to the younger Forster, who became a thorough master of
English, and acquired many of the ideas which chiefly influenced
his subsequent life. At length the turning point in his career
came in the shape cf an invitation for him and his father to
accompany Captain Cook in his third voyage round the world.
Such an expedition was admirably calculated to call forth
Forster's peculiar powers. His account of Cook's voyage
(A Voyage round the World, London, 1777; in German, Berlin,
1778-1780), is almost the first example of the glowing yet
faithful description of natural phenomena which has since
made a knowledge of them the common property of the educated
world. The publication of this work was, however, impeded for
some time by differences with the admiralty, during which
Forster proceeded to the continent to obtain an appointment
for his father as professor at Cassel, and found to his surprise
that it was conferred upon himself. The elder Forster, however,
was soon provided for elsewhere, being appointed professor
of natural history at Halle. At Cassel Forster formed an intimate
friendship with the great anatomist Sommerring, and about
the same time made the acquaintance of Jacobi, who gave him
a leaning towards mysticism from which he subequently
emancipated himself. The want of books and scientific apparatus
at Cassel induced him to resort frequently to Gottingen, where
he became betrothed to Therese Heyne, the daughter of the
illustrious philologist, a clever and cultivated woman, but ill-
suited to be Forster's wife. To be able to marry he accepted
(1784) a professorship at the university of Wilna, which he did
not find to his taste. The penury and barbarism of Polish
circumstances are graphically described in his and his wife's
letters of this period. After a few years' residence at Wilna he
resigned his appointment to participate in a scientific expedition
projected by the Russian government, and upon the relinquish-
ment of this undertaking became librarian to the elector of
Mainz. He actively promoted the incorporation of the left
bank of the Rhine with France and in 1793 went to Paris to
carry on the negotiations. Meanwhile, however, the Germans
seized Mainz, and Forster already disheartened by the turn
of events in France was cut off from all return. Domestic
sorrows were added to his political troubles and he died suddenly
at Paris on the icth of January 1794.
FORSTER, J. FORSTER, W. E.
675
Forster's masterpiece is his Ansichten vom Niederrhein, von
Brabant, Flandern, Holland, England und Frankreich (1791-
1794), one of the ablest books of travel of the i8th century.
His style is clear and vivid; his method of describing what
he sees extraordinarily plastic; above all, he has the art of pre-
senting objects to us from their most interesting and attractive
side. The same qualities are also more or less conspicuous in
his minor writings. By his translation (from the English) of the
Sakuntala of Kalidasa (1791), he first awakened German interest
in Indian literature.
Forster's Samtliche Werke appeared at Leipzig in 9 vols. in 1843.
The Ansichten vom Rhein, &c., has been frequently reprinted (best
edition by A. Leitzmann, Halle, 1893) ; Leitzmann has also pub-
lished (Stuttgart, 1894) a selection of Forster's Kleine Schriften,
which originally appeared in 6 vols. (1789-1797). His correspond-
ence was published by his wife (2 vols., Leipzig, 1829); his Brief-
wechsel mil Sommerring by H. Hettner (Brunswick, 1877). See
J. Moleschott, G. Forster, der Naturforscher des Volks (1854; 3rd
ed., 1874); K. Klein, G. Forster in Mainz (Gotha, 1863); A. Leitz-
mann, G. Forster (Vorlesung) (Halle, 1893).
FORSTER, JOHN (1812-1876), English biographer and critic,
was born on the 2nd of April 1812 at Newcastle. His father,
who was a Unitarian and belonged to the junior branch of a
good Northumberland family, was a cattle-dealer. After being
well grounded in classics and mathematics at the grammar school
of his native town, John Forster was sent in 1828 to Cambridge,
but after only a month's residence he removed to London, where
he attended classes at University College, and was entered at the
Inner Temple. He devoted himself, however, chiefly to literary
pursuits. He contributed to The True Sun, The Morning
Chronicle and to The Examiner, for which he acted as literary
and dramatic critic; and the influence of his powerful in-
dividuality soon made itself felt. His Lives of the Statesmen of
the Commonwealth (1836-1839) appeared partly in Lardner's
Cyclopaedia. He published the work separately in 1840 with
a Treatise on the Popular Progress in English History. Its
merits obtained immediate recognition, and Forster became
a prominent figure in that distinguished circle of literary men
which included Bulwer, Talfourd, Albany, Fonblanque, Landor,
Carlyle and Dickens. Forster is said to have been for some time
engaged to Letitia Landon, but the engagement was broken off,
and Miss Landon married George Maclean. In 1843 he was
called to the bar but he never became a practising lawyer.
For some years he edited the Foreign Quarterly Review; in 1846,
on the retirement of Charles Dickens, he took charge for some
months of the Daily News; and from 1847 to 1856 he edited the
Examiner. From 1836 onwards he contributed to the Edinburgh
Quarterly and Foreign Quarterly Reviews a variety of articles,
some of which were republished in two volumes of Biographical
and Historical Essays (1858). In 1848 appeared his admirable
Life and Times of Oliver Goldsmith (revised in 1854). Continuing
his researches into English history under the early Stuarts, he
published in 1860 the Arrest of the Five Members by Charles I.
A Chapter of English History rewritten, and The Debates on the
Grand Remonstrance, with an Introductory Essay on English
Freedom. These were followed by his Sir John Eliot: a Bio-
graphy (1864), elaborated from one of his earlier studies for the
Lives of Eminent British Statesmen. In 1868 appeared his Life
of Landor, and, on the death of his friend Alexander Dyce,
Forster undertook the publication of his third edition of Shakes-
peare. For several years he had been collecting materials for
a life of Swift, but he interrupted his studies in this direction
to write his standard Life of Charles Dickens. He had long been
intimate with the novelist, and it is by this work that John
Forster is now chiefly remembered. The first volume appeared
in 1872, and the biography was completed in 1874. Towards the
close of 1875 the first volume of his Life of Swift was published;
and he had made some progress in the preparation of the second
at the time of his death on the 2nd of February 1876. In 1855
Forster had been appointed secretary to the lunacy commission,
and from 1861 to 1872 he held the office of a commissioner in
lunacy. His valuable collection of manuscripts, including the
original copies of Charles Dickens's novels, together with his
books and pictures, was bequeathed to South Kensington
Museum.
An admirable account of him by Henry Morley is prefixed to the
official handbook (1877) of the Dyce and Forster bequests.
FORSTER, JOHN COOPER (1823-1886), British surgeon, was
born in 1823 in Lambeth, London, where his father and grand-
father before him had been local medical practitioners. He entered
Guy's hospital in 1841, was appointed demonstrator of anatomy
in 1850, assistant-surgeon, 1855, and surgeon, 1870. He became
a member of the College of Surgeons in 1844, fellow in 1849 and
president in 1884. He was a prompt and sometimes bold operator.
In 1858 he performed practically the first gastrostomy in England
for a case of cancer of the oesophagus. Among his best-known
papers were discussions of acupressure, syphilis, hydrophobia,
intestinal obstruction, modified obturator hernia, torsion, and
colloid cancer of the large intestine; and he published a book
on Surgical Diseases of Children in 1860, founded on his ex-
perience as surgeon to the hospital for children and women in
Waterloo Road. He died suddenly in London on the 2nd of
March 1886.
FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD (1818-1886), British states-
man, was born of Quaker parents at Bradpole in Dorsetshire
on the nth of July 1818. He was educated at the Friends'
school at Tottenham, where his father's family had long been
settled, and on leaving school he was put into business. He
declined, however, on principle, to enter a brewery. Becoming
in due time a woollen manufacturer in a large way at Bradford,
Yorkshire (from which after his marriage he moved to Burley-in-
Wharf edale) , he soon made himself known as a practical philan-
thropist. In 1846-1847 he accompanied his father to Ireland
as distributor of the Friends' relief fund for the famine in
Connemara, and the state of the country made a deep impression
on him. In 1849 he wrote a preface to a new edition of Clarkson's
Life of William Penn, defending the Quaker statesman against
Macaulay's criticisms. In 1850 he married Jane Martha, eldest
daughter of the famous Dr Arnold of Rugby. She was not a
Quaker, and her husband was formally excommunicated for
marrying her, but the Friends who were commissioned to
announce the sentence " shook hands and stayed to luncheon."
Forster thereafter ranked himself as a member of the Church of
England, for which, indeed, he was in later life charged with
having too great a partiality. There were no children of the
marriage, but when Mrs Forster's brother, William Arnold, died
in 1859, leaving four orphans, the Forsters adopted them as
their own.
One of these children was Mr H. O. Arnold-Forster (1855-
1909), the well-known Liberal-Unionist member of parliament,
who eventually became a member of Mr Balfour's cabinet; he
was secretary to the admiralty (1900-1903), and then secretary
of state for war (1903-1905), and was the author of numerous
educational books published by Cassell & Co., of which firm he
was a director.
W. E. Forster gradually began to take an active part in public
affairs by speaking and lecturing. In 1858 he gave a lecture
before the Leeds Philosophical Institution on " How we Tax
India." In 1859 he stood as Liberal candidate for Leeds, but
was beaten. But he was highly esteemed in the West Riding,
and in 1861 he was returned unopposed for Bradford. In 1865
(unopposed) and in 1868 (at the head of the poll) he was again
returned. He took a prominent part in parliament in the debates
on the American Civil War, and in 1868 was made under-
secretary for the colonies in Earl Russell's ministry. It was then
that he first became a prominent advocate of imperial federation.
In 1866 his attitude on parliamentary reform attracted a good
deal of attention. His speeches were full of knowledge of the
real condition of the people, and contained something like an
original programme of Radical legislation. " We have other
things to do," he said, " besides extending the franchise. We
want to make Ireland loyal and contented; we want to get rid
of pauperism in this country; we want to fight against a class
which is more to be dreaded than the holders of a 7 franchise
I mean the dangerous class in our large towns. We want to see
676
whether we cannot make for the agricultural labourer some
better hope than the workhouse in his old age. We want to have
Old England as well taught as New England." In these words
he heralded the education campaign which occupied the country
for so many years afterwards. Directly the Reform Bill had
passed, the necessity of " inducing our masters to learn their
letters " (in Robert Lowe's phrase) became pressing. Mr
Forster and Mr Cardwell, as private members in opposition,
brought in Education Bills in 1867' and 1868; and in 1868, when
the Liberal party returned to office, Mr Forster was appointed
vice-president of the council, with the duty of preparing a
government measure for national education. The Elementary
Education Bill (see EDUCATION) was introduced on the i7th of
February 1870. The religious difficulty at once came to the front.
The Manchester Education Union and the Birmingham Education
League had already formulated in the provinces the two opposing
theories, the former standing for the preservation of denomina-
tional interests, the latter advocating secular rate-aided education
as the only means of protecting Nonconformity against the
Church. The Dissenters were by no means satisfied with Forster's
" conscience clause " as contained in the bill, and they regarded
him, the ex-Quaker, as a deserter from their own side; while
they resented the " 25th clause," permitting school boards to
pay the fees of needy children at denominational schools out of
the rates, as an insidious attack upon themselves. By the i4th
of March, when the second reading came on, the controversy
had assumed threatening proportions; and Mr Dixon, the
Liberal member for Birmingham and chairman of the Education
League, moved an amendment, the effect of which was to
prohibit all religious education in board schools. The govern-
ment made its rejection a question of confidence, and the amend-
ment was withdrawn; but the result was the insertion of the
Cowper-Temple clause as a compromise before the bill passed.
Extremists on both sides abused Forster, but the government
had a difficult set of circumstances to deal with, and he acted
like a prudent statesman in contenting himself with what he
could get. An ideal bill was impracticable; it is to Forster's
enduring credit that the bill of 1870, imperfect as it was, estab-
lished at last some approach to a system of national education
in England without running absolutely counter to the most
cherished English ideas and without ignoring the principal
agencies already in existence.
Forster's next important work was in passing the Ballot Act
of 1872, but for several years afterwards his life was uneventful.
In 1874 he was again returned for Bradford, in spite of Dissenting
attacks, and he took his full share of the work of the Opposition
Front Bench. In 1875, when Mr Gladstone " retired," he was
strongly supported for the leadership of the Liberal party, but
declined to be nominated against Lord Hartington. In the same
year he was elected F.R.S., and made lord rector of Aberdeen
University. In 1876, when the Eastern question was looming
large, he visited Servia and Turkey, and his subsequent speeches
on the subject were marked by studious moderation, distasteful
to extremists on both sides. On Mr Gladstone's return to office
in 1880 he was made chief secretary for Ireland, with Lord
Cowper as lord-lieutenant. He carried the Compensation for
Disturbance Bill through the Commons, only to see it thrown
out in the Lords, and his task was made more difficult by the
agitation which arose in consequence. During the gloomy
autumn and winter of 1880-1881 Forster's energy and devotion
in grappling with the situation in Ireland (see IRELAND) were
indefatigable, his labour was enormous, and the personal risks
he ran were many; but he enjoyed the Irish character in spite
of all obstacles, and inspired genuine admiration in all his
coadjutors. On the 24th of January 1881 he introduced a new
Coercion Bill in the House of Commons, to deal with the growth of
the Land League, and in the course of his speech declared it to be
" the most painful duty " he had ever had to perform, and one
which would have prevented his accepting his office if he had
known that it would fall upon him. The bill passed, among its
provisions being one enabling the Irish government to arrest
without trial persons " reasonably suspected " of crime and
FORSTER, W. E.
conspiracy. The Irish party used every opportunity in and out
of parliament for resenting this act, and Forster was kept con-
stantly on the move between Dublin and London, conducting
his campaign against crime and anarchy and defending it in
the House of Commons. His scrupulous conscientiousness and
anxiety to meet every reasonable claim availed him nothing
with such antagonists, and the strain was intense and continuous.
He was nicknamed " Buckshot " by the Nationalist press, on
the supposition that he had ordered its use by the police when
firing on a crowd. On the i3th of October Mr Parnell was
arrested, and on the 2oth the Land League was proclaimed.
From that time Forster's life was in constant danger, and he
had to be escorted by mounted police when he drove in Dublin.
Early in March 1882 he visited some of the worst districts in
Ireland, and addressed the crowd at Tullamore on the subject
of outrages, denouncing the people for their want of courage in
not assisting the government, but adding, " whether you do or
not, it is the duty of the government to stop the outrages, and
stop them we will." Forster's pluck in speaking out like this
was fully appreciated in England, but it was not till after the
revelations connected with the Phoenix Park murders that the
dangers he had confronted were properly realized, and it became
known that several plans to murder him had only been frustrated
by the merest accidents. On the 2nd of May Mr Gladstone
announced that the government intended to release Mr Parnell
and his fellow-prisoners .in Kilmainham, and that both Lord
Cowper and Mr Forster had in consequence resigned; and
the following Saturday Forster's successor, Lord Frederick
Cavendish, was, with Mr Burke, murdered in Phoenix Park. It
was characteristic of the man that Forster at once offered to go
back to Dublin temporarily as chief secretary, but the offer was
declined. His position naturally attracted universal attention
towards him, particularly during the debates which ensued in
parliament on the " Kilmainham Treaty." But Mr Gladstone's
influence with the Liberal party was paramount, in spite of the
damaging appearance of the compact made with Parnell, and
Forster's pointed criticisms only caused thoroughgoing partisans
to accuse him of a desire to avenge himself. It was not till the
next session that he delivered his fiercest attack on Parnell in
the debate on the address, denouncing him for his connexion with
the Land League, and quoting against him the violent speeches
of his supporters and the articles of his newspaper organs. It
was on this occasion that Parnell, on Forster's charging him,
not with directly planning or perpetrating outrages or murder,
but with conniving at them, ejaculated " It's a lie "; and,
replying on the next day, the Irish leader, instead of disproving
Forster's charges, bitterly denounced his methods of administra-
tion. Though, during the few remaining years of his life,
Forster's political record covered various interesting subjects,
his connexion with these stormy times in Ireland throws them
all into shadow. He died on the 6th of April 1886, on the eve
of the introduction of the Home Rule Bill, to which he was
stoutly opposed. In the interval there had been other questions
on which he found himself at variance with Gladstonian Liberal-
ism, for instance, as regards the Sudan and the Transvaal, nor
was he inclined to stomach the claims of the Caucus or the
Birmingham programme. When the Redistribution Act divided
Bradford into three constituencies, Forster was returned for the
central division, but he never took his seat in the new parliament.
Forster, like John Bright, was an excellent representative
of the English middle-class in public life. Patriotic, energetic,
independent, incorruptible, shrewd, fair-minded, he was endowed
not only with great sympathy with progress, but also with a full
faculty for resistance to mere democraticism. He was tall (the
Yorkshiremen called him " Long Forster ") and strongly though
stiffly built, and, with his simple tastes and straightforward
manners and methods, was a typical North-country figure.
His oratory was rough and unpolished, but full of freshness and
force and genuine feeling. It was Forster who, when appealing
to the government at the time of Gordon's danger at Khartum,
spoke of Mr Gladstone as able " to persuade most people of most
things, and himself of almost anything," and though the phrase
FORSYTH FORT EDWARD
677
was much resented by Mr Gladstone's entourage, the truth that
underlay it may be taken as representing the very converse of
his own character. His personal difficulties with some of his
colleagues, both in regard to the Education Act of 1870 and his
Irish administration, must be properly understood if a complete
comprehension of his political career is to be obtained. For an
account of them we need only refer to the Life of the Right Hon.
W. E. Forster, by Sir T. Wemyss Reid. (H. CH.)
FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR (1848- ), British Noncon-
formist divine, was born at Aberdeen in 1848. He.took first-class
honours in classics at Aberdeen, subsequently studied at Got-
tingen (under Ritschl) and at New College, Hampstead, and
entered the Congregational ministry. Having held pastorates
at Shipley, Hackney, Manchester, Leicester and Cambridge, he
became principal of Hackney Theological College, Hampstead,
in 1901. In 1907 he delivered the Lyman Beecher lectures on
preaching at Yale University, published as Positive Preaching and
Modern Mind. Among his other publications may be mentioned
Religion in Recent Art, and articles in the Contemporary Review,
Hibbert Journal, and London Quarterly. He was chairman of the
Congregational Union of England and Wales in 1905.
FORTALEZA (usually called CEARA by foreigners), a city
and port of Brazil and the capital of the state of Ceara, on a
crescent-shaped indentation of the coast-line immediately W.
of Cape Mucuripe or Mocoripe, 7j m. from the mouth of the
Ceara river, in lat. 3 42' S., long. 38 30' W. Pop. (1890) of the
municipality, including a large rural district, 40,902. The city
stands on an open sandy plain overlooking the sea, and is
regularly laid out, with broad, well-paved, gas-lighted streets
and numerous squares. Owing to the aridity of the climate
the vegetation is less luxuriant than in most Brazilian cities.
The temperature is usually high, but it is modified by the strong
sea winds. Fortaleza has suffered much from epidemics of
yellow-fever, small-pox and beri-beri, but the climate is con-
sidered to be healthy. A small branch of the Ceara river, called
the Pajehu, traverses the city and divides it into two parts,
that on its right bank being locally known as Outeiro. Fortaleza
is the see of a bishopric, created in 1854, but it has no cathedral,
one of its ten churches being used for that purpose. Its public
buildings include the government house, legislative chambers,
bishop's palace, an episcopal seminary, a lyceum (high school),
Misericordia hospital, and asylums for mendicants and the
insane. The custom-house stands nearer the seashore, i m.
from the railway station in the city, with which it is connected
by rail. The port is the principal outlet for the products of the
state, but its anchorage is an open roadstead, one of the most
dangerous on the northern coast of Brazil, and all ships are
compelled to anchor well out from shore and discharge into
lighters. Port improvements designed by the eminent engineer
Sir John Hawkshaw have been under construction for many
years, but have made very slow progress. The Baturite railway,
built by the national government partly to give employment
to starving refugees in times of long-continued droughts, connects
the city and its port with fertile regions to the S.W., and extends
to Senador Pompeu, 178 m. distant. The exports include sugar,
coffee, rubber, cotton, rum, rice, beans, fruits, hides and
skins.
Fortaleza had its origin in a small village adjoining a fort
established at this point in early colonial times. In 1654 it took
the name of Villa do Forte da Assumpcao, but it was generally
spoken of as Fortaleza. In 1810 it became the capital of Ceara,
and in 1823 it was raised to the dignity of a city under the title
of Fortaleza da Nova Braganca.
FORT AUGUSTUS, a village of Inverness-shire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 706. It is delightfully situated at the south-western
extremity of Loch Ness, about 30 m. S.W. of Inverness, on the
rivers Oich and Tarff and the Caledonian Canal. A branch line
connects with Spean Bridge on the West Highland railway via
Invergarry. The fort, then called Kilchumin, was built in 1716
for the purpose of keeping the Highlanders in check, and was
enlarged in 1730 by General Wade. It was captured by the
Jacobites in 1745, but reoccupied after the battle of Culloden,
when it received its present name in honour of William Augustus,
duke of Cumberland, the victorious general. The fort was used
as a sanatorium until 1857, when it was bought by the I2th Lord
Lovat, whose son presented it in 1876 to the English order of
Benedictines. Within four years there rose upon its site a pile
of stately buildings under the title of St Benedict's Abbey and
school, a monastic and collegiate institution intended for the
higher education of the sons of the Roman Catholic nobility and
gentry. The series of buildings consists of the college, monastery,
hospice and scriptorium the four forming a quadrangle con-
nected by beautiful cloisters. Amongst its benefactors were
many Catholic Scots and English peers and gentlemen whose
arms are emblazoned on the windows of the spacious refectory
hall. The summit of the college tower is 1 10 ft. high.
FORT DODGE, a city and the county-seat of Webster county,
Iowa, U.S.A., on the Des Moines river, 85 m. (by rail) N. by W.
fromDes Moines. Pop. (1890)4871; (1900) 12,162; (1905, state
census) 14,369, (2269 being foreign-born); (1910) 15,543- It is
served by the Illinois Central, the Chicago Great Western, the
Minneapolis & Saint Louis, and the Fort Dodge, Des Moines &
Southern railways, the last an electric interurban line. Eureka
Springs and Wild Cat Cave are of interest to visitors, and
attractive scenery is furnished by the river and its bordering
bluffs. The river is here spanned by the Chicago Great Western
railway steel bridge, or viaduct, one of the longest in the country.
Fort Dodge is the seat of Tobin College (420 students in 1907-
1908), a commercial and business school, with preparatory,
normal and classical departments, and courses in oratory and
music; among its other institutions are St Paul's school
(Evangelical Lutheran), two Roman Catholic schools, Corpus
Christi Academy and the Sacred Heart school, Our Lady of
Lourdes convent and a Carnegie library. Oleson Park and
Reynold's Park are the city's principal parks. Immediately
surrounding Fort Dodge is a rich farming country. To the E.
of the city lies a gypsum bed, extending over an area of about
50 sq. m., and considered to be the rnost valuable in the United
States; to the S. coal abounds; there are also limestone quarries
and deposits of clay in the vicinity the clay being, for the most
part, obtained by mining. FortDodgeisa marketfortheproducts
of the surrounding country, and is a shipping centre of con-
siderable importance. It has various manufactures, including
gypsum, plaster, oatmeal, brick and tile, sewer pipe, pottery,
foundry and machine-shop products, and shoes. In 1905 the
value of all the factory products was $3,025,659, an increase
of 200-8% over that for 1900. Fort Clark was erected
on the site in 1850 to protect settlers against the Indians; in
1851 the name was changed by order of the secretary of war to
Fort Dodge in honour of Colonel Henry Dodge (1782-1867),
who was a lieutenant-colonel of Missouri Volunteers in the War
of 181 2, served with distinction as a colonel of Michigan Mounted
Volunteers in the Black Hawk War, resigned from the military
service in March 1833, was governor of Wisconsin Territory
from 1836 to 1841 and from 1846 to 1848, and was a delegate
from Wisconsin Territory to Congress from 1841 to 1845, a "d a
United States senator from Wisconsin in 1848-1857. The fort
was abandoned in 1853, and in 1854 a town was laid out.
It was chartered as a city in 1869. From the gypsum beds
near Fort Dodge was taken in 1868 the block of gypsum from
which was modelled the " Cardiff Giant," a rudely-fashioned
human figure, which was buried near Cardiff, Onondaga county,
New York, where it was " discovered " late in 1869. It was
then exhibited in various parts of the country as a " petrified
man." The hoax was finally exposed by Professor Othniel C.
Marsh of Yale; and George Hall of Binghamton, N.Y., confessed
to the fraud, his object having been to discredit belief in the
" giants " of Genesis vi. 4. (See " The Cardiff Giant: the True
Story of a Remarkable Deception," by Andrew D. White, in
the Century Magazine, vol. xlii., 1902.)
FORT EDWARD, a village of Washington county, New York,
U.S.A., in the township of Fort Edward, on the Hudson river,
56 m. by rail N. of Albany. Pop. of the village (1900) 3521, of
whom 385 were foreign-born; (1905) 3806; (1910) 3762; of
6 7 8
FORTESCUE
the township, including the village (1900), 5216; (1905, 5300
(1910) 5740. The village lies mostly at the foot of a steep hill
is at the junction of the main line and the Glens Falls branch
of the Delaware & Hudson railway, and is also served by electric
line to Albany and Glens Falls; the barge canal connecting
Lake Champlain and the Hudson river enters the Hudson here.
The river furnishes good water-power, which is used in the
manufacture of paper and wood pulp, the leading industry.
Shirts and pottery (flower pots, jars and drain tile) are manu-
factured also. The village is the seat of the Fort Edward
Collegiate Institute, a non-sectarian school for girls, which was
founded in 1854 and until 1893 was coeducational. The village
owns and operates the waterworks. Indian war parties on their
way to Canada were accustomed to make a portage from this
place, the head of navigation for small boats on the Hudson,
to Lake George or Lake Champlain, and hence it was known
as the Great. Carrying Place. Governor (afterwards Sir) Francis
Nicholson in 1709, in his expedition against Canada, built
here a stockade which was named Fort Nicholson. Some years
afterwards John Henry Lydius (1693-1791) established a
settlement and protected it by a new fort, named Fort Lydius,
but this was destroyed by the French and Indians in 1745. In
1755, a third fort was built by General Phineas Lyman (1716-
1774), as preliminary to the expedition against Crown Point
under General William Johnson, and was named Fort Lyman;
in 1756 Johnson renamed it Fort Edward in honour of Edward,
Duke of York. In the War for Independence Fort Edward was
the headquarters of General Philip Schuyler while he and his
troops were blocking the march of General Burgoyne's army
from Fort Ticonderoga. When a part of Burgoyne's forces was
distant only 3 or 4 m. from Fort Edward, on Fort Edward Hill,
on the 27th of July 1777, the leader of an Indian band whose
assistance the British had sought is supposed to have murdered
Jane McCrea (c. 1757-1777), a young girl who had been visiting
friends in Fort Edward, and who was to be escorted on that day
to the British camp and there to be married to David Jones, a
loyalist serving as a lieutenant in Burgoyne's army; it is possible
that she was shot accidentally by Americans pursuing her Indian
escorts, but her death did much to rouse local sentiment against
Burgoyne and his Indian allies, and caused many volunteers to
join the American army resisting Burgoyne's invasion. A
monument has been erected by the Jane McCrea Chapter of the
Daughters of the American Revolution near the spot where she
was killed, and she is buried in Union Cemetery in Fort Edward.
Fort Edward township was erected in 1818 from a part of the
township of Argyle. Fort Edward village was incorporated
in 1852.
See R. O. Bascom, The Fort Edward Book (Fort Edward. 1903).
FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1394-0. 1476), English lawyer,
the second son of Sir John Fortescue, of an ancient family in
Devonshire, was born at Norris, near South Brent, in Somerset-
shire. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. During the
reign of Henry VI. he was three times appointed one of the
governors of Lincoln's Inn. In 1441 he was made a king's
sergeant at law, and in the following year chief justice of the
king's bench. As a judge Fortescue is highly recommended for
his wisdom, gravity and uprightness; and he seems to have
enjoyed great favour with the king, who is said to have given
him some substantial proofs of esteem and regard. He held his
office during the remainder of the reign of Henry VI., to whom
he steadily adhered; and having faithfully served that un-
fortunate monarch in all his troubles, he was attainted of treason
in the first parliament of Edward IV. When Henry subsequently
fled into Scotland, he is supposed to have appointed Fortescue,
who appears to have accompanied him in his flight, chancellor
of England. In 1463 Fortescue accompanied Queen Margaret
and her court in their exile on the Continent, and returned with
them afterwards to England. During their wanderings abroad
the chancellor wrote for the instruction of the young prince
Edward his celebrated work De laudibus legum Angliae. On
the defeat of the Lancastrian party he made his submission
to Edward IV., from whom he received a general pardon dated
Westminster, October 13, 1471. He died at an advanced age,
but the exact date of his death has not been ascertained.
Fortescue's masterly vindication of the laws of England, though
received with great favour by the learned of the profession to whom
it was communicated, did not appear in print until the reign of
Henry VIII., when it was published, but without a date. It was
subsequently many times reprinted. Another valuable and learned
work by Fortescue, written in English, was published in 1714, under
the title of The Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy.
In the Cotton library there is a manuscript of this work, in the title
of which it is said to have been addressed to Henry VI.; but many
passages show plainly that it was written in favour of Edward IV.
A revised edition of this work, with a very valuable historical and
biographical introduction, was published in 1 885 by Charles Plummer,
under the title The Governance of England. All of Fortescue's minor
writings appear in The Works of Sir John Fortescue, now first Collected
and Arranged, published in 1869 for private circulation, by his
descendant, Lord Clermont.
AUTHORITIES. Plummer's Introduction to The Governance of
England; Life in Lord Clermont's edition; Gairdner's Paston
Letters ; Foss s Lives of the Judges.
FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1531-1607), English statesman,
was the eldest son of Sir Adrian Fortescue (executed in 1539),
and of his second wife, Anne, daughter of Sir William Reade or
Rede of Borstall in Buckinghamshire. The exact date of his
birth is unrecorded. 1 He was restored in blood and to his
estate at Shirburn in Oxfordshire in 1551. Through his father's
mother, Alice, daughter of Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, he was a second
cousin once removed from Queen Elizabeth. He acquired early
a considerable reputation as a scholar and was chosen to direct
the Princess Elizabeth's classical studies in Mary's reign. On
the accession of Elizabeth he was appointed keeper of the great
wardrobe. He was returned in 1572 to parliament for Walling-
ford, in 1586 for Buckingham borough, in 1588 and 1597 for
Buckingham county, and in 1601 for Middlesex. In 1589 he
was appointed chancellor of the exchequer and a member of
the privy council. In 1592 he was knighted, and in November
1601, in addition to his two great offices, he received that of
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. By means of his lucrative
employments he amassed great wealth, with which he bought
large estates in Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, and kept up
much state and a large household. He took a prominent part
in public business, was a member of the court of the star chamber
and an ecclesiastical commissioner, sat on various important
commissions, and as chancellor of the exchequer explained the
queen's financial needs and proposed subsidies in parliament.
On the death of Elizabeth he suggested that certain restrictions
should be imposed on James's powers, in order probably to limit
the appointment of Scotchmen to office, 2 but his advice was not
followed. He was deprived by James of the chancellorship of
the exchequer, but evidently did not forfeit his favour, as he
retained his two other offices and entertained James several
times at Henden and Salden. In 1604 Sir John, who stood for
Buckinghamshire, was defeated by Sir Francis Goodwin, whose
election, however, was declared void by the lord chancellor on the
ground of a sentence of outlawry under which he lay, and
Fortescue was by a second election returned in his place. This
incident gave rise to a violent controversy, regarding the chan-
cellor's jurisdiction in deciding disputed elections to parliament,
which was repudiated by the Commons but maintained by the
king. The matter after much debate was ended by a compromise,
which, while leaving the principle unsettled, set aside the elec-
:ions of both candidates and provided for the issue of a new writ.
Fortescue was then in February 1606 returned for Middlesex,
which he represented till his death on the 23rd of December 1607.
He was buried in Mursley church in Buckinghamshire, where a
monument was erected to his memory. His long public career
was highly honourable, and he served his sovereign and country
with unswerving fidelity and honesty. His learned attainments
too were considerable Camden styles him " vir integer, Graece,
1 The inscription on his tomb states that he was 76 at his death
on the 23rd of December 1607 (Lord Clermont's Hist, of the Family
of Fortescue, 377), but according to a statement ascribed to himself,
IB was born the same year as Queen Elizabeth and therefore in 1533
(Bucks. Architect, and Archaeolog. Soc. Records of Bucks, i. p. 89).
2 David Lloyd's State Worthies (1670), 556.
FORTE VIOT FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT 679
Latineque apprime eruditus," l and his scholarship is also praised
by Lloyd, while his friendship with Sir Thomas Bodley procured
gifts of books and manuscripts to the latter's library. FcUescue
married (i) Cecily, daughter of Sir Edmund Ashfield of Ewelme,
by whom, besides a daughter, he had two sons, Sir Francis and
Sir William; and (2) Alice, daughter of Christopher Smyth
of Annabels in Hertfordshire, by whom he had one daughter.
His descent in the male line became extinct with the death of
Sir John Fortescue, 3rd baronet, in 1717.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Article in the Diet, of Nat. Biography; Lord
Clermont's Hist, of the Family of the Fortescues; Hist. Notices of the
Parishes of Swyncombe and Ewelme, by A. Napier, p. 390 ; D. Lloyd 's
State Worthies (1670), p. 556; Add. MSS. 12497 > H3 (" Sir John
Fortescue's meanes of gaine by Sir R. Thikstin told me [Sir Julius
Caesar] ") ; Hist. MSS. Comm., Marquis of Salisbury's MSS. ;
Spedding's Life of Bacon; Architectural and Archaeological Soc. for
Bucks, Records of Bucks, vol. i. p. 86. (P. C. Y.)
FORTEVIOT, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, on
the Water of May, a right-hand affluent of the Earn, 6f m. S.W.
of Perth. Pop. of parish (1901) 562. It is a place of remote
antiquity, having been a capital of the Picts, when the district
was known as Fortrenn, and afterwards of the Scots. The army
led by Edward Baliol camped here before the battle of Dupplin
(1332), in which the regent, Donald, earl of Mar, was slain along
with 13,000 out of 30,000 men. The parish of Findo-Gask
adjoining it on the N.W. contains remains of a Roman road,
station and outpost, besides the " auld hoose" of Cask in which
the Baroness Nairne was born, and which forms the theme of one
of her most popular songs. The new house in which she died
dates from 1801.
FORT GEORGE, a military station of Inverness-shire, Scotland.
It lies 12 m. N.E. of Inverness, and is the terminus of the small
branch line connecting with the Highland railway at Gollanfield
junction. It occupies a sandy promontory forming the extreme
end of the southern shore of Inner Moray Firth (also called the
Firth of Inverness), which is here only i m. wide. There is
communication by ferry with Fortrose on the opposite coast of
the Black Isle. The fort was begun in 1748, partly after the plan
of one of Vauban's works, and named in honour of George II.
Wolfe, who saw it in course of erection in 1751, was much im-
pressed with it and thought it would, when finished, be " the
most considerable fortress and best situated in Great Britain."
It covers 16 acres and contains accommodation for nearly 2200
men. It is the depot of the Seaforth Highlanders, and a
military training-ground of some size and importance because
the surrounding country gives ample facilities for exercise and
manoeuvres. General Wade's road is maintained in good order.
Fort George, it is said, had almost been chosen as the place of
detention for Napoleon when the claims of St Helena were put
forward. About 2 m. S.E. is the fishing village of Campbelltown,
in growing repute as a seaside resort. Midway between the fort
and Inverness stands Castle Stuart, a shooting-box of the earl
of Moray.
FORTH, a river and firth of the east of Scotland. The river
is formed by two head streams, Duchray Water (12 m.) and
Avondhu (10 m.), or Laggan as it is called after it leaves Loch
Ard, both rising in the north-east of Ben Lomond in Stirlingshire,
and uniting i m. west of Aberfoyle. From this point till it
receives the Kelty, the Forth continues to be a Perthshire
stream, but afterwards it becomes the dividing line between
the counties of Perth and Stirling as far as the confluence of the
Allan. Thence it belongs to Stirlingshire to a point 15 m. due
west of Cambus, whence it serves as the boundary between the
shires of Stirling and Clackmannan. Owing to the extremely
tortuous character of its course between Gartmore and Alloa
the famous " links of the Forth," the actual length of the river
is 66 m., or nearly double the distance in a direct line (30 m.)
between the source of the Duchray and Kincardine, where the
firth begins. The river drains an area of 645 sq. m. Its general
direction is mainly easterly with a gentle trend towards the
south, and the principal tributaries on the left are the Goodie,
Teith, Allan and Devon, and on the right, the Kelty, Boquhan
1 Annales, 613.
and Bannock. The alluvial plain extending from Gartmore to
the county town is called the Carse of Stirling. The places of
interest on the banks are Aberfoyle, Kippen, Sth.'ing, Cambus-
kenneth, Alloa and Kincardine, but after it crosses the Highland
line the Forth does not present many passages of remarkable
beauty. There are bridges at Aberfoyle, Gartmore, Frew, Drip
and Stirling (2), besides railway viaducts at Stirling and Alloa,
and there are ferries at Stirling (for Cambuskenneth), Alloa (for
South Alloa) and Kincardine (for Airth). The tide rises to 45 m.
above Stirling, where the river is navigable at high water by
vessels of 100 tons. There is, however, a brisk shipping trade at
Alloa, where the dock accommodates vessels of at least 300 tons.
The Firth of Forth extends from Kincardine to the North Sea,
that is, to an imaginary line drawn, just west of the Isle of May,
from the East Neuk of Fife to the mouth of the Tyne in Hadding-
tonshire a distance of 48 m. Thus, according to some calcula-
tions, the Forth measures from source to sea 1 14 m. The width
of the firth varies from ^ m. at Kincardine and i| m. at Queens-
ferry to 63 m. at Leith and 173 m. at the mouth. The chief
affluents are, on the south, the Carron, Avon, Almond, Leith,
Esk and Tyne, and on the north, the Tiel, Leven, Kiel and
Dreel. The principal ports on the south shore are Grangemouth,
Bo'ness, Granton and Leith, and on the north, Burntisland and
K.irkcaldy; but fishery centres and holiday resorts are very
numerous on both coasts. Since the opening of the Forth Bridge
(see BRIDGES) in 1890 the ferries at Queensferry and Burntisland
have greatly diminished in importance. The fisheries are still
considerable, though the oyster trade is dwindling. The larger
islands are Inchcolm, with the ruins of an abbey, Inchkeith,
with fortifications and a lighthouse, and the Isle of May, with a
lighthouse. The anchorage of St Margaret's Hope, with the
naval base of Rosyth, lies off the shore of Fife immediately to
the west of the Forth Bridge.
The Forth was the Bodolria of Tacitus and the Scots Water
of the chroniclers of the nth and i2th centuries; while Bede
(d. 735) knew the firth as Sinus orienlalis (the Eastern Gulf),
and Nennius (fl. 796) as Mare Friesicum (the Frisian Sea).
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT. "Fortification" is
the military art of strengthening positions against attack. The
word (L&t.fortis, strong, an&facere, to make) implies the creation
of defences. Thus the boy who from the top of a mound defies
his comrades, or shelters from their snowballs behind a fence,
is merely taking advantage of ground; but if he puts up a hurdle
on his mound and stands behind that he has fortified his position.
Fortification consists of two elements, viz. protection and
obstacle. The protection shields the defender from the enemy's
missiles; the obstacle prevents the enemy from coming to close
quarters, and delays him under fire.
Protection may be of several kinds, direct or indirect. Direct
protection is given by a wall or rampart of earth, strong enough
to stop the enemy's missiles. The value of this -is reduced in
proportion as the defender has to expose himself to return the
enemy's fire, or to resist his attempts to destroy the defences.
Indirect protection is given by distance, as for instance by a high
wall placed on a cliff so that the defender on the top of the wall
is out of reach of the enemy's missiles if these are of short range,
such as arrows. This kind of defence was very popular in the
middle ages. In the present day the same object is attained by
pushing out detached forts to such a distance from the town
they are protecting that the besieger cannot bombard the town
as long as he is outside the forts. Another form of indirect
protection of great importance is concealment.
The obstacle may consist of anything which will impede the
enemy's advance and prevent him from coming to close quarters.
In the earliest forms of fortification the protecting wall was also
the obstacle, or it may be a wet or dry ditch, an entanglement,
a swamp, a thorn hedge, a spiked palisade, or some temporary
expedient, such as crows' feet or chevaux de frise. The two
elements must of course be arranged in combination. The
besieged must be able to defend the obstacle from their protected
position, otherwise it can be surmounted or destroyed at leisure.
But a close connexion is no longer essential. The effect of modern
68o
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[HISTORY
firearms permits of great elasticity in the disposition of the
obstacle; and this simplifies some of the problems of defence.
Protection must be arranged mainly with reference to the
enemy's methods of attack and the weapons he uses. The
obstacle, on the other hand, should be of such a nature as to
bring out the best effects of the defender's weapons. It follows
from this that a well-armed force operating against a badly-
armed uncivilized enemy may use with advantage very simple
old-fashioned methods of protection; or even dispense with it
altogether if the obstacle is a good one.
When the assailant has modern weapons the importance of
protection is very great. In fact, it may be said that in propor-
tion as missile weapons have grown more effective, the importance
of protection and the difficulty of providing it have increased,
while the necessity for a monumental physical obstacle has
decreased.
The art of the engineer who is about to fortify consists in
appreciating and harmonizing all the conditions of the problem,
such as the weapons in use, nature of the ground, materials
available, temper of assailants and defenders, strategical possi-
bilities, expenditure to be incurred, and so forth. Few of these
conditions are in themselves difficult to understand, but they are
so many and their reactions are so complex that a real familiarity
with all of them is essential to successful work. The keynote
of the solution should be simplicity; but this is the first point
usually lost sight of by the makers of " systems," especially by
those who during a long period of peace have time to give play
to their imaginations.
Fortification is usually divided into two branches, namely
permanent fortification and field fortification. Permanent fortifica-
tions are erected at leisure, with all the resources that a state can
supply of constructive and mechanical skill, and are built of
enduring materials. Field fortifications are extemporized by
troops in the field, perhaps assisted by such local labour and
tools as may be procurable, and with materials that do not
require much preparation, such as earth, brushwood and light
timber. There is also an intermediate branch known as semi-
permanent fortification. This is employed when in the course
of a campaign it becomes desirable to protect some locality
with the best imitation of permanent defences that can be made
in a short time, ample resources and skilled civilian labour being
available.
The objects of fortification are various. The vast enceintes
of Nineveh and Babylon were planned so that in time of war
they might give shelter to the whole population of the country
except the field army, with their flocks and herds and household
stuff. The same idea may be seen to-day in the walls of such
cities as Kano. In the middle ages feudal lords built castles
for security against the attacks of their neighbours, and also to
watch over towns or bridges or fords from which they drew
revenue; whilst rich towns were surrounded with walls merely
for the protection of their own inhabitants and their property.
The feudal castles lost their importance when the art of cannon-
founding was fairly developed; and in the leisurely wars of the
1 7th and i8th centuries, when roads were few and bad, a swarm
of fortified towns, large and small, played a great part in delaying
the march of victorious armies.
In the present day isolated forts are seldom used, and only for
such purposes as to block passes in mountainous districts.
Fortresses are used either to protect points of vital importance,
such as capital cities, military depots and dockyards, or at
strategic points such as railway junctions. Combinations of
fortresses are also used for more general strategic purposes,
as will be explained later.
I. HISTORY
The most elementary type of fortification is the thorn hedge,
a type which naturally recurs from age to age under primitive
Aadeat cond i tions - Thus, Alexander found the villages of the
methods. Hyrcanians defended by thick hedges, and the same
arrangements may be seen to-day among the least
civilized tribes of Africa. The next advance from the hedge is
the bank of earth, with the exterior made steep by revetments
of sods or hurdle-work. This has a double advantage over the
hedge, as, besides being a better obstacle against assault, it gives
the defenders an advantage of position in a hand-to-hand fight.
Such banks formed the defences of the German towns in Caesar's
time, and they were constructed with a high degree of skill.
Timber being plentiful, the parapets were built of alternate
layers of stones, earth and tree trunks. The latter were built in
at right angles to the length of the parapet, and were thus very
difficult to displace, while the earth prevented their being set
on fire. The bank was often strengthened by a palisade of tree
trunks or hurdle-work.
After the bank the most important step in advance for a
nation progressing in the arts was the wall, of masonry, sun-dried
brick or mud. The history of the development of the wall and
of the methods of attacking it is the history of fortification for
several thousand years.
The first necessity for the wall was height, to give security
against escalade. The second was thickness, so that the defenders
might have a platform on the top which would give them space
to circulate freely and to use their weapons. A lofty wall, thick
enough at the top for purposes of defence, would be very ex-
pensive if built of solid masonry; therefore the plan was early
introduced of building two walls with a filling of earth or rubble
between them. The face of the outer wall would be carried up a
few feet above the platform, and crenellated to give protection
against arrows and other projectiles.
The next forward step for the defence was the construction
of lowers at intervals along the wall. These provided flanking
fire along the front; they also afforded refuges for the garrison
in case of a successful escalade, and from them the platform
could be enfiladed.
The evolution of the wall with towers was simple. The main
requirements were despotic power and unlimited labour. Thus
the finest examples of the system known to history are also
amongst the earliest. One of these was Nineveh, built more than
2000 years B.C. The object of its huge perimeter, more than
50 m., has been mentioned. The wall was 120 ft. high and 30 ft.
thick; and there were 1500 towers.
After this no practical advance in the art of fortification was
made for a very long time, from a constructional point of view.
Many centuries indeed elapsed before the inventive genius of
man evolved engines and methods of attack fit to cope with such
colossal obstacles.
The earliest form of attack was of course escalade, either by
ladders or by heaping up a ramp of faggots or other portable
materials. When the increasing height of walls made escalade
too difficult, other means of attack had to be invented. Probably
the first of these were the ram, for battering down the walls, and
mining. The latter might have two objects: (a) to drive an
underground gallery below the wall from the besiegers' position
into the fortress, or (6) to destroy the wall itself by undermining.
The use of missile engines for throwing heavy projectiles
probably came later. They are mentioned in the preparations
made for the defence of Jerusalem against the Philistines in the
8th century B.C. They are not mentioned in connexion with the
siege of Troy. At the sieges of Tyre and Jerusalem by Nebuchad-
rezzar in 587 B.C. we first find mention of the ram and of movable
towers placed on mounds to overlook the walls.
The Asiatics, however, had not the qualities of mind necessary
for a systematic development of siegecraft, and it was left for
the Greeks practically to create this science. Taking
it up in the 5th century B.C. they soon, under Philip times. '
of Macedon and Alexander, arrived at a very high
degree of skill. They invented and systematized methods
which were afterwards perfected by the Romans. ' Alexander's
siegecraft was extremely practical. His successors endeavoured
to improve on it by increasing the size of their missile and other
engines, which, however, were so cumbrous that they were of
little use. When the Romans a little later took up the science
they returned to the practical methods of Alexander, and by the
time of Caesar's wars had become past-masters of it. The
HISTORY]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
681
highest development of siegecraft before the use of gunpowder
was probably attained in the early days of the Roman empire.
The beginning of the Christian era is therefore a suitable period
at which to take a survey of the arts of fortification and siege-
craft as practised by the ancients.
In fortification the wall \yith towers was still the leading idea.
The towers were preferred circular in plan, as this form offered the
best resistance to the ram. The wall was usually re-
Conditions j n f orce d by a ditch, which had three advantages: it
at opening i ncreasec ] the height of the obstacle, made the bringing
l'? up of the engines of attack more difficult, and supplied
.htistlan mater ; a [ f or t h e filling of the wall. In special cases, as at
Jerusalem and Rhodes, the enclosure walls were doubled
and trebled. Citadels were also built on a large scale.
The typical site preferred by the Romans for a fortified town
was on high ground sloping to a river on one side and with steep
slopes falling away on the other three sides. At the highest point
was a castle serving as citadel. The town enclosure was designed
in accordance with the character of the surrounding country. Where
the enemy's approach was easiest, the walls were higher, flanking
towers stronger and ditches wider and deeper. Some of the towers
were made high for look-out posts. If there was a bridge over the
river, it was defended by a bridge-head on the far side ; and stockades
defended by towers were built out from either bank above and
below the bridge, between which chains or booms could be stretched
to bar the passage.
The natural features of the ground were skilfully utilized. Thus
when a large town was spread over an irregular site broken by hills,
the enceinte wall would be carried over the top of the hills; and in
the intervening valleys the wall would not only be made stronger,
but would be somewhat drawn back to allow of a flanking defence
from the hill tops on either side. The walls would consist of two
strong masonry faces, 20 ft. apart, the space between filled with
earth and stones. Usually when the lie of the ground was favourable,
the outside of the wall would be much higher than the inside, the
parapet walk perhaps being but a little above the level of the town.
Palisades were used to strengthen the ditches, especially before the
There was little scope, however, in masonry for the genius of
Roman warfare, which had a better opportunity in the active work
of attack and defence. For siegecraft the Roman legions were
specially apt. No modern engineer, civil or military, accustomed
to rely on machinery, steam and hydraulic apparatus, could hope
to emulate the feats of the legionaries. In earthworks they ex-
celled; and in such work as building and moving about colossal
wooden towers under war conditions, they accomplished things at
which nowadays we can only wonder.
The attack was carried on mainly by the use of " engines, under
which head v:ere included all mechanical means of attack towers,
missile engines such as catapults and balistae, rams of different
kinds, " tortoises " (see below), &c. Mining, too, was freely resorted
to, also approach trenches, the use of which had been introduced
by the Greeks.
The object of mining, as has been said, might be the driving of a
gallery under the wall into the interior of the place, or the destruction
of the wall. The latter was effected by excavating large chambers
under the foundations. These were supported while the excavation
was proceeding by timber struts and planking. When the chambers
were large enough the timber supports were burnt and the wall
collapsed. The besieged replied to the mining attack by counter-
mines. With these they would undermine and destroy the be-
siegers' galleries, or would break into them and drive out the workers,
either by force of arms or by filling the galleries with smoke.
Breaches in the wall were made by rams. These were of two
kinds. For dislodging the cemented masonry of the face of the
wall, steel-pointed heads were used; when this was done, another
head, shaped like a ram's head, was substituted for battering down
the filling of the wall.
For escalade they used ladders fixed on wheeled platforms; but
the most important means of attack against a high wall were the
movable towers of wood. These were built so high that from their
tops the parapet walk of the wall could be swept with arrows and
stones; and drawbridges were let down from them, by which a
storming party could reach the top of the wall. The height of the
towers was from 70 to 150 ft. They were moved on wheels of solid
oak or elm, 6 to 12 ft. in diameter and 3 to 4 ft. thick. The ground
floor contained one or two rams. The upper floors, of which there
might be as many as fifteen, were furnished with missile engines
of a smaller kind. The archers occupied the top floor. There alsc
were placed reservoirs of water to extinguish fire. These were filled
by force pumps and fitted with hose made of the intestines of cattle.
Drawbridges, either hanging or worked on rollers, were placed at
the proper height to give access to the top of the wall, or to a breach,
as might be required. Apollodorus proposed to place a couple ol
rams in the upper part of the tower to destroy the crenellations of
the wall.
The siege towers had of course to be very solidly built of strong
timbers to resist the heavy stones thrown by the engines of the
defence. They were protected against fire by screens of osiers,
plaited rope or raw hides. Sometimes it was necessary, in order
:o gain greater height, to place them on high terraces of earth. In
that case they would be built on the site. At the siege of Marseilles,
described by Caesar, special methods of attack had to be employed
on account of the strength of the engines used by the besieged and
their frequent sallies to destroy the siege works. A square fort,
with brick walls 30 ft. long and 5 ft. thick, was built in front of one
of the towers of the town to resist sorties. This fort was subse-
quently raised to a height of six storeys, under shelter of a roof which
projected beyond the walls, and from the eaves of which hung heavy
mats made of ships' cables. The mats protected the men working
at the walls, and as these were built up the roof was gradually
raised by the use of endless screws. The roof was made of heavy
beams and planks, over which were laid bricks and clay, and the
whole was covered with mats and hides to prevent the bricks from
being dislodged. This structure was completed without the loss of
a man, and could only have been built by the Romans,. whose soldiers
were all skilled workmen.
Although these towers were provided with bridges by which
storming parties could reach the top of the wall, their main object
was usually to dominate the defence and keep down the fire from
the walls and towers. Under this protection breaching operations
could be carried on. The approaches to the wall were usually made
under shelter of galleries of timber or hurdle- work, which were placed
on wheels and moved into position as required. When the wall
was reached, a shelter of stronger construction, known as a " rat,"
was placed in position against it. Under this a ram was swung or
worked on rollers; or the rat might be used as a shelter for miners
or for workmen cutting away the face of the wall. The great rat at
Marseilles, which extended from the tower already described to the
base of the tower of the city, was 60 ft. long, and built largely of
great beams 2 ft. square, connected by iron pins and bands. It
was unusually narrow, the ground sills of the side walls being only
4 ft. apart. This was no doubt in order to keep down the weight
of the structure, which, massive as it was, had to be movable. The
sloping roof and sides of timber were protected, like those of the
tower, with bricks and moist clay, hides and wool mattresses. Huge
stones and barrels of blazing pitch were thrown from the wall upon
this rat without effect, and under its cover the soldiers loosened and
removed the foundations of the tower until it fell down.
In order that it might be possible to move these heavy structures,
it was usually necessary to fill up the ditch or to level the surface of
the ground. For this purpose an " approach tortoise " was often
used. This was a shelter, something between the ordinary gallery
and the rat, which was moved end on towards the wall, and had an
open front with a hood, under cover of which the earth brought up
for filling the ditch was distributed.
The missile engines threw stones up to 600 Ib weight, heavy
darts from 6 to 12 ft. long, and Greek fire. Archimedes at the siege
of Syracuse even made some throwing 1800 Ib. The ranges varied,
according to the machine and the weight thrown, up to 600 yds.
for direct fire and 1000 yds. for curved fire. At the siege of Jeru-
salem Titus employed three hundred catapults of different sizes
and forty balistae, of which the smallest threw missiles of 75 Ib
weight. At Carthage Scipio found 120 large and 281 medium
catapults, 23 large and 52 small balistae, and a great number of
scorpions and other small missile engines.
Screens and mantlets for the protection of the engine-workers
were used in great variety.
In addition to the above, great mechanical skill was shown in
the construction of many kinds of machines for occasional purposes.
A kind of jib crane of great height on a movable platform was used
to hoist a cage containing fifteen or twenty men on to the wall.
A long spar with a steel claw at the end, swung in the middle from
a lofty frame, served to pull down the upper parts of parapets and
overhanging galleries. The defenders on their side were not slow
in replying with similar devices. Fenders were let down from the
wall to soften the blow of the ram, or the ram heads were caught
and held by cranes. Grapnels were lowered from cranes to seize the
rats and overturn them. Archimedes used the same idea in the
defence of Syracuse for lifting and sinking the Roman galleys.
Wooden towers were built on the walls to overtop the towers of the
besiegers. Many devices for throwing fire were employed. The
tradition that Archimedes burnt the Roman fleet, or a portion of it,
at Syracuse, by focusing the rays of the sun with reflectors, is
supported by an experiment made by Buffon in 1747. With a re-
flector having a surface of 50 sq. ft., made up of 168 small mirrors
each 6 by 8 in., lead was melted at a distance of 140 ft. and wood was
set on fire at 160 ft.
The development of masonry in permanent fortification had long
since reached its practical limit, and was no longer proof against the
destructive methods that had been evolved. The extemporized
defences were, as is always the case, worn down by a resolute besieger,
and the attack was stronger than the defence.
Through the dark ages the Eastern Empire kept alive the
twin sciences of fortification and siegecraft long enough for the
Crusaders to learn from them what had been lost in the West,
682
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[HISTORY
Byzantium, however, always a storehouse of military science,
while conserving a knowledge of the ancient methods and
the great missile engines, contributed no new ideas
to fortification, so far as we know. In practice the
Byzantines favoured multiplied enceintes or several
concentric lines of defence. This of course is always a tendency
of decadent nations.
In the West the Roman fortifications remained standing, and
the Visigoths, allies of Rome, utilized their principles in the
defences of Carcassonne, Toulouse, &c. in the 5th century.
Viollet-le-Duc's description and illustrations of the defences of
Carcassonne will give a very good idea of the methods then in
use:
" The Visigoth fortification of the city of Carcassonne, which is
still preserved, offers an analogous arrangement recalling those
described by Vegetius. The level of the town is much more elevated
than the ground outside, and almost as high as the parapet walks.
The curtain walls, of great thickness, are composed of two faces
of small cubical masonry alternating with courses of brick; the
middle portion being filled, not with earth but with rubble run with
lime. The towers were raised above these curtains, and their com-
munication with the latter might be cut off, so as to make of each
tower a small inde-
pendent fort ; ex-
ternally these towers
are cylindrical, and
on the side of the
town square ; they
rest, also towards
the country, upon a
cubical base or
foundation. We
subjoin (fig. l) the
plan of one of these
towers with the cur-
tains adjoining. A
FIG. i. Plan of one of the Towers at
Carcassonne.
is the plan of the ground-level ; B the plan of the first storey at the
level of the parapet. We see, at C and D, the two excavations
formed in front of the gates of the tower to intercept, when the
drawbridges were raised, all communication between the town
or the parapet walk and the several storeys of the tower. From the
first storey access was had to the upper crenellated or battlemented
portion of the tower by a ladder of wood placed interiorly against
the side of the flat wall. The external ground-level was much lower
than that of the tower, and also beneath the ground-level of the
town, from which it was reached by a descending flight of from ten
to fifteen steps. Fig. 2 shows the tower and its two curtains on the
FIG. 2. One of the Towers at Carcassonne, inside view.
side of the town; the bridges of communication are supposed to have
been removed. The battlemented portion at the top is covered with
a roof, and open on the side of the town in order to permit the
defenders of the tower to see what was going on therein, and also
to allow of their hoisting up stones and other projectiles by means
of a rope and pulley. Fig. 3 shows the same tower on the side
towards the country; we have added a postern, the sill of which
is sufficiently raised above the ground to necessitate the use of a
scaling or step ladder, to obtain ingress. The postern is defended,
as was customary, by a palisade or barrier, each gate or postern
being provided with a work of this kind."
Meanwhile, in western Europe, siegecraft had almost dis-
appeared. Its perfect development was only possible for an
army like that of the Romans. The Huns and Goths knew
nothing of it, and the efforts of Charlemagne and others of the
Prankish kings to restore the art were hampered by the fact that
their warriors despised handicrafts and understood nothing
but the use of their weapons. During the dark ages the towns
of the Gauls retained their old Roman and Visigoth defences,
which no one knew properly how to attack, and accordingly the
sieges of that period dragged themselves out through long years,
and if ultimately
successful were so as
rule only through
blockade and famine.
It was not until the
nth century that
siegecraft was revived
in the West on 'the
ancient lines.
By this time a new
departure of great
importance
had been
made in the seig-
neurial castle (q.v.),
which restored for
some centuries a defi-
nite superiority to
the defence. Built
primarily as strong-
holds for local mag-
nates or for small
bodies of
Castles.
FIG. 3. One of the Towers at Carcassonne,
outside view.
warriors
dominating a conquered country, the conditions which called
them into existence offered several marked advantages. The
defences of a town had to follow the growth of the town,
and would naturally have weak points. It was not to be
expected that a town would develop itself in the manner most
suitable for defence; nor indeed that any position large enough
for a town could be found that would be naturally strong
all round. But the site of a castle could be chosen purely
for its natural strength, without regard, except as a secondary
consideration, to the protection of anything outside it; and as
its area was small it was often easy to find a natural position
entirely suited for the purpose. In fact it frequently happened
that the existence of such a position was the raison d'etre
of the castle. A small hill with steep sides might well be un-
approachable in every direction by such cumbrous structures
as towers and rats, while the height of the hill, added to the
height of the walls, would be too much for the besiegers' missiles.
If the sides of the hill were precipitous and rocky, mining
became impossible, and the site was perfect for defence. A
castle built under such conditions was practically impregnable;
and this was the cause of the independence of the barons in the
nth and i2th centuries. They could only be reduced by
blockade, and a blockade of long duration was very difficult in
the feudal age.
A very instructive example of 12th-century work is the
Chateau Gaillard, built by Richard Cceur-de-Lion in 1196.
This great castle, with ditches and escarpments cut out of the
solid rock, and extensive outworks, was completed in one year.
In the article CASTLE will be found the plan of the main work,
which is here supplemented by an elevation of the donjon (or
keep). The waved face of the inner or main wall of the castle,
giving a divergent fire over the front, is an interesting feature
in advance of the time. So also is the masonry protection of
the machicolation at the top of the donjon, a protection which
at that time was usually given by wooden hoardings. After
the death of Richard, Philip Augustus besieged the chateau,
and carried it after a blockade of seven months and a regular
attack of one month. In this attack the tower at A was first
mined, after which the whole of that outwork was abandoned by
the defenders. The outer enceinte was next captured by sur-
prise; and finally the gate of the main wall was breached by the
pioneers. When this happened a sudden rush of the besiegers
HISTORY]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
683
prevented the remains of the garrison from gaining the shelter
of the donjon, and they had to lay down their arms.
Chateau Gaillard, designed by perhaps the greatest general
of his time, exemplifies in its brief resistance the weak points of
the designs of the i2th century. It is easy to understand how
at each step gained by the besiegers the very difficulties which
had been placed in the way of their further advance prevented
the garrison from reinforcing strongly the points attacked.
In the i3th century many influences were at work in the
development of castellar fortification. The experience of such
sieges as that of Chateau Gaillard, and still more that gained in
the Crusades, the larger garrisons at the disposal of the great
feudal lords, and the importance of the interests which they had
to protect in their towns, led to a freer style of design. We must
also take note of an essential difference between the forms of
attack preferred by the Roman soldiery and by the medieval
chivalry. The former, who were artisans as well as soldiers, pre-
ferred in siege works the cer-
tain if laborious methods of
breaching and mining. The
latter, who considered all
manual labour beneath
them and whose only ideal
of warfare was personal
combat, affected the tower
and its bridge, giving access
to the top of the wall rather
than the rat and battering-
ram. They were also fond
of surprises, which the bad
discipline of the time
favoured.
We find, therefore, im-
portant progress in enlarg-
ing the area of defence and
in improving arrangements
for flanking. The size and
height of all works were
increased. The keep of
Coucy Castle, built in 1220,
was 200 ft. high. Mon-
targis Castle, also built
about this time, had a
central donjon and a large
open enclosure, within
which the whole garrison could move freely, to reinforce quickly
any threatened point. The effect of flanking fire was increased
by giving more projection to the towers, whose sides were in
some cases made at right angles to the curtain walls.
We find also a tendency, the influence of which lasted long
after medieval times, towards complexity and multiplication
of defences, to guard against surprise and localize successful
assaults. Great attention was paid to the " step by step "
defence. Flanking towers were cut off from their walls and
arranged for separate resistance. Complicated entrances with
traps and many doors were arranged. Almost all defence was
from the tops of the walls and towers, the loopholes on the
lower storeys being mainly for light and air and reconnoitring.
Machicouli galleries (for vertical defence) were protected either
by stone walls built out on corbels, or by strong timber hoardings
built in war time, for which the walls were prepared beforehand
by recesses left in the masonry. Loopholes and crenelles were
protected by shutters. Great care and much ingenuity were
expended on details of all kinds.
Already in the i2th century the engineers of the defence had
made provision for countermining, by building chambers and
galleries at the base of the towers and walls. Further protection
for the towers against the pioneer attack was given by carrying
out the masonry in front of the tower in a kind of projecting
horn. This was found later to have the further advantages of
doing away with the dead ground in front of the tower unseen
from the curtain, and of increasing the projection and therefore
FIG. 4. Donjon, Chateau Gaillard.
FIG. 5. Plan of Carcassonne, 131)1 century.
the flanking power of the tower itself. The arrangement is seen
in several of the towers at Carcassonne, and has in it the germ
of the idea of the bastion.
The defences of Carcassonne, remodelled in the latter half of the
1 3th century on the old Visigoth foundations, exemplify some of
the best work of the period. Figs. 5 and 6 (reproduced from Viollet-
le-Duc) show the plan of the defences of the town and castle, and a
bird's-eye view of the castle with its two barbicans. The thick
black line shows the main wall; beyond this are the lists and then
the moat. It will be noted that the wall of the lists as well as the
main wall is defended by towers. There are only two gates. That
on the east is de-
'
fended by two
great towers and
a semicircular bar-
bican. The gate
of the castle, on
the west, has a
most complicated
approach defended
by a labyrinth of
gates and flanking
walls, which can-
not be shown on
this small scale,
and beyond these
is a huge circular
barbican in several
storeys, capable of
holding 1500 men.
On the tide of the
town the castle is
protected by a
wide moat, and the
entrance is masked
by another large
semicircular barbi-
can. An interest-
ing feature of the
general arrange-
ment is the import-
ance which the lists
have assumed. The slight wooden barricade of older times has
developed into a wall with towers; and the effect is that the
besieger, if he gains a footing in the lists, has a very narrow space
in which to work the engines of attack. The castle, after the
Roman fashion, adjoins the outer wall of the town, so that there
may be a possibility of communicating with a relieving force from
outside after the town has fallen. There were also several posterns,
small openings made in the wall at some height above the ground,
for use with rope ladders.
The siegecraft of the period was still that of the ancients.
Mining was the most effective form of attack, and the approach
to the walls was covered by engines throwing great stones against
the hoardings of the parapets, and by cross-bowmen who were
sheltered behind light mantlets moved on wheels. Barrels of
burning pitch and other incendiary projectiles were thrown as
before; and at one siege we read of the carcasses of dead horses
and barrels of sewage being thrown into the town to breed
pestilence, which had the effect of forcing a capitulation.
With all this the attack was inferior to the defence. As
Professor C. W. C. Oman has pointed out, the mechanical
application of the three powers of tension, torsion and counter-
poise (in the missile engines) had its limits. If these engines were
enlarged they grew too costly and unwieldy. If they were
multiplied it was impossible on account of their short range and
great bulk to concentrate the fire of enough of them on a single
portion of the wall.
It is difficult to give anything like an accurate account, in a
small space, of the changes in fortification which took place in the
first two centuries after the introduction of gunpowder. latroduc-
The number of existing fortifications that had to be tloa of
modified was infinite, so also was the number of *""""
attempted solutions of the new problems. Engineers
had not yet begun to publish descriptions of their " systems ";
also the new names and terms which came into use with the new
works were spread over Europe by engineers of different countries,
and adopted into new languages without much accuracy.
Artillery was in use for some time before it began to have any
effect on the design of fortification. The earliest cannon threw
so very light a projectile that they had no effect on masonry and
684
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[HISTORY
were more useful for the defence than the attack. Later, larger
pieces were made, which acted practically as mortars, throwing
stone balls with high elevation, and barrels of burning com-
position. In the middle of the isth century the art of cannon-
founding was much developed by the brothers Bureau in France.
They introduced iron cannon balls and greatly strengthened
the guns. In 1428 the English besieging Orleans were entirely
defeated by the superior artillery of the besieged. By 1450
Charles VII. was furnished with so powerful a siege train that he
captured the whole of the castles in Normandy from the English
in one year.
But the great change came after the invasion of Italy by
Charles VIII. with a greatly improved siege train in 1494. The
astonishing rapidity with which castles and fortified towns fell
before him proved
the uselessness of
the old defences.
It became neces-
sary to create a
new system of
defences, and,
says Cosseron
de Villenoisy,
" thanks to the
mental activity of
the Renaissance
and the warlike
conditions pre-
vailing every-
where, the time
could not have
been more fav-
ourable." There
is no doubt that
the engineers of
Italy as a body
were responsible
for the first ad-
vance in fortifi-
cation. There,
where vital and
mental energy
were at boiling-
point, and where
the first striking
demonstration of
the new force had been given, the greatest intellects, men such
as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Machiavelli, busied
themselves over the problem of defence.
It has been claimed that Albert DUrer was the first writer on
modern fortification. This was not so; Diirer's work was
published in 1527, and more than one Italian engineer, certainly
Martini of Siena and San Gallo, had preceded him. Also Machia-
velli, writing between 1512 and 1527, had offered some most
valuable criticisms and general principles. Diirer, moreover,
had little influence on the progress of fortification; though we
may see in his ideas, if we choose, the germ of the " polygonal "
system, developed long afterwards by Montalembert. Diirer's
work was to some extent a connecting link between the old
fortification and the new. He proposed greatly to enlarge the
old towers; and he provided both them and the curtains with
vaulted chambers for guns (casemates) in several tiers, so as to
command both the ditch and the ground beyond it. His projects
were too massive and costly for execution, but his name is
associated with the first practical gun casemates.
Before beginning to trace the effect of gunpowder on the
design of fortification, it may be noted that two causes weakened
the influence of the castles. First, their owners were slow to
adopt the new ideas and abandon their high strong walls for
low extended parapets, and, secondly, they had not the men
necessary for long lines of defence. At the same time the
corporations of the towns had learnt to take an active part in
FIG. 6. Carcassonne Castle and Barbican.
warfare, and provided trained and disciplined soldiers in large
numbers.
When artillery became strong enough to destroy masonry
from a distance two results followed: it was necessary to modify
the masonry defences so as to make them less vulnerable, and
to improve the means of employing the guns of the defence.
For both these purposes the older castles with their restricted
area were little suited, and we must now trace the development
of the fortified towns.
Probably the first form of construction directly due to the appear-
ance of the new weapons was the bulwark (boulevard, baluardo or
bollwerk). This was an outwork usually semicircular in
plan, built of earth consolidated with timber and revetted
with hurdles. Such works were placed as a shield in wark -
front of the gates, which could be destroyed even by the early light
cannon-balls ; and they offered at the same time advanced positions
for the guns of the defence. They were found so useful for gun
positions for flanking fire that later they were placed in front of
towers or at intervals along the walls for that purpose.
This, however, was only a temporary expedient, and we have now
to consider the radical modifications in designs. These affected
both the construction and trace of the walls.
The first lesson taught by improved artillery was that the walls
should not be set up on high as targets, but in some manner screened.
One method of doing this in the case of old works was _.
by placing bulwarks in front of them. In other cases the w
lists or outer walls, being surrounded by moats, were already partially
screened and suitable for conversion
into the main defence; and as with
improved flanking defence great height
was no longer essential, the tops of the
walls were in some cases cut down.
In new works it was natural to sink
the wall in a ditch, the earth from
which was useful for making ramparts.
As regards resistance to the effect
of shot, it was found that thin masonry
walls with rubble filling behind them
were very easily destroyed. A bank
FIG. 7.
of earth behind the wall lessened the vibration of the shot, but
once a breach was made the earth came down, making a slope
easy of ascent. To obviate this, horizontal layers of brushwood,
timber and sometimes masonry were built into the earth bank,
and answered very well (fig. 7).
FIG. 8.
FIG. 9.
Another expedient of still greater value was the use of counter-
forts. The earliest counterforts were simply buttresses built
inward from the wall into the rampart instead of outward (fig. 8).
Their effect was to strengthen the wall and make the breaches more
difficult of ascent. An alternative arrangement for strengthening
the wall was an arched gallery built behind it under the rampart
^fig. 9). This construction was in harmony with the idea, already
amiliar, of a passage in the wall from which countermines could
be started; but it has the obvious weakness that the destruction
of the face wall takes away one of the supports of the arch. The
best arrangement, which is ascribed to Albert Durer, was the
" counter-arched revetment." This consisted of a series of arches
built between the counterforts, with their axes at right angles to
the face of the wall. Their advantage was that, while supporting
the wall and taking all the weight of the rampart, they formed
an obstacle after the destruction of the wall more difficult to sur-
mount than the wall itself and very hard to destroy. The counter-
arches might be in one, two or three tiers, according to the height
of the wall (figs. 10 and n, the latter without the earth of the
rampart and showing also a countermine gallery).
A more important question, however, than the improvement of
the passive defence or obstacle was the development of the active
HISTORY]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
685
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defence by artillery. For this purpose it was necessary to find room
tor the working of the guns At the outset it was of course a question
,.,. of modifying the existing defences at as little cost as
' T& ' possible. With this object the roofs of towers were
par ^ removed and platforms for guns substituted, but this
only gave room for one or two guns. Also the loopholes in the lower
storeys of towers were converted into embrasures to give a grazing
fire over the ditch ; this became the commonest method of strengthen-
ing old works for
cannon, but was of
little use as the
resulting field of
fire was so small.
In some cases the
towers were made
larger, with a semi-
circular front and
FIG. 10. side walls at right
angles to the cur-
tain. Such towers built at Langres early in the i6th century had
walls 20 ft. thick to resist battering.
Even in new works some attempts were made to combine artillery
defence with pure masonry protection. The works of Albert Durer
in theory, and the bridge-head of Schaffhausen in practice, are the
best examples of this. The Italian engineers also showed much
ingenuity in arranging for the defence of ditches with masonry
caponiers. These were developed from external buttresses, and
equally with the casemated flanking towers of Durer contained the
germs of the idea of " polygonal " defence.
The natural solution, however, which was soon generally adopted,
was the rampart ; that is, a bank of earth thrown up behind the wall,
which, while strengthening the wall as already indicated, offered
plenty of space for the disposal of the guns.
The diick, which had only been occasionally used in ancient and
medieval fortification, now became essential and characteristic.
Serving as it did for the double purpose of supplying
The aitch. eart jj fo,. a rampar t and allowing the wall to be sunk for
concealment, it was found also to have a definite use as an obstacle.
Hitherto the wall had sufficed for this purpose, the ditch being
useful mainly to prevent the
besieger from bringing up his
engines of attack.
When the wall (or escarp) was
lowered, the obstacle offered by
the ditch was increased by revet-
ting the far side of it with a
counterscarp. Beyond the
counterscarp wall some of the
earth excavated from the ditch
was piled up to increase the
protection given to the escarp
wall. This earth was sloped
down gently on the outer side
to meet the natural surface of
the ground in such a manner as
to be swept by the fire from the
ramparts and was called the
glacis.
Now, however, a new diffi-
culty arose. In all times a chief element in a successful defence has
consisted in action by the besieged outside the walls. The old
ditches, when they existed, had merely a slope on the far side
leading up to the ground-level; and the ditch was a convenient
place in which troops preparing for a sortie could assemble with-
out being seen by the enemy, and ascend the slope to make their
attack. The introduction of the counterscarp wall prevented
sorties from the ditch. At first it was customary, after the intro-
duction of the counterscarp, to leave a narrow space on the top of
it, behind the glacis, for a patrol path. Eventually the difficulty
was met by widening this patrol path into a space of about 30 ft.,
in which there was room for troops to assemble. This was known as
the covered way.
With this last addition the ordinary elements of a profile of
modern fortification were complete and are exemplified in fig. 12.
FIG. II.
Parapet
Terrepleln
FIG. 12.
Up to the gunpowder period the trace of fortifications, that is,
the plan on which they were arranged on the ground, was very
simple. It was merely a question of an enclosure wall adapted
to the site and provided with towers at suitable intervals. The
foot of the wall could be seen and defended everywhere, from
the tops of the towers and the machicoulis galleries. The intro-
duction of ramparts and artillery made this more diffi- The trgaf
cult in two ways. The rampart, interposed between
the defenders and the face of the wall, put a stop to vertical
defence. Also with the inferior gun-carriages of the time very
little depression could be given to the guns, and thus the top of
the enceinte wall, with or without a rampart, was not a suitable
position for guns intended to flank the ditch in their immediate
neighbourhood. The problem of the " trace " therefore at the
beginning of the i6th century was to rearrange the line of defence
so as to give due opportunity to the artillery of the besieged,
both to oppose the besiegers' breaching batteries and later to
defend the breaches. At the outset the latter r61e was the more
important.
In considering the early efforts of engineers to solve this
problem we must remember that for economical reasons they
had to make the best use they could of the existing walls. At
first for flanking purposes casemates on the ditch level were
used, the old flanking towers being enlarged for the purpose.
Masonry galleries were constructed across the ditch, containing
casemates which could fire to either side, and after this casemates
were used in the counterscarps. Some use was also made of the
fire from detached bulwarks. It was soon realized, however, that
the flanking defence of the body of the place ought not to be
dependent on outworks, and that greater freedom was required
for guns than was consistent with casemate defence. The
bulwark (which in its earliest shape suggests that it was in some
sort the offspring of the barbican, placed to protect an entrance)
gave plenty of space for guns, but was too detached for security.
The enlarged tower, as an integral part of the lines, gave security,
and its walls at right angles to the curtain gave direct flanking
fire, but the guns in it were too cramped. The blending of the
two ideas produced the bastion, an element of fortification which
dominated the science for three hundred years, and so impressed
itself on the imagination that to this day any strong advanced
position in a defensive line is called by that name by unscientific
writers. The word had been in use for a long time in connexion
with extemporized towers or platforms for flanking purposes,
the earliest forms being bastille, bastide, baslillon, and in its origin
it apparently refers rather to the quality of work in the construc-
tion than to its defensive intention.
The earliest bastions were modified bulwarks with straight faces
and flanks, attached to the main wall, for which the old towers
often acted as keeps; and at first the terms bulwark and bastion
were more or less interchangeable. Fig. 13, taken from a con-
temporary MS. by
Viollet-le-Duc,
shows a bastion ,
added to the old '
wall of Troyes about
1528. On the other
hand, in fig. 14
(taken from an
English MS. of
1559, which again is
based on the Italian
work of Zanchi pub-
lished in 1554), we
find a a spoken of
as " bulwarks " and
b b as " bastilions."
The triangular
works between the
bastilions are de-
scribed as " ram-
parts," intended to
protect the curtains from breaching fire. (We may also notice in
this design the broad ditch, the counterscarp with narrow covered
way, and loopholes indicating counterscarp galleries.)
Towards the end of the i6th century the term " bulwark "
began to be reserved for banks of earth thrown up a little distance
in front of the main wall to protect it from breaching fire, and it
thus reverted to its original defensive intention. The term
" bastion " henceforth denoted an artillery position connected
by flanks to the main wall; and the question of the arrangement
of these flanks was one of the main preoccupations of engineers.
FIG. 13. Bastion at Troyes.
686
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[HISTORY
Flanks retired, casemated or open, or sometimes in several tiers
were proposed in infinite variety.
FIG. 14.
Thus, while in the early part of the i6th century the actual
modification of existing defences was proceeding very slowly on
account of the expense involved, the era of theoretical " systems "
had begun, based on the mutual relations of flank and face.
These can be grouped under three heads as follows:
I. The cremaillere or indented trace: Faces and flanks succeeding
each other in regular order (fig. 15).
FIG. 15. FIG. 16.
2. The tenaille trace: Flanks back to back between the faces
(fig. 16). The development of the flanks in this case gives us the
star trace (fig. 17).
FIG. 17. FIG. 18.
3. The bastioned trace: Flanks facing each other and connected
by curtains (fig. 18).
In comparing these three traces it will be observed that unless
casemates are used the flanking in the first two is incomplete.
Guns on the ramparts of the faces cannot defend the flanks, and
therefore there are " dead " angles in the ditch. In the bastioned
trace there is no " dead " ground, provided the flanks are so far
apart that a shot from the rampart of a flank can reach the ditch
at the centre of the curtain.
Here was therefore the parting of the ways. For those who
objected to casemate fire, the bastioned trace was the way of
salvation. They were soon in the majority; perhaps
bastioned because tne symmetry and completeness of the idea
trace. captivated the imagination. At all events the
bastioned trace, once fairly developed, held the field in
one form or another practically without a rival until near the
end of the 1 8th century. The Italian engineers, who were supreme
throughout most of the i6th century, started it; the French,
who took the lead in the following century, developed it, and
officially never deserted it until late in the loth century, when
the increasing power of artillery made enceintes of secondary
importance.
It will be useful at this point to go forward a little, with a couple
of explanatory figures, in order to get a grasp of the component
FIG. 19.
parts of the bastioned trace as ultimately developed, and of its
outworks.
In fig. 19 ABCD represents part of an imaginary line drawn round
the place to be fortified, forming a polygon, regular or irregular.
ABC is an exterior angle or angle of the polygon.
connecting curtain make the bas-
BC is an exterior side.
zz is an interior side.
abcdefghijk is the trace of the enceinte.
bcdef is a bastion.
zdef is a demi-bastion.
de is a face of the bastion.
ef is a flank of the bastion.
fg is the curtain.
bf is the gorge.
(Two demi-bastions with the
tioned front, defghi.)
zd bisecting the exterior angle ABC is the capital of the bastion.
xy is the perpendicular, the proportional^ length of which to the
exterior side BC (usually about one-sixth) is an important element
of the trace.
efC is the angle of defence.
BC/ is the diminished angle.
cde is the flanked angle or salient angle of the bastion.
e is the shoulder of the bastion.
def is the angle of the shoulder.
efg is the angle of the flank.
The line of the escarp is called the magistral line since it regulates
the trace. When plans of fortifications are given without much
detail, this line, with that of the counterscarp and the crest of the
parapet, are often the only ones shown, the crest of the parapet,
as being the most important line, whence the fire proceeds, being
usually emphasized by a thick black line.
Fig. 20, reproduced from a French engraving of 1705, shows an
imaginary place fortified as a hexagon with bastions and all the
FIG. 20.
different kinds of outworks then in use. The following is the ex-
planation of its figuring and lettering.
1. Flat bastion: Placed in the middle of a curtain when the lines
of defence were too long for musketry range.
2. Demi-bastion: Used generally on the bank of a river.
3. Tenaille bastion: Used when the flanked angle is too acute:
that is, less than 70.
4. Redans: Used along the bank of a river, or when the parapet
of the covered way can be taken in reverse from the front.
A, B. Ravelins.
C. Demi-lunes: So called from the shape of the gorge. They
differ from the ravelins in being placed in front of the bastions
instead of the curtains.
D. Counter-guards: Used instead of demi-lunes, which were then
going out of fashion.
E. Simple tenaille.
F. Double tenaille (see L and M).
(If the tenaille E is reduced in width towards the gorge, as shown
alternatively, it is called a swallow-tail. If the double tenaille is
HISTORY]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
687
reduced as at G, it is called a bonnet de pretre. Such works were
rarely used.)
H. Hornwork: Much used for gates, &c.
I. Crown-work.
K. Crowned horn-work.
L. M. New forms of tenaille: (N.B. These are the forms which
ultimately retained the name.)
N. New form of work called a demi-lune lunetlee, the ravelin N
being protected by two counter-guards, O.
P. Re-entering places of arms.
Q. Traverses.
R. Salient places of arms.
5. Places of arms without traverses.
T. Orillon, to protect the flank V.
X. A double bastion or cavalier.
Y. A retrenchment with a ditch, of the breach Z.
6. Traverses to protect the terreplein of the ramparts from
enfilade.
Turning back now to the middle of the i6th century we find
in the early examples of the use of the bastion that there is no
attempt made to defend its faces by flanking fire, the .curtains
being considered the only weak points of the enceinte. Accord-
ingly, the flanks are arranged at right angles to the curtain,
and the prolongation of the faces sometimes falls near the middle
of it. When it was found that the faces needed protection, the
first attempts to give it were made by erecting cavaliers, or
raised parapets, behind the parapet of the curtain or in the
bastions.
The first example of the complete bastioned system is found in
Paciotto's citadel of Antwerp, built in 1568 (fig. 21). Here we
The 16th
century.
FlG. 21.
have faces, flanks and curtain in due proportion; the faces
long enough to contain a powerful battery, and the flanks able
to defend both curtain and faces. The weak points of this trace,
due to its being arranged on a small pentagon, are that the terre-
plein or interior space of the bastions is rather cramped, and the
salient angles too acute.
In the systems published by Speckle of Strassburg in 1589
we find a distinct advance. Speckle's actual constructions in
fortification are of no great importance; but he was a
great traveller and observer, and in his work, published
just before his death, he has evidently assimilated,
and to some extent improved, the best ideas that had been put
forward up to that time.
Two specimens from Speckle's work are well worth studying
as connecting links between the i6th and i;th centuries.
Fig. 22 is early 16th-century work much improved. There are no
outworks, except the covered way, now fully developed, with a
battery in the re-entering place of arms. The bastions are large,
but the faces directed on the curtain get little protection from the
flanks. To make up for this they are flanked by the large cavaliers
in the middle of the curtain. The careful arrangement of the flank
should be noted ; part of it is retired, with two tiers of fire, some of
which is arranged to bear on the face of the bastion. The great
saliency of the bastion is a weak point, but the whole arrangement
is simple and strong.
In the second example, known as Speckle's " reinforced trace "
(fig- 23), we find him anticipating the work of the next century.
The ravelin is here introduced, and made so large that its faces are
in prolongation of those of the bastions. Speckle's other favourite
ideas are here: the cavaliers and double parapets and his own
particular invention of the low batteries behind the re-entering
place of arms and the gorge of the ravelin. These low batteries
did not find favour with other writers, being liable to be too easily
destroyed by the
besiegers'batteries
crowning the
salients of the
covered way.
Speckle's book
is of great import -
anceas embodying
the best work of
the period. His
own ideas are large
and simple, but
rather in advance
of the powers of
the artillery of his
day.
At the begin-
ning of the I7th
century we find
the Italian en-
gineers following
Paciotto in de-
veloping the com-
plete bastioned
trace; but they
got on to a bad line of thought in trying to reduce everything
to symmetry and system. The era of geometrical rheirth
fortification (or, as Sir George Clarke has called it, ceatury.
" drawing-board " fortification) had already begun
with Marchi, and his followers busied themselves entirely in
finding geometrical solutions for the application of symmetrical
bastioned fronts to such imaginary forms of perimeter as the
oval, club, heart, figure of eight, &c. Marchi, however, was one
of the first to think of prolonging the resistance of a place by
means of outworks such as the ravelin. De Villenoisy says that
Busca was the first to discuss the proportions and functions of
FIG. 22.
FIG. 23. Speckle's Reinforced Trace.
all the component parts of a front; and Floriani, about 1630,
was the last of the important Italians. The characteristics of
a good deal of Spanish fortification carried out at this time
were, according to the same authority, that the works were well
adapted to sites, and the masonry excellent but too much exposed,
while the bastions were too small. The Dutch and German
schools will be referred to later.
The French engineers now began to take the lead in adapting
the principles already established to actual sites. In the first
half of the century the names of de Ville and Pagan stand out as
having contributed valuable studies to the advancement of the
science. In putting forward their designs they discussed very
fully such practical questions as the length of the line of defence,
whether this should be governed by the range of artillery or
musketry fire, the length of flanks, the use in them of orilions,
casemates and retired flanks, the size of bastions, &c.
It is the latter half of the iyth century, however, which is one
688
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[HISTORY
Vaubaa.
of the most important periods in the history of fortification,
chiefly because it was illuminated by the work of Vauban.
It was at this time also that a prodigious output of purely
theoretical fortification began, which went on till the French
Revolution. Many of the "systems" published at this time
were elaborated by men who had no practical knowledge
of the subject, some of them priests who were engaged in
educating the sons of the upper classes, and who had to
teach the elements of fortification among other things.
They naturally wrote treatises, which were valuable for
their clearness of style; and with their industry and
ingenuity the elaboration of existing methods was a very
congenial task. Most of these essays took the form of
multiplication and elaboration of outworks on an im-
possible scale, and they culminated in such fantastic
extravagances as the system of Rhana, published in 1769
(fig. 24). These proposals, however, were of no practical
importance.
The work of the real masters who knew more than
they published can always be recognized by its com-
parative simplicity. The greatest of these was
Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban (q.v.). Born in
1633, and busied from his eighteenth year till his death in
1707 in war or preparations for war, he earned alike by his
genius, his experience, his industry and his personal char-
acter the chief place among modern military engineers. His
experience alone puts him in a category apart from others.
Of this it is enough to say that he took part in forty-eight
sieges, forty of which he directed as chief engineer with-
out a single failure, and repaired or constructed more than
1 60 places. Vauban's genius was essentially practical, and he was
no believer in systems. He would say, " One does not fortify
by systems but by common sense." Of new ideas in fortification
he introduced practically none, but he improved and modified
existing ideas with consummate skill in actual construction.
His most original work was in the attack (see below), which he
reduced to a scientific method most certain in its results. It
is therefore one of the ironies of fate that Vauban should be
chiefly known to us by three so-called " systems," known as his
" first," " second " and " third." How far he was from following
a system is shown by de Villenoisy, who reproduces twenty-eight
fronts constructed by him between 1667 and 1698, no two of
which are quite alike and most of which vary very considerably
to suit local conditions.
Vauban's " first system," as variously described by other
writers even in his own time, is pieced together from some
of the early examples of
his work. The " second
system " is the " tower
bastion " defence of Bel-
fort and Landau (1684-
1688), obviously suggested
by a design of Castriotto's
one hundred years earlier;
and the " third system "
is the front of Neu-
Breisach (1698), which is
merely Landau slightly
improved. In other
works, between 1688 and 1698, he did not keep to the tower
bastion idea.
It will be convenient to take the " first system," as reproduced
in the Royal Military Academy text book of fortification (fig. 25)
as typical of much of Vauban's work. It may be observed that
he sometimes uses the straight flank, and sometimes the curved
flank with orillon. Parapets in several tiers are never used, nor
cavaliers. The ravelin is almost always used. It is small,
having little artillery power and giving no protection to the
shoulders of the bastions. Sometimes it has flanks and occasion-
ally a keep.
The tenaille is very generally found. In this form, viz. as a
shield to the escarp of the curtain, it was probably invented by
Rhana 1769
him. Fig. 25 shows two forms. In both the parapet of the
tenaille had to be kept low, so that the flanks might defend a
breach at the shoulder of the opposite bastion, with artillery
fire striking within 12 ft. of the base of the escarp. Traverses
are used for the first time on the covered way to guard against
enfilade fire; and the re-entering place of arms, to which Vauban
attached considerable importance, is large.
For the construction of the trace an average length of about
FIG. 25. Vauban's First System.
400 yds. (which, however, is a matter entirely dependent on the
site) may be taken for the exterior side. The perpendicular, except
for polygons of less than six sides, is one-sixth, and the faces of the
bastions two-sevenths of the exterior side. The flanks are chords
of arcs struck from the opposite shoulder as centres. An arc described
with the same radius, but with the angle of the flank as a centre, and
cutting the perpendicular produced outwardly, gives the salient of
the ravelin ; the prolongations of the faces of the ravelin fall upon
the faces of the bastions at II yds. from the shoulders. The main
ditch has a width of 38 yds. at the salient of the bastions, and the
counterscarp is directed upon the shoulders of the adjoining bastions.
The ditch of the ravelin is 24 yds. wide throughput.
As regards the profile the bastions and curtain have a command
of 25 ft. over the country, 17 ft. over the crest of the glacis and 8 ft.
over the ravelin. The ditches are 18 ft. deep throughout. The
parapets are 1 8 ft. thick with full revetments. In his later works
he used demi-revetments.
Fig. 26 shows the tower bastions of Neu-Breisach, or the
so-called " third system." It is worth introducing, simply as
showing that even a mind like Vauban's could not resist in old
age the tendency to duplicate defences. Here the main bastions
and tenaille are detached from the enceinte. The line of the
enceinte is broken with flanks and further flanked by the towers.
The ravelin is large and has a keep. The section through the
face of the bastion shows a demi-revetment with wide berm,
and a hedge as an additional obstacle.
After Vauban died, though the theories continued, the valuable
additions to the system were few. Among his successors in the
early part of the i8th century Cormontaingne (q.v.)
has the greatest reputation, though his experience
and authority fell far short of Vauban's. He was a furies.
clear thinker and writer, and the elements of the system
were distinctly advanced by him. His trace includes an enlarged
ravelin with flanks, the ends of which were intended to close the
gaps at the end of the tenaille, and a keep to the ravelin with
flanks. He provides a very large re-entering place of arms,
also with a keep, the ditches of which are carefully traced so as
to be protected from enfilade by the salients of the ravelin and
bastion. He was also in favour of a permanent retrenchment
of the gorge of the bastion. His works were printed, with many
alterations, more than twenty years after his death, to serve as
a text-book for the school of Mezieres. This school was estab-
lished in 1748, and from this time forward there was an official
school of thought, based on Vauban. Cormontaingne's work,
therefore, represents the modifications of Vauban's ideas accepted
HISTORY]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
689
by French engineers in the latter part of the i8th century. The
school of Mezieres was afterwards replaced by that of Metz,
which carried on its traditions. Such schools are necessarily
conservative, and hence, in spite of the gradual improvement
in ordnance and firearms, we find the main elements of the
bastioned system remaining unchanged right up to the period of
FIG. 26. Neu-Breisach.
the Franco-German War in 1870. Chasseloup-Laubat tells us
that, before the Revolution, to attempt novelties in fortification
was to write one's self down ignorant. How far the general form
of the bastion with its outworks had become crystallized is
evident from a cursory comparison of fig. 27 with Vauban's
FIG. 27. Noizet.
early work. This figure is the front of the Metz school in 1822,
by General Noizet.
Since, therefore, the official view was that the general outlines
of the system were sacred, the efforts of orthodox engineers from
Cormontaingne's time onwards were given to improvements of
detail, and mainly to retard breaching operations as long as
possible. We find enormous pains being bestowed on the study
of the comparative heights of the masonry walls and crest levels;
with the introduction here and there of glacis slopes in the ditches,
put in both to facilitate their defence and to protect portions of
the escarps.
Among the unorthodox two names deserve mention. The first
of these is Chasseloup-Laubat (q.v.), who served throughout the
wars of the Republic and Empire, and constructed the fortress
of Alessandria in Piedmont.
Chasseloup's main proposals to improve the bastioned system
were two :
First, in order to prevent the bastions from being breached
through the gaps made by the ditch of the ravelin, he threw forward
the ravelin and its keep outside the main glacis. This had the
further advantage of giving great saliency to the ravelin for cross-
fire over the terrain ofthe attack. On the other hand, it made the
ravelin liable to capture by the gorge. It is probable that this
system would have lent itself to a splendid defence by an able
commander with a strong force; but under the opposite conditions
it has a dangerous element of weakness.
Secondly, in order to get freedom to use longer fronts than those
admissible for the ordinary bastioned trace, he proposed to extend
his exterior side up to about 650 yds. and to break the faces of his
bastions; the portion next the shoulder being defended from the
flank of the collateral bastion and coinciding with the line of defence,
and the portion next the salient, up to about 80 yds. in length,
being defended from a central keep or caponier placed in front of the
tenaille. The natural criticism of this arrangement is that it
combines some of the defects of both the bastioned and polygonal
systems without getting the full advantages of either.
Fig. 28 shows a half front of Chasseloup's system, of ordinary
length, as actually constructed. The section shows an interesting
Section on the tine AB.
50 10 20 yds.
too yds.
Reliefs In feet, +above or -bttoat
the plane of site
FIG. 28. Chasseloup-Lanbat.
detail, viz. the Chasseloup mask a detached mask with tunnels
for the casemate guns to fire through, the intention of which is to
save them from being destroyed from a distance.
The second name is that of Captain Choumara of the French
Engineers, born in 1787, whose work was published in 1827.
690
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[HISTORY
Two leading ideas are due to him. The first is that of the
" independence of parapets." A glance at any of the plans that
have already been shown will show that hitherto the crests of
parapets had always been traced parallel to the escarp or
magistral line. Choumara pointed out that, while it was
necessary for the escarp to be traced in straight lines with
reference to the flanking arrangements, there was no such
necessity as regards the parapets. By making the crest of the
parapet quite independent of the escarp line he obtained great
freedom of direction for his fire. The second idea is that of the
" inner glacis." This was a glacis parapet placed in the main
ditch to shield the escarp; its effect being to prevent the escarp
of the body of the place from being breached in the usual way
by batteries crowning the crest of the covered way.
The need for Choumara's improvements has passed by, but
he was in his time a real teacher. One sentence of his strikes a
resounding note: " What is chiefly required in fortification is
simplicity and strength. It is not on a few little contrivances
carefully hidden that one can rely for a good defence. The fate
of a place should not depend on the intelligence of a corporal shut
up in a small post prepared for his detachment."
Before leaving the bastioned system it will be of interest to study
a couple of actual and complete examples, one irregular and one
regular. Fig. 29 shows the defences of Sedan as they were at the
end of the lyth century. One sees the touch of Vauban here and
there, but the work is for the most part apparently early iyth
century. It will be observed that on the river side of the town the
defence consists of very irregular bastions with duplicated wet
FlG. 29. Sedan in 1705.
ditches (see the Dutch style, below); and on the other side, where
water is not available, strength is sought for by pushing a succession
of hornworks far out.
Fig. 30 is Saarlouis, constructed by Vauban in 1680 in his early
manner, a remarkable example of symmetry. Vauban of course
never thought of aiming at symmetry, which is of itself neither good
nor bad, but it is interesting to note such a perfect example of the
system.
It must here be remarked that the reproach of " geometrical "
fortification is in no way applicable to the works of Vauban and
his immediate successors. The true geometric fortification, which
worshipped symmetry as a fetish, marked, as has been already
pointed out, the decadence of the Italian school. Vauban and his
fellows excelled in adapting works to sites, the real test of the
engineer.
The bastioned system was the 17th-century solution of the forti-
fication problem. Given an artillery and musketry of short range
and too slow for effective frontal defence, a ditch is necessary as an
obstacle. What is the best means of flanking the ditch and of
protecting the flanking arrangements? If Vauban elected for the
bastion, we must before criticizing his choice remember that he was
the most experienced engineer of his day, a man of the first ability
and quite without prejudice. What is matter for regret is that the
authority of Vauban should have practically paralysed the French
school during the l8th and most of the igth century, so that while
the conditions of attack and defence were gradually altering they
could admit no change of idea, and their best men, who could not
help being original, were struggling against the whole weight of
official opposition.
' .Again, such duplication of outworks as we see at Sedan is not
geometric fortification. It is a definite attempt to retard the attack,
on ground favourable to it, by successive lines of defence. As to the
policy of this, no axiom can be laid down. Nowadays most of us
think, as Machiavelli did, that a single line of defence is best and that
a second line only serves to suggest the advisability of retreat.
There are also, of course, the recognized drawbacks of outworks,
difficulty of retreat, of relief and so forth, and the moral effect of
their loss. But the engineers of such defences as Ostend and Candia
might well say, " Oh, if only when we had held on to that bastion for
so many months we had had a second and a third line of permanent
FIG. 30.
retrenchment to fall back upon, we could have held the place for
ever." And who shall say that they were wrong ? Let us at all
events remember that the leading engineers of that time were men
who had passed their lives in a state of war, and that we ourselves
in comparison with them are the theorists.
From the end of the i6th century the Dutch methods of
fortification acquired a great reputation, thanks to the stout
resistance offered to the Spaniards by some of their
fortresses, the three years' defence of Ostend being
perhaps the most striking example. Prolonged de-
fences, which were mainly due to the desperate energy of the
besieged, were credited to the quality of their defences. In point
of fact the Dutch owed more to nature, and more still to their
own spirit, than to art; but they showed a good deal of skill in
adapting recent ideas to their needs.
Three conditions governed the development of the Dutch
works at this time, viz. want of time, want of money and abun-
dance of water. When the Netherlands began their revolt
against Spain, they would no doubt have been glad enough of
expensive masonry fortresses on such models as Paciotto's
citadel of Antwerp. But there was neither time nor money for
such works. Something had to be extemporized, and fortunately
for them they had wet ditches to take the place of high revetted
walls. Everywhere water was near the surface, and rivers or
canals were available for inundations. A wide and shallow
ditch, while making a good obstacle, was also the readiest means
of obtaining earth for the ramparts. High command was, owing
to the flatness of the country, unnecessary and even undesirable,
as it did not allow of grazing fire.
What the Dutch actually did in strengthening their towns
gives little evidence of system. Starting as a rule from an
existing enceinte, sometimes a medieval wall, they would provide
a broad wet ditch. No further provision was usually made on
the sides of the town which were additionally protected by a
river or inundation. On the other sides the wet ditch was made
still broader, and sometimes contained a counterguard, some-
times ravelins and lunettes. These were quite irregular in their
design and relation to each other. At the foot of the glacis would
be found another but narrower wet ditch, which was a peculiarly
Dutch feature; and sometimes if the town was in a bend of a
river there would be a canal cut across the bend in a straight line,
strengthened by several redans.
Speaking generally, they endeavoured to provide for the want
HISTORY]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
691
of a first-class masonry obstacle by multiplication of wet ditches,
and further to stre-ngthen these obstacles by great quantities
of palisading, for which purpose the timber of old ships was used.
They also recognized the inherent weaknesses of wet ditches,
as, for instance, that when frozen they no longer provide an
obstacle; and they studied the means, not only of causing
inundations, but also of arranging to empty as well as to
fill the ditches at will. Simon Stevin was the leader in this
work.
Nevertheless a Dutch school of design did come into existence
at this time. The leaders, early in the I7th century, were Simon
Stevin, Maurice and Henry of Nassau, Marollois and Freitag.
The fortress of Coevorden, constructed by Prince Maurice, of
which fig. 31 shows a front, is a well-known example of this, and
the section shows clearly some typical features of the school.
FIG. 31. Coevorden.
The elements of the plan are those of the early bastioned trace,
but we find added both ravelins and lunettes, very regular in design.
There is also the ditch at the foot of the glacis, and surrounding
the rampart of the enceinte a continuous fausse-braie. This work,
which partook of the nature of both boulevard and counterguard,
served several purposes. It was desirable that the weight of the
rampart should be drawn back a little from the edge of the ditch,
and the fausse-braie filled what would otherwise have been dead
ground at the foot of the rampart. It also afforded a grazing fire
over the ditch, which was very important, and which the rampart
supported by a plunging fire.
Coehoorn (q.v.), the contemporary and nearest rival to Vauban,
was the greatest light of the Dutch school. Like Vauban he was
distinguished as a fighting engineer, both in attack and
defence; but in the attack he differed from him in
relying more on powerful artillery fire than systematic earth-
works. He introduced the Coehoorn mortar. His " first
system," which was employed at Mannheim (fig. 32), is repro-
duced for the sake of comparison with the Coevorden front
designed a hundred years earlier. Among other points will be
Coehoora.
FIG. 32. Coehoorn's First System.
noticed the combination of wet and dry ditches; the very broad
main ditch with counterguard; the roomy keep of the ravelin;
the expansion of the fausse-brais into an independent low
parapet; and the powerful flanking fire in three tiers.
The " tenaille " system and the " polygonal " system which
grew out of it are mainly identified with the German school.
That school, says von Zastrow, does not, like that of
France, represent the authoritative teaching of an
official establishment, but rather the general practice
of the German engineers. It was founded on the principles of
Diirer, Speckle and especially Rimpler, and much influenced in
execution by Montalembert. " The German engineers desired
a simple trace, a strong fortification with retrenchments and
keeps, bomb-proof accommodation and an organization suitable
for an offensive defence."
These had always been the German principles. Already in the
1 6th century the Prussian defences of Kustrin, Spandau and
Peitz had large bomb-proof casemates sufficient for a great
part of the garrison. The same thing is seen in the defences of
Giogau, Schweidnitz, &c., built by Frederick the Great. These
works show various applications of the tenaille system. In
1776 Frederick became acquainted with the work of Montalem-
bert, and his influence is seen in the casemates of Kosel.
Whether through the influence of Albert Diirer or not cannot
be said, but while the bastion was being developed in France
the tenaille and the accompanying casemates from the first
found acceptance in Germany, and thence in eastern and northern
Europe. De Groote, who wrote in 1618, produced a sort of
tenaille system, and may have been the inspiration of Rimpler.
Dillich (1640), Landsberg the elder (1648), Griendel d'Aach
(1677), Werthmuller (1685) and others advocated both bastion
and tenaille, sometimes in combination; the German bastion
being usually distinguished by short faces and long flanks.-
Rimpler, who was present at the siege of Candia (taken by the
Turks in 1669) and died at that of Vienna in 1683, exercised a
great influence. He had been struck by the weakness of the
early Italian bastions at Candia, and published a book in 1673
called Fortification with Central Bastions, which was practically
the polygonal trace. Zastrow thinks that Rimpler inspired
Montalembert. He left unfortunately no designs to illustrate
his ideas.
Landsberg the younger (1670-1746), a major-general in the
Prussian service, who saw many sieges, also had a great influence.
He appears to have
been the first who
frankly advocated
the tenaille alone,
chiefly on the ground
that the flank, which
was the most im-
portant part of the
bastioned system,
was also the weakest.
Fig. 33 shows his
system, published in
1712.
It was, however,
ultimately a French-
man, Marc Rene
Montalembert (q.v.},
who was the great
apostle of the tenaille,
though in his later
years he leaned more to the polygonal trace. He objected
to the bastioned trace on many grounds; principally
that the bastion was a shell trap, that the flanks
crossing their fire lost the advantage of the
range of their weapons, and that the curtain was
useless for defence. He took the view that the bastions with
their ravelins constituted practically a tenaille trace, spoilt by
the detachment of the ravelins and cramped by the presence of
the curtains and flanks. His tenaille system consisted of redans,
with salient angles of 60 or more, flanking each other at right
angles; from which he gave to his system the name of " per-
pendicular fortification."
Lazare Carnot (q.v.), the "Organizer of Victory," was, in
FIG. 33.
692
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[HISTORY
Carnot i
FIG. 34.
fortification, a follower of Montalembert, and produced in 1797
a tenaille system (fig. 34) on strong and simple lines.
In 1812 Carnot offered three systems. For a dry and level site he
recommended a bastioned trace ; but for wet ditches and for irregular
ground, tenaille traces. Both of these latter differ from his 1797
trace in that the re-entering angle is reinforced by a tenaille whose
faces are parallel to the main faces and reach almost to the salients.
There are also counterguards in front of the salients, whose ends
overlap the ends of the tenaille. (N.B. To avoid confusion between
the tenaille trace and the
tenaille, it should be noted
that the latter is a low de-
tached parapet placed in
front of the escarp of the
body of the place, partly as
a shield, and partly as an
additional line of defence.
It is used in front of the
curtain in the bastioned
trace, and in the re-entering
angle in the tenaille trace.)
Other important features
of Carnot's work were: a
continuous general retrench-
ment, or interior parapet,
following more or less the
lines of the main parapet; the use of the detached wall in place
of the escarp revetment; and the countersloping glacis. This last
(of which Carnot was not the inventor), instead of sloping gently
outwards from a crest raised about 8 ft. down to the natural level
of the ground, sloped inwards from the ground-level to the bottom
of the ditch. The advantage of the additional obstacle of the
counterscarp was thus lost to the defence. On the other hand, the
besiegers' saps, as they progressed down the glacis, were exposed to a
plunging fire from the parapet.
Carnot was also, like Coehoorn, a. great believer in the
mortar; but while Coehoorn introduced the small portable
mortar that bears his name, Carnot expected great results from
a 13 in. mortar throwing 600 iron balls at each discharge. He
endeavoured to
-* prove mathemati-
cally that the dis-
charge of these
mortars would in
due course kill off
T? j T\ j iir 11 the whole of the
FIG. 35. Mortar-casemate and Detached Wall. , . . ,.
These mortars he emplaced in open fronted mortar-casemates,
in concealed positions. Fig. 35 shows in section one of these
m&rtar-casemates, placed between the parapet of the retrench-
ment and a detached wall.
The leading idea of Montalembert was that for a successful
defence it was necessary for the artillery to be superior to that
* *k e enem y- Tms idea le< * h to tne adoption of
casemates in several tiers; in preference to open
trace. parapets, exposed to artillery fire of all kinds, high
angle, ricochet and reverse. In considering the defects
of bastions he had arrived at the conclusion that for flanking
purposes two forms of trace were preferable; either the tenaille
form, connecting the
ravelins with the body of
the place, or the form in
which the primary flank-
ing elements, instead of
facing each other with
overlapping fire, as with
the bastions, should be
placed back to back in
the middle of the exterior
side Fig. 36 is an ex-
ample of this. The central
flanking work resulting
from this arrangement is
the caponier of the early Italians, reintroduced and developed;
and with it Montalembert laid the foundation of the polygonal
system of our own time.
Montalembert was one of the first to foresee the coming
necessity for detached forts, and it was for these that he chiefly
Montalembert
FIG. 36. Montalembert, 1786.
proposed to use his caponier flanking, preferring the tenaille
system for large places. In abandoning the bastioned trace
he was already committed to the principle of casemate defence
for ditches; and the combination of this principle with his
desire for an overwhelming artillery defence led him in the course
of years of controversial writing into somewhat extravagant
proposals. For instance, for a square fort of about 400 yds.
side, he proposed over 1000 casemate guns; and one of his
caponier sections shows 10 tiers of masonry gun-casemates one
above the other. Confiding in the power of such an artillery,
he freely exposed the upper parts of his casemates to direct fire.
Montalembert is said to have contributed more new ideas
to fortification than any other man. His designs must be
considered in some ways unworkable and unsound, but all the
best work of the i gth century rests on his teaching. The Germans,
who already used the tenaille system and made free provision
of bomb-proof casemates, took from him the polygonal trace and
the idea of the entrenched camp.
The polygonal system in fortification implies straight or
slightly broken exterior sides, flanked by casemated caponiers.
The caponier is the vital point of the front, and is protected in
important works by a ravelin and keep. The essence of the
system is its simplicity, which allows of its being applied to any
sort of ground, level or broken, and to long or short fronts.
The final period of smooth bore artillery is an important one
in the history of fortification. It is true that the many expensive
works that were constructed at this time were obsolete
almost as soon as they were finished; but this was
inevitable, thanks to the pace at which the world was camps.
travelling. After the Napoleonic wars the Germanic
Confederation began to strengthen its frontiers; and considering
that they had not derived much strategic advantage from their
existing fort-
resses, the Ger- \\ \\
mans took up
Montalembert's
idea of entrench-
ed camps, utiliz-
ing at the same
time his poly-
gonal system
with modifica-
tions for the
main enceintes.
The Prussians
began with the
fortresses of Cob-
lenz and Cologne ;
later Posen,
Konigsberg and
other places were
treated on the
same lines. The
Austrians con-
structed, among
other places,
Linz and Verona.
The Germanic
Confederation
reinforced Mainz
with improved
works, and re-
organized en-
entirely Rastatt
and Ulm. The
FIG. 37. Front at Posen.
Bavarians built Germersheim and Ingolstadt. While all these
works were conceived in the spirit of Rimpler and Monta-
lembert, they showed the differences of national temperament.
The Prussian works, simple in design, relied upon powerful
artillery fire, and exposed a good deal of masonry to the enemy's
view. The Austrians covered part of their masonry with earth
and gave more attention to detail.
HISTORY]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
693
The German development of the polygonal system at this
time is not of great importance, since the great masonry caponiers
were designed without sufficient consideration for the increasing
powers of artillery. One example (fig. 37) is given for the
sake of historical comparison. It is a front of Posen.
" The exterior side of the front is about 650 yds. (600 metres) long.
It is flanked by a central caponier, which is protected by a detached
bastion. . . . The main front is broken back to flank the faces of the
bastion from casemates behind the escarp, as well as from the parapet.
" The central caponier forms the keep of the whole front and
sweeps both the interior and the ditch by its flanking fire. It has
two floors of gun-casemates and one for musketry, and
Posed. on ne t O p j s a p ar apet completely commanding alike the
outworks and the body of the place. It contains barrack accom-
modation for a battalion of 1000 men, and has a large inner courtyard
closed at the gorge by a detached wall. The caponier is itself flanked
by three small caponiers at the head, and one at the inner end of each
flank.
" The escarp of the body of the place is a simple detached wall;
that of the detached bastion is either a detached wall with piers and
arches, or a counter-arched revetment. At the salient of the bastion
there is a mortar battery under the rampart, and a casemated
traverse for howitzers upon the terreplein. The flanks of the bastion
are parallel to those of the caponier, and at the same distance from
it as the faces.
" Masonry blockhouses, loophpled for musketry, are provided as
keeps of the re-entering and salient places of arms. In the latter
case they have stairs leading down into a counterscarp gallery,
which serves as a base for countermine galleries, and is connected
with the detached bastion by a gallery under the ditch. The counter-
scarp is not revetted if the ditch is wet.
"The angle of the polygon should not be less than 160, in order
that the prolongation of the main ditch may fall within the salients
of the detached bastions of the neighbouring fronts, and the masonry
of the caponiers may thus be hidden from outside view." (R.M.A.
Text-book of F. & M.E., 1886.)
We have now reached a period when the " detached fort "
becomes of more importance than the organization of the enceinte.
The early conception of the role of detached forts in
The h d ^~ connexion with the fortress was to form an entrenched
fort. camp within which an army corps could seek safety
if necessary. The idea had occurred to Vauban, who
added to the permanent defences of Toulon a large camp defended
by field parapets attached to one side of the fortress. The
substitution of a ring of detached forts, while giving it the
greater safety of permanent instead of field defences, gave also
a wider area and freer scope for the operations of an army
seeking shelter under the guns of a fortress, and at the same time
made siege more difficult by increasing the line of investment.
The use of the detached fort as a means of protecting the body
of the place from bombardment had not yet been made necessary
by increased range of artillery.
When these detached forts were first used by Germany the
scope of the idea had evidently not been realised, as they were
placed much too close to the fortress. Those at Cologne, for
instance, were only some 400 or 500 yds. in advance of the
ramparts. The same leading idea is seen in most of these forts
as in the new enceintes; i.e. a lunette, with a casemated keep
at the gorge. The keep is the essential part of the work, the
rampart of the lunette serving to protect it from frontal artillery
fire. The keep projects to the rear, so as not only to be able to
flank its own gorge, but to give some support to the neighbouring
works with guns protected from frontal fire. This is a valuable
arrangement, which is still sometimes used. The front ditches
of the lunettes were flanked by caponiers. Some of the larger
forts were simple quadrangular works with casemate barracks
and caponier ditch defence.
In 1830, in Austria, the archduke Maximilian made an entirely
fresh departure with the defences of Linz. The idea was to
provide an entrenched camp at the least possible cost, whose
works should require the smallest possible garrison. With this
object Linz was surrounded with a belt of circular towers spaced
about 600 yds. apart. The towers, 25 metres in diameter, were
enclosed by a ditch and glacis, and contained 3 tiers of casemates.
The masonry was concealed from view by the ditch and glacis.
On the top of the tower was an earth parapet, over which a
battery of 13 guns fired en barbette. In order to find room for
so many guns in the restricted space, the whole 13 were placed
parallel and close together on a single specially designed mounting.
This new departure was received with a certain amount of
approval at the time, which is somewhat difficult to account for,
as a more faulty system could hardly be devised; but the
experiment was never repeated.
The credit for much of the clear views and real progress made
in Germany during this period is due to General von Brese-
Winiari, inspector-general of the Prussian engineers.
France, for a few years after 1815, could spare little money for
fortifications, and nothing was done but repairs and minor
improvements on the old lines. Belgium, having some money
in hand, rebuilt and improved in detail a number of bastioned
fortresses which had fallen into disrepair.
In 1830 France began to follow the lead of Germany with
entrenched camps. The enceinte of Paris was reconstructed,
and detached forts were added at a cost, according to von
Zastrow, of 8,000,060. The Belgian and German frontiers
FIG. 38.
of France being considered fairly protected by the existing
fortresses, they turned their attention to the Swiss and Italian
frontiers, and constructed three fortresses with detached forts at
Belfort, Besancon and Grenoble. The cost of the new works at
Lyons was, according to the same writer, 1,000,000 without
the armament. Here and elsewhere the enceinte was simplified
on account of the advanced defences. That of Paris, which was
influenced by political considerations, was a simple bastioned
trace with rather long fronts and without ravelins or other
outworks; the escarp was high and therefore exposed, and the
counterscarp was not revetted.
As regards the detached forts there was certainly a want of
clearness of conception. Those of Paris were simply fortresses
in miniature, square or pentagonal figures with bastioned fronts
and containing defensible barracks. Those of Lyons were much
more carefully designed, but the authors wavered between two
ideas. Unwilling to give up the bastion, but evidently hankering
after the new caponiers, they produced a type which it is difficult
to praise. The larger works were irregular four- or five-sided
figures with bastioned fronts; and practically the whole interior
space was taken up by a large keep, with its ditch, on the
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[HISTORY
ENCEINTE OF ANTWERP
Note. TVie reliefs are gweninfeet relatively to the plant
of site.Ha.boae, -beloUJ.
a. Magazines
b. Shell Stores
c. Gun fiooms
d.Barrack Rooms
e. Guard Rooms
/. Blockhouses
FIG. 39.
polygonal system. The smaller works, instead of a keep, had
defensible barracks in the gorge.
During the period 1855-1870 a considerable impulse was given
to the science of fortification, both by the Crimean War and the
arrival of the rifled gun. One immediate result of these
from 1855 was t ^ le condemnation of masonry exposed to artillery
to 1870. fire. The most important work of the period was the
new scheme of defence of Antwerp, initiated in 1859.
This is chiefly interesting as giving us the last and finest ex-
pression of the medieval enceinte, at a time when the war
between the polygonal and bastioned traces was still raging,
though the boom of the long-range guns had already given
warning that a new era had begun. Antwerp is also asso-
ciated with the name of General Brialmont (<?.!>.)> of the
Belgian engineers, whom posterity will no doubt regard as
the greatest writer on fortification of the latter half of the
1 9th century.
We give in figs. 38, 39 and 40 the general plan of the 1859
defences of Antwerp, the plan of a front of the enceinte, and its
Antwerp, sections, as showing almost the last word of fortification
before the arrival of high explosives.
The defences of Antwerp were designed, as the strategic centre
of the national defence of Belgium, for an entrenched camp for
100,000 men. The length of the enceinte is about 9 m. The
detached forts, which on the sides not defended by inundation
are about i J- m. apart and from 2 to 3 m. in front of the enceinte,
are powerful works, arranged for a garrison of 1000 men. They
have each a frontal crest-line of over 700 yds. and are intended
for an armament of 120 guns and 15 mortars.
The general
arrangement of the
fronts of the en-
ceinte should be
compared with the
earlier German
type of Posen. It
will be noticed that
while the large
casemated capo-
nier at Posen breaks
the enceinte and
flanks it both with-
out and within, at
Antwerp the capo-
nier is detached
a much sounder
arrangement and
flanks the front
only. The defence
of the faces rests
on the width of the
wet ditches and on
the flanking power
of the caponier;
there is no attempt
to add to it by
fausse-braie or
detached wall.
The dimensions are
everywhere very
generous, allowing
free movement for
the troops of the
defence ; the cov
ered way is 22 yds.
Section on G H. Low Battery
in ?p 30 40 50
FIG. 40. Sections of fig. 39.
ipoFcet
HISTORY]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
695
wide and there is a double terreplein on the face. The parapet
of the face is 27 ft. thick. The masonry of the casemate guns
in the caponier, first flank and low battery, is protected by earth,
d la Haxo.
In 1859 Austria acknowledged the influence of the new artillery
with some new forts at Verona. The detached forts built by
Radetzky in 1848 were only from 1000 to 2000 yds. distant from
the ramparts. Those now added, of which fig. 41 is an example,
were from 3000 to 4000 yds. out.
In the same year the land defences of some of the British
dockyards were taken in hand. These first serious attempts at
tojsss.
FIG. 41. Austrian Fort at Verona.
permanent fortification in England were received with approval
on the continent, as constituting an advance on anything that
had been done before. The detached forts intended to keep an
enemy outside bombarding distance were roomy works with
small keeps. The parapets were organized for artillery and the
ditches were defended by caponiers or counterscarp galleries.
The forts were spaced about a mile apart and arranged so as to
support each other by their fire.
The sieges of the Franco-German War of 1870 are alluded
to in the section below dealing with the " Attack of Fortresses."
As regards their effect on the designs of fortification
l ^ e most i m P or tant thing to note is the distance to
which it was thought necessary to throw out the
detached forts. These distances were of course in-
fluenced by the character of the ground, but for the most part
they were very largely increased. Thus at Paris the fort at St Cyr
was 18,000 yds. from the enceinte; at Verdun the distances
varied from 2300 to 12,000 yds.; at Belfort the new forts were
from 4500 to 11,500 yds. out; at Metz 2300 to 4500; and at
Strassburg 5200 to 10,000. One result of these increased
distances was of course to increase very largely the length of
the zone of investment, and therefore the strength necessary
for the besieging force.
As regards the character of the works, the typical shape
adopted both in France and Germany was a very obtuse-angled
lunette, shallow from front to rear. The German type had one
parapet only, which was organized for artillery and heavily
traversed, the living casemates being under this parapet. The
ditch defence was provided for by caponiers and a detached wall
(see fig. 42).
The French forts had two parapets, that in the rear being
placed over living casemates (in two tiers, as shown in the section
of fig. 43 by a dotted line), and commanding the front one.
There was a long controversy as to whether the artillery of the
fort should be on the upper or the lower parapet, the advocates
of the upper parapet attaching great importance to the command
that the guns would have over the country in front. 1'he other
school, objecting to having guns on the skyline, preferred to
sacrifice the command and place them on the lower parapet, as
in fig. 43, the infantry occupying the upper parapet. It will be
observed that the bastioned trace is abandoned, the ditches,
like those of the German fort, being defended by caponiers.
While a great deal of work was done on these lines, a very
active controversy had already begun on the general question
as to whether guns should be employed in forts at all. Some
FIG. 42. German Fort about 1880.
declared that the accuracy and power of artillery had already
developed so far, that guns in fixed and visible positions must
needs be put out of action in a very short time. The remedy
proposed by these was the removal of the guns from the forts into
" wing-batteries " which should be less conspicuous; but soon
the broader idea was put forward of placing the guns in concealed
positions and moving them from one to another by means of
Section
FIG. 43. French Fort about 1880.
previously prepared roads or railways. Others declared that
there was no safety for the guns outside the forts, and that the
use of steel turrets and disappearing cupolas was the only
solution of the difficulty. General Brialmont, who had by this
time become the first European authority on fortification ques-
tions, ranged himself on the side of the turrets. The younger
6 9 6
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[MODERN
school were largely in favour of mobility and expressed them-
selves eagerly in a shower of pamphlets.
It was at this juncture that a new factor was introduced,
namely, the obus-torpille, or long shell with high-explosive
bursting charge. With its appearance we say good-bye to the
old school and enter upon the consideration of the fortification
of to-day.
II. MODERN PERMANENT FORTIFICATION
Modern fortification dates by universal consent from 1885.
The Germans had begun experiments a year or two before this,
with long shell containing large charges of gun-cotton.
fr le But it was the experimentsat Fort Malmaisonin France
longshcll. i n 1886 that set the military world speculating on the
future of fortification. The fort was used as a target
for 8-in. shell of five calibres length containing large charges of
melinite. The reported effects of these made a tremendous
sensation, and it was thought at first that the days of permanent
fortification were over. Magazine casemates were destroyed
by a single shell, and revetment walls were overturned and
practicable breaches made by two or three shells falling behind
them. It must be remembered, however, that the works were
not adapted to meet this kind of fire. The casemates had
enough earth over them to tamp the shell thoroughly, but
not enough to prevent it from coming into contact with the
masonry, and the latter was not thick enough to resist the ex-
plosion of the big charges. Other experiments were made in
the same direction in Germany, Holland, Belgium and Austria.
The Germans used shell containing from 60 to 130 Ib of high
explosive.
After the first alarm had subsided foreign engineers set about
adapting their works to meet the new projectiles. Revetments
were enormously strengthened, and designed so that their weight
resisted overturning. Concrete roofs were made from 6 to 10 ft.
thick, and in many cases the surface of the concrete was left bare
so as to expose a hard surface to the shell without any earth
tamping. The idea of cupolas and shielded guns gained ground,
and is now practically accepted all over the continent of Europe.
In many cases the main armament, in some only the safety
armament (see below), is in cupolas in the forts.
But meanwhile Europe had been flooded with literature
on the subject, and the whole policy of fortification as well as
its minutest details were discussed ab ova. The extremists of
both sides revelled in their opportunity. Some declared that,
with the use of heavy guns and armour, fortresses could be made
stronger than ever. Others held that modern fortresses were far
too expensive, that their use led to strategic mistakes, and
(arguing from certain well-known examples) that extemporized
field defences could offer as good a resistance as permanent
works.
Shelters
Batteries
Armoured Batteries
O Forts io Construction
. Heights in metres
From Plessii and Legrand's Manuel comfltl de la fortif cation, by permission.
FIG. 44. Metz in 1899.
MODERN]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
697
European military opinion generally is now more or less
agreed on the following lines:
Important places must be defended by fortresses.
Their girdle of forts must be far enough out to prevent the
bombardment of the place.
An enceinte is desirable, but need not be elaborate.
A few guns (called " safety armament ") should be in the forts,
and these must be protected by armour.
5. The bulk of the artillery of the defence should be outside the
forts; the direct-fire guns preferably in cupolas, the howitzers
in concealed positions.
6. The forts should be connected by lines of entrenched infantry
positions and obstacles, permanent bomb-proof shelters being
provided for the infantry.
7. There should be ample communications radial and peripheral
between the place and the forts, both by road and rail.
8. Special lines of communication such as mountain passes
should be closed by barrier forts.
These considerations will now be taken somewhat more in
detail, but first it will be useful to deal with the plan of Metz
in 1899 (fig. 44).
Here the fortifications of successive periods can be readily recog-
nized. First the old enceinte, unaltered by the Germans and now
, declassee. Next the detached forts, begun by the French
engineers in 1868 and still unfinished in 1870, can be
readily recognized by their bastioned trace. Among them are Fort
Manteuffel, formerly St Julien, and Fort Goeben (fig. 45), formerly
Queuleu. These were not altered in their general lines.
From Plessix and Legrand's Manuel complei de la fortification, by permission.
FIG. 45. Fort Goeben, Metz.
This early line of detached forts, less than 3000 yds. from the
enceinte, was completed by the Germans with forts of polygonal
type such as Fort Prinz August. The hill of St Quentin (fig. 46), a
very important point, was converted into a fortified position, with
two forts and connecting parapets, and a communication running
north to Fort Alvensleben.
The arrangement of wing batteries in connexion with the forts
can be clearly noted at Fort Manteuffel. These are reinforced by
other batteries either for the defence of the intervals or to dominate
important lines of approach such as the valley of the Moselle (canal
battery at Montigny). To these were added later armoured batteries.
There are also infantry positions, shelters and magazines in con-
nexion with this line.
Finally some new forts of modern type were commenced in 1899
at about 9000 yds. from the place.
Leaving out of consideration at present the strategic use of
Fortresses S 1011 ? 3 f fortresses, the places which, as mentioned
above, are intrinsically worth being defended as
fortresses are:
(a) Centres of national, industrial or military resources.
(&) Places which may serve as points d'appui for manoeuvres.
(c) Points of intersection of important railroads.
(d) Bridges over considerable rivers.
(e) Certain lines of communication across a frontier.
Examples of (a) are Paris, Antwerp, Lyons, Verdun. Again
for (a) and (&), as is pointed out by Plessix and Legrand, Metz
in the hands of the Germans may serve both as a base of supplies
and a point d'appui for one flank. Strassburg is a bridge-head
giving the Germans a secure retreat across the Rhine if beaten
in the plains of Alsace, and an opportunity of resuming the
offensive when they have re-formed behind the river.
The distance of detached forts from the place depends on the
range of the siege artillery and the distance at which it can
usually be established from the forts, and is variously j-/ie
given by different continental writers at from 4 to 9 km. ring of
(4500 to 10,000 yds.). The bombarding range of siege detached
howitzers with heavy shells is considered to be about
8000 yds., and if it is possible for them to be emplaced within
say 2000 yds. of the forts, this would give a minimum distance
of 6000 yds. from the forts to the body of the place. Some writers
extend the minimum distance to 7 km., or nearly 8000 yds.
In practice, however, it must happen that the position of the
forts is determined to a very large extent by the lie of the ground.
Thus some good positions for forts may be found within 4000 or
From Plessix and Lcgrand's Manuel complet de la jortification, by permission.
FIG. 46. St Quentin position, Metz.
5000 yds. of the place, and no others suitable on the same front
within 15,000 yds. In that case the question of expense might
necessitate choosing the nearer positions. Some examples of
the actual distances of existing forts have already been given.
Others, more recent, are, at Bucharest 7-10 km., Lyons 8-107,
Copenhagen 7-8 and Paris 14-17. Strategic pivots are in a different
category from other fortresses. While not necessarily protected
from bombardment, they may yet have one or two forts thrown
out from 9 to 12 km., to get advantage of ground. Such are
Langres, Epinal and Belfort.
The Enceinte, The desirability of this is almost universally
allowed; but often it is more as a concession to tradition than for
any solid reason. The idea is that behind the line of forts, which is
the main defensive' position, any favourable points that exist should
be provisionally fortified to assist in a " step-by-step " defence: and
behind these again the body of the place should be surrounded by a
last line of defence, so that the garrison may resist to the last moment.
It may be remarked that apart from the additional expense of an
enceinte, such a position would not, under moderti conditions, be
the most favourable for the last stages of a defence. Again, there is
the difficulty that it is practically impossible to shut in a large
modern town by a continuous enceinte. It has been proposed to
construct the enceinte in sections in front of the salient portions of
the place. This system of course abandons several of the chief
advantages claimed for an enceinte.
In actual practice enceintes have been constructed since 1870 in
France and other countries, consisting of a simple wall 10 or 12 ft.
high with a banquette and loopholes at intervals. This of course can
only be looked upon as a measure of police. For war purposes, in
face of modern artillery, it is a reductio ad absurdum.
The Safety Armament. If the bulk of the artillery is to be placed
in positions prepared on the outbreak of war, it is considered very
necessary that a few heavy long-range guns should be permanently
in position ready at any moment to keep an enemy at a distance,
forcing him to open his first batteries at long range and checking the
advance of his investment line. Such guns would naturally be in
secure positions inside the forts, and if they are to be worked from
such positions they must have armour to shield them from the
concentrated fire of the numerous field artillery that a besieger
could bring to bear from the first.
Artillery outside the forts constitutes the most important
part of the defence, and there is room for much discussion as to
whether it should have positions prepared for it beforehand
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[MODERN
or should be placed in positions selected as the attack develops
itself. On the one hand the preparation of the positions before-
The gues' hand, which in many cases means the use of armour
tloa at and concrete, increases very largely the initial expense
artillery o f t jj e d e f en ce, and ties the defender somewhat in
positions. the spec j a i dispositions that become desirable once
the attack has taken shape. Moreover, such expenditure
must be incurred on all the fronts of the fortress, whereas
the results would only be realized on the front or fronts
actually attacked. On the other hand much time and labour
are involved in emplacing heavy and medium artillery with
extemporized protection, and this becomes a serious considera-
tion when one remembers how much work of all kinds is necessary
in preparing a fortress against attack. Again, to avoid the danger
of a successful attack on the intervals between the forts before
their defences have been fully completed, the fire of the guns
in the intermediate positions might be urgently required. The
solution in any given case would no doubt depend on the import-
ance of the place. In most cases a certain amount of compromise
will come in, some preparation being made for batteries, without
their being completed. Armoured batteries of whatever kind
must in any case be prepared in peace time. It should not be
overlooked that as, whatever theories may exist about successive
lines of defence, the onus of the defence will now lie on the fort
line, just as it formerly did on the enceintes, so that line should
be fully prepared, and should not have to commence its fight in
a position of inequality.
Defence of Intervals of Forts. The frontal fire of the batteries in
the intervals and the flanking fire of some of the guns in the forts
will play an important part, but the main reliance should be on
infantry defence. A fully prepared fortress would have practically
a complete chain of infantry fighting positions and obstacles between
the forts, at all events on the fronts likely to be seriously attacked.
The positions would consist largely of fire trenches, with good
communications; but it is pretty generally recognized that there
Section and Elevation No.i
Barrio-
forts.
But in
must be some points d'appui in the shape of redoubts or infantry
forts, and also bomb-proof shelter for men, ammunition and stores
near the fighting line. This is usually included in the redoubts.
If they are to resist the heaviest shell, such shelters must be built
in peace time.
Communications are of the first importance, not merely to facilitate
the movement of the enormous stores of ammunition and materials
required in the fighting line, but also that defenders may fully utilize
the advantage of acting on interior lines. They should include both
railways and roads running from the centre of the place to the
different sectors of defence, and all round, in rear of the line of forts;
also ample covered approaches to the fighting line. Concealment
is essential, and where the lie of the ground does not help, it must be
got from earth parapets or plantations.
The principal use of barrier forts is in country where the
necessary line of communication cannot be easily diverted.
For instance, in a comparatively flat country a barrier
fort commanding a road or railway is of little use
because roads may be found passing round it, or a line
of railway may be diverted for some miles to avoid it
mountainous country, where such diversion is impossible, it will
be necessary fcr the enemy to capture the fort before he can
advance; and the impossibility of surrounding it, the few
positions from which siege artillery can be brought into play,
and the fact that there is practically only one road of approach
to be denied, make these positions peculiarly suitable for forts
with armoured batteries. Italy makes considerable use of such
forts for the defence of frontier passes.
General Brialmonfs Theoretical Claim for the Defence of a Country.
Before going into details, it is worth while to state the full claim
of strategic fortification advanced by General Brialmont, the most
thorough of all its advocates. It is as follows:
A. Fortify the capital.
B. Fortify the points where main lines of communication pass a
strategic barrier.
C. Make an entrenched camp at the most important centre of
communication in each zone of invasion: and support it by
one or two places arranged so as to make a fortified district.
Section No-S
From Brialmont's Progres de la defense des Hats el de la lorlifkalion permanente depuis Vauban, by permission of M. Ic Commandant G. Mceils.
FIG. 47.
MODERN]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
D. Close with barrier forts the lines necessary to an enemy across
mountains or marshes.
E. Make a central place behind a mountain chain as a pivot for
the army watching it.
F. Defend mountain roads by provisional fortifications.
699
G. Make a large place in each theatre of war which is far from the
principal theatre, and where the enemy might wish to estab-
lish himself.
H. Fortify coasts and harbours.
Objections to these proposals will be readily supplied by the
riiliiiiiiiii
Scale of \ ards
o 10 20 lo 40 50 Co 70 80 GO 100
Section No.i
Section No.3
Section No. 4.
From Brialmont's Progris de la dlfcnse des flats et de la lorlif cation depuis Vauban, by permission of Commandant G. Meeiis.
FIG. 48.
yoo
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[MODERN
officials of the national treasury and the commanders-in-chief of the
active armies.
So
Types of
detached
torts.
many types of detached forts have been proposed by
competent authorities, as well as actually constructed
in recent years, that it is impossible here to consider
all of them, and a few only will be reproduced of
these which are most representative of modern con-
tinental thought.
Taking first the type of heavily armed fort, which contains guns
for the artillery fight as well as safety armament, we must give
precedence to General Brialmont. The two works here shown are
taken from the Progrts de la defense des etats, &c., published in 1898.
The pentagonal fort (fig. 47) has two special features. In section I
is shown a concrete infantry parapet, with a gallery in which the
defenders of the parapet may take shelter from the bombardment
preceding an assault. In section 2 it will be seen that the counter-
scarp galleries flanking the ditch are drawn back from the face of the
counterscarp. This is to counteract proposals that have been made
to obscure the view from the flanking galleries, and perhaps drive
the defenders out of them by throwing smoke-producing materials
into the ditch at the moment of an assault. The arrangement may
save the occupants of the galleries from excessive heat and noxious
fumes, but will not of course prevent the smoke from obscuring the
view.
The following points may be noticed about this design in comparing
it with earlier types. There is no escarp, the natural slope of the
rampart being carried down to the bottom of the ditch. There is a
counterscarp to the faces, but no covered way. The flanks
have no counterscarp, but a steel fence at the foot of the
slope, and the covered way which is utilized for a wire en-
tanglement which is under the fire of the parapet. The
gorge has a very slight bastioned indentation, which allows
for an efficient flanking of the ditch by a couple of machine
guns placed in a single casemate on either side.
The abolition of the covered way as such is note-
worthy. It marks an essential difference between
the fort and the old enceinte profiles; showing that
offensive action is not expected from the garrison of
the fort, and is the duty of the troops of the inter-
mediate lines.
The great central mass of concrete containing all
the casemates and the gun-cupolas, a very popular
feature, is omitted in this design, advantage being
taken of the great lateral extent of the fort to spread
the casemates under the faces, flanks and gorge,
with a communication across the centre of the
fort. This arrangement gives more freedom to the
disposition of the cupolas.
The thickness of the con-
crete over the casemate
arches is more than 8 ft.
Communication between
the faces and the counter-
scarp galleries is obtained Section on AB.
by posterns under the ditch. From Brialmont's Progres de la dljense des itals, &c., by permission of Commandant G. Meeus.
The armament, which is all FIG. 49. Fort Molsheim, Strassburg.
protected by cupolas,
This parapet has no concrete shelter for the defenders. The case-
mates are all collected in the keep and the gorge, with a passage all
round giving access to the parapet and the cupolas.
Fig. 49 is a German work, Fort Molsheim at Strassburg. This is
a simple type of triangular fort. The main mass of concrete rests on
the gorge, and is divided by a narrow courtyard to give light and air
to the front casemates. The fort has a medium armament for the
artillery fight, consisting of four 6-in. howitzers in cupolas. On each
face are two small Q.F. guns in cupolas for close defence, for which
purpose, it will be seen, there is also an infantry parapet. At the
angles are look-out turrets. The ditch has escarp and counterscarp,
and is defended by counterscarp galleries at the angles. There is no
covered way. The thickness of concrete over the casemates, where
it is uncovered, is about 10 ft.
Fig. 50 is Fort Lyngby at Copenhagen. The new Copenhagen
defences are very interesting, giving evidence of clear and original
thought, and effectiveness combined with economy. There is one
special feature worth noting about the outer ring of forts, of which
Lyngby is one. These works are intended for the artillery fight only,
their main armament being four 6-in. guns (in pairs) and three 6-in.
howitzers, all in cupolas. The armament for immediate defence is
Cupola for Howltter
Cupola for Q.F. gun
Observing Cupola
is
powerful. It consists of two l5O-mm. (6 in.) guns, four i2O-mm.
(4-7 in.) guns, two 2lo-mm. (8-4 in.) howitzers, two 2lo-mm. (8-4
in.) mortars, four 57-mm. Q.F. guns for close defence. There is
also a shielded electric light projector in the centre.
This fort is a great advance on General Brialmont's designs before
1885. These were marked by great complexity of earth parapets
and various chicanes which would not long survive bombardment.
This type is simple and powerful. It is also very expensive.
The second Brialmont fort (fig. 48) is selected because it shows a
keep or citadel, an inner work designed to hold out after the capture
of the outer parapet. General Brialmont held strongly to the
necessity of keeps for all important works. History of course gives
instances of citadels which have enabled the garrison to recapture
the main work with assistance, or caused a really useful delay in the
progress of the general attack. It affords still more instances in
which the keeps have made no resistance, or none of any value.
Some think that the existence of a keep encourages the defenders of
the main work; others that it encourages the idea of retreat. The
British school of thought is against keeps. In any case they add
largely to expense.
In the present design the keep is a mass of concrete, which depends
for the defence of its front ditches on counterscarp galleries in the
mam work, the few embrasures for frontal defence being practically
useless. Its main function is to prevent the attackers from estab-
lishing themselves on the gorge, thus leaving the way open for a
reinforcement from outside to enter (assisted by bamboo flying
bridges) through the passages left for the purpose in the outer and
inner gorge parapets.
As regards the main work, the arrangements for defence of the
ditch and the armament are similar to the design last considered.
trifling, consisting of only two 57-mm. guns and a machine-gun.
There is no provision for infantry defence. The ditch has no escarp
or counterscarp, and is flanked by counterscarp galleries at the salient.
It is usual in the case of works so slightly organized for their own
defence, and intended only for the long-range artillery fight, to with-
draw them somewhat from the* front line. The Danish engineers,
however, have not hesitated to put these works in the very front line,
some 2000 metres in front of the permanent intermediate batteries.
The object of this is to force the enemy to establish his heavy artillery
at such long ranges that it will be able to afford little assistance to
the trench attack of the infantry. The intermediate batteries, being
withdrawn, are comparatively safe. They therefore do not require
expensive protection, and can reserve their strength to resist the
advance of the attack. The success of this arrangement will depend
on the fighting strength of the cupolas under war conditions; and
what that may be, war alone can tell us.
In the details of these works, besides the bold cutting down of
defensive precautions, we may note the skilful and economical use
of layers of large stones over the casemates to diminish the thickness
of concrete required. The roofs of the casemates are stiffened
underneath with steel rails, and steel lathing is used to prevent lumps
of concrete from falling on the occupants. The living casemates
look out on the gorge, getting plenty of light and 'air, while the
magazines are under the cupolas.
The forts above described are all armed with a view to their taking
an important part in the distant artillery fight. The next type to be
considered (fig. 51) is selected mainly because it is a good example
of the use of concealed flanking batteries, known on the continent
as batteries traditores, which seem to be growing in popularity.
This design by Colonel Voorduin of the Dutch engineers has a
MODERN]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
701
a. Cupola for 2 6"guns
6. Cupola for 1 6"Honjttrer
c. Disappearing Cupola for Q.F, gun
d. Machine gun
e. Observing Station
36'
Section No.i
Section No. 2
From Brialmont's Progris de la defense dts elats, &c., by permission of Commandant G. Meeus.
FIG. 50. Fort Lyngby, Copenhagen.
the bottom of the ditch is a wire entanglement and the glacis slope is
planted with thorns. The thickness of concrete on the casemates is
2 metres (6 ft. 7 in.). This is a strong and simple form of infantry
medium armament, which is not intended for the artillery duel, but
to command the immediate front of the neighbouring forts and the
intervals. The fort is long and narrow, with small casemate accom-
modation. It contains eight 4-y-in. guns. Two of these are in a
cupola concealed from view, though
not protected, by a bank of earth in
front. The other six are in an armoured
battery behind the cupola. It may be
remarked that as the cupola gets no
real protection from the covering mass
of earth, it would be better to be able
to utilize the fire of its guns to the
front. The batterie traditore, if properly
protected overhead, would be very
difficult to silence, and its flanking fire
would probably be available up to the
last moment. There is very much to
be said both for and against the policy
of so emplacing the guns. The im-
mediate defence of the work, with the
aid of a broad wet ditch, is easy ; but
the great mass of concrete, which is in-
tended to form an indestructible plat-
form and breastwork for the infantry,
would seem to be a needless expense.
Fig. 52, designed by the Austrian
lieutenant field-marshal Moritz Ritter
von Brunner( 1 839-1904), is selected as
a type of the intermediate fort which
is intended only to be a strong point
in the infantry line of defence between
the main forts. It has a pro-
tected armament, but this,
which consists only of four
small Q.F. guns in cupolas, is
for its own defence, and not
to take part in the artillery
duel. There is also a movable
armament of four light Q.F.
guns on wheels, for which a
shelter is provided between the
two observatory cupolas. The
garrison would be a half com-
pany of infantry, for whom
casemates are provided in the
gorge. The gorge ditch is
flanked by a caponier, but
there is no flank defence for
the front ditch. This is de-
fended by a glacis parapet. At
work, but considering its r&le it appears to be needlessly expensive.
From Leithner's Bestandige Bejestigung.
FIG. 51.
7<32
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[MODERN
Fig S3 is an Italian type of barrier fort in mountainous country.
A powerful battery of eight medium guns protected by a Gruson
shield commands the approach. The fort with its dwelling case-
mates is surrounded by a deep ditch flanked by counterscarp galleries.
There are certain apparent weaknesses in the type, but the difficulties
of the attack .in such country and its limitations must be borne i
mind.
Modern Details of Protection and Obstacle. After considering
the above types of fort, it will be of use to note some of the
details in which modern construction has been modified to
provide against the increasing power of artillery.
The penetration of projectiles varies according to the nature
of the soil the lighter the better for protection. Sand offers
the greatest resistance to penetration, clay the least.
since, however, the penetration of heavy shells fired
from long ranges with high elevation may be 20 ft.
or more in ordinary soil, we can no longer look to earth
alone as a source of protection against bombardment. Again
a moderate quantity of earth over a casemate increases the ex-
plosive effect of a shell by " tamping " it, that is by preventing
the force of the explosion from being wasted in the open air.
Bomb-
man in repelling an assault. This concrete parapet may be
further reinforced by hinged steel bullet-proof plates, to give
head cover; which when not in use hang down behind the crest.
The escarp is falling into disfavour, on account of the great
expense of a revetment that can withstand breaching fire. A
counterscarp of very solid construction is generally ol)stacleSi
used, it is low and gives cover to a wire entanglement
in the ditch. This may be supplemented by a steel unclimbable
A
V" Section No. 3
From Brialmont's Progres de la defense des flats, &c., by permission of Com-
mandant G. Meeiis.
FIG. 52.
We find therefore that in most modern designs the tops of
casemates are left uncovered, or with only a few inches of earth
over them, in which grass may be grown for concealment.
For the materials of casemates and revetment walls exposed
to fire, concrete (q.v.) has entirely replaced masonry and brick-
work, not because of its convenience in construction, but because
it offers the best resistance. The exact composition of the
concrete is a matter that demands great care and knowledge.
It should be, like an armour plate, hard on the surface and tough
within. The great thickness of 10 ft. of concrete for casemate
arches, very generally prescribed on the continent in important
positions, is meant to meet the danger of several successive
shells striking the same spot. To stop a single shell of any siege
calibre in use at present, 5 ft. of good concrete would be enough.
A good deal is expected from the use of " reinforced concrete
(that is concrete strengthened by steel) both for revetment
walls and casemates.
Parapets are frequently made continuous or glacis-wise, that
is the superior slope is prolonged to the bottom of the ditch so
Parapets. tnat tne whole rampart can be swept by the fire of the
defenders from the crest, and there is no dead ground
in front of it. It is also common to build the crest of the parapet
in solid concrete, with sometimes a concrete banquette, so that
bombardment shall not destroy the line the defenders have to
Section on AB.
From General Rocchi's Traccii per lo studio della Icrtificazione, by permission.
FIG. 53.
fence, and by entanglements or thorn plantations on the covered
way and the lower slopes of the parapet. Entanglements are
attached to steel posts bedded in concrete. The upper parts of
revetments and the foundations of walls are protected against
the action of shells, that falling steeply might act as mines to
overturn them, by thick aprons of large stones. Fig. 54 shows
most of these dispositions.
Electric search-lights are now used in all important works
and batteries. They are usually placed in disappearing cupolas.
They are of great value for discovering working parties g^,^.
at night, and lighting up the foreground during an KghtSi
attack; and since only the projector need be exposed,
they are not very vulnerable. Their value, however, must not
be over-estimated. The most powerful search-light can in no
way compare with daylight as an illuminant, and, like all other
mechanical contrivances, they have certain marked drawbacks
in war. They may give rise to a false confidence; an important
light may fail at a critical moment; and in foggy weather they
are useless.
The use of armour (see also ARMOUR-PLATES) for coast batteries
followed closely upon its employment for ships, for those were
the days of short ranges and close fighting, and it seemed
natural not to leave the battery in a position of inferiority to
MODERN]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
703
From Deguise's La Fortification pcrmanenle, by permission of J. Polleunis.
FIG. 54.
the ship in the matter of protection. In England the coast battery
for a generation after the Crimean War was a combination of
masonry and iron; and in 1860 Brialmont employed
armoured turrets at Antwerp in the forts which
commanded the Scheldt. For land defence purposes, however,
engineers were very slow to adopt armour. Apart from all
questions of difficulty of manufacture, expense, &c., the idea was
that sea and land fronts were radically different. It was pointed
out that a ship gun, fired from an unsteady platform, had not
enough accuracy to strike repeated blows on the same spot;
so that a shield which was strong enough to resist a single shot
would give complete protection. A battery on a land front, on
the other hand, was exposed to an accurate fire from guns which
could strike successive blows on the same spot, and break down
the resistance of the strongest shield. But in time continental
opinion gradually began to turn in favour of iron protection.
Practical types of disappearing and revolving cupolas were
produced, and many engineers were influenced in their favour
by the effect of the big high-explosive shell. Eventually it was
argued that, after all, the object of fortification is not to obtain a
resisting power without limit, but to put the men and guns of a
work in an advantageous position to defend themselves as long
as possible against a superior force; and that from this point of
view armour cannot but add strength to defensive works.
The question has of course long passed beyond the stage of
theory. Practically every European state uses iron or steel
casemates and cupolas. German, Danish, Italian and other
types of forts so armed have been shown. Recent French types
have not been published, but it is known that cupolas are
employed; and Velichko, the Russian authority, long an
uncompromising opponent of armour, in the end changed his
views. These countries have had to proceed gradually, by
improving existing fortresses, and with such resources as could
be spared from the needs of the active armies. Among the
smaller states Rumania and Belgium have entered most freely
into the new way. In England, which is less directly interested,
opinion has been led by Sir George Clarke, since the publication
in 1890 of his well-known book on fortification. Having witnessed
officially the experiments at Bucharest in 1885 with a St Chamond
turret and a Gruson cupola, he expressed himself very strongly
against the whole system. Besides pointing out very clearly
the theoretical objections to it, and the weak points of the con-
structions under experiment, he added: " The cost of the French
turret was about 10,000 exclusive of its armament, and for
this sum about six movable overbank guns of greater power
could be provided." In view of the weight that belongs of right
to his criticisms it is as well to point out that while this remark
is quite true, yet the six guns would require also six gun detach-
ments, with arrangements for supply, &c.; a consideration
which alters the working of this apparently elementary sum.
The whole object of protection is to enable a few men and guns
successfully to oppose a larger number.
At the time when Sir George Clarke's first edition came out,
such extravagances were before the public as Mougin's fort; "a
mastless turret ship," as he called it, " buried up to the deck-level
in the ground and manned by mechanics." Such ideas tended to
throw discredit on the more reasonable use of armour, but whether
the system be right or wrong, it exists now and has to be taken
account of. Nowhere has it been applied more boldly than in
Rumania. The defences of Bucharest (designed by Brialmont)
consist of 18 main and 18 small forts, with intermediate batteries.
The main forts are some 4500 yds. apart, and 11,000 to 12,000 yds.
from the centre of the place. The typical armament of a main fort
is six 6-in. guns in three cupolas (one for indirect fire), two 8-4-in.
howitzers in cupolas, one 4'7-in. howitzer in a cupola, six small
Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas. The total armament of the place
(all protected) is eighty-six 6-in. guns, seventy-four 8-4-in. howitzers,
eighteen 4-7-in. howitzers, 127 small calibre Q.F. guns in disappear-
ing cupolas, 476 small calibre Q.F. guns in casemates for flanking
the ditches. The " Sereth Line " will be described later.
Different Forms of Protection: Casemate, Cupola, &c. The
broad difference between casemates or shielded batteries and
turrets and cupolas is that the former are fixed while the latter
revolve and in some cases disappear. The casemate thus has
the disadvantages that the arc of fire of the gun, which has to
fire through a fixed embrasure or port-hole, is very limited, and
that the muzzle of the gun and the port-hole, the weak points
of the system, are constantly exposed to the fire of the enemy.
The advantage of the casemate lies in its comparative cheapness
and the greater strength of a fixed structure. It is well suited
for barrier forts (fig. 53) and other analogous positions; and the
Italians amongst other nations have so employed it at such
places as the end of the Mont Cenis tunnel. Steel and iron case-
mates are also useful as caponiers for ditch flanking (fig. 55).
Turrets and Cupolas. The difference between a turret and a
cupola is that the former is cylindrical with a flat or nearly flat
top and presents a vertical target; while the latter is a flattened
From Leithner's Btsldndige Befcsligung, by permission.
FIG. 55.
74
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[MODERN
dome, the vertical supports of which are entirely concealed. The
turret appears to be little used. The object of both forms is at
once to give an all-round arc of fire to the guns and to allow of
the weak point of the structure, the port-hole and muzzle of
the gun, being turned away from the enemy in the intervals of
firing. Both usually emerge from a mass of concrete, which is
strengthened round the opening by a collar of chilled cast iron
about 12 to 15 in. thick.
There are four types of cupolas, viz. (a) Disappearing, (6) Oscillat-
ing, (c) Central pivot, (d) On roller rings.
(a) Disappearing cupolas are used chiefly for small quick-firing
guns, on account of the expense of the various systems. They can
c . be used for medium guns. The details of the best foreign
systems are secret, (ft) The oscillating turret is a Mougin
type, in which the turret is supported in the centre by a knife-edge
on which it can swing. The oscillation is controlled by powerful
springs. The effect of it is that after firing, the front of the cupola
with the port-hole swings downwards under cover, and is held there
until the gun is ready to fire again, (c) Schumann's centre pivot is
understood to be approved in Germany. It has been adopted in
Rumania and Belgium for howitzer cupolas. It is only suitable for
a single piece; d is strong and steady the best cupola for coast
batteries ; c and d are best for rapid fire because they can be loaded
without lowering. They are suited for long guns.
The following types are illustrated as being generally representative
of the different classes of cupola.
Fig. 56 is a section of Messrs Krupp's typical cupola for one 6-in.
gun. The shield is of nickel steel, the collar of cast steel. A small
space is left between the cupola and its collar to prevent the possi-
bility of the shield jamming after being damaged. The guns are
muzzle-pivoting and thickened out near the muzzle by the addition
of a ring, so as to close the port as much as possible. The recoil is
controlled within narrow limits both to economize space and to
prevent the smoke from the muzzle from getting into the cupola.
To facilitate the elevation and depression of the gun (with muzzle
pivotings the breech has of course to be moved through a much larger
arc than with ordinary mountings) it is balanced by a counterweight.
The cupola rests on a roller ring and is traversed by a winch. It can
be turned through a complete circle in about one minute.
Fig- 59 shows a disappearing turret for an electric light projector.
Fig. 60 shows a Krupp transportable cupola for a 5'7-cm. gun.
This is drawn on a four-wheeled carriage, and when coming into
action slides on rollers on to a platform in the parapet. It weighs
about 2$ tons, and with carriage and platform about 4 tons.
FIG. 56. Cupola for 6-in. gun (Friedr. Krupp A.G.).
Fig. 57 shows a Schumann shielded mortar (sphere-mortar,
Kueelmorser). In this case it will be observed that the cupola is
replaced by an enlargement of the encircling collar; and the mortar
(8-4-in. calibre) is enclosed in a sphere of cast iron, so as to close
completely the opening of the collar in any position.
Fig. 58 shows a Gruson cupola for one 4>7-in. Q.F. howitzer.
From Leithner's Besliindigc Brlestigung.
FIG. 57. Gruson Spherical Mortar.
The mechanism of these cupolas is for the most part simpler than
it appears. Counterweights and hand winches are much in use for
the lighter natures of guns. The armouring of course keeps pace
with improvements in manufacture. The chilled cast iron first
made popular by the Gruson firm is now little used except for such
purposes as the collar round a cupola. Wrought iron, steel and
compound plates for the tops of cupolas have all been tried, the most
recent Krupp-Gruson designs being of nickel steel.
The sighting in some cases may be done by sights on the gun, with
suitable enlargements in the port-hole;
in others by sights affixed to the cupola
itself (which of course can give horizontal
direction only); in others training and
elevation are given in accordance with
the readings on electric dials, or instruc-
tions by telephone or speaking tube.
There is of course nothing unreasonable
in this in the case of indirect fire guns
and howitzers, for if not firing from
cupolas they would be behind the shelter
of some wood or quarry.
Schumann's System: "Armoured
Fronts. " Lieut. - Colonel Maximilian
Schumann (1827-1889) of the Prussian
engineers, who took a very prominent
part in the design and advocacy of
armoured defences, eventually produced
a system which dispensed entirely with
forts and relied on the fire of protected
guns. It consists of several lines of bat-
teries for Q.F. guns and howitzers in
cupolas. He considered that such bat-
teries would be able to defend their own
front, and the infantry garrison was not
to be called into action except in the
case of the enemy breaking through at
some point of the line.
This system was actually adopted by
Rumania (1889-1892) for the Sereth Line.
There are three routes by which the
Russians can enter the country across
the Sereth river: through Focshani,
Nemolassa and Galatz. These three
routes are barred by bridge-heads, those
at Focshani, the most important, being
on the left bank of the Milkov, a tribu-
tary of the Sereth.
The Focshani works consist of 71
batteries arranged on a semicircular front about 12 m. long and
from 8000 to 10,000 yds. in advance of the bridges. The batteries
are placed in three lines, which are about 500 yds. apart, and are
subdivided into groups. The normal group consists of 5 batteries,
of which 3 are in the first line, i in the second, and I in the third.
The first-line batteries each contain five small Q.F. guns in travelling
MODERN]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
705
cupolas. The second-line batteries, each six small Q.F. guns in dis-
appearing cupolas. The third-line batteries have one I2o-mm. gun
in a cupola, and two 2io-mm. spherical mortars with Gruson shields.
The immediate defence of the batteries consists of a glacis planted
with thorn bushes and a wire entanglement.
The fortification of these three bridge-heads are said to have cost
about 1,100,000. But the system of " armoured fronts " is never
likely to be reproduced, having been condemned by all authoritative
continental opinion. Its defects have been summarized by Schroeter
as follows: weakness of artillery at long ranges, want of security
against a surprise rush, the neglect of the use of infantry in the
defence, and the difficulty of command. This last is the most
I
1
&mV"A&
Wx&
H|I
>;,'- i-.:.*.o..'.
fe^^S^::
From Leithner's Besliindige Bclestigung.
FIG. 58. Cupola for 4>7-in. Howitzer.
serious of all. It is indeed difficult to conceive that any one should
expect half-a-dozen expert gunners, each shut up in an iron box with
a gun, to stop the rush of a thousand men, even by day. But
imagine the feelings of the gunner on the night of a big attack, alone
in his box, his nerves already strained by a preliminary bombardment
and nights of watching. He hears the sounds of battle all around ;
he knows nothing of the progress of the attack, but expects every-
thing, and feels every moment the door of his box being opened and
the bayonet entering his back. No wise commander would submit
his troops to such a test.
Sir George Clarke and Unarmoured Systems. Before leaving
the subject of fortresses it is necessary to consider the ideas of
those who, while recognizing the necessity for places permanently
organized for defence, prefer to treat them more from the point
of view of perfected field defences. It is to the credit of English
military science that Sir George Clarke may be taken as the
representative of this school of thought. His study of fortifica-
tion, as he tells us, began with a history of the defence of Plevna
(q.v.). He was led to compare the resistance made behind
extemporized defences at such places as Sevastopol, Kars and
Plevna, with those at other places fortified in the most complete
manner known to science. From this comparison he drew the
conclusion that the true strength of fortification does not depend
on great masonry works intricately pieced together at vast
expense, but on organization, communications and invisibility.
In his 1907 edition he says:
" Future defences will divide themselves naturally into the
following categories: (i) Permanent works wholly constructed in
peace time and forming the key points
of the position. (2) Gun emplacements,
magazines and shelters for men in rear
of the main line, all concrete struc-
tures and platforms to be completed,
though some earthwork may be left
until the position is placed in a state
of defence. (3) Field works, trenches,
&c., guarding the intervals between
the permanent defences in the main
line, or providing rear positions.
These should be deliberately planned
in. time of peace ready to be put in
hand at short notice. The essence of
a well-fortified position is that the
weapons of the defender shall obtain
the utmost possible scope of action,
x. 23
and that those of the attacker shall have the minimum chances of
effecting injury."
Since Sir George Clarke published his first edition in 1890 conti-
nental ideas have expanded a good deal. The foregoing statement
as to the three categories of defences would be accepted
, ,.~ .
anywhere now: the differences of opinion come in
when we reach the stage of classifying under the first
head the permanent works to be constructed in peace time.
In most countries these would include forts with guns for the
artillery duel, forts with safety armaments, fixed batteries with
or without armour, and forts for infantry only. Sir George
Infantry
Drawn from illustration in Leithner's Bestondigf Befesligttng, by permission.
FIG. 59. Disappearing Turret for Searchlight.
Clarke will have no armour for guns except in certain special
cases of barrier forts. Heavy guns and howitzers requiring
permanent emplacements (concrete platforms, &c.) must either
be well concealed or be provided with alternative positions.
The only permanent works which he admits are for infantry.
They are redoubts of simple form intended for 350 or 40x5 men,
with casemate accommodation for three-fourths of that number.
Fig. 6 1 shows the design: two rows of casemates, one under
the front parapet, one under a parados; frontal musketry
defence; obstacle consisting of entanglements, mines, &c.,
with or without escarp and counterscarp.
" The intervals (he says) between the infantry redoubts may be
about 2500 yds.; but this will necessarily depend upon the con-
formation of the ground. Where there are good artillery positions
falling within the sphere of protection of the redoubts, large intervals
will be peimissible. Thus, in the case of an extended line of defence
where the ground offers marked tactical features, the idea of a
continuous chain of permanent works may be abandoned in favour
\
FIG. 60. Transportable Cupola for 5-7-cm. Gun (Friedr. Krupp A.G.).
706
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[MODERN
From Sir George S. Clarke's Fortification, by permission of John Murray.
FIG. 61.
of groups of redoubts guarding the artillery positions. In this case,
the redoubts in a group might be distributed on a curve bent back
in approximately horse-shoe form."
The keystones of the close defence of the fighting line in
future will undoubtedly be these infantry redoubts, and therefore
it is of great interest to compare with the above types two
studies put forward by Schroeter (Die Festung in der heuligen
Kriegfiihrung) , one in his first edition in 1898 (fig. 62), and the
other in the second in 1905 (fig. 63). In both these the defensive
arrangements are merely trenches of field profile with entangle-
ments, the command and the obstacle being less than in Sir
George Clarke's work; and it will be noticed that in the 1905
type, published after the Russo-Japanese War, the plan is much
M
M
..6 S 6'
aa. Shelters for 120 men each
6' Latrine
cc. Sentry posts
d. Washplace
ct. Sentry posts for Entanglement
(splinter-proofl
From Schroeter's Die Festung in der heuligen Kriegjuhrung, by permission of E. S. Miuler u. Sohn.
FIG. 62.
less simple and arrangements for close flanking defence have been
introduced. But these works of Schroeter's are merely infantry
supporting points in a line which contains forts of the triangular
type with guns, and armoured batteries, as well as a very com-
plete arrangement of field defences and communications; while
Sir G. Clarke's redoubts are the only permanent works giving
casemate protection in the front line.
The comparative merits of either design for an infantry
redoubt are not of much importance. It is agreed that the
main line of defence must consist of a more or less continuous
line of field defences and obstacles, and that at some points
in the line there should be infantry supporting points with
bomb-proof protection capable of resisting big shells. The
open question is, what additional
works, if any, are required for the
artillery, whether for the medium
and heavy guns that will take part
in the " artillery duel," or for the
lighter natures that will help in
the close fight and defence of the
intervals. Is it best for the defenders
to rely on armoured protection or on
concealment for his guns?
Official opinion outside England has
certainly sanctioned armour, since all
over the continent it is to o__ osto _
some extent adopted in views an
practice. National practice * armour,
is usually based on the advice *"" pos '-
, i. .. , i tiuns, &L.
of the most distinguished
officers of the day, and therefore it is
unsafe to condemn it hastily. Sir
George Clarke and those who are with
him and they are many, bothinGreat
Britain and abroad object entirely
to armour. He says (Fortification, ed.
1907, p. 96): "The great advantage
possessed by the attack in all ages
has been the employment of a mobile
artillery against armaments cribbed,
cabined and confined by fortification.
It is necessary to perpetuate this ad-
vantage?" Of course the effect of
long-range weapons, in increasing the
length of front that can be held by
a given force, has given much greater
*"> *8 | IL' N lU,li, ijTTT
so yds
ATTACK]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
707
aa-...Sheitenfor 120 men each
for defence of gorges
ftd....,Ditch defence
etc... ..Sentry posti
Scale of Yards for Section AB.
10 20 30 40
Section on CD. Scale of Yards fo ScctionsCD. EF Section on EF,
From Schroeter's Die Feslung in der hculigen Kriegluhrung, by permission of E. S. Mittler u. Sohn.
FIG. 63.
freedom of action to the defence and this should be taken full
advantage of.
The argument as to the vulnerability of shielded guns is
not at present strong. Sir George says (ib. p. 94), " If the high
angle fire ... is ever to find a favourable opportunity, it will
surely be against a cupola, the site of which can generally be
determined with accuracy." On the other hand he says (p. 90),
" During the long and costly experiments carried on at Bucharest
in 1885-1886, 164 rounds were fired from the Krupp 21 cm.
mortar at targets of about 40 sq. metres area " (about 430 sq. ft.)
" without obtaining a single hit. The range was 2700 yds.; the
targets were towers built upon a level plain; the shooting
conditions were ideal, and the fall of each shell was telephoned
back to the firing point; but it must have been evident to the
least instructed observer that to attempt to group 6 or 8 shells
on an invisible area 2 metres square would have been absolutely
futile." These facts are adduced to prove that it is not necessary
to give great thickness to concrete casemates, to resist successive
bursts of shells in the same place; but surely they are equally
applicable to cupolas. Again (p. 252), " The experience gained
at Port Arthur was not altogether encouraging as regards the
use of high angle fire. The Russian vessels in the harbour were
sunk by opening their sea-valves. ... Fire was subsequently
directed upon them from u in. howitzers at ranges up to about
7500 yds. This was deliberate practice from siege batteries at
stationary targets; but the effect was distinctly disappointing."
The cupolas therefore can hardly be considered ideal targets:
and the probability is that they would hold their own against
both direct and indirect fire for a long time. There are other
and stronger arguments against the
general use of them, all of which are
clearly set forth by Sir George Clarke.
The worst objections to the cupola
are the military disadvantages of
isolation and immobility, and the
multiplication of mechanical arrange-
ments. For a successful round from
a disappearing cupola, the elevating
and traversing arrangements, the
elevating and loading gear of the
gun, and the telephone communica-
tion, must all be in good order. At
night the successful co-operation of
the searchlight is also in many cases
necessary.
The teaching of history is all against
immobile mechanical defences. Initi-
ative, surprise, unforeseen offensive
action, keeping the besieger in ignor-
ance of the dispositions of the
garrison, and of what progress he is
making: all these, with their influ-
ence on the morale of both sides, tend
towards successful defences and do
not point towards the use of armour.
It may further be said that the
use of armour as a general rule is un-
necessary, because a concealed battery
is a protected one; and with the long
ranges now usual for heavy guns and
howitzers, there is not generally much
difficulty about concealment.
In the opinion, however, of the
present writer an exception must be
made for guns intended to flank the
line of defence, which would generally
need bomb-proof over-head cover.
Further, when we leave theory and
come to the consideration of actual
problems of defence, it will often be
found that it is necessary to place guns
in certain positions where good con-
In such cases some form of protection
cealment cannot be got.
must be given if the guns are to engage the concealed batteries of
the attack.
III. THE ATTACK or FORTRESSES
In considering the history of siegccraft since the introduction
of gunpowder, there are three main lines of development to
follow, viz. the gradually increasing power of artillery, the
systematizing of the works of attack, and in recent times
the change that has been brought about by the effect of modern
small-arm fire.
Cannon appear to have been first used in sieges as mortars,
to destroy hoardings by throwing round stones and barrels of
burning composition. Early in the 1 5th century we find cannon
throwing metal balls, not only against hoarding and battlements,
but also to breach the bases of the walls. It was only possible
to work the guns very slowly, and archers or crossbowmen were
needed in support of them, to drive the defenders from the
crenellations or loopholes of the battlements. At that period
the artillery was used in place of the medieval siege engines and
in much the same manner. The guns of the defence were in-
accurate, and being placed high on the walls were made ineffective
by bad mountings, which did not allow of proper depression.
The besieger therefore could place his guns close to the walls,
with only the protection of a few large gabions filled with earth,
set up on the ground on either side of the muzzle.
In the course of the isth century the power of artillery was
largely increased, so that walls and gates were destroyed by it
in an astonishingly short time. Three results shortly followed.
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
Statecraft
before
Vauban.
708
The guns of the defence having gained equally in effectiveness,
greater protection was needed for the attack batteries; bastions
and outworks were introduced to keep the besieger at a distance
from the inner walls; and the walls were sunk in ditches so that
they could only be breached by batteries placed on the edge
of the glacis.
Early in the i6th century fortresses were being rapidly re-
modelled on these lines, and the difficulties of the attack were at
once very much increased. The tendency of the assailants was
still to make for the curtain, which had always been considered
the weak point; but the besiegers now found that they had to
bring their guns right up to the edge of the ditch before they could
make a breach, and in doing so had to pass over ground which was
covered by the converging fire from the faces of the bastions.
Towards the end of the century the attack of the curtain was
delayed and the cross-fire over the ground in front increased by
the introduction of ravelins.
The slight gabion protection for the siege batteries was at
first replaced by strong timber shelters. These were found in-
adequate; but a still greater difficulty was that of bringing up the
siege guns to their positions, emplacing them and maintaining
communication with them under fire. In addition to this, the
guns of the defence until they could be overpowered (a slow
process) dominated a wide belt of ground in front of the fortress;
and unless the besiegers could find some means of maintaining
a strong guard close to their batteries these were liable to be
destroyed by sorties from the covered way.
Gradually the whole problem of siege work centred round the
artillery. The besiegers found that they had first to bring up
enough guns to overpower those of the defence; then
to advance their guns to positions from which they
could breach the walls; and throughout these opera-
tions to protect them against sorties. Breaches once
made, the assault could follow on the old lines.
The natural solution of the difficulty of approach to the
battery positions was the use of trenches. The Turks were the
first to make systematic use of them, having probably inherited
the idea from the Eastern Empire. The soldiers of Christendom,
however, strongly disliked digging, and at first great leaders like
Bayard and Montluc had themselves to use pick and shovel, to
give their men an example. In due course the necessity of the
trenches was recognized, but the soldiers never took kindly to
them, and the difficulty was dealt with in a manner reminiscent
of the feudal ages, by impressing large bodies of peasantry as
workmen whenever a siege was in contemplation.
Through the i6th and most of the I7th century, therefore,
we find the attack being conducted by means of trenches leading
to the batteries, and supported by redoubts often called " places
of arms " also made by trench work. During this period the
result of a siege was always doubtful. Both trenches and
batteries were arranged more or less at haphazard without any
definite plan; aad naturally it often happened that offensive
action by the besieged against the trenches would disorder the
attack and at times delay it indefinitely. Fig. 64, taken from a
late 17th-century print by de Fer of Paris, gives a good idea of
the general practice of that day when Vauban's methods were
not yet generally known.
Another weak point about the attack was that after the
escarp walls had been strengthened to resist artillery fire as has
been described, there was no clear idea as to how they should
be breached. The usual process was merely an indiscriminate
pounding from batteries established on the crest of the glacis.
Thus there were cases of sieges being abandoned after they had
been carried as far as the attempt to breach.
It is in no way strange that this want of method should have
characterized the attack for two centuries after artillery had
begun to assert its power. At the outset many new ideas had
to be assimilated. Guns were gradually growing in power;
sieges were conducted under all sorts of conditions, sometimes
against medieval castles, sometimes against various and widely-
differing examples of the new fortification; and the military
systems of the time were not favourable to the evolution of
[ATTACK
method. It is the special feature of Vauban's practical genius
for siege warfare that he introduced order into this chaos and
made the issue of a siege ,under normal conditions, a mere matter
of time, usually a very short time.
The whole of Vauban's teaching and practice cannot be
condensed into the limits of this article, but special reference
must be made to several points. The most important (
of these is his general arrangement of the attack, teaching?
The ultimate object of the attack works was to make
a breach for the assaulting columns. To do this it was necessary
to establish breaching batteries on the crest of the glacis; and
before this could be done it was necessary to overpower the
enemy's artillery. This preliminary operation is nowadays
called the " artillery duel." In Vauban's day the effective
range of guns was 600 to 700 yds. He tells us that it was cus-
tomary to. establish batteries at 1000 yds. from the place, but
FIG. 64. Siege- works of the I7th century.
that at that range they did little more than make a great deal
of noise. The first object of the attack, therefore, after the
preliminary operations of investment, &c., had been completed,
was to establish batteries within 600 or 700 yds. of the place,
to counter-batter or enfilade all the faces bearing on the front
of attack; and to protect these batteries against sorties. After
the artillery of the defences had been subdued if it could not
be absolutely silenced it was necessary to push trenches to
the front so that guns might be conveyed to the breaching
positions and emplaced there in batteries. Throughout these
processes it was necessary to protect the working parties and the
batteries against sorties.
For this purpose Vauban devised the Places d'armes or lignes
paralllks. He tells us that they were first used in 1673 at the
siege of Maestricht, where he conducted the attack, and which
was captured in thirteen days after the opening of the trenches.
The object of these parallels was to provide successive positions
for the guard of the trenches, where they could be at hand to
repel sorties. The latter were most commonly directed against
the trenches and batteries, to destroy them and drive out the
working parties. The most vulnerable points were the heads
of the approach trenches. It was necessary, therefore, that the
guard of the trenches should be in a position to reach the heads
of the approaches more quickly than the besieged could do so
from the covered way. This was provided for as follows.
The first parallel was usually established at about 600 yds.
from the place, this being considered the limiting range of action
ATTACK]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
709
The
attack.
of a sortie. The parallel was a trench 12 to 15 ft. wide and 3 ft.
deep, the excavated earth being thrown forward to make a
parapet 3 or 4 ft. high. In front of the first parallel and close
to it were placed the batteries of the " first artillery position."
While these batteries were engaged in silencing the enemy's
artillery, for which purpose most of them were placed in pro-
longation of the faces of the fortress so as to enfilade
them, the " Approach Trenches " were being pushed
forward. The normal attack included a couple of
bastions and the ravelin between, with such faces of the fortress
as could support them; and the approach trenches (usually
three sets) were directed on the capitals of the bastions and
ravelin, advancing in a zigzag so arranged that the prolongations
of the trenches always fell clear of the fortress and could not be
enfiladed.
Fig. 65, taken from Vauban's Attack and Defence of Places,
shows clearly the arrangement of trenches and batteries.
After the approach trenches had been carried forward nearly
half-way to the most advanced points of the covered way, the
" second parallel " was constructed, and again the approach trenches
were pushed forward. Midway between the second parallel and the
covered way, short branches called Demi-parallels were thrown out
to either flank of the attacks: and finally at the foot of the glacis
came the third parallel. Thus there was always a secure position
for a sufficient guard of the trenches. Upon an alarm the working
parties could fall back and the guard would advance.
Trenches were either made by common trenchwork, flying trench-
work or sap. In the first two a considerable length of trench was
excavated at one time by a large working party extended along the
trench: flying trenchwork (formerly known as flying sap) being
distinguished from common trenchwork by the use of gabions, by
the help of which protection could be more quickly obtained. Both
these kinds of trenchwork were commenced at night, the position
of the trench having been previously marked out by tape. The
" tasks " or quantities of earth to be excavated by each man were
trench I ft. 6 in. wide and deep. To protect the head of the trench
he had a shield on wheels, under cover of which he placed the
gabions in position one after another as the sap-head pro-
gressed. Other men following strengthened the parapet 'PP "g.
with fascines, and increased the trench to a depth of 3 ft., and a
width of 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. Fig. 66, taken from Vauban's treatise on
the attack, shows the process clearly. The sap after being completed
to this extent could be widened at leisure to ordinary trench
dimensions by infantry working parties.
Vuc dc la Sap* par derricre
FIG. 65. Regular Attack (Vauban).
so calculated that by daybreak the trench would afford a fair amount
of cover. Flying trenchwork was generally used for the 2nd parallel
and its approaches, and as far beyond it as possible. In proportion
as the attack drew nearer to the covered way, the fire of the defenders'
small-arms and wall-pieces naturally grew more effective, though
by this time most of their artillery would have been dismounted
by the fire of the siege batteries. It therefore became necessary
before reaching the 3rd parallel to have recourse to sap.
Sapping required trained men. It consisted in gradually pushing
forward the end of a narrow trench in the desired direction. At the
sap-head was a squad of sappers. The leading man excavated-a
FIG. 66. Sapping (Vauban).
As the work at the sap-head was very dangerous, Vauban encouraged
his sappers by paying them on the spot at piecework rates, which
increased rapidly in proportion to the risk. He thus stimulated all
concerned to do their best, and reckoned that under average con-
ditions he could depend on a
rate of progress for an ordinary
sap of about 50 yds. in 24
hours.
It is interesting to compare
the more recent method of
sapping with that above de-
scribed (fig. 67 taken from the
Instruction in Military Engin-
eering, 1896). It is no longer
possible to place gabions in
position at the sap - head
under fire. Accordingly the
leading sapper excavates to the
full depth of 4 ft. 6 in., and
the rate of progress is retarded
proportionately, so that an
advance of only 15 to 30 yds.
in 24 hours can be reckoned
on instead of 50. The head
of the sap is protected by a
number of half-filled sandbags,
which the leading sapper
throws forward as he goes on.
The nearer the approaches
drew to the covered way, the
more oblique became the zig-
zags, so that little forward
progress was made in propor-
tion to the length of the trench.
The approaches were then
carried straight to the front,
by means of the " double
sap," which consisted of two
single saps worked together
with a parapet on each side
(fig. 68). To protect these
from being enfiladed from the
front, traverses had to be left
at intervals, usually by turning the two saps at right angles to right
or left for a few feet, then forward, and so on as shown in fig. 69,
the distance apart of these traverses being of course regulated by
the height from which the enemy's fire commanded the trench.
The later stages in the attack are illustrated in fig. 70. From
the third parallel the attack was pushed forward up the glacis
by means of the double sap. It was then pushed right and
left along the glacis, a little distance from the crest of the
covered way. This was called " crowning " the covered way,
yio
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[ATTACK
and on the position thus gained breaching batteries were estab-
lished in full view of the escarp. While the escarp was being
breached, if it was intended to use a systematic attack
Later throughout, a mine gallery (see Mining below) was
"the attack, driven under the covered way and an opening made
through the counterscarp into the ditch. The sap was
then pushed across the ditch, and if necessary up the breach, the
defenders' resistance being kept under by musketry and artillery
fire from the covered way. The ravelin and bastions were thus
captured successively, and where the bastions had been re-
trenched the same methods were used against the retrenchment.
Vauban showed how to breach the escarp with the least
expenditure of ammunition. This was done by making, with
successive shots placed close together (which was feasible even
in those days from a position so close as the crest of the covered
way) horizontal and vertical cuts through the revetment wall.
The portion of revetment enclosed by the cuts being thus
detached from support was overturned by the pressure of the
From Military Engineering, by permission of the Controller of H. M. Stationery
Office.
FIG. 67. " Deep " Sap.
earth from the rampart. Ricochet fire was also the invention
of Vauban. He showed how, in enfilading the face of a work,
by using greatly reduced charges a shot could be made to drop
over the crest of the parapet and skim along the terreplein,
dismounting guns and killing men as it went.
The constant success of Vauban must be ascribed to method
and thorough organization. There was a deadly certainty
18th- about his system that gave rise to the saying " Place
century assiegee, place prise." He left nothing to chance,
principles a nd preferred as a rule the slow and certain progress
"' of saps across the ditch and up the breach to the loss
and delay that might follow an unsuccessful assault. His con-
temporary and nearest rival Coehoorn tried to shorten sieges
by heavy artillery fire and attacks across the open; but in the
long run his sieges were slower than Vauban's.
So much a matter of form did the attack become under these
conditions, that in comparing the supposed defensive powers
of different systems of fortification it was usual to calculate the
number of days that would be required in each case before the
breach was opened, the time being measured by the number of
hours of work required for the construction of the various
trenches and batteries. It began to be taken as a matter of
course that no place under any circumstances could hold out
more than a given number of days; and naturally, when the
whole question had become one of formula, it is not surprising
to find that places were very often surrendered without more
than a perfunctory show of resistance.
The theory of defence at this time appeared to be that since
it was impossible to arrest the now methodical and protected
progress of the besiegers' trenches, no real resistance was possible
until after they had reached the covered way, and this idea is
at the root of the extraordinary complications of outworks
and multiplied lines of ramparts that characterized the "systems"
of this period. No doubt if a successor to Vauban could have
FIG. 68. Double Sap.
brought the same genius to bear on the actual defence of places
as he did en the attack, he would have discovered that the
essence of successful defence lay in offensive action outside the
body of the place, viz. with trench against trench. For want
of such a man the engineers of the defence resigned themselves
contentedly to the loss of the open ground outside their walls,
and relied either upon
successive permanent lines
of defence, or if these did
not exist, upon extem-
porized retrenchments,
usually at the gorge of the A 3
bastion.
It is curious that such
experienced soldiers as
most of them were should
not have realized the fatal
effect upon the minds of
the defenders which this
almost passive abandon-
ment of line after line
must needs produce. Even
a civilian Machiavelli
had seen into the truth
of the matter years before
when he said (Treatise on
the Art of War, Book vii.) :
" And here I ought to
give an advice ... to
those who are construct-
ing a fortress, and that
is, not to establish within its circuit fortifications which may
serve as a retreat to troops who have been driven back from
the first line. ... I maintain that there is no greater danger
for a fortress than rear fortifications whither troops can retire
in case of a reverse; for once the soldier knows that he has a
secure retreat after he has abandoned the first post, he does
in fact abandon it and so causes the loss of the entire fortress."
It must, however, be remembered that in those days when
soldiers were mostly of a separate or professional caste, the
whole thing had become a matter of business. Fighting was
so much regulated by the laws and customs of war that men
thought nothing of giving up a place if, according to accepted
opinion, the enemy had advanced so far that they could no
longer hope to defend it successfully. Once this idea had set
in it became hopeless to expect successful defences, save now
and then when
some officer of
very unusual re-
solution was in
command. This
is the real reason
for the feeble re-
sistance so often
made by fortresses
in the I7th and
iSth centuries,
which has been
attributed to in-
herent weakness
in fortifications.
FIG. 69. Direct advance by Double Sap.
Custom exacted that a commandant should not give up a place
until there was an open breach or, perhaps, until he had stood at
least one assault. Even Napoleon recognized this limitation
of the powers of the defence when in the later years of his reign
he was trying to impress upon his governors the importance of
their charge. The limitation was perfectly unnecessary, for
history at that time could have afforded plenty of instances of
places that had been successfully defended for many months
after breaches were opened, and assault after assault repulsed
on the same breach. But the same soldiers of the i;th and
1 8th centuries who had created this artificial condition of affairs,
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FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
711
established it by making it an understood thing that a garrison
which surrendered without giving too much trouble after a
breach had been opened should have honourable consideration;
while if they put the besiegers to the pains of storming the breach,
they were liable to be put to the sword.
It has been necessary to dwell at some length on the siegecraft
of Vauban and his time, not merely for its historical interest,
but because the system he introduced was practically
unalterec i unt ;i tne en< j o f tne IQtn centu ry. The
sieges of the Peninsular War were conducted on his
lines; so was that of Antwerp in 1830; and as far as the disposi-
tion of siege trenches was concerned, the same system remained
in the Crimea, the Franco-German War and the Russo-Turkish
War. The sieges in the Napoleonic wars were few, except in the
Iberian peninsula. These last differed from those of the Vauban
period and the i8th century in this, that instead of being deliber-
ately undertaken with ample means, against fortresses that
answered to the requirements of the time, they were attempted
Pealasular
Crimea.
FIG. 70. Later Stages of the Attack (Vauban).
with inadequate forces and materials, against out-of-date
works. The fortresses that Wellington besieged in Spain had
rudimentary outworks, and escarps that could be seen and
breached from a distance. At that time, though the power of
small arms had increased very slightly since the last century,
there had been a distinct improvement in artillery, so that it
was possible to breach a visible revetment at ranges from 500
to 1000 yds. Wellington was very badly off for engineers,
siege artillery and material. Trench works could only be carried
out on a small scale and slowly. Time being usually of great
importance, as in the first two sieges of Badajoz, his technical
advisers endeavoured to shorten sieges by breaching the escarp
from a distance a new departure and launching assaults
from trenches that had not reached the covered way. Under
these circumstances the direct attacks on breaches failed several
times, with great loss of life. Wellington in one or two earlier
despatches reflected on his engineers for not establishing their
batteries on the crest of the glacis. The failures are, however,
clearly due to attempts to push sieges to a conclusion without
proper preparation.
So much has been written of late years in criticism of the fortifica-
tion to what may be called the Vauban period that it is important
to note what were the preparations considered necessary for a siege
at that time (Journals of Sieges in Spain, 1811 to 1814). Sir John
Jones summarizes his own experience in Spain and the data accumu-
lated by practical engineers in former sieges from the time of
Vauban onwards, in the following conclusions: The actual work
of entrenching, sapping, &c., on the front attacked was much the
same whether the fortress contained 5000 or 10,000 men. On the
other hand the guard of the trenches was proportionate to the fighting
men inside the fortress. (The total number of men had of course to
be sufficient to allow three or four complete shifts or " reliefs " for all
work and duties.) Adding a proportion of men for camp and other
duties, he calculates, for the vigorous siege of an ordinary place
situated in open country and containing 5000 men, a corps of 32,080
effectives, and remarks further that this force would be greatly
exhausted after a month's service. The same place held by 10,000
would call for a besieging army of 50,830 men (guards and duties
increasing, but not working parties). Thus the besieger should if
possible have a superiority of 7 to I if the garrison numbered 5000,
6 to 'I if 10,000 and 5 to I if 15,000 and so on. As regards artillery,
he should have as many, and if possible twice as many, gunsas those
of the defender on the front of attack, as well as howitzers for sweep-
ing every line subject to enfilade and mortars for destroying traverses,
&c. Later in the siege, more howitzers and mortars to clear the
covered way and places of
arms, and finally, after the
covering of the covered way,
fifty additional battering guns
would be required. It is
apparent from this that the
practical engineers of the day
looked upon a siege as a seri-
ous matter, and did not find
permanent fortifications want-
ing in defensive strength.
During the long peace that
followed the Napoleonic
wars, one advance
was made in siege-
craft. In England in 1824
successful experiments were
carried out in breaching an
unseen wall by curved or
indirect fire from howitzers.
At Antwerp in 1830 the in-
creasing power and range
of artillery, and especially
of howitzers, were used for
bombarding purposes, the
breaches there being mostly
made by mines. Then came
one of the world's great
sieges; that of Sevastopol
in 1854-1.855 (see CRIMEAN
WAR). The outstanding
lesson of Sevastopol is the
value of an active defence;
of going out to meet the besieger, with countertrench and
countermine. This lesson has increased in value for us in pro-
portion to the increased power of the rifle.
In comparing the resistance made behind the earthworks of
Sevastopol with the recorded defences of permanent works, it is
essential to remember that the conditions there were quite abnormal.
Sir John Jones has told us what the relative forces of besiegers and
besieged should be, and the necessary preponderance of artillery
for the attack. The following quotations may be added :
" The siege corps should be sufficiently strong (l) To invest the
fortress completely, and maintain the investment against all the
efforts of the garrison. (2) If a regular siege is contemplated, to
execute and guard all the siege works required for it. Complete
investment may sometimes be impossible, but experience has
repeatedly shown that the difficulties of a siege are enormously
increased if the garrison are able to draw fresh troops and supplies
from outside, and to rid themselves of their sick and wounded "
(Lewis). Again as regards artillery: " In a regular attack, where
every point is gained inch by inch, it is impossible to succeed without
overpowering the defensive artillery " ; and " it is useless to attempt
to sap near a place till its artillery fire is subdued . . . "(Jones).
These conditions were so far from being fulfilled at Sevastopol
that (a) there was no investment in fact the Russians came nearer
to investing the Allies; (6) the Russians had the preponderance in
guns almost throughout; (c) the Russian force in and about
Sevastopol was numerically superior to that of the Allies. We must
add to this that Todleben had been able to get rid o\ most of his
712
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[ATTACK
civilian population, and those who remained were chiefly dockyard
workmen, able to give most valuable assistance on the defence works.
The circumstances were therefore exceptionally favourable to an
active defence. The weak point about the extemporized earthworks,
which eventually led to the fall of the place, was the want of good
bomb-proof cover near the parapets.
The Franco-German War of 1870 produced no great novelty.
The Germans were not anxious to undertake siege operations
when it could be avoided. In several cases minor
German fortresses surrendered after a slight bombardment,
n^.. In others, after the bombardment failed, the Germans
contented themselves with establishing a blockade or
detaching a small observing force. By far the most interesting
siege was that of Belfort (<?..) . Here Colonel Denfert-Rochereau
employed the active defence so successfully by extemporizing
detached redoubts and fortifying outlying villages, that he
obliged the besiegers (who, however, were a small force at first)
to take up an investing line asm. long; and succeeded in holding
the village of Danjoutin, 2000 yds. in advance of the enceinte,
for two months after the siege began. He also used indirect fire,
withdrawing guns from the ramparts and placing them in the
ditches, in the open spaces of the town, &c. At Paris the French
found great advantage in placing batteries in inconspicuous
positions outside the forts. Their direct fire guns were at a
disadvantage in being fired through embrasures. These had
served their purpose when artillery fire was very inaccurate,
but had now for a long time been recognized by the best engineers
as out of date. The Germans since the siege of Diippel in 1864
had mounted their siege guns on " overbank " carriages; that
is, high carriages which made it possible to fire the guns over the
parapet of the battery without embrasures.,' The guns in the
Paris forts which were further handicapped by conspicuous
parapets and the bad shooting of the gunners were easily
silenced.
At Strassburg indirect fire against escarps was used. The
escarp of Lunette 53 was successfully breached by this method.
The breaching battery was 870 yds. distant, and the shot struck
the face of the wall at an angle (horizontally) of 55, the effect
being observed and reported^from the counterscarp. 1000 rounds
from 6o-pounder guns sufficed to make a breach 30 yds. wide.
Fig. 71 is a good example of the attack in the late stages. It will
be observed that batteries for mortars and field guns are established in
the captured lunettes. The narrow wet ditch of Lunette 53 was
crossed by a dam of earth and fascines, the headway protected by a
parapet or screen of sandbags.
" Lunette 52 was unrevetted, and its ditch was more than 60 yds.
wide, and 6 to 9 ft. deep. ... It was determined to effect the
passage by a cask bridge, for which the casks were furnished by
breweries near at hand. . . . The formation of the bridge was begun
at nightfall. A pioneer swam across, hauled over a cable, and made
it fast to the hedge on the berm. Four men were stationed in the
water, close to the covered way, the casks were rolled down to them
one after the other, and fitted with saddles, so as to form piers . . .
these piers were successively boomed out along the line of the cable.
... In two hours the bridge was finished, and the lunette was
entered. . . . The work had not been discovered by the besieged,
and the formation of lodgments inside the lunette was already begun,
when the noise made by some troops in passing the bridge attracted
attention, and drew a fire which cost tne besiegers about 50 men.
A dam was afterwards substituted for the bridge, as it was repeatedly
struck by shells." (R.E. Professional Papers, vol. xix.)
It is curious to realize that this happened at so recent a time.
Such operations would be impossible now, as long as any defending
guns remained in action.
On the whole it may be said that siegecraft gained practically
nothing from the Franco-German War. The Russo-Turkish
war taught less, Plevna (q.v.) having been defended
. by field works and attacked by the old-fashioned
fare. methods. For the last ten years of the igih century
military opinion was quite at a loss as to how the
sieges of the future would work out. As guns and projectiles
continued to improve the " attaque brusquee " proposed by von
Sauer had many adherents. It was thought that a heavy
bombardment would paralyse resistance and open the way for
an attack, to be delivered by great numbers and with special
appliances for crossing obstacles. Others thought that the
strength of the defence, as manifested by the Plevna field works,
would be greater than ever when the field works were backed by
permanent works, good communications and the resources of a
fortress. One thing was obvious namely, that as long as the
artillery of the place, of even the smallest calibres, remained
unsubdued, the difficulty of trenchwork and sapping would be
enormously increased, and no one seemed to have formed a clear
conception of how that difficulty was to be met. A lecture
delivered in Germany about 1895 is worth quoting as a fair
example of the vagueness of idea then prevailing: " For the
attack, the following is the actual procedure: Accumulation and
preparation of material for attack before the fortress: advance
of attacking artillery, covered by infantry. Artillery duel.
Throwing forward of infantry: destruction of the capability
for defence of the position attacked; when possible by long-
From Textbook oj Fortification, by permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery
Office.
FIG. 71. Strassburg, Lunettes 52 and 53, 1870.
range artillery fire, otherwise by the aid of the engineers. Occu-
pation of the defensive position. Assault on the inner lines
of the fortress." That seemed quite a simple prescription, but
the necessary drugs were wanting. And even since Port Arthur
great uncertainty as to the future of the attack remains.
Modern artillery has much simplified the construction of siege
batteries. Formerly siege batteries and rampart batteries opposed
each other with direct fire at ranges not too long for the unaided
human eye, and the shells, travelling with low velocity, bit into the
parapets, and, exploding, produced their full effect. Accordingly
the task of the gunners was, by accurate fire, to destroy the parapets
and embrasures, and to dismount the guns. The parapets of siege
batteries were therefore made from 1 8 to 30 ft. thick, and the con-
struction of such batteries, with traverses, &c., involved much work.
The height of parapet necessary for proper protection being 7 ft.
6 in. to 8 ft., a great deal of labour could be saved by sinking the
gun-platforms about 4 ft. below the surface level, but of course this
was only possible where rock or water were not near the surface.
The effect of modern projectiles was to reduce the thickness of
earth necessary for parapets. High velocity projectiles are very
easily deflected upwards by even a slight bank of earth. This is
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FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
especially the case with sand. Loose earth is better than compacted
earth, and clay offers the least resistance to penetration. These
facts were taken note of in England more than on the Continent in
the design of instructional siege batteries.
The construction of batteries is moreover vastly simplified by the
long ranges at which artillery will fight in future. It will as a rule
be possible to place howitzer batteries in such positions that even
from balloons it will be difficult to locate them ; and even direct fire
batteries can easily be screened from view. This renders parapets
unnecessary, and probably no more protection will be used than light
splinter-proof screens to stop shrapnel bullets or fragments of
common shell. Moreover batteries can be constructed at leisure
and by daylight.
The most important point about the modern battery is the gun
platform for the larger natures of guns and howitzers. These require
very solid construction to resist the heavy shock of discharge. Not
long ago it was thought that the defence would have larger ordnance
than the attack, as anything heavier than an 8 in. howitzer required
a concrete bed, which could not be made at short notice. The
Japanese, however, at Port Arthur made concrete platforms for 1 1 in.
howitzers. It may be remarked that difficulties which loom largely
in peace are often overcome easily enough under the stress of war.
Another gain to the attack is in connexion with magazines. The
old powder magazines were particularly dangerous adjuncts to
batteries, and had to be very carefully bomb-proofed. Such pro-
pellants as cordite, however, are comparatively harmless in the open.
They are very difficult to detonate, and if set on fire do not explode
like gunpowder. It is therefore unnecessary to provide bomb-proof
magazines for them in connexion with the batteries.
In future sieges the question of supply will be more important
than it has ever been. Leaving out of the question the bringing up
of supplies from the base of operations, the task of distribution at
the front is a very large one. The Paris siege manoeuvres of 1894
furnish some instructive data on this point. The main siege park
was at Meaux, 10 m. from the 1st artillery position, and the average
distance from the 1st artillery position to the principal fort attacked
was 5000 yds. The front of attack on Fort Vaujours and its collateral
batteries covered 10,000 yds. There were 24 batteries in the 1st
artillery position; say 100 guns, spread over a front of 4000 yds.
To connect Meaux with the front, the French laid some 30 m. of
narrow gauge railway largely along existing roads. The line was
single, with numerous branches and sidings. They ran II regular
trains to the front daily and half-a-dozen supplementary. The
amount of artillery material sent up was over 5000 tons, without
any projectiles; but it can easily be imagined that large demands
were also made on transport for other purposes. For instance, one
complete bakery train was sent up daily. The amount of ammuni-
tion sent up would be limited only by the power of transporting it.
A siege train of 100 pieces could probably dispose of from 500 to
1000 tons of ammunition a day, at the maximum rate of firing.
But the most important question affecting the sieges of the future
(putting aside accidental circumstances) will be the configuration of
the ground. Assuming that local conditions do not specially favour
the artillery of either side, it is highly probable that the artillery
duel will result in a deadlock. If the besiegers' guns do not succeed
in silencing those of the defence from the 1st or distant artillery
position (which, whether they are in cupolas or in concealed positions,
will in any case be an extremely difficult task), it will be necessary
for the infantry to press in; to feel for weak points, and to fight
for those that offer better positions for fire and observation. In
doing this they will have to face the defenders' infantry, entrenched,
backed by their unsilenced guns, and having secure places of assembly
from which to deliver counter-attacks. The distance to which they
can work forward and establish themselves under these conditions
will depend on the ground. It will then be for the engineers to
cross the remaining space by sap. This, under present conditions,
will be a tedious process, and may even take long enough to cause
the failure of the siege.
As to the manner of the sap, it will certainly be " deep," as long
as the defence retains any artillery power. When the 4 ft. 6 in. sap
already described was first introduced, it was known as a "deep sap " ;
but the sieges of the future will probably necessitate a true deep
sap, that is one in which the whole of the necessary cover is got
below the surface of the earth.
Such a sap may consist of an open trench, about 6 ft. deep, the
whole of the excavated earth being carried away through the trench
to the rear; or a blinded trench, covered in as it progresses by
splinter-proof timbers and earth; or a tunnelled trench, leaving a
foot or so of surface earth undisturbed. In either case nothing should
be visible from the front to attract artillery fire. As the sap is
completed, it will sometimes be necessary to add a slight parapet
in places, to give command over the foreground for the rifles of the
guard of the trenches. >
The sap will have to be pushed up quite close to the defenders'
trenches and obstacles. After that further progress must either be
made by mining, or as seems very probable, by getting the better
of the defenders in a contest with shells from short-range mortars.
Just as in the feudal ages a castle was built on some solitary
eminence which lent itself to the defensive methods of the time, so
in the future the detached forts and supporting points in the girdle
of a fortress will be sited where smooth and gentle slopes of ground
give the utmost opportunity to the defenders' fire, and the least
chance of concealment to the enemy. There will be considerable
latitude of choice in the defensive positions; though not, of course,
the same latitude as when the existence of a precipitous hill was the
raison d'etre of the castle. In some places, as at Port Arthur, the
whole country-side may by reason of its steep and broken slopes be
unfavourable to the defence, though even then genius will turn the
difficulties to account. But wherever it is possible the defender will
Erovide for a space of 1000 yds. or so, swept by fire and illuminated
y searchlights, in front of his lines. That space will have to be
crossed by sap, and it needs little imagination to realize how great
the task will be for the besieger.
There are other modern methods of siege warfare to be noticed,
the use of which is common to besiegers and besieged. Much is
expected of balloons; but the use of these in war is unlikely to
correspond to peace expectations. They must be kept at a consider-
able distance from the enemy's guns, a distance which will increase
as the means of range-finding improve ; and as the height from which
they can observe usefully is limited, so is the observers' power to
search out hidden objects behind vertical screens. Thus, suppose a
captive balloon at a height of 2000 ft., and distant 4000 yds. from
an enemy's howitzer battery: and suppose the battery placed
behind a steep hill-side or a grove of trees, at such a distance that a
shell fired with 30 elevation can just clear this screen. The line of
sight from the observer to the battery is inclined to the horizontal
at ^ r^.' tnat i s s> or roughly 10. It is obvious, therefore, that
the observer cannot see the battery.
Balloon observers are expected to assist the batteries by marking
the effects of their fire. For this to be done on any practical scale
a balloon would be required for each battery: that is, for only 100
guns, some 20 or 25 balloons. These would require an equal number
of highly skilled observers (of whom there are not too many in
existence), besides the other balloon personnel and accessories, and
the means of making gas, which is too much to expect, even if an
enemy were obliging enough to give notice of his intentions.
Telephones and all other means of transmitting intelligence rapidly
are now of the utmost importance to both attack and defence. Maps
marked with numbered squares are necessary for directing artillery
fire, especially from cupolas. Organization in every branch will give
better results than ever before, and the question of communication
and transport from the base of supplies right up to the front needs
detailed study, in view of the great weight of ammunition and
supplies that will have to be handled.
The use of light mortars for the trenches, introduced by Coehoorn
and revived with extemporized means at Port Arthur, needs great
attention. It may be prophesied that the issue of important sieges
in the future, when skilfully conducted on both sides with sufficient
resources, will depend mainly on the energy of the defenders in
trench work, on mining and countermining in connexion with the
trenches, and on the use of light mortars made to throw large charges
of high explosive for short distances with great accuracy.
For a brief narrative of the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, one of
the greatest sieges of history, both as regards its epic interest and its
military importance, the reader is referred to the article RUSSO-
JAPANESE WAR.
DEFINITIONS. The following definitions may be useful, but have
no place in the evolution of the attack, to which this section is
mainly devoted.
Investment. This most necessary, almost indispensable operation
of every siege consists in surrounding the fortress about to be be-
sieged, so as to cut off its communications with the outside world.
Preliminary investment which is carried out by cavalry and light
troops before the arrival of the besieging force, consists in closing
the roads so as to shut out supplies and reinforcements. Close
investment should be of such a character as to prevent any sort of
communication, even by single messengers or spies. The term
" blockade " is sometimes loosely used instead of investment.
Lines of Circumvallation and Contravallation. These now obsolete
terms were in great use until the igth century. The circumvallation
was a line of parapet which the besieger made outside the investing
position of his own force, to protect it when there was a chance of
attack by a relieving army. The line of contravallation was the line
of parapet and trench sometimes made by the besieger all round the
town he was attacking, to check the sorties of the garrison.
Observing Force. When circumstances make the reduction of a
particular fortress in the theatre of operations unnecessary a force
is often detached to " observe " it. The duty of this force will be
to watch the garrison and prevent any hostile action such as raids
on the lines of communications.
Bombardment. This operation, common to all ages, consists in a
general (sometimes an indiscriminate) fire against either the whole
target offered by the fortress or a particular section of that target.
In ancient and medieval times the effect of a bombardment whether
of ordinary missiles, of incendiary projectiles, or of poisonous matters
tending to breed pestilence upon a population closely crowded
within its walls was very powerful. In the present day little military
importance is attached to bombardmenti since under modern
conditions it cannot do much real harm.
7M-
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[MINING
IV. MILITARY MINING
It has been noted already that mining is one of the most ancient
resources of siege warfare. The use of gunpowder in mining
operations dates from the end of the ijth century. When
Shakespeare makes Fluellen say, at Henry V.'s siege of Harfleur,
" th'athversaryisdigt himself fouryards under the countermines;
I think 'a will plow up all, if there is not better directions,"
he ft anticipating the development of siegecraft by nearly 100
years. Pedro di Navarro, a Spanish officer, is credited with the
first practical use of explosive mines. He employed them with
great success at the siege of Naples in 1503; and afterwards,
when rebuilding the Castello Nuovo after the siege, was probably
the first to make permanent provision for their use in counter-
mines. Countermining had been a measure of defence against
the earlier methods of attack-mining; the object being to break
into the besiegers' galleries and fight hand to hand for the posses-
sion of them. When the explosive mine was introduced, it
became the object of the defenders to establish their counter-
mines near the besiegers' galleries and destroy them by the effect
of the explosion. In the 400 years or so that have passed this
branch of warfare has changed less than any other. Methods of
mining have not advanced much, and the increased power
of high explosives as compared with gunpowder has its least
advantage in moving masses of earth.
When a besieger has arrived by means of trenches within a
certain distance of the enemy's works without having subdued
their fire, he may find that the advance by sap becomes too slow
and too dangerous. He can then advance underground by means
of mine galleries, and by exploding large charges at the heads of
these galleries can make a series of craters. These craters are
then occupied by infantry, and are connected with each other
and with the parallel in rear by trenches, thus forming a new
parallel. If not interfered with by the defenders the besieger
can advance in this way until he reaches the counterscarp.
His mines will now be turned to a new purpose, viz. to breach the
counterscarp and afterwards the escarp. This is done by
placing suitable charges at intervals behind the scarps at such a
height above the foundations that the pressure of the earth above
the mine will more than counterbalance the resistance of the
masonry.
But if the defenders are active, they will countermine. There
is as a general rule this broad difference between the mines of
the defence and those of the attack, that the defenders
oae. d cl not wish the surface of the g round broken, lest
mines. increased opportunities of getting cover should be
offered to the besiegers. The object of the defence,
therefore, is to destroy the besiegers' galleries without forming
craters, and for this purpose they generally endeavour to get
underneath the attack galleries. The defenders may, however,
wish, if the opportunity is allowed them, to explode mines under
the attack parallels, in which case there is of course no objection
to disturbing the surface.
" At the commencement of the subterranean war the main object
of the defence is to force the besieger to take to mining operations
as early as possible, as it is a tedious operation and will prolong the
siege. Every endeavour must be made to push forward counter-
mines so as to meet and check the attack. On the approach of the
opponents to each other careful listening for the enemy must be
resorted to. To this end it is necessary at irregular intervals to
suspend all work for some minutes at a time, closing doors of com-
munication and employing experienced listeners at the heads of the
countermines. This matter is a most important one, as a premature
explosion of the defender's mines is a double loss to the defender, a
loss of a mine and an advantage to the enemy in more than one way.
As soon as the overcharged mines of the besieger have been fired, a
heayy fire should be brought to bear on the craters, and if possible
sorties should be made to prevent the enemy occupying them. At
the same time every effort should be made underground to surround
with galleries, and as it were isolate, the craters so as to prevent the
besieger making a new advance from them. The efforts of the
attack at this stage will probably be directed to the formation of
what are called " Boule shafts " (i.e. shafts partially lined in which
charges are hastily fired with little or no tamping), and to meet these
in time the defender may resort to the use of boring tools, and so
place charges somewhere in advance of the heads of the counter-
mines. His great object must be to prevent as long as possible
the besieger from getting underground again ; and these occasions,
when the power of resistance is temporarily equal to, if not greater
than, that of the attack, should be made the most of by the defence."
(Lewis, Text-book on Fortification, &c., 1893.)
The defence has the advantage, in the case of fortresses, of
being able to establish beforehand a system of countermine
galleries in masonry. Many systems ha've been worked out for
this purpose. A good typical arrangement is that of General
Marescot, published in 1799, shown in fig. 72
a
Marescot's
System
Dufour's System
for defence of a breach
Section on mm.
Section on ae.
From Textbook oj Fortification, by permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery
Office.
FIG. 72.
The main galleries (those running out in a straight line from
the counterscarp gallery e to three of the points a) fall gently
to the front to a depth of 30 or 40 ft. below the surface the
deeper they are the less they will suffer from the enemy's mines.
Branch galleries (marked c b+d c) run obliquely upward from
them to right and to left, leading to the mines, which are placed
at various depths, according to circumstances.
Two main points must be observed in any system of counter-
mines: the branch galleries must run obliquely forward, so as
not to present their sides to the action of the enemy's mines;
and the distance between the ends of the branches from adjacent
main galleries should be such that the enemy cannot pass between
them unheard. This distance will vary with the nature of the
soil, but may be taken roughly as 20 yds. A convenient size
for main galleries is 6 ft. high by 3 ft. wide: branch galleries
may be 5 ft. by 3 ft. When the enemy is approaching, other
branch galleries, called listeners, will be pushed out from main
MINING]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
and branch galleries. The section to fig. i of fig. 72 shows openings
left for the purpose.
Another use of mines in defence is in connexion with breaches.
A permanent arrangement for this purpose, by General Dufour,
is shown in fig. 72. Yet another use, on which much ingenuity
was expended in the i8th century, is to extemporize retrench-
ments.
The charges of mines depend of course upon the effect which
is desired. When the charge is strong enough to produce a
crater, the radius of the circular opening on the surface
of the g round is called the radius of the crater. The
mines. line drawn from the centre of the charge to the nearest
surface, which is expressed in feet, is called the line
of least resistance (L.L.R.). When a mine produces a crater the
diameter of which is equal to the line of least resistance, it is
called a one-lined crater; when the diameteris double the L.L.R.,
a two-lined crater and so on. Common mines are those which
produce a two-lined crater. Over-charged mines produce craters
greater than two-lined, and undercharged mines less. A camou-
flet does not produce a crater; it is used when the object is to
destroy an enemy's gallery without breaking the surface. Fig.
73 shows sections of the different kinds of mines, with their
Action of a Common Mine
Probable spheroids of rupture for overcharged Mines
H.R.R.37 6 (2'5l. )...+.
505(3-361.)
Crater Charge
3lined W27lb3. (3-05C)
4linea2312 (6-S6C)
5 lined 4374 (12-98 C)
6 lined 7397 (21-950)
7lineal1SB9 n (34-33C)
From Instructions in Military Engineering, by permission of the Controller of H.M.
Stationery Office.
FIG. 73. Mines.
craters and the effect they will produce downwards and horizon-
tally in ordinary earth.
Consideration of this figure will show that it is possible to place
a long charge at such a depth below the surface that it will
destroy all galleries of the enemy within a considerable radius,
without much disturbing the surface of the ground.
Bored mines, which have been alluded to above, are a com-
paratively recent innovation. When the enemy is heard at work in
one of his galleries and his position approximately determined by the
sound, it is necessary to drive a branch gallery with all speed in that
direction, and when it has advanced as far as appears necessary, to
load, tamp and discharge a mine before the enemy can fire his own
mine. This is one of the most delicate and dangerous operations
of war, and success will fall to those who are at the same time most
skilful and most determined. The work can be hastened and made
less dangerous as follows: Instead of driving a branch gallery, a
hole several inches in diameter is bored in the required direction.
With suitable tools there is no difficulty in driving a straight bore
hole 20 or 30 ft. long. A small charg.e of high explosives is then
pushed up to the end of the borehole and fired. This forms a small
camouflet chamber by compressing the earth around it. Into this
chamber the charge for the mine is passed up the bore-hole. No
tamping of course is required.
Mine warfare is slow, dangerous and uncertain in its results.
It will certainly delay the besiegers' advance very much and may
do so indefinitely. One point is distinctly in favour of the defence,
namely that when ground has been much mined it becomes
charged with poisonous gases. Some explosives are less noxious
than others in this way, and it will be advantageous for the attack,
but not necessarily for the defence, to make use of these.
Calculation of Charges. The quantity of powder required for a
charge is expressed in Ibs. in terms of L.L.R. 3 , and the following
formulae are used :
/ = L.L.R. in feet, r = radius of crater in feet, c = powder charge in
pounds, s=a variable dependent on the nature of the soil.
For a common mine c = -I 3
For an overcharged mine c = ^i/_|_.g( r _; )is
For an undercharged mine c = [I -<)(l r)j*.
The values to be given to s are :
Nature of Soil.
Very light earth
Common earth
Hard sand . . '. .
Earth mixed with stones
Clay mixed with loam
Inferior brickwork
Rock or good new brickwork.
Very good old brickwork ....
Value of s.
. 0-80
oo
25
40
55
66
2-25
2-50
Military mining is carried on by means of vertical shafts and
horizontal or inclined galleries. When the soil is very stiff, very
little or even no lining is required for shafts and galleries; but
usually they have to be lined either with cases or frames.
Cases make a complete lining of 2 in. planking. Frames are used
at intervals of 4 or 5 ft. to support a partial lining of planks. Cases
are of course preferable in other respects; but in ordinary soil they
take up more timber.
There are two kinds of gallery in ordinary use in the British
service, namely the common gallery whose interior dimensions with
cases are 5 ft. 6 in. X2 ft., and the branch gallery which Kh
is 4 ft. X2 ft. The shaft has about the same dimensions as ""., a
a branch gallery. Formerly it was sometimes necessary '
in the systematic attack of a fortress to get guns down into the ditch.
For this purpose a " great gallery " was used, 6 ft. 6 in. in height and
6 ft. 8 in. wide, internal dimensions.
Miners' Tools. These are few and simple. The pick and shovel
differ from the ordinary types in having rather shorter helves suitable
for the confined space in which they are used. There is also a push-
pick, an implement with a straight helve and a pointed shovel head
6 in. long and 3 \ in. wide. The miner's truck, used for drawing the
earth from the end of the gallery to the bottom of the shaft, is a small
wooden truck holding about 2 cub. ft. of earth. Formerly the noise
of the wheels of the truck passing over the uneven wooden floor of
the gallery was very liable to be heard by the enemy. To obviate
this they now have leather tyres and should run on battens nailed
to the floor. The miner's bucket is a small canvas bucket with a
couple of ropes attached, by which the earth can be drawn up the
shaft. Nowadays, however, the truck itself has chains attached to
it, by which it is drawn up, with the aid of a windlass, to the surface.
By this method more earth can be taken up in one lift, and time and
labour are not wasted in transferring the contents of the truck to the
bucket.
Ventilation is an important point. The breath of the miners and
the burning of their candles (when electric light is not available)
vitiates the air in the galleries; so that even in clean ground a
gallery should not be driven more than 60 ft. without providing
some means of renewing the air. This is usually done by forcing
fresh air, by means of a pump or bellows, through a flexible hose to
the head of );he gallery. Where mines have been fired close by,
there is great danger from poisonous gases filtering through the soil
into the gallery. This difficulty is nowadays met by the use of
special apparatus, such as helmets into which fresh air is pumped,
so that the wearers need not breathe the air of the gallery at all.
Ventilation can also be assisted by boring holes vertically to the
surface of the ground.
Where a point has been reached at which it is proposed to fire a
mine, a chamber just large enough to hold the charge is cut in the
yi6
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT [FIELD FORTIFICATION
side of the gallery. The object of this is to keep the charge out of
the direct line of the gallery and thus increase the force of the
explosion. The charge may be placed in canvas bags, barrels or
boxes, precautions being taken against damp.
The operation of loading is of the first importance, for if the mine
is not exploded with success, not only is valuable time lost, which
may give the enemy his opportunity, but it will probably
larglag ^ g necessar y t o untamp the mine in order to renew the
mines. f uze ; an operation attended by considerable danger.
The loading of the mine should therefore be done by the officer in
charge with his own hands. He has to work in a very cramped
position and practically in the dark (unless with electric light) as of
course no naked lights can be allowed near powder. Everything
should therefore be prepared beforehand to facilitate the loading of
the mine and placing of the fuze. At Chatham a 1000 ft mine, at
the end of a gallery 136 ft. long, has been loaded in 30 minutes.
The powder was passed up the gallery by hand in sandbags, and
emptied into a box of the required size.
Whatever method of firing (see below) is employed, the officer
who loads the mine must be careful to see that it is so arranged as to
make firing certain, and that the leads passing out of the gallery
are not liable to damage in the process of tamping.
Tamping. -This operation consists in filling up the head of the
gallery solidly, for such a distance that there shall be no possibility
of the charge wasting its force along the gallery. The distance
depends on the charge and on the solidity of the tamping. For a
common mine it should extend to about | L.L.R. from the charge,
when the tamping is of earth in sandbags; for a 3-lined crater, to
about 2 L.L.R. Tamping can be improved by jamming pieces of
timber across the shaft or gallery among the other filling.
Firing. This may be done electrically, or by means of safely or
instantaneous fuze or powder hose.
Electric firing is the safest and best, and allows of the charge being
exploded at any given moment. For this purpose electric fuzes (for
powder) or electric detonators (for guncotton or other high explosive)
are employed. The current that fires them is passed through copper
wire leads.
The safety fuze used in the British service burns at the rate of
about 3 ft. a minute. Instantaneous fuze burns at the rate of a mile
a minuted Both can be fired under water. They are often used in
conjunction, a considerable length of instantaneous fuze, leading
from the charge, being connected to a short length of safety fuze.
Powder hose, an old-time expedient, can be extemporized by
making a tube of strong linen, say I in. in diameter, and filling it with
powder. It burns at the rate of 10 to 20 ft. per second.
Explosives. The old-fashioned gunpowder of the grained black
variety is still the best for most kinds of military mines. Pebble and
prism powders do not give as good results, presumably because
their action is so slow that some of the gases of explosion can escape
through the pores of the earth. High explosives, with their quick
shattering and rending effect, are little more effective than gun-
powder in actually moving large quantities of earth. Most of them
give off much more poisonous fumes than gunpowder. Some recent
high explosives, however, have been specially designed to be com-
paratively innocuous in this respect.
Some formulae have been given above for the calculation
of charges. It will, however, simplify matters for the
reader to record some actual instances of charges
fired both in peace and war.
In the matter of scientific experiment we find Vauban as usual
leading the way, and the following results among others were obtained
by him at Tournay in 1686 and 1689: A charge of 162 Ib placed
13 ft. below the surface produced a crater of 13 ft. radius (a two-lined
crater, or " common mine "). Galleries were destroyed at distances
equal to the L.L.R. in both horizontal and vertical directions.
Double the charge, placed at double the depth, i.e. 324 ft with an
L.L.R. of 27 ft. made no crater, but like the first destroyed galleries
below it and on each side at distances equal to the L.L.R. A charge
of 3828 ft with L.L.R. of 37 ft. made a two-lined crater and destroyed
a gallery distant 61 ft. horizontally.
Bernard Forest de Belidor, a French engineer, made many experi-
ments at La Fere about 1732, and 20 years later, as a general officer
and inspector of miners, continued them on a larger scale. His
experiments were directed towards destroying an enemy's galleries
at greater distances than had hitherto been supposed possible, by
means of very large charges (in proportion to the L.L.R.) which he
called " globes of compression." In one of them a charge of 4320 ft
of powder placed only 15 ft. 9 in. below the surface damaged or
" compressed " a gallery distant 65 ft. horizontally. The radius of
the crater was 34 ft. 8 in.
At Frederick the Great's siege of Schweidnitz in 1762 some very
large charges were exploded. One of them, of 5400 ft with an L.L.R.
of 16 ft. 3 in., made a crater of 42 ft. 3 in. radius. Readers of Carlyle's
Frederick the Great may recall his description of the contest of the
rival engineers on this occasion.
At Graudenz in 1862 (experiments) a charge of 1031 Ib of powder
placed ip ft. deep, untamped, in a vertical shaft, made a crater of
15 ft. 6 in. radius. A charge of 412 ft of guncotton, calculated as
being equivalent to the above charge of powder and placed under
the same conditions, made a crater of 14 ft. radius. The absence
of tamping in both cases of course placed the gunpowder at a dis-
advantage.
Perhaps the most interesting mine ever fired was that at the
siege of Petersburg in the American Civil War, in June 1864. The
circumstances were all abnormal, and the untechnical
account of it in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (vol. p e
iv.) is well worth perusal. No mining tools or materials u, en
and no military miners were available; and no one had j 86 J'
any confidence in the success of the attempt except its
originator, Lieut. -Colonel Pleasants.a mining engineer by profession,
his regiment which was recruited from a mining population, and
General Burnside the corps commander. The opposing entrench-
ments were 130 yds. apart. The mine gallery was started behind the
Federal lines and driven a distance of 510 ft. till it came under a
field redoubt in the Confederate lines. There two branches were
made right and left, each about 38 ft. long, and in them eight mines
aggregating 8000 ft of powder were placed. The first attempt to
fire them failed, and an officer and a sergeant volunteered to enter
the gallery to seek the cause of the failure. A defective splice in two
lengths of fuze was thus discovered and repaired. At the second
attempt all the mines were fired simultaneously with success, and
made a gigantic crater 170 ft. long by 60 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep.
The occupants of the redoubt, at least several hundred men (they
have been stated at 1000), were blown up and mostly killed. The
assault which followed, however, failed completely, for want of
organization. The infantry was drawn up in readiness to advance,
but no outlets had been provided from the parallel, and this and other
causes delayed the occupation of the crater and gave the defending
artillery a moment's respite. Thus the assailants gained the crater
but could not advance beyond it in face of the defenders' fire, nor
could they establish themselves within it, on its steep clay sides,
for want of entrenching tools_. A good many troops were sent for-
wards in support, but being in many cases of inferior quality, they
could not be induced to go forward, and huddled in disorder in the
already overcrowded crater. Over 1000 of these were captured
when the Confederates retook the crater by a counter-attack and the
total loss of the Federals in the attack was nearly 4000.
The wars of the last generation have done little or nothing
to advance the science of military mining, but a good deal has
been done in peace to improve the means. Electric lighting and
electric firing of mines will be a great help; modern drilling
machines may be used to go through rock; ventilating arrange-
ments are much improved; and the use of bored mines is sure
to have great developments. The Russo-Japanese War taught
nothing new in mine-warfare, or as to the effects of mines, but
the siege of Port Arthur had this moral among others; just as in
future, in the frontal attack of positions, trench must oppose
trench, so in fortress warfare mines will be more necessary than
ever. It appears that they will be essential to destroy both
the ditch-flanking arrangements of forts and the escarp or other
permanent obstacle beyond the ditch.
V. FIELD FORTIFICATION
Field Fortifications, now more often spoken of as field defences,
are those which are constructed at short notice, with the means
locally available, usually when the enemy is near at hand.
Subject to the question of time, a very high degree of strength
can be given to them, if the military situation makes it worth
while to expend sufficient labour. A century or more ago,
the dividing line between permanent and field fortification
was very rigidly drawn, since in those days a high masonry
escarp surmounted by a rampart was essential to a permanent
fortress, and these could naturally not be extemporized.
Works without masonry, in other ways made as strong as
possible with deep ditches and heavy timbers, such as would
require about six weeks for their construction- were known
as semi-permanent, and were used for the defence of places
which acquired strategic importance in the course of a
war, but were not immediately threatened. The term field
fortification was reserved for works constructed of lighter
materials, with parapets and ditches of only moderate develop-
ment. Redoubts of this class required a fortnight at most for
their construction.
In modern fortification if cupolas and deep revetted ditches
were essential to permanent defences, the dividing line would
be equally clear. But as has been shown, this is not universally
admitted, and where the resources exist, the use of our present
FIELD FORTIFICATION] FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
717
means of construction, such as steel joists, railway rails, rein-
forced concrete and wire, in conjunction with the defensive
power of modern fire-arms, makes it possible to extemporize
in a very short time works having much of the resisting power
of a permanent fortress. Further, such works can be expanded
from the smallest beginnings; and, if the site is not too exposed,
in the presence of the enemy.
Field fortification offers, as regards the actual constructions,
a very limited scope to the engineer; and a little consideration
, will show that its defensive possibilities were not greatly affected
by the change from machine-thrown projectiles to those fired
by rude smooth-bore guns. There is therefore nothing in the
history of this branch of the subject that is worth tracing, from
the earliest ages to about the end of the i8th century. One or
two points may be noticed. The use of obstacles is probably
one of the earliest measures of defence. Long before missile
weapons had acquired such an importance as to make it worth
while to seek shelter from them, it would obviously have been
found desirable to have some means of checking the onrush of
an enemy physically or numerically superior. Hence the use
by savage tribes, to this day, of pits, pointed stakes hidden in
the grass, entanglements and similar obstacles. In this direction
the ages have made no change, and the most highly civilized
nations still use the same obstacles on occasion.
Another use of field defences common to all ages is the protec-
tion of camps at night, where small forces are operating against
an enemy more numerous but inferior in arms and discipline.
In daylight such an enemy is not feared, but at night his numbers
might be dangerous. Hence the Roman practice of making
each foot-soldier carry a couple of stakes for palisades; and the
simple defence of a thorn zariba used by the British for their
camps in the Sudan.
Palisades and trenches, abatis and sharpened stakes have
always been used. Except wire, there is practically no new
material. As to methods, the laagers of the Boers are preceded
by the wagon-forts of the Hussites, and those no doubt by
similar arrangements of British or Assyrian war chariots; and
so in almost every direction it will be found that the expedient
of to-day has had its forerunners in those of the countless yester-
days. The only really marked change in the arrangements of
field defences has been caused not by gunpowder but by quick-
firing rifled weapons. For that reason it is worth while to
consider briefly what were the principles of field fortification at
the end of the i8th century. That period has been chosen
because it gives us the result of a couple of centuries of constant
fighting between disciplined troops with fairly effective fire-
arms. The field defences of the igth century are transitional in
character. Based mainly on the old methods, they show only
faint attempts at adaptation to new conditions, and it was not
till quite the end of the century that the methods now accepted
began to take shape.
The essential elements of fieldworks up to the time of the
Peninsular War were command and obstacle; now they are
protection and concealment.
The command and obstacle were as necessary in the days of
smooth-bore muskets and guns as in those of javelins and
arrows. When the enemy could get close up to a
/'r < ft? e wor k without serious loss, and attack in close order,
defences, the defenders needed a really good obstacle in front
of them. Moreover, since they could not rely on their
fire alone to repulse the attack, they needed a two-deep line, with
reserves close at hand, to meet it with the " arme blanche."
For this purpose a parapet 7 or 8 ft. high, with a steep slope,
perhaps palisaded, up which the attackers must climb after
passing the obstacle, was excellent. The defenders after firing
their last volley could use their bayonets from the top of the
parapet with the advantage of position. The high parapet had
also the advantage that the attackers could not tell what was
going on inside the redoubt, and the defenders were sheltered
from their fire as well from view until the last moment.
The strength of a fortified line in the i8th century depended
principally on its redoubts. Lines of shelter trenches had little
power of defence at the time, unless they held practically as
many men as would have sufficed to fight in the open. Obstacles
on the other hand had a greater value, against the inelastic
tactics of the time, than they have now. A good position there-
fore was one which offered, good fire-positions for redoubts and
plenty of facilities for creating obstacles. Strong redoubts
which could resist determined assaults; good obstacles in the
intervals, guns in the redoubts to sweep the intervals, and troops
in formed bodies kept in reserve for counter-strokes these
were the essentials in the days of the smooth-bore.
The redoubts were liable to a heavy cannonade by field-guns
before the attack. To withstand this, the parapets had to be
made of a suitable thickness from 4 or 5 ft. upwards according
to the time available, the resisting nature of the soil, and the
severity of the bombardment expected.
The whole of the earth for the parapet was as a rule obtained
from the ditch, in order to make as much as possible of thic
obstacle. The garrison in all parts of the interior of the redoubt
were to be sheltered, if possible, from the enemy's fire, and with
this object great pains were bestowed on the principle of " de-
filade." The object of defilade, which was a great fetish in
theoretical works, was so to arrange the height of the parapet
with reference to the terreplein of a work that a straight line
(not, be it observed, the trajectory of the projectiles) passing
from the muzzle of a musket or gun on the most commanding
point of the enemy's position, over the crest of the parapet,
should just clear the head of a defender standing in any part of
the work. This problem of defilade became quite out of date
after the development of time shrapnel, but was nevertheless
taught with great rigour till within the last twenty years.
The sectional area of the ditch was calculated so that with
an addition of about 10% for expansion it would equal that of
the parapet. If a wider and deeper ditch was considered neces-
sary, the surplus earth could be used to form a glacis.
The interior of the redoubt had to afford sufficient space to
allow the garrison to sleep in it, which was sometimes a matter
of some difficulty if a small irregularly shaped work had to
contain a strong garrison. Consideration of the plan and sections
of these works will show that the banquette for infantry with
its slopes, and the gun platforms, took off a good deal from the
interior space within the crest-line. Guns were usually placed
at the salients, where they could get the widest field of fire.
They were sometimes placed on the ground level, firing through
embrasures in the parapet, and sometimes on platforms so as to
fire over the parapet (en barbette).
As in permanent fortification, immense pains were taken to
elaborate theoretically the traces of works. A distinction was
made between forts and redoubts, the former being those which
were arranged to flank their own ditches, while the redoubts did
not. Redoubts again 'were classed as " closed," those which had
an equally strong defence all round; and " half-closed," those
which had only a slight parapet or timber stockade for the gorge
or rear faces. Open works (those which had no gorge defence)
were named according to their trace, as redans and lunettes. A
redan is a work with two faces making a salient angle. It was
frequently used in connexion with straight lines of trench or
breastwork. A lunette is a work with two faces, usually forming
an obtuse angle, and two flanks.
The forts described in the text-books, as might be expected,
were designed with great ingenuity, with bastioned or demi-
bastioned fronts, star traces, and so forth, and in the same books
intricate calculations were entered into to balance the remblai
and deblai, that is, the amount of earth in the parapets with that
excavated from the ditches. In practice such niceties of course
disappeared, though occasionally when the ground allowed of it
star forts and bastioned fronts were employed.
On irregular ground the first necessity was to fit the redoubt
to the ground on which it stood, so as to sweep the whole of the
foreground, and this was generally a sufficiently difficult matter
without adding the complications of flanking defences. Sir
John Jones, speaking of the traces of the several works in the
Torres Vedras lines, says:
718
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT [FIELD FORTIFICATION
" The redoubts were made of every capacity, from that of fig. 74 a,
limited by want of space on the ground it occupied to 50 men and
T rres two P' eces f artillery, to that of fig. 74 b, for 500 men and
Vedras s ' x J?' eces f artillery, the importance of the object to be
attained being the only guide in forming the dimensions.
Many of the redoubts first thrown up, even some of the smallest,
were shaped like stars, under the idea of procuring a flank defence
for the ditches; but this construction was latterly rejected, it being
found to cut up the interior space, and to be almost fallacious with
FIG. 74. Torres Vedras Works.
respect to flank defence, the breadth of the exterior slopes being in
some cases equal to the whole length of the flanks so obtained. Even
when, from the greater size of the work, some flanking fire was thus
gained, the angle formed by the faces was generally so obtuse that it
demanded more coolness in the defenders than ought reasonably
to be expected to aim along the ditch of the opposite face: and
further, this construction prevented the fire of the work being more
powerful in front than in rear.
In order to decide on the proper trace of a work, it is necessary to
consider whether its object be to prevent an enemy establishing
himself on the ground on which it is to be placed, or whether it be to
insure a heavy fire of artillery on some other point in its vicinity.
In the first case every consideration should be sacrificed to that of
adding to its powers of self-defence by flanks or other expedients.
In the second, its powers of resistance are secondary to the estab-
lishment of a powerful offensive fire and its trace cannot be too
simple. Latterly, the shape of the redoubts was invariably that most
fitted to the ground, or such as best parried the enfilade fire or
musketry plunge of neighbouring heights, care being taken to present
the front of fire deemed necessary towards the pass, or other object
to be guarded; and such will generally be found the best rule of
proceeding.
This recommendation, however, is not intended to apply to
isolated works of large dimensions, and more particularly to those
considered the key of any position. No labour or expense should be
spared to render such works capable of resisting the most furious
assaults, either by breaking the parapet into flanks, or forming a
flank defence in the ditch ; for the experience gained in the Peninsula
shows that an unflanked work of even more than an ordinary field
profile, if skilfully and determinedly assaulted, will generally be
carried Nor does the serious evil of curtailing the interior
space, which renders breaks in the outline so objectionable in small
works, apply to works of large dimensions Under this view
the great work on Monte Agraca (fig. 75) must be considered as very
-. 75- Monte Agraga, Torres Vedras.
defective, the flank defence being confined to an occasional break
ot a lew feet in the trace, caused by a change of direction in the
contour of the height, whilst the interior space is more than doubly
sumcient for the number of its allotted garrison to encamp.
Interior and other Defences This work, however, had some of its
salient points . . . cut off by earthen lines of parapet, steeply
revetted externally, and so traced as to serve for traverses to the
interior. It had also three or four small enclosed posts formed within
it; and the work at Torres Vedras (fig. 76) had each of its salient
points formed into an independent post. These interior defences
and retrenchments were intended to guard against a general panic
amongst the garrison, which would necessarily be composed in part
FIG. 76. Torres Vedras Works.
of indifferent troops, and also to prevent the loss of the work by
the entry of the assailants at any weak or ill-defended point. Such
interior lines to rally on are absolutely essential to the security of a
large field-work. They serve as substitutes for a blockhouse or tower,
placed in the interior of all well-constructed permanent earthen
works, and merit far more attention than they generally receive.
The small circular windmills of stone, which were frequently
found occupying salient knolls . . . readily converted into admir-
able interior posts of that nature. The profile of the several works
varied on every face and flank, according to its liability to be attacked
or cannonaded ; the only general rule enforced being that all ditches
should be at least 15 ft. wide at top and 10 ft. in depth, and the crest
of the parapet have at least 5 ft. command over the crest of the
counterscarp. No parapet exceeded 10 ft. in thickness, unless
exposed to be severely cannonaded, and few more than 6 or 8 ft. ;
and some, on high knolls, where artillery could not by any possibility
be brought against them, were made of stone or rubble less than 2 ft.
in thickness, to gain more interior space, and allow full liberty for the
use of the defenders' bayonets."
Fig. 77 gives two typical sections of these works.
FIG. 77.
The works of Torres Vedras have been chosen for illustration
because they offer very good historical examples, and also
because of the value of the critical remarks of Sir John Jones,
who as a captain was the engineer in charge of their construction.
At the same time it must be remembered that they differ from
ordinary field-works in having an unusual degree of strength,
plenty of time and civilian labour having been available for their
construction. In this respect they approximate more to semi-
permanent works, the main reason why they did not receive
under the circumstances a greater development of ditch and
parapet being that in addition to the large number of works
required, much labour was expended in abatis, inundations,
scarping hill-sides and constructing roads.
Some further remarks of Sir John on the situations of the
works are very instructive:
" Many of the redoubts were placed on very elevated situations
on the summit of steep hills, which gave them a most imposing
FIELD FORTIFICATION] FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
719
appearance; but it was in reality a defect . . . for the fire of their
artillery on the object to be guarded became so plunging as to lose
half its powers; the musketry could not be made to scour the face
of the hill sufficiently; and during the night both arms became of
most uncertain effect.
" The domineering situation of the redoubts, however, gave con-
fidence to the young troops which composed their garrisons, pro-
tected them from a cannonade, and screened their interior from
musketry, unless fired at a high angle, and consequently at random.
These considerations perhaps justify the unusually elevated sites
selected for most of the redoubts on the lines, though they cannot
induce an approval of them as a general measure."
The chief principle of the period was thus that the redoubts
were the most important features of lines of defence, and that
they combined physical obstacle and protection with good
musketry and artillery positions. The value of concealment
was not ignored, but it was as a rule subordinated to other
considerations.
The principles of this time remained unaltered until after the
Crimean War. In the American Civil War the power of the rifle
began to assert itself, and it was found that a simple
centu breastwork defended by a double rank of men could
protect itself by its fire against an ordinary assault.
This power of the rifle gave greatly enhanced importance to
any defences that could be hastily extemporized behind walls,
hedges or any natural cover. About the period of the Franco-
German War other considerations came in. The increased
velocity of artillery projectiles reduced in some ways their
destructive effects against earth parapets, because the shell had
an increasing tendency to deflect upwards on striking a bank
of loose earth. Also the use of shrapnel made it impossible for
troops to find cover on the terreplein of a work some distance
behind the parapet.
These considerations, however, were not fully realized at that
time. The reason was partly a want of touch between the
engineers and the non-technical branches of most armies, and
partly that original writers from the Napoleonic wars to the
present day have been more occupied with the primary question
of the value of field defences as a matter of tactics than with
their details considered from the standpoint of fortification.
There was always an influential school of writers who declaimed
against all defences, as being injurious to the offensive spirit so
essential to success. Those writers who treated of the arrange-
ments of defences devoted themselves to theoretical details of
trace quite after the old style; discussing the size and shape of
typical redoubts, their distance apart and relation to lines of
trenches, &c. The profiles the thick parapet with command
of 7 ft. or more, the deep ditch, and the inadequate cover behind
the parapet remained as they had been for a century.
The American Civil War snowed the power of rifles behind
slight defences. Plevna in 1877 taught a further lesson. It
proved the great resisting power of extemporized lines; but
more than that, we begin to find new arrangements for protection
against shell fire (see plans and sections in Greene's The Russian
Army and Us Campaign in Turkey). The trace of the works and
the sections of parapet and ditch suggest Torres Vedras; but
a multiplication of interior traverses and splinter-proof shelters
show the necessity for a different class of protection. The
parapet was designed according to the old type, for want of a
better; the traverses and shelters were added later, to meet the
necessities of the case. The Turks also used two or three tiers
of musketry fire, as for instance one from the crest of the glacis,
one from the parapet, and one from a traverse in rear of it.
This, however, is a development which will not be necessary in
future, thanks to magazine rifles.
From 1877 to 1899 the efficiency of rifles and guns rapidly
increased, and certain new principles, causing the field defences
Principles f & present day to differ radically from those of
of modern the 1 8th century, remained to be developed. These
Held m ay be considered under the following heads: the
defences. na t ure o f protection required, the diminished need
of obstacle, and the adaptation of works to ground.
The principle that thickness of parapet is no longer required,
to resist artillery fire, was first laid down at Chatham in 1896.
The distance at which guns now engage makes direct hits on
parapets comparatively rare. Further, a shell striking near the
crest of a parapet may perhaps kill one man if he is in the way,
and displace a bushel of earth. That is nothing. It is the
contents of the shell, whether shrapnel or explosive, that is
the source of danger and not the shell itself. Thus the enemy's
object is to burst his common shell immediately behind the
parapet, or his shrapnel a short distance in front of it, in order
to get searching effect. It follows that a parapet is thick enough
if it suffices to stop rifle bullets, since the same thickness will
a fortiori keep out shrapnel bullets or splinters of shell. For this
purpose 3 ft. is enough.
Real protection is gained by a trench close in rear of the
parapet, deep enough to give shelter from high angle shrapnel,
and narrow enough to minimize the chance of a common shell
dropping into it. This protection is increased by frequent
traverses across the trench.
The most essential point of all is concealment. In gaining this
we say good-bye finally to the old type of work. Protection
is now given by the trench rather than the parapet; command
and the ditch-obstacle (which furnished the earth for the high
parapet) are alike unnecessary. Concealment can therefore be
studied by keeping the parapet down to the lowest level above
the surface from which the foreground can be seen. This may be
1 8 in. or less.
The need of obstacle, in daylight and when the defenders
are not abnormally few, has practically disappeared. For night
work, or when the assailant is so strong as to be able to force
home his attack in face of protected rifle fire, what is needed is not
a deep ditch immediately in front of the parapet, difficult to
climb, but also difficult to flank, but an . obstacle that will
detain him under fire at short range. It may be an entangle-
ment, an abatis, an inundation: anything that will check the
rush and make him move slowly.
In the adaptation of works to ground, the governing factor is
the power of the rifle in frontal defence. We have seen that in
Peninsular times great reliance was placed on the flanking defence
of lines by guns in redoubts. Infantry extended behind a simple
line of trench could not resist a strong attack without such
support. Now, however, infantry behind a slight trench, with
a good field of fire should be able to defend themselves against
any infantry attack.
This being so, the enemy's artillery seeks to locate the trenches
and to cover them with a steady hail of shells, so as to force the
defenders to keep down under cover. If they can succeed in
doing this, it is possible for the attacking infantry to advance,
and the artillery fire is kept up until the last moment, so that the
attack may have the narrowest possible space to cover after the
defenders have manned their parapets and opened fire. Fig. 78
shows the action of various natures of projectiles.
From Mil. Engineering, by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 78. Effect of Projectiles.
We need not here discuss the role of the defenders' artillery in
replying to that of the enemy and playing on the attack; nor
for the moment consider how far the defence of the trenches
while under artillery fire can be made easier by overhead cover.
The main question is what is, in view of the nature of the attack,
720
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT [FIELD FORTIFICATION
the best disposition of lines of trench; and do they require the
addition of redoubts ?
The most important point, with the object of protection, is
that the trenches must not be conspicuous; this is the best
defence against artillery. With the object of resistance by their
own fire they must have a good view, or, as it is generally
described, no dead ground in front of them. For this purpose
300 or 400 yds. may be enough if the ground is even and affords
no cover.
This necessity for invisibility, together with the shallowness
of the zone that suffices for producing a decisive fire effect, has
of late years very much affected the choice of ground for a line
of trenches.
For a defensive position on high ground, it was usually laid down
until the South African War that a line of trenches should be on the
" military crest " (Fr. Crete militaire), i.e. the highest
point on the hill from which the whole of the slopes in
' ches - front can be seen. Thus in the three sections of ground
shown in fig. 79 it would be at a, b and c respectively. The simplicity
FIG. 79.
of this prescription made it attractive and it came to be rather
abused in the text-books. There were, even before the improvements
in artillery, objections to it, because on most slopes the military
crest would be found at very different elevations on different parts
of the line, so that by a strict adherence to the rule some of the
trenches would be placed near the top of the hill, and some in
dangerous isolation near the bottom. Moreover a rounded hill has
no military crest.
Further, we have to consider nowadays not only the position of
the fire-trenches, but those of supports, reserves and artillery, and
the whole question is extremely difficult.
For instance, considering the sections alone, as if they did not
vary along the line, the positions at a and b, fig. 79, are bad because
they are on the sky-line and therefore a good mark for artillery.
That at b is especially bad because the slope in front is so steep that
the defenders would have to expose themselves very much to fire
down it, and the artillery fire against them can be kept up until the
very last moment. The position c has the advantage of not being
on the sky-line, but the position of the supports in rear is exposed.
Such a position as that at
d, fig. 80, is good, but pro-
tected or concealed com-
munications must be made
for the supports coming
p- Tr c n from e over the brow of the
JT l\J* OU. I'll
hill.
Another possible position for the infantry line is at/, fig. 81, with
the guns on the high ground behind. They might easily be quite
concealed from the enemy's artillery. The drawback is that no
retirement up the
exposed slope
would be possible
for them, except
at night. The fire
from / will be
I - grazing, which will
be a great advantage as compared with the plunging fire that would
be obtained from a position up the hill.
It is idle, however, to give more than the most cursory consideration
to sections of imaginary positions. It is only by actual practice on
the ground that skill can be attained in laying out positions, and
only a trained soldier with a good eye can succeed in it. Briefly, the
advantages of view and position given by high ground must be paid
for in some degree by exposure to the enemy's artillery; and at
least as much consideration possibly as much labour must be
given to communications with the fire-trenches as to the trenches
themselves. Irregular ground simplifies the question of concealment
but also gives cover to the enemy's approach. The lie of the ground
will itself dictate the position of the trenches, subject to the pre-
dispositions of the responsible officer. On flat featureless ground the
general trace of the trenches should be irregular. This makes a
more difficult target for artillery, and affords a certain amount of
cross and flanking fire, which is a very great advantage. Great care
should, however, be taken not to expose the trenches to oblique
or enfilade fire; or at least to protect them, if so exposed, by
traversing.
FIG. 82.
Concealment of trenches is generally attempted by covering the
freshly turned earth of the small parapet with sods, leafy branches
or grass. In this connexion it should be remembered _.
that after a day or two cut leaves and grass wither and Tnacbes -
may become conspicuous against a green surface. Where the ground
is so even that a good view of the foreground is possible from the
surface level, the trench may be made
without a parapet; but this entails
great labour in removing and disposing
of the excavated earth. A common
device is to conceal the parapet as well
as possible and to make a dummy
trench some distance away to draw
fire.
Besides the direct concealment of
trenches, care must be taken that the site is not conspicuous. Thus
a trench should not be placed along the meeting line of two different
kinds of cultivation, or along the edge of a belt of heather on a hill-
side, or where a difference of gradient is sharply defined; or where
any conspicuous
landmark would
help the enemy's
artillery to get the <,
range.
Trenches are
broadly distin-
guished as "fire
trenches" and
" cover trenches,"
according as they FIG. 83.
are for the firing
line or supporting troops. The following simple types are taken
from the 1908 edition of Military Engineering (part i): "Field
Defences."
Fig. 82 is the most common form of fire trench, in which labour,
is saved by equalizing trench and parapet. This would take ii to
2 hours in ordinary soil. Fig. 83 shows the same trench improved
by 2 or 3 hours' more work. Fig. 84 shows a fire trench without
parapet, with cover trench and communication.
The addition of a loophole of sand-bags, sodded on the top for
Cover Trench
Notf.-Surplut tarth may
tit htaped or spread
in rear of trench
From Mil. Engineering: Fitld Dejences (1908), by permission of the Controller
H. M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 84.
concealment (called head-cover), gives increased protection, but at
the cost of greater prominence for the parapet (fig. 85). Overhead
cover can only be provided in fire trenches by giving the parapet still
greater height and it is not usually done. Portions of the trench
not used for firing can, however, be given splinter-proof protection
by putting over them branches or bundles, covered with a few inches
of earth : or by boards, or sheets of corrugated iron if they can be
had. A better plan when time permits is to provide cover trenches
immediately behind and communicating with the fire trench.
The question of redoubts has been a vexed one for years; partly
they were thought to be unnecessary in view of the resisting power
of a line of trenches, but chiefly because the redoubt was
always imagined as one of the older type, with a high " e " oa '>' s -
conspicuous parapet. Of course a redoubt of such a nature would
be readily identified and made untenable. But the idea of a redoubt
does not neces-
s a r i 1 y imply
command. Its
object is that it
shall be capable
of all-round de-
fence. There
can be no doubt
t hat as there
is always a pos-
sibility of lines
being pierced
somewhere, it is
desirable, unless
the whole line is
to be thrown From jf a. Engineering: Field Defences, by permission of the
into confusion Controller H. M. Stationery Office,
and forced
back, to have
FIG. 85.
some point at which the defenders can maintain themselves.
This is not possible unless at such points Ithere is provision for
defence towards both flanks and rear, that is to say, when there are
redoubts, which can hold on after certain portions of the line have
been lost and thereby can localize the enemy's success and simplify
FIELD FORTIFICATION] FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
721
the action of supporting troops. In order that redoubts may
exercise this function, all that is necessary is that their defenders
should be able to see the ground for a furlong in front of them in
every direction. Their parapets, therefore, need be in no way more
conspicuous than those of the neighbouring fire trenches, and in
that case there is no fear of their drawing special attention from the
enemy's artillery. Whatever theories may have been put forward
on the subject, in practice they are constantly used, and in the Russo-
Japanese War, where the experience of South Africa was already
available, we find them in the fighting lines on both sides.
FIG. 86.
The modern type of field redoubt is a fire trench, no more con-
spicuous than the others, in any simple form adapted to the ground
that will give effective all-round fire, such as a square with blunted
T
> '. . .. .
^f j
N*-, ?P_fP?5 . '
JO.mvL. -'/
'7"i j
' i
FIG. 87.
angles. Enhanced strength may be given by deepening the trenches
and improving the overhead cover; and special use may here be
made of obstacles.
Within the redoubt cover may be provided for men in excess of
those required to man the parapet, by means of cover trenches and
FIG. 88.
field casemates. Fig. 86 gives the general idea of such a redoubt,
and figs. 87, 88 the plan and section of the interior shelters. Such a
work can easily be made quite invisible from a distance. It gives
excellent cover against shrapnel, but would not be tenable against
howitzer common shell, if the enemy did manage to bring an accurate
fire to bear on it.
Fig. 89 shows the section of a parapet with two shelters behind
it for a work with a high command of 5 or 6 ft. This work would
.loopftofe
From Mil. Engineering: Fisld Defences (1908), by permission of the Controller H.M.
Stationery Office.
FIG. 89.
require a concealed position, which can often be found a little in
rear of the firing line.
In the South African War a good deal of interest was excited by
a type of trench used by the Boers. It was very narrow at the
surface, giving only just room for a man to stand; but undercut
or hollowed out below, so that he could sit down with very good
coyer. Such a section is only possible in very firm soil. Apart from
this, the type is really only suited to rifle pits, as a trench proper
should have room for officers and N.C.Q.'s to move along
within it. The Boers showed great skill in concealing their
trenches. One good point was that there was generally
something making a background immediately behind the
men's heads, so that they did not stand out in relief
when raised above the parapet.
In the Russo-Japanese War the Russian trenches at the outset
were of old-fashioned type and very conspicuous. Later on better
types were evolved. Figs. 90 and 91 are a couple of sections from
Port Arthur; the first borrowed from the Boers but wider at the
Boer,
Russian
and
Japanese
types.
. 4xf Strut /fcoirt Ift.of tortli
rr <"".?>. at intervals /-
Skitldtd loaf halt
From Russo-Japanese War: British Officers* 'Reports, vol. ii., by permission of the
Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
FIGS. 90 and 91.
top. The Japanese appear to have taken their type mainly from
the latest British official books, but applied them with great skill
to the ground, studying especially invisibility. In their prepared
positions they used large redoubts manned by several companies.
Cover for Guns. Some degree of cover for guns, in addition to the
shield, is always desirable. If the gun stands on the natural surface
of the ground, the cover is called an epaulment. In that case a bank
is thrown up in front of the gun, about I ft. high in the centre, and
From Mil. Engineering: Field Defences, by permission of the Controller H. M.
Stationery Office.
FIG. 92. Gun-pit.
3 ft. 6 in. high at the ends. On either side of the gun and close up
to the bank is a small pit for the gunners. The rest of the earth for
the epaulment is got from a trench in front. If the gun is sunk, the
shelter is called a gun-pit.
In this case there is no bank immediately in front of the gun.
Shelter can be got more quickly with a pit than an epaulment, but
it is generally undesirable to break the surface of the ground.
722
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT [FIELD FORTIFICATION
The commonest forms of obstacle now used are abatis and wire
entanglements. Fig. 93 shows a well-finished type of abatis. The
branches are stripped and pointed, and the butts are
Obstacles. jj ur ; e( j anc j pegged firmly down. Wire entanglement
may be added to this with advantage. An abatis should be protected
from artillery fire, which is sometimes done by placing it in a shallow
excavation with the earth thrown up in front of it.
it-
Jl-Mujh
From Mil. Engineering: Field Defences, by permission of the Controller H.M.
Stationery Office.
FIG. 93. Abatis.
Wire may be used as a high or low entanglement or as a fence or
trip wire or concealed obstacle. The usual form of high wire entangle-
ment consists of several rows of stout stakes 4 or 5 ft. long, driven
firmly into the ground about 6 ft. apart, and connected horizontally
and diagonally with barbed wire.
Palisades are still used, and need no description. They were
formerly often made bullet-proof, but this is no longer possible.
Praises are seldom heard of now, though they may appear occasion-
ally in a modified form. They were much used in connexion with
deep ditches, and are palisades placed
so as to project horizontally from the
escarp, or sloping forward in the bottom
of the ditch. Military pits both deep and
shallow (the latter, shown in fig. 95, called
trous de loup) are not so much used as
formerly, because the obstacle is hardly
worth the labour expended on it. Both,
FIG. 94. Crows' Feet. FIG. 95. Plan and section
of Trous-de-loup.
however, were employed in the Russo-Japanese War. Crows' feet,
formerly much used as a defence against cavalry, are practically
obsolete. They consisted of four iron spikes joined together at their
bases in such a manner that however they were thrown down one
point would always be pointing upwards (fig. 94). Chevaux-de-frise
(q.v.) were formerly a much-used type of obstacle.
The best obstacle is that which can be made to fulfil a given object
with the least expenditure of time and labour. From this point of
view barbed wire is far the best. One of its greatest advantages is
that it gives no cover whatever to the enemy.
Fougasses have always for convenience been classed as obstacles.
A fougasse is a charge of powder buried at the bottom of a sloping
pit. Over the powder is a wooden shield, 3 or 4 in. thick, and over
the shield a quantity of stones are piled. The illustration, fig. 96,
gives a clear idea of the arrangement. A fougasse of this form,
charged with 80 Ib of powder, will throw 5 tons of stones over a
surface 160 yds. long by 120 wide. They may be fired by powder
hose, fuze or electricity. Their actual effect is very often a matter
of chance, but the moral effect is usually considerable.
Dams are most effective obstacles, when circumstances allow of
their use. They are constructed by military engineers as small
temporary dams would be in civil works.
A most important question, especially in connexion with obstacles,
is that of lighting up the foreground at night. Portable electric
Illumlaa- searcn ''ghts are most valuable, especially for detecting
Hon. the enemy's movements at some distance; but their use
will naturally always be restricted. Star shells and
parachute lights fired from guns are not of much use for the immediate
foreground, and do not burn very long. They were formerly chiefly
of use in siege works, to light up an enemy's working parties.
Germany has introduced lightballs fired from pistols, which will
probably have a considerable future.
Various civilian forms of flare-light would be very useful to
illuminate obstacles, but cannot well be carried in the field. Bonfires
are very useful when material is available. They require careful
treatment, e.g. they must be so arranged that they can be lighted
instantaneously (they may be lighted automatically, by means of a
trip wire and a fuze) ; they must give a bright light at once (this
can be ensured with shavings or straw sprinkled with petroleum);
they must be firmly built so that the enemy cannot destroy them
easily; and if possible there should be a screen arranged behind
them so that they may not light up the defence as well as the attack.
Block-
houses.
Blockhouses are familiar to the public from the part they played
in the South African War of 1899-1902. In the old-fashioned
permanent fortification they were used as keeps in such
positions as re-entering places of arms and built of
masonry. Stone blockhouses have long been used in the
Balkans for frontier outposts; they are sometimes built cruciform,
so as to get some flanking defence. In the form of bullet-proof log-
cabins they have played a great part in warfare between pioneer
settlers and savages.
Fuze
'faultier Box
From Mil. Engineering, by permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 96. Fougasse.
In the igth century blockhouses were usually designed to give
partial protection against field artillery; the walls being built of
two thicknesses of logs with earth between them, the roof flat and
covered with 2 or 3 ft. of earth, and earth being piled against the
walls up to the loopholes. Nowadays they are employed only in
positions where it is not likely that artillery will be brought against
them : but they may be made tenable for a while even under artillery
fire if they are surrounded by a trench and parapet.
Blockhouses are especially useful for small posts protecting such
points as railway bridges, which the enemy may attempt to destroy
by cavalry raids. The essential feature is a bullet-proof loop-holed
wall, arranged for all-round fire, with enough interior space for the
garrison to sleep in. The roof may be simply weatherproof. Some
arrangement for storing water must be provided. Circular block-
houses were very popular in South Africa. They were made of
sheets of corrugated iron fastened 6 in. apart on a wooden framework,
the space between the sheets being filled with small stones. The
loop-holes were made of sheet-iron frames inserted in the walls.
Fig. 97 shows a section of one of these blockhouses.
Corrugated Inn SUM
ith loophole
'Bank of earth
By permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 97. Blockhouse, South Africa, 1900-1902.
The defence of woods was formerly an important branch of field
defences. Abatis and entanglements could readily be extemporized,
trunks of trees made strong breastworks, and the wood , .
concealed the numbers of the defenders. A wood was
therefore generally considered a useful addition to a line of defence.
It was customary to hold the front edge of the wood, the irregularities
of the outline being utilized for frontal and flanking fire, while
obstacles were disposed some 50 yds. in front. In a carefully pre-
pared position, clearings would be made parallel to the front and
some distance back from it, for support positions, and great attention
was paid (in theory at least) to clearing communications, erections,
signposts, &c., so that the defending troops might move freely in any
desired direction.
Woods, however, had their inherent drawbacks. The ground is
hard to dig, clearing involves great labour; and communication,
at the best, is cramped. Nowadays a wood can hardly be considered
a strong defensive element in a line. The front of it is an excellent
ranging mark for artillery, and positions within the wood are not
easily made, because of the difficulty of trenching, and the fact that
no reasonable amount of timber will make a breastwork proof against
the modern bullet. Once an enemy gets a footing within a wood,
the position is more favourable to offensive than to defensive action.
If a wood has to be occupied in a line of defence, it is probable that
in most cases the rear edge or a line slightly behind it would be the
best to fortify, though the front edge would no doubt be held by the
fighting line at the outset.
The defence of villages is another question which has been much
affected by recent improvements in artillery. Formerly villages
were very important adjuncts to a line of defence, and villages.
strong points for a detached force to hold. There were
indeed always drawbacks. The preparations for defence entailed
CONCLUSION]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
723
a good deal of labour, and the defending force was scattered in houses
and enclosures, so that control and united action were difficult.
But the value of the ready-made protection afforded by walls was so
great and sometimes even decisive that villages were occupied
as a matter of course. This is certainly now changed, but precisely
to what extent it will be impossible to say, until after the next
European war. A village under fire is not now an ideal defensiye
position. A single shrapnel penetrating the outer wall may kill
all the occupants of a room ; a single field-howitzer shell may
practically ruin a house. At the same time, a house or line of houses
may (without any preliminary labour at all) give very good protection
against shell fire to troops behind them. Further, the value to the
defence of the slightest cover, once the infantry attack has developed,
is so great that the ruins of walls and houses occupied at the right
moment may prove an impregnable stronghold. This class of fighting,
however, does not properly come under the present heading. For the
details of the defence of walls, houses, &c., see the official Mil.
Engineering (1908).
Entrenching under Fire. Progress in this direction has been
delayed by the reluctance of military authorities to add a portable
entrenching tool to the heavy burden already carried by the infantry
soldier. Further delay has resulted from the attempts of enthusiastic
inventors to produce a tool that shall weigh nothing, go easily in the
pocket, and be available as a pick, shovel, saw, hand-axe or cork-
screw. A tool that will serve more than one use is seldom satisfactory
for any.
The object of entrenching under fire is to enable attacking infantry,
when their advance is checked by the enemy's fire, to maintain the
ground they have won by extemporizing cover where
'"*' none exists. The need of this was first felt in the American
Civil War, and towards the close of it a small entrenching
spade 22 in. long and weighing only I jib was introduced
by Brigadier-General H. W. Benham into the Army of the Potomac.
Since that time a great number of patterns have been tried, including
shovel, trowel and adze types. The most popular of these has been
the Linnemann spade, which is used by most continental armies
and by the Japanese. The Austrian form of this tool is a rectangular
spade with straight handle. The length over all is a little less than
20 in. The blade is 8 in. long by 6 wide. One side of it has a saw
edge, and theothera cuttingedge. For carriage, the blade is enclosed
in a leather case, which is strapped to the pack or the waist-belt.
In the British army the Wallace combined pick and shovel was used
for some time, but was eventually dropped. There was always great
doubt whether the utility of a portable entrenching tool was such as
to justify the inconvenience caused to the soldier in carrying it.
But the experience of the Russo-Japanese War seems to have finally
established the necessity of it, and also the fact that it must generally
be used lying down. For this purpose and for convenience in carrying
it on the person, a very light short-handled tool is required.
The soldier lying down cannot attempt to dig a trench, but can
make a little hole by his side as he lies, and put the earth in front of
his head. A method introduced by the Japanese is that at each check
in the advance the front line should do this, and, as they go forward,
the supporting lines in succession should improve the cover thus
commenced.
There are few things that soldiers dislike more, in the way of
training, than trenchwork. For men unused to it. it is tiring and
General tedious work, and it is difficult for them to realize its
remarks. > m P rtance - At the same time it is a commonplace of
recent history that men who have been in action a few
times develop a great affection for the shovel. The need of trenches
grows with the growth of firearms, and the latest feature of modern
tactics is the use of them in attack as well as in defence. The
observation has often been made with what truth as a general
proposition we cannot here discuss that modern battles tend more
and more to resemble a siege. The weaker side, it is said, entrenches
itself; the other bombards and attacks. After gaining as much
ground as they can, the attacking troops wait for nightfall and
entrench ; perhaps making a further advance and entrenchment
before dawn. In the last stage the attack might even be reduced
to gaining ground by sapping. In open and featureless ground,
where the rifle and gun have full play, the trench is to the modern
soldier very much what the breast-plate was to the man-at-arms,
an absolute essential.
The most important point in connexion with modern field fortifica-
tion is the effect on both strategy and tactics of the increased resisting
power of the defence. A small force well entrenched can check the
frontal attack of a very much larger force, and while holding its
position can make itself felt over a wider radius than ever before.
This must needs have a marked effect on strategy, and it is quite
possible to foresee such an ultimate triumph of field fortification
as that one force should succeed in surrounding another stronger
than itself, and by entrenching prevent the latter from breaking out
and compel its surrender.
VI. CONCLUSION
In tracing the history of the science of fortification and in
outlining the practice of our own time it has been necessary to
dwell chiefly on the material means of dofence and attack.
The human element has had to be almost ignored. But here
comes in the paradox, that the material means are after all the
least important element of defence. Certainly it is inconceivable
that the designer of a fortress should not try to make it as strong
as is consistent with the object in view and the means at his
disposal. And yet while engineers in all ages have sought eagerly
for strength and refinements of strength, the fact remains that
the best defences recorded in history owed little to the builder's
art. The splendid defence in 1667 of Candia, whose enceinte,
of early Italian design, was already obsolete but whose capture
cost the Turks 100,000 men; the three years defence of Ostend
in 1601 ; the holding of Arcot by Clive, are instances that present
themselves to the memory at once. The very weight of the odds
against them sometimes calls out the best qualities of the
defenders; and the man when at his best is worth many times
more than the rampart behind which he fights. But it would be a
poor dependence deliberately to make a place weak in order to
evoke these qualities. One cannot be sure that the garrison
will rise to the occasion, and the weakness of the place has very
often been found an excuse for giving it up with little or no
resistance.
Very much depends on the governor. Hence the French
saying, " tant vaut 1'homme, tant vaut la place." Among modern
men we think of Tpdleben (not governor, but the soul of the
defence) at Sevastopol, Fenwick Williams at Kars, Denfert-
Rochereau at Belfort, and Osman Pasha at Plevna. The sieges
of the 1 6th and i7th centuries offer many instances in which
the event turned absolutely on the personal qualities of the
governor; in some cases distinguished by courage, skill and
foresight, in others by incapacity, cowardice or treachery.
The reader is referred to Carnot's Defense des places fortes for a
most interesting summary of such cases, one or two of which
are quoted below.
Naarden was besieged by the prince of Orange in September
1673 and defended by Philippe de Proce, sieur Dupas. The
duke of Luxemburg visited the place some hours
before it was invested, and arranged with Dupas to T ^^P lrlt
relieve him as soon as he had collected his cavalry. a e fence.
But the governor lost his head when he saw the enemy
encamped round the place, and surrendered it before he had even
lost the covered way. He was subsequently tried by a council of
war and sentenced to be degraded before the troops and im-
prisoned for life. The reason the court gave for not condemning
him to death was that they could find no regulation which
condemned a man to loss of life for being a coward. (At that
period the decapitation of a governor who was considered to
have failed in his duty was not uncommon.) This man, however,
was not wanting in physical courage. He was in prison at Grave
when it was besieged a year later, obtained leave to serve as a
volunteer in the defence, fought well and was killed.
A similar case occurred in the English Civil War. In 1645 the
young governor of the royal post at Bletchingdon House was
entertaining a party of ladies from Oxford, when Cromwell
appeared and summoned him to surrender. The attacking force
had no firearm more powerful than a carbine, but the governor,
overawed by Cromwell's personality, yielded. Charles I., who
was usually merciful to his officers, caused this governor to be
shot.
A defence of another kind was that of Quillebceuf in 1592.
Henry IV. had occupied it and ordered it to be fortified. Before
the works had been well begun, Mayenne sent 5000 men to retake
it. Bellegarde undertook its defence, with 115 soldiers, 45
gentlemen and a few inhabitants. He had ammunition but not
much provisions. With these forces and a line of defence a
league in length, he sustained a siege, beat off an assault on the
I7th day, and was relieved immediately afterwards. The
relieving forces were astonished to find that he had been defend-
ing not a fortified town but a village, with a ditch which, in the
places where it had been begun, measured no more than 4 ft.
wide and deep.
At that period the business aspect of siege warfare already
724
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[CONCLUSION
alluded to had b.een recognized, but many commanders retained
the old spirit of chivalry in their reluctance to say the " loth
word." The gallant Marshal d'Esse, who feared nothing but the
idea of dying in his bed, was lying ill at his country house when
he was sent for by the king. He was ordered to take command
at Therouanne, then threatened by Charles V., and made his
farewell with these words, which remind us somewhat of Grenville :
" Sire, je m'y en vais done de bon et loyal cceur; mais j'ai oul dire
que la place est mal envitaillee, non pas settlement pourvue de
palles, de tranches, ni de hottes pour remparer et remuer la
terre; mais lors, quand entendrez que Therouanne est prise,
dites hardiment que d'Esse est gueri de sa jaunisse et mort."
And he made good his word, for he was killed at the breach by
a shot from the arquebus of a Spanish soldier.
Sometimes the ardour of defence inspired the whole body of
the inhabitants. Fine examples of this are the defences of
Rochelle (1627) and Saint-Jean de L6ne (1636), but these are too
long to quote. We may, however, mention Livron, which is
curious. In 1574 Henry III. sent one of his favourites, Saint
Lary Bellegarde, against the Huguenots in the Dauphine. Being
entrusted with a good army, this gentleman hoped to achieve
some distinction. He began by attacking the little town of
Livron, which had no garrison and was defended only by the
inhabitants. But he was repulsed in three assaults, and the
women of the town conceived such a contempt for him that they
came in crowds to empty their slops at the breach by way of
insult. This annoyed him very much, and he ordered a fresh
assault. The women alone sustained this one, repulsed it
lightheartedly, and the siege was raised.
The history of siege warfare has more in it of human interest
than any other branch of military history. It is full of the
personal element, of the nobility of human endurance
and of dramatic surprises. And more than any battles
in the open field, it shows the great results of the courage of men
fighting at bay. Think of Clive at Arcot. With 4 officers, 120
Europeans and 200 sepoys, with two i8-pounders and 8 lighter
guns, he held the fort against 150 Europeans and some 10,000
native troops. " The fort " (says Orme) " seemed little capable
of sustaining the impending siege. Its extent was more than a
mile in circumference. The walls were in many places ruinous;
the rampart too narrow to admit the firing of artillery; the
parapet low and slightly built; several of the towers were
decayed, and none of them capable of receiving more than one
piece of cannon; the ditch was in most places fordable, in others
dry and in some choked up," &c. These feeble ramparts were
commanded almost everywhere by the enemy's musketry from
the houses of the city outside the fort, so that the defenders were
hardly able to show themselves without being hit, and much
loss was suffered in this way. Yet with his tiny garrison, which
numbered about one man for every 7 yds. of the enclosure,
Clive sustained a siege of 50 days, ending with a really severe
assault on two large open breaches, which was repulsed, and
after which the enemy hastily decamped.
Such feats as this make arguments about successive lines of
defence and the necessity of keeps seem very barren. History,
as far as the writer knows, shows no instances where successive
lines have been held with such brilliant results.
Clive's defence of his breaches, which by all the then accepted
rules of war were untenable, brings us to another point which has
been already mentioned, namely, that a garrison might honour-
ably make terms when there was an open breach in their main
line of defence. This is a question upon which Carnot delivers
himself very strongly in endeavouring to impress upon French
officers the necessity of defence to the last moment. Speaking of
Cormontaingnejs imaginary Journal of the Attack uf a Fortress
(which is carried up to the 35th day, and finishes by the words
" It is now time to surrender "), he says with great scorn:" Crillon
would have cried, ' It is time to begin fighting.' He would have
said as at the siege of Quillebceuf, ' Crillon is within, the enemy
is without.' Thus when Bayard was defending the shattered
walls of Mezieres, M. de Cormontaingne, if he had been there,
would have said, ' It is time to surrender.' Thus when Guise
was repairing the breaches of Metz under the redoubled fire of
the enemy, M. de Cormontaingne, if he had been there, would
have said, ' It is time to surrender.' " Carnot of course allows
that Cormontaingne was personally brave. His scorn is for the
accepted principle, not for the man.
It is interesting to contrast with this passage some remarks
by Sir John Jones, made in answer to Carnot's book. He says
in the notes to the second volume of the Journals
of the Sieges in Spain: " When the breach shall be
pushed properly forward, if the governor insists upon last.
the ceremony of his last retrenchment being stormed,
as by so doing he spills the blood of many brave men without a
justifiable object, his life and the lives of the garrison should be
made the forfeit. A system enforced by terror must be counter-
acted by still greater terror. Humanity towards an enemy in
such a case is cruelty to one's own troops. . . . The principle to
be combated is not the obligation to resist behind the breach
for where there is a good retrenchment the bastion should be
disputed equally with the counter-guard or the ravelin and can
as safely be so but the doctrine that surrender shall not take
place when successful resistance becomes hopeless."
Carnot's word is " fight to the last." Sir John Jones says the
commander has no right to provoke further carnage when
resistance is hopeless. The question of course is, When is resist-
ance hopeless? Sir John Jones's reputation leaves little doubt
that if he had been commanding a fortress on British soil he
would not have thought resistance hopeless as long as there
was anything whatever left to defend. The reason why these
two men of similar temper are found in opposition is quite
simple: When Carnot wrote, the French army occupied most
of the important fortresses of Europe, and it was to the interest
of the emperor that if attacked they should be held to the last
moment, in order to cause the enemy as much delay and loss
as possible. Jones, on the other hand, was one of the engineers
who were engaged in besieging those fortresses, and his argu-
ments were prompted by sympathy for his own countrymen
whose lives were sacrificed by the prolongation of such resistance.
A century has passed since Carnot and Jones wrote, and the
ideas in which they had been educated were those of the pre-
Napoleonic era. In the i8th century fortresses were many, good
roads few, and campaigns for the most part leisurely. To the
European nations of that time, inheritors of a perennial state
of war, the idea of concentrating the national resources on a
short and decisive campaign had not occurred. The " knock-out
blow " had not been invented. All these conditions are now
so changed that new standards must be and indeed have been
set up, both for the defence of places and the general employment
of fortification.
As regards the conduct of the defence, the massacre of a
garrison as a penalty for holding out too long would meet with
no sympathy in the present day. On the other hand, the issue
of modern wars is worked out so rapidly that if a fortress is well
defended, with the advantage of the present weapons, there is
always a chance of holding out till the close of the war. If the
place is worth holding, it should as a rule be held to the bitter
end on the chance of a favourable turn in affairs; moreover,
the maintenance of an important siege under modern conditions
imposes a severe strain on the enemy and immobilizes a large
number of his troops.
In concluding this article some elementary considerations
in connexion with the use of permanent defences may be noticed,
though the general question of strategic fortification
is outside its scope. The objects of fortification differ, ^""
as has been shown, from age to age. In former times fences.
a peaceful people exposed to the raids of piratical
Norsemen might find their refuge tower essential; later, a robber-
baron might look on his castle as so much capital invested;
a wealthy medieval town might prove the value of its walls
more than once in a generation; a country without a standing
army might gain time for preparation by means of fortresses
barring the roads across the frontier. But how does the question
stand to-day among European countries which can mobilize
FORTLAGE FORTROSE
725
their full fighting strength at a few hours' notice? It can only
be answered when the circumstances of a particular country are
examined.
If we assume such an impossible case as that of two nations
of equal fighting strength and equal resources standing ready
The use ' n arms to defend a common frontier, and that the
and abuse theatre of war presents no difficulties on either side,
of fort- then the use of permanent fortifications, merely as
resses. &n a( jj unct to military strength, is wrong. Fortresses
do not decide the issue of a campaign; they can only influence
it. It is better, therefore, to put all the money the fortress would
have cost, and all the man-power that its maintenance implies,
into the increase and equipment of the active army. For the
fate of the fortress must depend utlimately on the result of the
operations of the active armies. Moreover, the very assumption
that resources on both sides are equal means that the nation
which has spent money on permanent fortifications will have
the smaller active army, and therefore condemns itself beforehand
to a defensive role.
This general negation is only useful as a corrective to the
tendency to over-fortify, for such a case cannot occur. In
practice there will always be occasion for some use of fortification.
A mountain range may lend itself to an economical defence
by a few men and some inexpensive barrier forts. A nation may
have close to its frontier an important strategic centre, such as a
railway junction, or a town of the first manufacturing importance,
which must be protected. In such a case it may be necessary
to guard against accidents by means of a fortress. Again, if one
nation is admittedly slower in mobilization than the other,
it may be desirable to guard one portion of the frontier by
fortresses so as to force invasion into a district where concentra-
tion against it is easiest.
As for the defence of a capital, this cannot become necessary
if it stands at a reasonable distance from the frontier until the
active armies have arrived at some result. If the fighting
strength of the country has been practically destroyed, it is not
of much use to stand a siege in the capital. There can be but
one end, and it is better, as business men say, to cut losses.
If the fighting strength is not entirely destroyed and can be
recruited within a reasonable time, say two or three months,
then it appears that under modern conditions the capital might
be held for that time by means of extemporized defences.
The question is one that can only be decided by going into the
circumstances of each particular case.
The case of a weak country with powerful and aggressive
neighbours is in a different category. If she stands alone she
will be eaten up in time, fortifications or no fortifications; but
if she can reckon on assistance from outside, it may be worth
while to expend most of the national resources on permanent
defences.
These hypothetical cases have, however, no value, except as
illustrations to the most elementary arguments. The actual
problems that soldiers and statesmen have to consider are too
complex to be dealt with in generalities, and no mere treatise
can supply the place of knowledge, thought and practice.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The more important works on the subject are:
Diirer, Unterricht zur Befestigung (Nuremberg, 1527); Speckle,
Architects von Festungen (Strassburg, 1589); Fritach, L' Architecture
mil. oulaf. nouvelle (Paris, 1637); Pagan, Les Fortif. (Paris, 1689);
de Ville, Les Fortif. (Lyons, 1629) ; de Fer, Introduction a la fortifica-
tion (Paris, 1723); B. F. de Belidor, Science des Ingenieurs, &c.
(Paris, 1729); works of Coehoorn, Vauban, Montalembert, Cormon-
taingne; Mandar, De I' architecture des forteresses (Paris, 1801);
Chasseloup-Laubat, Essais sur quelques parties de Vartil. el de la
fortification (Milan, 1811); Carnot, Defense des places fortes (Paris,
1812); Jones, Journals of Sieges in Spain (3rd ed., London, 1846);
T. Choumara, Memoire sur la fortification (1847); A. von Zastrow,
Geschichte der bestandigen Befestigung (N.D., Fr. trans.); works of
Sir C. Pasley; Noizet, Principes de fortif. (Paris, 1859); Dufour,
De la fortif . permanente (Paris, 1850); E. Viollet le Due, L' Archi-
tecture militatre au moyen Age (Paris, 1854); Cosseron de Villenoisy,
Essai historique sur la fortification (Paris, 1869) ; works of Brialmont
(q.v.) ; Delambre, La Fortification dans ses rapports avec la tactique
et la strategic (Paris, 1887); v. Sauer, A ngriff und Verteidigung fester
Pldtze (Berlin, 1885); Schroeter, Die Festung in der heutigen Krieg-
fiihrung (Berlin, 1898-1906); Baron E. v. Leithner, Die bestandige
Befestigung und der Festungskrieg (Vienna, 1894-1899); W. Staven-
hagen, Grundriss der Befestigungslehre (Berlin, 1900-1909); Plessix
and Legrand, Manuel complet de fortification (Paris, 1900, new edition
1909); Ritter v. Brunner, Die bestandige Befestigung (Vienna, 1909),
Die Feldbefestigung (Vienna, 1904) ; RoCchi, Traccia per lo studio della
fortificazione permanente (Turin, 1902); Sir G. S. Clarke, Fortification
(1907); V. Deguise, La Fortification permanente contemporaine
(Brussels, 1908) ; Royal Military Academy, Text-book of Fortification,
pt. ii. (London, 1893); British official Instruction in Military
Engineering, pts. i., ii. andiv. (London, 1900-1908). (L. J.)
FORTLAGE, KARL (1806-1881), German philosopher, was
born at Osnabriick. After teaching in Heidelberg and Berlin,
he became professor of philosophy at Jena (1846), a post which he
held till his death. Originally a follower of Hegel, he turned to
Fichte and Beneke (q.v.), with whose insistence on psychology as
the basis of all philosophy he fully agreed. The fundamental idea
of his psychologyisimpulse, which combines representation (which
presupposes consciousness) and feeling (i.e. pleasure). Reason
is the highest thing in nature, i.e. is divine in its nature, God is
the absolute Ego and the empirical egos are his instruments.
Fortlage's chief works are: Genetische Geschichte d. Philos. seit
Kant (Leipzig, 1852); System d. Psych, als empirische Wissenschaft
(2 vols., Leipzig, 1855); Darstellung und Kritik der Beweise fur das
Dasein Gottes (Heidelberg, 1840); Beitrage zur Psych, als Wissen-
schaft (Leipzig, 1875).
FORT LEE, a borough of Bergen county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
in the N.E. part of the state, on the W. bank of the Hudson
river, opposite the northern part of New York City. Pop. (1905)
3433! C'Q 10 ) 4472. It is connected with the neighbouring towns
and cities by electric railways, and by ferry with New York City,
of which it is a residential suburb. The main part of the borough
lies along the summit of the Palisades; north of Fort Lee is an
Interstate Palisades Park. Early in the War of Independence the
Americans erected here a fortification, first called Fort Constitu-
tion but later renamed Fort Lee, in honour of General Charles Lee.
The name of the fort was subsequently applied to the village that
grew up in its vicinity. From the i$th of September until the 2oth
of November 1776 Fort Lee was held by Gen. Nathanael Greene
with a garrison of 3500 men, but the capture by the British of
Fort Washington on the opposite bank of the river and the
crossing of the Hudson by Lord Cornwallis with 5000 men made
it necessary for Greene to abandon this post and join Washington
in 'the famous " retreat across the Jerseys." An attempt to
recapture Fort Lee was made by General Anthony Wayne in
1780, but was unsuccessful. On the site of the fort a monument,
designed by Carl E. Tefft and consisting of heroic figures of a
Continental trooper and drummer boy, was erected in 1908.
The borough of Fort Lee was incorporated in 1904.
FORT MADISON, a city and the county-seat of Lee county,
Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, in the S.E. corner of the
state, and about 20 m. S.W. of Burlington. Pop. (1890) 7901;
(1900) 9278, of whom 1025 were foreign-born; (1905) 8767; (1910)
8900. Fort Madison is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa
Fe (which has repair shops here) and the Chicago, Burlington
& Quincy railways. The city has various manufactures, including
canned goods, chairs, paper and farm implements; the value
of its factory product in 1905 was $2,378,892, an increase of
50-8% over that of 1900. Fort Madison is the seat of one of
Iowa's penitentiaries. A stockade fort was erected on the site
of the city in 1808, but was burned in 1813. Permanently
settled in 1833, Fort Madison was laid out as a town in 1836,
and was chartered as a city in 1839.
FORTROSE (Gaelic/or t'rois, " the wood on the promontory "),
a royal and police burgh, and seaport of the county of Ross
and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1179. It is situated
on the south-eastern coast of the peninsula of the Black Isle,
8 m. due N.N.E. of Inverness, 26j m. by rail. It is the terminus
of the Black Isle branch of the Highland railway; there is com-
munication by steamer with Inverness and also with Fort
George, 2j m. distant, by ferry from Chanonry Ness. Fortrose
consists of the two towns of Rosemarkie and Chanonry, about i
m. apart, which were united into a free burgh by James II. in
1455 and created a royal burgh in 1 590. It is a place of consider-
able antiquity, a monastery having been established in the 6th
century by St Moluag, a friend of Columba's, and St Peter's
726
FORT SCOTT FORTUNATUS
church built in the 8th century. In 1124 David I. instituted
the bishopric of Ross, with its seat here, and the town acquired
some fame for its school of theology and law. The cathedral
is believed to have been founded in 1330 by the countess of Ross
(her canopied tomb, against the chancel wall, still exists) and
finished in 1485 by Abbot Eraser, whose previous residence at
Melrose is said to account for the Perpendicular features of his
portion of the work. It was Early Decorated in style, cruciform
in plan, and built of red sandstone, but all that is left are the
south aisles of the nave and the chancel, with the chapter-house,
a two-storeyed structure, standing apart near the north-eastern
corner. The cathedral and bishop's palace were destroyed by
order of Cromwell, who used the stones for his great fort at
Inverness. Another relic of the past survives in the bell of 1460.
These ruins form the chief object of interest in the town, but
other buildings include the academy and the Black Isle com-
bination poorhouse. The town is an agricultural centre of some
consequence, and the harbour is kept in repair. Rosemarkie,
in the churchyard of which is an ancient Celtic cross, is much
resorted to for sea-bathing, and there is a golf course in Chanonry
Ness. The burgh belongs to the Inverness district group of
parliamentary burghs.
FORT SCOTT, a city and the county-seat of Bourbon county,
Kansas, U.S.A., on the Marmaton river, about 100 m. S. of
Kansas City, Missouri. Pop. (1880) 5372; (1890) 11,946;
(1900) 10,322, of whom 1205 were negroes; (1910 census)
10,463. It is the point of intersection of the Kansas City, Fort
Scott & Memphis (St Louis & San Francisco system), the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri Pacific railways,
and has in consequence a large traffic. The city is built on a
rolling plain. Among its institutions are an Epworth house
(1899), Mercy hospital (1889), the Goodlander home, and a
Carnegie library. Near the city there is a national cemetery.
Fort Scott is in the midst of the Kansas mineral fields, and its
trade in bituminous coal is especially important. Building
stones, cement rock, clays, oil and gas, lead and zinc are also
found in the neighbourhood. An excellent white sulphur water
is procured from artesian wells about 800 ft. deep, and there is
a mineral-water bath house. The city is also a trading centre
for a rich farming region, and is a horse and mule market of
considerable importance. Among its manufactures are mat-
tresses, syrup, bricks, pottery, cement and foundry products.
In 1905 the total value of the city's factory product was
$1,340,026, being an increase of 89% since 1900. The city
owns and operates its waterworks. The fort after which the
city is named was established by the Federal government in 1842,
at a time when the whole of eastern Kansas was still parcelled
out among Indian tribes; it was abandoned in 1855. The
town was platted in 1857, and Fort Scott was chartered as a
city in 1860.
FORT SMITH, a city and the county-seat of Sebastian county,
on the extreme W. border of Arkansas, U.S.A., lying about
440 ft. above sea-level, on the S. bank of the Arkansas river,
at its junction with the Poteau, and at the point where the
Arkansas breaks through the Boston mountains. Pop. (1890)
11,311; (1900) 11,587, of whom 2407 were of negro descent and
684 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 23,975. Transporta-
tion is afforded by the river and by six railways, the St Louis &
San Francisco, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, the
Arkansas Central, the Fort Smith & Western, the Midland Valley
and the Kansas City Southern. A belt line round the business
centre of the city facilitates freight transfers. Some of the
business streets are unusually broad, and the streets in the
residential district are well shaded. Fort Smith is the business
centre of a fine agricultural country and of the Arkansas coal
and natural gas region. It has extensive wholesale jobbing
interests and a large miscellaneous trade, partly in its own
manufactures, among which are cotton and timber products,
chairs, mattresses and other furniture, wagons, brooms and
bricks. In 1905 the total value of the factory product was
J 2 7329,4S4, an increase of 66-2% since 1900. The public
schools have a rich endowment: the proceeds of lands (about
200 acres) once belonging to the local military reservation,
which except the part occupied by a national cemetery was
given by Congress to the city in 1884. Near the centre of the
city are a Catholic academy, convent and infirmary; and there
is a Carnegie library. A United States army post was established
here in 1817; the town was laid out in 1821; and the county
was created in 1851. Fort Smith was incorporated as a town in
1842, and was chartered as a city in 1845. All transportation
was by river and wagon until 1876, when the railway was
completed from Little Rock. The military post, in earlier years
the chief depot for the western forts, was abandoned in 1871.
During the Civil War Fort Smith was strongly in sympathy with
the Confederacy. The fort was seized by state troops in April
1 86 1, and was reoccupied by the Union forces in September
1863. There was considerable unrest due to border " bush-
whacking " throughout the war, and several skirmishes took
place here in 1864. The area of the city was more than doubled
in 1905.
FORTUNA (FORTUNE), an Italian goddess of great antiquity,
but apparently not native at Rome, where, according to universal
Roman tradition, she was introduced by the king Servius Tullius
as Fors Fortuna, and established in a temple on the Etruscan
side of the Tiber outside the city, and also under other titles in
other shrines. In Latium she had two famous places of worship,
one at Praeneste, where there was an oracle of Fortuna primigenia
(the first-born), frequented especially by women who, as we may
suppose, desired to know the fortunes of their children or their
own fortune in child-birth; the other at Antium, well known
from Horace's ode (i. 35). It is highly probable that Fortuna
was never a deity of the abstract idea of chance, but represented
the hopes and fears of men and especially of women at different
stages of their life and experience; thus we find her worshipped
as time went on under numerous cult-titles, such as muliebris,
virilis, hujusce did, equestris, redux, &c., which connected her
supposed powers with individuals, groups of individuals, or
particular occasions. Gradually she became more or less closely
identified with the Gr. Tux'?, and was represented on coins, &c.,
with a cornucopia as the giver of prosperity, a rudder as the
controller of destinies, and with a wheel, or standing on a ball,
to indicate the uncertainty of fortune. In this semi-Greek form
she came to be worshipped over the whole empire, and Pliny
(N.H. ii. 22) declares that in his day she was invoked in all
places and every hour. She even became identified with Isis,
and as Panthea was supposed to combine the attributes of all
other deities.
The best account of this difficult subject is to be found in Roschcr's
Mythological Lexicon (s.v.) ; see also Wissowa, Religion und Kultus
der Romer, p. 206 foil. (W. W. F.*)
FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS, Latin grammarian, flourished
in the 4th century A.D. He was the author of a treatise on
metres, dedicated to one of his pupils, a youth of senatorial rank,
who desired to be instructed in the Horatian metres. The
manual opens with a discussion of the fundamental ideas of
metre and the chief rules of prosody, and ends with a detailed
analysis of the metres of Horace. The chief authorities used
are Caesius Bassus and the Latin adaptation by Juba the
grammarian of the Tx>^? of Heliodorus. Fortunatianus being a
common name in the African provinces, it is probable that the
author was a countryman of Juba, Terentianus Maurus and
Victorinus.
Editions of the Ars in H. Kc\\,Grammatici Latini, vi., and separately
by him (1885).
FORTUNATUS, the legendary hero of a popular European
chap-book. He was a native, says the story, of Famagusta in
Cyprus, and meeting the goddess of Fortune in a forest received
from her a purse which was continually replenished as often as
he drew from it. With this he wandered through many lands,
and at Cairo was the guest of the sultan. Among the treasures
which the sultan showed him was an old napless hat which had
the power of transporting its wearer to any place he desired.
Of this hat he feloniously possessed himself, and returned to
Cyprus, where he led a luxurious life. On his death he left the
FORTUNATUS FORT WAYNE
727
purse and the hat to his sons Ampedo and Andelosia; but they
were jealous of each other, and by their recklessness and folly
soon fell on evil days. The moral of the story is obvious: men
should desire reason and wisdom before all the treasures of the
world. In its full form the history of Fortunatus occupies in
Karl Simrock's Die deutschen Volksbiicher, vol. iii., upwards of
158 pages. The scene is continually shifted from Cyprus to
Flanders, from Flanders to London, from London to France;
and a large number of secondary characters appear. The style
and allusions indicate a comparatively modern date for the
authorship; but the nucleus of the legend can be traced back
to a much earlier period. The stories of Jonathas and the three
jewels in the Gesta Romanorum, of the emperor Frederick and
the three precious stones in the Cento Novelle antiche, of the
Mazin of Khorassan in the Thousand and one Nights, and the
flying scaffold in the Bahar Danush, have all a certain similarity.
The earliest known edition of the German text of Fortunatus
appeared at Augsburg in 1509, and the modern German in-
vestigators are disposed to regard this as the original form.
Innumerable versions occur in French, Italian, Dutch and
English. The story was dramatized by Hans Sachs in 1553,
and by Thomas Dekker in 1600; and the latter's comedy
appeared in a German translation in Englische Komodien und
Tragodien, 1620. Ludwig Tieck has utilized the legend in his
Phantasus, and Adefbert von Chamisso in his Peter Schlemihl;
and Ludwig Uhland left an unfinished narrative poem entitled
" Fortunatus and his Sons."
See Dr Fr. W. V. Schmidt's Fortunatus und seine Sohne, eine
Zauber-Tragodie, von Thomas Decker, mil einem Anhang, &c. (Berlin,
1819) ; Joseph Johann Gorres, Die deutschen Volksbiicher (1807).
FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEM ENTI ANUS
(530-609), bishop of Poitiers, and the chief Latin poet of his time,
was born near Ceneda in Treviso in 530. He studied at Milan
and Ravenna, with the special object of excelling as a rhetorician
and poet, and in 565 he journeyed to France, where he was
received with much favour at the court of Sigbert, king of
Austrasia, whose marriage with Brunhild he celebrated in an
epithalamium. After remaining a year or two at the court of
Sigbert he travelled in various parts of France, visiting persons
of distinction, and composing short pieces of poetry on any
subject that occurred to him. At Poitiers he visited Queen
Radegunda, who lived there in retirement, and she induced him
to prolong his stay in the city indefinitely. Here he also enjoyed
the friendship of the famous Gregory of Tours and other eminent
ecclesiastics. He was elected bishop of Poitiers in 599, and
died about 609. The later poems of Fortunatus were collected
in 1 1 books, and consist of hymns (including the Vexilla regis
prodeunt, Englished by J. M. Neale as " The royal banners
forward go "), epitaphs, poetical epistles, and verses in honour
of his patroness Radegunda and her sister Agnes, the abbess of
a nunnery at Poitiers. He also wrote a large poem in 4 books
in honour of St Martin, and several lives of the saints in prose.
His prose is stiff and mechanical, but most of his* poetry has an
easy rhythmical flow.
An edition of the works of Fortunatus was published by C. Brower
at Fulda in 1603 (2nd ed., Mainz, 1617). The edition of M. A.
Luschi (Rome, 1785) was afterwards reprinted in Migne's Patrologiae
cursus completus, vol. Ixxxviii. See the edition by Leo and Krusch
(Berlin, 1881-1885). There are French lives by Nisard (1880) and
Leroux (1885).
FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-1880), Scottish botanist and
traveller, was born at Kelloe in Berwickshire on the i6th of
September 1813. He was employed in the botanical garden at
Edinburgh, and afterwards in the Royal Horticultural Society's
garden at Chiswick, and upon the termination of the Chinese
War in 1842 was sent out by the Society to collect plants in
China. His travels resulted in the introduction to Europe of
many beautiful flowers; but another journey, undertaken in
1848 on behalf of the East India Company, had much more
important consequences, occasioning the successful introduction
into India of the tea-plant. In subsequent journeys he visited
Formosa and Japan, described the culture of the silkworm and
the manufacture of rice paper, and introduced many trees,
shrubs and flowers now generally cultivated in Europe. The
incidents of his travels were related in a succession of interesting
books. He died in London on the i3th of April 1880.
FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO (1838-
1874), Spanish painter, was born at Reus on the nth of June
1838. His parents, who were in poor circumstances, sent him
for education to the primary school of his native town, where he
received some instruction in the rudiments of art. When he was
twelve years old his parents died and he came under the care of
his grandfather, who, though a joiner by trade, had made a
collection of wax figures, with which he was travelling from
town to town. In the working of this show the boy took an active
part, modelling and painting many of the figures; and two years
later, when he reached Barcelona, the cleverness of his handiwork
made so much impression on some people in authority there that
they induced the municipality to make him an allowance of
forty-two francs monthly, so that he might be enabled to go
through a systematic course of study. He entered the Academy
of Barcelona and worked there for four years under Claudio
Lorenzale, and in March 1857 he gained a scholarship that
entitled him to complete his studies in Rome. Then followed
a period of more than two years, during which he laboured
steadily at copies of the old pictures to which he had access at
Rome. To this period an end was put by the outbreak of the
war between Spain and the emperor of Morocco, as Fortuny
was sent by the authorities of Barcelona to paint the most
striking incidents of the campaign. The expedition lasted for
about six months only, but it made upon him an impression that
was powerful enough to affect the whole course of his subsequent
development, and to implant permanently in his mind a pre-
ference for the glitter and brilliancy of African colour. He re-
turned to Spain in the summer of 1860, and was commissioned
by the city of Barcelona to paint a large picture of the capture
of the camps of Muley-el-Abbas and Muley-el-Hamed by the
Spanish army. After making a large number of studies he went
back to Rome, and began the composition on a canvas fifteen
metres long; but though it occupied much of his time during
the next few years, he never finished it. He busied himself
instead with a wonderful series of pictures, mostly of no great
size, in which he showed an astonishing command over vivacities
of technique and modulations of colour. He visited Paris in
1868 and shortly afterwards married the daughter of Federico
Madrazo, the director of the royal museum at Madrid. Another
visit to Paris in 1870 was followed by a two years' stay at Granada,
but then he returned to Rome, where he died somewhat suddenly
on the 2ist of November 1874 from an attack of malarial fever,
contracted while painting in the open air at Naples and Portici in
the summer of 1874.
The work which Fortuny accomplished during his short life
is distinguished by a superlative facility of execution and a
marvellous cleverness in the arrangement of brilliant hues, bul
the qualities of his art are those that arc attainable by a master
of technical resource rather than by a deep thinker. His insight
into subtleties of illumination was extraordinary, his dexterity
was remarkable in the extreme, and as a colourist he was vivacious
to the point of extravagance. At the same time in such pictures
as " La Vicaria " and " Choosing a Model," and in some of his
Moorish subjects, like " The Snake Charmers " and " Moors
playing with a Vulture," he showed himself to be endowed with
a sensitive appreciation of shades of character and a thorough
understanding of the peculiarities of a national type. His love
of detail was instinctive, and he chose motives that gave him the
fullest opportunity of displaying his readiness as a craftsman.
See Davillier, Fortuny, sa vie, son eeuvre, sa correspondance, &c.
(Paris, 1876); C. Yriarte, Fortuny (Artistes celebres series) (Paris,
1889). (A. L. B.)
FORT WAYNE, a city and the county-seat of Allen county,
Indiana, U.S.A., 102 m. N.E. of Indianapolis, at the point where
the St Joseph and St Mary's rivers join to form the Maumee
river. Pop. (1880) 26,880; (1890) 35,393; (1900) 45, 115, of
whom 6791 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 63,933. It is
served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Fort Wayne,
728
FORT WILLIAM FORT WORTH
Cincinnati & Louisville, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the Lake
Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago & St Louis,
the Pennsylvania and the Wabash railways, and also by inter-
urban electric lines. The site of the city is high (about 770 ft.
above sea-level) and level, and its land area was in 1906 a little
more than 6 sq. m. The streets are laid out on a rectangular
plan and bordered by a profusion of shade trees. The city has
several parks, including Lawton Park (31 acres), in which there
is a monument in honour of Major-General Henry Ware Lawton
(1843-1899), who lived in Fort Wayne for a time, Lake Side
Park (22 acres), Reservoir Park (13 acres), Piqua Park (i acre),
and Old Fort Park (i acre), which is on the site of Old Fort
Wayne. The educational institutions include the German
Concordia Collegium (Lutheran), founded in 1839, and having
220 students in 1908, and the state school for feeble-minded
youth (1879). The city has a Carnegie library. Fort Wayne
is one of the most important railway centres in the Middle West,
and several railways maintain here their principal car and repair
shops, which add greatly to the value of its manufacturing
industries; in 1905 it ranked first among the cities of the state
in the value of cars constructed and repaired by steam-railway
companies. The other manufactories include foundries and
machine shops, iron and steel mills, knitting mills, planing mills,
sash and door, car-wheel, electrical machinery, and woodenware
factories and flour mills. In 1905 the total value of the factory
product of the city was $15,129,562, showing an increase of
34-3% since 1900.
The Miami Indians had several villages in the immediate neigh-
bourhood, and the principal one, Kekionaga (Miami Town or
Great Miami Village), was situated on the E. bank of the St
Joseph river, within the limits of the present city. On the E. bank
of the St Mary's a French trading post was built about 1680. In
1749-1750 the French fort (Fort Miami) was moved to the E.
bank of the St Joseph. The English occupied the fort in 1 760 and
Pontiac captured it in May 1763, after a siege of more than three
months. In 1790 the Miami villages were destroyed. In Septem-
ber 1794 General Anthony Wayne built on the S. bank of the
Maumee river the stockade fort which was named in his honour,
the site of which forms the present Old Fort Park. By the treaty
of Greenville, concluded by General Wayne on the 3rd of August
1795, a piece of land 6 sq. m. in area, including the tract of the
Miami towns, was ceded to the United States, and free passage
to Fort Wayne and down the Maumee to Lake Erie was
guaranteed to the people of the United States by the Indians.
By the treaty of Fort Wayne, concluded by General W. H.
Harrison on the 7th of June 1803, the tract about Vincennes
reserved to the United States by the treaty of Greenville was
described and defined; by the second treaty of Fort Wayne,
concluded by Harrison on the 3oth of September 1809, the
Indians sold to the United States about 2,900,000 acres of land,
mostly S.E. of the Wabash river. In September 1813 Fort
Wayne was besieged by Indians, who withdrew on the arrival,
on the 1 2th of September, of General Harrison with about 2700
men from Kentucky and Ohio. The fort was abandoned on the
i gth of April 1819 and no trace of it remains. The first per-
manent settlement here was made in 1815, and the village was
an important fur-trading depdt until 1830. The opening of the
Wabash & Erie canal in 1843 stimulated its growth. A town was
platted and was made the county-seat in 1824; and in 1840
Fort Wayne was chartered as a city.
See W. A. Brice, History of Fort Wayne (Ft. Wayne, 1868); John
B. Dillon, History of Indiana, from its Earliest Exploration by
Europeans to the Close of the Territorial Government in 1816 (Indiana-
polis, Ind., 1859); and Charles E. Slocum, History of the Maumee
River Basin, from the Earliest Accounts to its Organization into
Counties (Defiance, Ohio, 1905).
FORT WILLIAM, the principal town of Thunder Bay district,
Ontario, Canada, 426 m. (by rail) E.S.E. of Winnipeg, on the
Kaministiquia river, about a mile from Lake Superior. It
is the lake terminus of the Canadian Pacific railway, of the new
Grand Trunk Pacific railway, and of several steamship lines.
Port Arthur, the terminus of the Canadian Northern railway,
lies 4 m. to the N.E. Fort William contains numerous grain
elevators, railway repair shops and docks, and has a large export
trade in grain and other farm produce. Minerals are also
exported from the mining district, of which it is the centre.
Industries, such as saw, planing and flour mills, have also
sprung up. The population was 4800 in 1901, but has since
increased with great rapidity.
FORT WILLIAM, a police burgh of Inverness-shire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 2087. It lies at the north-eastern end of Loch Linnhe,
an arm of the sea, about 62 m. S.S.W. of Inverness by road or
canal, and was, in bygone days, one of the keys of the Highlands.
It is 1225 m. N.E. of Glasgow by the West Highland railway.
The fort, at first called Kilmallie, was built by General Monk in
1655 to hold the Cameron men in subjection, and was enlarged
in 1690 by General Hugh Mackay, who renamed it after William
III., the burgh then being known as Maryburgh in honour of
his queen. Here the perpetrators of the massacre of Glencoe
met to share their plunder. The Jacobites unsuccessfully
besieged it in 1715 and 1746. The fort was dismantled in 1860,
and demolished in 1890 to provide room for the railway and the
station. Amongst the public buildings are the Belford hospital,
public hall, court house and the low-level meteorological
observatory, constructed in 1891, which was in connexion with
the observatory on the top of Ben Nevis, until the latter was
closed in 1904. Its great industry is distilling, and the dis-
tilleries, about 2 m. N.E., are a familiar feature in the landscape.
Beyond the railway station stands the obelisk to the memory
of Ewen Maclachlan (1775-1822), the Gaelic poet, who was born
in the parish. Fort William is a popular tourist resort and place
of call for the steamers passing through the Caledonian canal.
The town is the point from which the ascent of Ben Nevis 45 m.
E.S.E. as the crow flies is commonly made. At Corpach,
about 2 m. N., the Caledonian canal begins, the series of locks
between here and Banavie within little more than a mile
being known as " Neptune's Staircase." Both the Lochy and
the Nevis enter Loch Linnhe immediately to the north of Fort
William. A mile and a half from the town, on the Lochy, stands
the grand old ruin of Inverlochy Castle, a massive quadrangular
pile with a round tower at each corner, a favourite subject with
landscape painters. Close by is the scene of the battle of the
2nd of February 1645, in which Montrose completely defeated
the earl of Argyll. The modern castle, in the Scottish Baronial
style, ij m. to the N.E. of this stronghold and farther from the
river, is the seat of Lord Abinger.
FORT WORTH, a city and the county-seat of Tarrant county,
Texas, U.S.A., about 30 m. W. of Dallas, on the S. bank of the
West Fork of the Trinity river. Pop. (1880) 6663; (1890)
2 3>76; (1900) 26,688, of whom 1793 were foreign-born and
4249 were negroes; (1910, census) 73,312. It is served by the
Chicago, Rock Island & Gulf, the Fort Worth & Denver City,
the Fort Worth & Rio Grande, and the St Louis, San Francisco
& Texas of the " Frisco " system, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa
Fe, the Houston & Texas Central, the International & Great
Northern, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St Louis South-
western, the Texas & Pacific, and the Trinity & Brazos Valley
(Colorado & Southern) railways. Fort Worth is beautifully
situated on a level space above the river. It is the seat of Fort
Worth University (coeducational), a Methodist Episcopal in-
stitution, which was established as the Texas Wesleyan College
in 1881, received its present name in 1889, comprises an academy,
a college of liberal arts and sciences, a conservatory of music, a
law school, a medical school, a school of commerce, and a depart-
ment of oratory and elocution, and in 1907 had 802 students;
the Polytechnic College (coeducational; Methodist Episcopal,
South), which was established in 1890, has preparatory, collegiate,
normal, commercial, and fine arts departments and a summer
school, and in 1906 had 12 instructors and (altogether) 696
students; the Texas masonic manual training school; a kinder-
garten training school; St Andrews school (Protestant
Episcopal), and St Ignatius Academy (Roman Catholic). There
are several good business, municipal and county buildings, and
a Carnegie library. On the 3rd of April 1909 a fire destroyed
ten blocks in the centre of the city. Fort Worth lies in the
FORTY FOSBROKE
729
midst of a stock-raising and fertile agricultural region; there
is an important stockyard and packing establishment just
outside the city; and considerable quantities of cotton are
raised in the vicinity. Among the products are packed meats,
flour, beer, trunks, crackers, candy, paint, ice, paste, cigars,
clothing, shoes, mattresses, woven wire beds, furniture and
overalls; and there are foundries, iron rolling mills and tan-
neries. In 1905 the total value of the city's factory product
was $5,668,391, an increase of 62-5% since 1900; Fort
Worth in 1900 ranked fifth among the cities of the state in the
value of its factory product; in 1905 it ranked fourth. Fort
Worth's numerous railways have given it great importance
as a commercial centre. The municipal!!)' owns and operates
the waterworks and the electric-lighting plant.
A military post was established here in 1849, being called
first Camp Worth and then Fort Worth. It was abandoned in
1853. A settlement grew up about the fort, and the city was
incorporated in 1873. The fort and the settlement were named
in honour of General William Jenkins Worth (1794-1849), a
native of Hudson, New York, who served in the War of 1812,
commanded the United States forces against the Seminole
Indians in 1841-1842, served under both General Taylor and
General Scott in the Mexican War, distinguishing himself at
Monterey (where he earned the brevet of major-general) and in
other engagements, and later commanded the department of
Texas. In 1907 Fort Worth adopted a commission form of
government.
FORTY, the cardinal number equal to four tens. The word
is derived from the O. Eng. fedwertig, a combination of fedwer,
four, and tig, an old form of " ten," used as a suffix, cf. Icel.
tiu, Dan. ti, ten, and Ger. vierzig, forty. The name " The Forty "
has been given to various bodies composed of that number of
members, particularly to a judicial body in ancient Athens,
who tried small cases in the rural districts, and to a court of
criminal jurisdiction and two civil appeal courts in the Venetian
republic. The French Academy (see ACADEMIES) has also been
known as " The Forty " or " The Forty Immortals." The
period just before the repeal of the corn laws in the United
Kingdom is frequently alluded to. particularly by the free trade
school, as the "hungry forties"; and the "roaring forties"
is a sailor's name for the stormy region between the 4oth and
5oth latitudes N. and S., but more particularly applied to the
portion of the north Atlantic lying between those latitudes.
FORUM (Lat. from foris, " out of doors "), in Roman
antiquity, any open place used, like the Greek ayopa, for the
transaction of mercantile, judicial or political business, some-
times merely as a promenade. It was level, rectangular in form,
surrounded by porticoes, basilicas, courts of law and other
public buildings. In the laws of the Twelve Tables the word is
used of the vestibule of a tomb (Cicero, De legibus, ii. 24); in
a Roman camp the forum was an open place immediately beside
the praetorium; and the term was no doubt originally applied
generally to the space in front of any public building or gateway.
In Rome (q.v.) itself, however, during the period of the early
history, forum was almost a proper name, denoting the flat and
formerly marshy space between the Palatine and Capitoline hills
(also called Forum Romanum), which probably even during the
regal period afforded the accommodation necessary for such
public meetings as could not be held within the area Capitolina.
In early times the Forum Romanum was used for athletic games,
and over the porticoes were galleries for spectators; there were
also shops of various kinds. But with the growth of the city
and the increase of provincial business, more than one forum
became necessary, and under the empire a considerable number
of civilia (judicial) and venalia (mercantile) fora came into
existence. In addition to the Forum Romanum, the Fora of
Caesar and Augustus belonged to the former class; the Forum
boarium (cattle), holitorium (vegetable), piscarium (fish),
pistorium (bread), mnarium (wine), to the latter. The Fora of
Nerva (also called tramilorium or peniium, because a main road
led through it to the Forum Romanum), Trajan, and Vespasian,
although 'partly intended to facilitate the course of public
business, were chiefly erected to embellish the city. The con-
struction of separate markets was not, however, necessarily the
rule in the provincial fora; thus, in Pompeii, at the north-east end
of the forum, there was a macellum (market), and shops for
provisions and possibly money changers, and on the east side a
building supposed to have been the clothworkers' exchange,
and at Timgad in North Africa (a military colony founded under
Trajan) the whole of the south side of the forum was occupied by
shops. The forum was usually paved, and although on festal
occasions chariots were probably driven through, it was not a
thoroughfare and was enclosed by gates at the entrances, of
which traces have been found at Pompeii. When the sites for
new towns were being selected, that for the forum was in the
centre, and the two main streets crossed one another close to
but not through it. At Timgad the main streets are some 5 or
6 ft. lower than the forum. The -word forum frequently appears
in the names of Roman market towns; as, for example, in
Forum Appii, Forum Julii (Frejus), Forum Livii (Forli), Forum
Sempronii (Fossombrone). These fora were distinguished from
mere vici by the possession of a municipal organization, which,
however, was less complete than that of a prefecture. In legal
phraseology, which distinguishes the forum commune from the
forum privilegiatum, and the forum generate from the forum
spedale, the word is practically equivalent to " court " or
" jurisdiction."
For the fora at Rome, see ROME: Archaeology, and works quoted.
FORUM APPII, an ancient post station on the Via Appia,
43 m. S.E. of Rome, founded, no doubt, by the original con-
structor of the road. Horace mentions it as the usual halt at
the end of the first day's journey from Rome, and describes it
as full of boatmen and cheating innkeepers. The presence of
the former was due to the fact that it was the starting-point of
a canal which ran parallel to the road through the Pomptine
Marshes, and was used instead of it at the time of Strabo and
Horace (see APPIA, VIA). It is mentioned also as a halting place
in the account of Paul's journey to Rome (Acts xxviii. 15).
Under Nerva and Trajan the road was repaired ; one inscription
records expressly the paving with silex (replacing the former
gravelling) of the section from Tripontium, 4 m. N.W., to Forum
Appii; the bridge near Tripontium was similarly repaired, and
that at Forum Appii, though it bears no inscription, is of the
same style. Only scanty relics of antiquity have been found
here; a post station was placed here by Pius VI. when the Via
Appia was reconstructed. (T. As.)
FORUM CLODII, a post station on the Via Clodia, about
23 m. N.W. of Rome (not 32 m. as in the Anlonine Itinerary),
situated above the western bank of the Lacus Sabatinus (mod.
Lake of Braccia.no), and connected with the Via Cassia at
Vacanae by a branch road which ran round the N. side of the
lake (Ann. Inst., 1859, 43). The site is marked by the church of
SS. Marcus, Marcianus and Liberatus, which was founded in the
8th or 9th century A.D. Inscriptions mentioning the Foro-
Clodienses have come to light on the spot; and an inscription
of the Augustan period, which probably stood over the door of a
villa, calls the place Pausilypon a name justified by the beauty
of the site.
See Notizie degli scavi (1889), 5; D. Vaglieri, ibid. (1895), 342.
FORUM TRAIANI (mod. Fordongianus), an ancient town of
Sardinia, on the river Thyrsus (Tirso), and a station on the
Roman road through the centre of the island from Carales to
Olbia and Turris Libisonis. Many of its ruins have been
destroyed since 1860. The best preserved are the baths, erected
over hot mineral springs. The tanks for collecting the water
and the large central piscina are noteworthy. The bridge over
the Tirso has been to some extent modernized. On the opposite
bank are the scanty remains of an amphitheatre. Not far off
is a group of nuraghi, of which that of St Barbara in the commune
of Villanova Truschedda is one of the finest.
See Taramelli in Notizie degli scavi (1903), 469.
FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY (1770-1842), English anti-
quary, was born in London on the 27th of May 1770. He was
educated at St Paul's school and Pembroke College, Oxford,
73
FOSCARI FOSCOLO
graduating M.A. in 1792. In that year he was ordained and
became curate of Horsley, Gloucestershire, where he remained
till 1810. He then removed to Walford in Herefordshire, and
remained there the rest of his life, as curate till 1830, and after-
wards as vicar. His first important work, British Monachism
(2 vols., 1802), was a compilation, from manuscripts in the
British Museum and Bodleian libraries, of facts relating to
English monastic life. In 1799 Fosbroke had been elected
fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. The work for which he
is best remembered, the Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, appeared
in 1824. A sequel to this, Foreign Topography, was published
in 1828. Fosbroke published many other volumes. He died
at Walford on the ist of January 1842.
FOSCARI, FRANCESCO (1373-1457), doge of Venice, belonged
to a noble Venetian family, and held many of the highest offices
of the republic ambassador, president of the Forty, member
of the Council of Ten, inquisitor, procurator of St Mark, awo-
gadore di comun, &c. His first wife was Maria Priuli and his
second Maria Nani; of his many children all save one son
(Jacopo) died young. But although a capable administrator
he was ambitious and adventurous, and the reigning doge
Tommaso Mocenigo, when speaking on his deathbed of the
various candidates for the succession, warned the council against
electing Foscari, who, he said, would perpetually plunge the
republic into disastrous and costly wars. Nevertheless Foscari
was elected (1423) and reigned for thirty-four years. In pro-
claiming the new doge the customary formula which recognized
the people's share in the appointment and asked for their
approval the last vestige of popular government was finally
dropped.
Foscari's reign bore out Mocenigo's warning and was full of
wars on the terra ferma, and through the doge's influence Venice
joined the Florentines in their campaign against Milan, which was
carried on with varying success for eight years. In 1430 an
attempt was made on Foscari's life by a noble to whom he had
refused an appointment; and three years later a conspiracy of
young bloods to secure the various offices for themselves by
illicit intrigues was discovered. These events, as well as the
long and expensive wars and the unsatisfactory state of Venetian
finances, induced Foscari to ask permission to abdicate, which
was, however, refused. In 1444 began that long domestic tragedy
by which the name of Foscari has become famous. The doge's
son Jacopo, a cultivated and intelligent but frivolous and
irresponsible youth, was in that year accused of the serious
crime of having accepted presents from various citizens and
foreign princes who either desired government appointments or
wished to influence the policy of the republic. Jacopo escaped,
but was tried in contumacy before the Council of Ten and
condemned to be exiled to Napoli di Romania (Nauplia) and
to have his property confiscated. But the execution of the
sentence was delayed, as he was lying ill at Trieste, and eventually
the penalty was commuted to banishment at Treviso (1446).
Four years later Ermolao Donate, a distinguished official who
had been a member of the Ten at the time of the trial, was
assassinated and Jacopo Foscari was suspected of complicity
in the deed. After a long inquiry he was brought to trial for
the second time, and although all the evidence clearly pointed
to his guilt the judges could not obtain a confession from the
accused, and so merely banished him to Candia tor the rest of his
life, with a pension of two hundred ducats a year. In 1456 the
council received information from the rector (governor) of Candia
to the effect that Jacopo Foscari had been in treasonable corre-
spondence with the duke of Milan and the sultan of Turkey.
He was summoned to Venice, tried and condemned to a year's
imprisonment, to be followed by a return to his place of exile.
His aged father was allowed to see him while in prison, and to
Jacopo's entreaties that he should obtain a full pardon for him,
he replied advising him to bear his punishment without protest.
When the year was up Jacopo returned to Candia, where he died
in January 1457. The doge was overwhelmed with grief at this
bereavement and became quite incapable of attending to busi-
ness. Consequently the council decided to ask him to abdicate;
at first he refused, but was finally obliged to conform to their
wishes and retired on a yearly pension of 1500 ducats. Within
a week Pasquale Malipiero was elected in his place and two days
later (ist of November 1457) Francesco Foscari was dead.
The story is a very sad and pathetic one, but legend has added
many picturesque though quite apocryphal details, most of them
tending to show the iniquity and harshness of Jacopo's judges and
accusers, whereas, as we have shown, he was treated with exceptional
leniency. The most accurate account is contained in S. Romanic's
Storia documentata di Venezia, lib. x. cap. iv. vii. and x. (Venice,
1855); where the original authorities are quoted; see also Berlan,
/ due Foscari (Turin, 1852). Among the poetical works on the
subject Byron's tragedy is the most famous (1821), and Roger's
poem Italy (1821); Giuseppe Verdi composed an opera on the
subject entitled / due Foscari. (L. V.*)
FOSCOLO, UGO (1778-1827), Italian writer, was born at
Zante in the Ionian Isles on the 26th of January 1778. On the
death of his father, a physician at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, the
family removed to Venice, and in the University of Padua
Foscolo prosecuted the studies begun in the Dalmatian grammar
school. The fact that amongst his Paduan masters was the abbe
Cesarotti, whose version of Ossian had made that work highly
popular in Italy, was not without influence on Foscolo's literary
tastes, and his early knowledge of modern facilitated his studies
in ancient Greek. His literary ambition revealed itself by the
appearance in 1797 of his tragedy Tieste a production which
obtained a certain degree of success. Foscolo, who, from
causes not clearly explained, had changed his Christian name
Niccolo to that of Ugo, now began to take an active part in the
stormy political discussions which the fall of the republic of
Venice had provoked. He was a prominent member of the
national committees, and addressed an ode to Napoleon the
liberator, expecting from the military successes of the French
general, not merely the overthrow of the effete Venetian oligarchy,
but the establishment of a free republican government.
The treaty of Campo Formic (i7th Oct. 1797), by which
Napoleon handed Venice over to the Austrians, gave a rude
shock to Foscolo, but did not quite destroy his hopes. The state
of mind produced by that shock is reflected in the Letters of
Jacopo Ortis (1798), a species of political Werlher, for the hero
of Foscolo embodies the mental sufferings and suicide of an
undeceived Italian patriot just as the hero of Goethe places before
us the too delicate sensitiveness embittering and at last cutting
short the life of a private German scholar. The story of Foscolo,
like that of Goethe, had a groundwork of melancholy fact.
Jacopo Ortis had been a real personage; he was a young student
of Padua, and committed suicide there under circumstances
akin to those described by Foscolo. At this period Foscolo's
mind appears to have been only too familiar with the thought
of suicide. Cato and the many classical examples of self-destruc-
tion scattered through the pages of Plutarch appealed to the
imaginations of young Italian patriots as they had done in France
to those of the heroes and heroines of the Gironde. In the case
of Foscolo, as in that of Goethe, the effect produced on the
writer's mind by the composition of the work seems to have been
beneficial. He had seen the ideal of a great national future
rudely shattered; but he did not despair of his country, and
sought relief in now turning to gaze on the ideal of a great national
poet. At Milan, whither he repaired after the fall of Venice, he
was engaged in other literary pursuits besides the composition
of Ortis. The friendship formed there with the great poet Parini
was ever afterwards remembered with pride and gratitude.
The friendship formed with another celebrated Milanese poet soon
gave place to a feeling of bitter enmity. Still hoping that his
country would be freed by Napoleon, he served as a volunteer
in the French army, took part in the battle of the Trebbia and
the siege of Genoa, was wounded and made prisoner. When
released he returned to Milan, and there gave the last touches
to his Ortis, published a translation of and commentary upon
Callimachus, commenced a version of the Iliad, and began his
translation of Sterne's Sentimental Journey. The result of a
memorandum prepared for Lyons, where, along with other
Italian delegates, he was to have laid before Napoleon the state
of Italy, only proved that the views cherished by him for his
FOSS FOSSOMBRONE
country were too bold to be even submitted to the dictator of
France. The year 1807 witnessed the appearance of his Carme
sui sepolcri, of which the entire Spirit and language may be
described as a sublime effort to seek refuge in the past from the
misery of the present and the darkness of the future. The
mighty dead are summoned from their tombs, as ages before
they had been in the masterpieces of Greek oratory, to fight
again the battles of their country. The inaugural lecture on
the origin and duty of literature, delivered by Foscolo in January
1809 when appointed to the chair of Italian eloquence at Pavia,
was conceived in the same spirit. In this lecture Foscolo urged
his young countrymen to study letters, not in obedience to
academic traditions, but in their relation to individual and
national life and growth. The sensation produced by this
lecture had no slight share in provoking the decree of Napoleon
by which the chair of national eloquence was abolished in all the
Italian universities. Soon afterwards Foscolo's tragedy of Ajax
was represented but with little success at Milan, and its supposed
allusions to Napoleon rendering the author an object of suspicion,
he was forced to remove from Milan to Tuscany. The chief
fruits of his stay in Florence are the tragedy of Ricciarda, the
Ode to the Graces, left unfinished, and the completion of his
version of the Sentimental Journey (1813). His version of Sterne
is an important feature in his personal history. When serving
with the French he had been at the Boulogne camp, and had
traversed much of the ground gone over by Yorick; and in his
memoir of Didimo Cherico, to whom the version is ascribed,
he throws much curious light on his own character. He returned
to Milan in 1813, until the entry of the Austrians; thence he
passed into Switzerland, where he wrote a fierce satire in Latin
on his political and literary opponents; and finally he sought the
shores of England at the close of 1816.
During the eleven years passed by Foscolo in London, until
his death there, he enjoyed all the social distinction which the
most brilliant circles of the English capital confer on foreigners
of political and literary renown, and experienced all the misery
which follows on a disregard of the first conditions of domestic
economy. His contributions to the Edinburgh and Quarterly
Reviews, his dissertations in Italian on the text of Dante and
Boccaccio, and still more his English essays on Petrarch, of
which the value was enhanced by Lady Dacre's admirable
translations of some of Petrarch's finest sonnets, heightened his
previous fame as a man of letters. But his want of care and
forethought in pecuniary matters involved him in much em-
barrassment, and at last consigned him to a prison; and when
released he felt, bitterly the change in his social position, and the
coldness now shown to him by many whom he had been
accustomed to regard as friends. His general bearing in society
if we may accept on this point the testimony of so keen an
observer and so tolerant a man as Sir Walter Scott had un-
happily not been such as to gain and retain lasting friendships.
He died at Turnham Green on the icth of October 1827. Forty-
four years after his death, in 1871, his remains were brought to
Florence, and with all the pride, pomp and circumstance of a
great national mourning, found their final resting-place beside
the monuments of Macchiavelli and Alfieri, of Michelangelo
and Galileo, in Italy's Westminster Abbey, the church of Santa
Croce. To that solemn national tribute Foscolo was fully
entitled. For the originality of his thoughts and the splendour
of his diction his country honours him as a great classic author.
He had assigned to the literature of his nation higher aims than
any which it previously recognized. With all his defects of
character, and through all his vicissitudes of forturie, he was
always a sincere and courageous patriot.
Ample materials for the study of Foscolo's character and career
may be found in the complete series of his works published in
Florence by Le Monnier. The series consists of Prose letterarie,
(4 vols., 1850); Epistolario (3 vols., 1854); Prose politiche (i vol.,
1850); Poesie (i vol., 1856); Lettere di Ortis (i vol., 1858); Saggi
di critica storico-letleraria (ist vol., 1859; 2nd vol., 1862). To this
series must be added the very interesting work published at Leghorn
in 1876, Lettere inedite del Foscolo, del Giordani, e delta Signora di
StaH, a Vincenzo Monti. The work published at Florence in the
summer of 1878, Vita di Ugo Foscolo, di Pellegrino Artusi, throws
much doubt on the genuineness of the text in Foscolo's writings as
given in the complete Florence edition, whilst it furnishes some
curious and original illustrations of Foscolo's familiarity with the
English language. _ 0- M. S.)
FOSS, EDWARD (1787-1870), English lawyer and biographer,
was born in London on the i6th of October 1787. He was a
solicitor by profession, and on his retirement from practice in
1840, he devoted himself to the study of legal antiquities. His
Judges of England (9 vols., 1848-1864) is a standard work,
characterized by accuracy and extensive research. Biographia
Juridica, a Biographical Dictionary of English Judges, appeared
shortly after his death. He assisted in founding the Incorporated
Law Society, of which he was president in 1842 and 1843. He
died of apoplexy on the 2/th of July 1870.
FOSSANO, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy,
in the province of Cuneo, ism. N.E. of it by rail, 1180 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7696 (town), 18,175 (commune). It has
an imposing castle with four towers, begun by Filippo d'Acaia
in 1314. The cathedral was reconstructed at the end of the
i8th century. The place began to acquire some importance in
the I3th century. It appears as a commune in 1237, but in
1251 had to yield to Asti. It finally surrendered in 1314 to
Fillippo d'Acaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of
Savoy. It lies on the main line from Turin to Cuneo, and has
a branch line to Mondovi.
FOSSANUOVA, an abbey of Italy, in the province of Rome,
near the railway station of Sonnino, 64 m. S.E. of Rome. It
is the finest example of a Cistercian abbey, and of the Burgundian
Early Gothic style, in Italy, and dates from the end of the i2th
to the end of the I3th century. The church (1187-1208) is
closely similar to that of Casamari. The other conventual
buildings also are noteworthy. Thomas Aquinas died here in
1274.
See C. Enlart, Origines frangaises de I' architecture gothique en
Italie (Paris, 1894) (Bibliotheque des ecoles fran$aises d'Athenes el
de Rome, fasc. 66).
FOSSE (or Foss) WAY, the Early English name of a Roman
road or series of roads in Britain, used later by the English,
running from Lincoln by Leicester and Bath to Exeter. Almost
all the Roman line is still in use as modern road or lane. It
passes from Lincoln through Newark and Leicester (the Roman
Ralae) to High Cross ( Venonae) , where it intersects Watling Street
at a point often called " the centre of England." Hence it runs to
Moreton-in-the-Marsh, Cirencester, Bath and Ilchester, crosses
the hills near Chard, Axminster and Honiton, and enters Exeter.
Antiquaries have taken it farther, usually to Totnes, but without
warrant. (See further under ERMINE STREET.) (F. J. H.)
FOSSICK (probably an English dialectical expression, meaning
fussy or troublesome), a term applied by the gold diggers of
Australia to the search for gold by solitary individuals, in
untried localities or in abandoned diggings. A " fossicker,"
or pocket miner, is one who buys up the right to search old
claims, in the hope of finding gold overlooked by previous
diggers.
FOSSOMBRONE (anc. Forum Sempronii), a town and episcopal
see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino,
ii m. E.S.E. of the latter by road, 394 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1901) .town, 7531, commune, 10,847. The town is situated
in the valley of the Metauro, in the centre of fine scenery, at the
meeting-point of roads to Fano, to the Furlo pass and Fossato
di Vico (the ancient Via Flaminia), to Urbino and to Sinigaglia,
the last crossing the river by a fine bridge. The cathedral,
rebuilt in 1772-1784, contains the chief work of the sculptor
Domenico Rosselli of Rovezzano, a richly sculptured ancona
of 1480. S. Francesco has a lunette by him over the portal.
The library, founded by a nephew of Cardinal Passionei, contains
some antiquities. Above the town is a medieval castle. There
is a considerable trade in silk.
The ancient Forum Sempronii lay about 2 m. to the N.E.
at S. Martino al Piano, where remains still exist. It was a station
on the Via Flaminia and a municipium. The date of its founda-
tion is not known. Excavations in 1879-1880 led to the discovery
of a house and of other buildings on the ancient road (A.
732
FOSSOMBRONI FOSTER, J.
Vernarecci in Notizie degli scavi, 1880, 458). It already had
a bishop in the years 499-502. In 1295 the Malatesta obtained
possession of it, and kept it until 1444, when it was sold, with
Pesaro, to Federico di Montefeltro of Urbino, and with the
latter it passed to the papacy under Urban VIII. in 1631.
FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO, COUNT (1754-1844), Tuscan
statesman and mathematician, was born at Arezzo. He was
educated at the university of Pisa, where he devoted himself
particularly to mathematics. He obtained an official appoint-
ment in Tuscany in 1782, and twelve years later was entrusted
by the grand duke with the direction of the works for the drainage
of the Val di Chiana, on which subject he had published a treatise
in 1789. In 1796 he was made minister for foreign affairs, but
on the French occupation of Tuscany in 1799 he fled to Sicily.
On the erection of the grand duchy into the ephemeral kingdom
of Etruria, under the queen-regent Maria Louisa, he was ap-
pointed president of the commission of finance. In 1809 he went
to Paris as one of the senators for Tuscany to pay homage to
Napoleon. He was made president of the legislative commission
on the restoration of the grand duke Ferdinand III. in 1814,
and subsequently prime minister, which position he retained
under the grand duke Leopold II. His administration, which
was only terminated by his death, greatly contributed to promote
the well-being of the country. He was the real master of Tuscany,
and the bases of his rule were equality of all subjects before the
law, honesty in the administration of justice and toleration of
opinion, but he totally neglected the moral improvement of the
people. At the age of seventy-eight he married, and twelve
years afterwards died, in 1844.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Gino Capponi, II Conte V. Fossonibroni, A. von
Reumont, Geschichte Toscanas unter dem Hause Lothringen-Habsburg
(Gotha, 1877); Zobi, Storia civile delta Toscana (Florence, 1850-
1853) ; Galeotti, Delle Leggi e dell' amminislratione delta Toscana
(Florence, 1847); Baldasseroni, Leopoldo II. (Florence, 1871); see
also under CAPPONI, GINO; FERDINAND III., of Tuscany, and
LEOPOLD II., of Tuscany. (L. V.*)
FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904), English
geologist and mineralogist, the second son of Peter Le Neve
Foster (for many years secretary of the Society of Arts), was
born at Camberwell on the 23rd of March 1841. After receiving
his early education at Boulogne and Amiens, he studied succes-
sively at the Royal School of Mines in London and at the mining
college of Freiburg in Saxony. In 1860 he joined the Geological
Survey in England, working in the Wealden area and afterwards
in Derbyshire. Conjointly with William Topley (1841-1894)
he communicated to the Geological Society of London in 1865
the now classic paper " On the superficial deposits of the Valley
of the Medway, with remarks on the Denudation of the Weald."
In this paper the sculpturing of the Wealden area by rain and
rivers was ably advocated. Retiring from the Geological
Survey in 1865, Foster devoted his attention to mineralogy
and mining in Cornwall, Egypt and Venezuela. In 1872 he was
appointed an inspector of mines under the home office for
the S.W. of England, and in 1880 he was transferred to the N.
Wales district. In 1890 he was appointed professor of mining
at the Royal College of Science and he held this post until the
close of his life. His later work is embodied largely in the reports
of mines and quarries issued annually by the home office. He
was distinguished for his extensive scientific and practical
knowledge of metalliferous mining and stone quarrying. He
was elected F.R.S. in 1892 and was knighted in 1903. While
investigating the cause of a mining disaster in the Isle of Man
in 1897 his constitution suffered much injury from carbonic-
oxide gas, and he never fully recovered from the effects. He
died in London on the igth of April 1904. He published Ore and
Stone Mining, 1894 (ed. 5, 1904); and The Elements of Mining
and Quarrying, 1903.
FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847- ), Canadian politician
and financier, was born in New Brunswick on the 3rd of
September 1847, of U.E. Loyalist descent. After a brilliant
university career at the university of Brunswick, at Edinburgh
and Heidelberg, he returned to Canada and taught in various
local schools, eventually becoming professor of classics and
history in the local university. In 1882 he became Conservative
member for King's County, N.B., in the Dominion parliament,
and in 1885 entered the cabinet' of Sir John Macdonald as minister
of marine and fisheries; in 1888 he became minister of finance,
which position he held till the defeat of his party in 1896. A
careful and even brilliant financier, and a keen debater, he
became known as a strong believer in protection for Canadian
industries and in preferential trade within the British empire.
FOSTER, JOHN (1770-1843), English author and dissenting
minister, generally known as the " Essayist," was born in a small
farmhouse near Halifax, Yorkshire, on the i7th of September
1770. Partly from constitutional causes, but partly also from
the want of proper companions, as well as from the grave and
severe habits of his parents, his earlier years were enshrouded
in a somewhat gloomy and sombre atmosphere, which was never
afterwards wholly dissipated. His youthful energy, finding no
proper outlet, developed within him a tendency to morbid
intensity of thought and feeling; and, according to his own
testimony, before he was twelve years old he was possessed of
a " painful sense of an awkward but entire individuality."
The small income accruing to Foster's parents from their
farm they supplemented by weaving, and at an early age he
began to assist them by spinning wool by the hand wheel, and
from his fourteenth year by weaving double stuffs. Even " when
a child," however, he had the " feelings of a foreigner in the
place "; and though he performed his monotonous task with
conscientious diligence, he succeeded so indifferently in fixing
his wandering thoughts upon it that his work never without
difficulty passed the ordeal of inspection. He had acquired a
great taste for reading, to gratify which he sometimes shut
himself up alone in a barn, afterwards working at his loom
" like a horse," to make up for lost time. He had also at this
period " a passion for making pictures with a pen." Shortly
after completing his seventeenth year he became a member of
the Baptist church at Hebden Bridge, with which his parents
were connected; and with the view of preparing himself for
the ministerial office he began about the same time to attend
a seminary at Brearley Hall conducted by his pastor Dr Fawcett.
After remaining three years at Brearley Hall he was admitted
to the Baptist College, Bristol, and on finishing his course of
study at this institution he obtained an engagement at Newcastle-
on-Tyne, where he preached to an audience of less than a hundred
persons, in a small and dingy room situated near the river at the
top of a flight of steps called Tuthill Stairs. At Newcastle he
remained only three months. In the beginning of 1793 he pro-
ceeded to Dublin, where, after failing as a preacher, he attempted
to revive a classical and mathematical school, but with so little
success that he did not prosecute the experiment for more than
eight or nine months. From 1797 to 1799 he was minister of a
Baptist church at Chichester, but though he applied himself
with more earnestness and perseverance than formerly to the
discharge of his ministerial duties, his efforts produced little
apparent impression, and the gradual diminution of his hearers
necessitated his resignation. After employing himself for a few
months at Battersea in the instruction of twenty African youths
brought to England by Zachary Macaulay, with the view of
having them trained to aid as missionaries to their fellow-country-
men, he in 1800 accepted the charge of a small congregation at
Downend, Bristol, where he continued about four years. In
1804, chiefly through the recommendation of Robert Hall, he
became pastor of a congregation at Frome, but a swelling in the
thyroid gland compelled him in 1806 to resign his charge. In the
same year he published the volume of Essays on which his
literary fame most largely if not mainly rests. They were
written in the form of letters addressed to the lady, whom he
afterwards married, and consist of four papers, " On a Man
writing Memoirs of himself"; "On Decision of Character";
" On the Application of the Epithet Romantic "; and " On some
Causes by which Evangelical Religion has been rendered un-
acceptable to Men of Cultivated Taste." The success of this
work was immediate, and was so considerable that on resigning
his charge he determined to adopt literature as his profession.
FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL FOSTORIA
733
The Eclectic Review was the only periodical with which he estab-
lished a connexion; but his contributions to that journal,
which were begun in 1807, number no fewer than 185 articles.
On his marriage in May 1808 he removed to Bourton-on-the-
Water, a small village in Gloucestershire, where he remained
till 1817, when he returned to Downend and resumed his duties
to his old congregation. Here he published in 1820 his Essay
on Popular Ignorance, which was the enlargement of a sermon
originally preached on behalf of the British and Foreign School
Society. In 1821 he removed to Stapleton near Bristol, and in
1822 he began a series of fortnightly lectures at Broadmead
chapel, Bristol, which were afterwards published. On the
settlement of Robert Hall at Bristol this service was discontinued,
as in such circumstances it appeared to Foster to be " altogether
superfluous and even bordering on impertinent." The health
of Foster during the later years of his life was somewhat infirm,
the result chiefly of the toil and effort of literary composition;
and the death of his only son, his wife and the greater number
of his most intimate friends combined with his bodily ailments
to lend additional sombreness to his manner of regarding the
events and arrangements of the present world the " visage of
death " being almost his " one remaining luminary." He died
at Stapleton on the isth of October 1843.
The cast of Foster's mind was meditative and reflective rather
than logical or metaphysical, and though holding moderately
Calvinistic views, his language even in preaching very seldom
took the mould of theological forms. Though always retaining
his connexion with the Baptist denomination, the evils result-
ing from organized religious communities seemed to him so
great that he came to be " strongly of opinion that churches are
useless and mischievous institutions, and the sooner they are
dissolved the better." The only Christian observances which
he regarded as of any importance were public worship and the
Lord's Supper, and it so happened that he never administered
the ordinance of baptism. His cast of thought is largely coloured
by a constant reference to the " endless future." He was a firm
believer in supernatural appearances, and cherished a longing
hope that a ray of light from the other world might sometimes
in this way be vouchsafed to mortals. As a writer he was most
painstaking and laborious in his choice of diction, and his style
has its natural consequent defects, though the result is eloquent
in its way.
Besides the works already alluded to, Foster was the author of a
Discourse on Missions (1818); " Introductory Essay" to Dod-
dridge's Rise and Progress of Religion (1825); "Observations on
Mr Hall's Character as a Preacher, prefixed to the collected edition
of Hall's Works (1832); an " Introduction " to a pamphlet by Mr
Marshman on the Serampore Missionaries; several political letters
to the Morning Chronicle, and contributions to the Eclectic Review,
published posthumously in 2 vols., 1844. His Life and Corre-
spondence, edited by J. E. Ryland, was published in 1846.
FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-1907), English physiologist,
was born at Huntingdon on the 8th of March 1836. After
graduating in medicine at London University in 1859, he began
to practise in his native town, but in 1867 he returned to London
as teacher of practical physiology at University College, where
two years afterwards he became professor. In 1870 he was
appointed by Trinity College, Cambridge, to its praelectorship in
physiology, and thirteen years later he became the first occupant
of the newly-created chair of physiology in the university,
holding it till 1903. He excelled as a teacher and administrator,
and had a very large share in the organization and development
of the Cambridge biological school. From 1881 to 1903 he was
one of the secretaries of the Royal Society, and in that capacity
exercised a wide influence on the study of biology in Great
Britain. In 1899 he was created K.C.B., and served as president
of the British Association at its meeting at Dover. In the
following year he was elected to represent the university of
London in parliament. Though returned as a Unionist, his
political action was not to be dictated by party considerations,
and he gravitated towards Liberalism; but he played no
prominent part in parliament and at the election of 1906 was
defeated. His chief writings were a Textbook of Physiology
(1876), which became a standard work, and Lectures on the
History of Physiology in the idth, ijth and, i8th Centuries (1901),
which consisted of lectures delivered at the Cooper Medical
College, San Francisco, in 1900. He died suddenly in London
on the 2gth of January 1907.
FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899), English painter,
was born at North Shields. At the age of sixteen he entered the
workshop of Ebenezer Landells, a wood engraver, with whom
he worked for six years as an illustrative draughtsman, devoting
himself mainly to landscape. During the succeeding fifteen
years he became famous as a prolific and accomplished illustrator,
but about 1 86 1 abandoned illustration for painting, and gained
wide popularity by his pictures, chiefly in water colours, of
landscapes and rustic subjects, with figures, mainly of children.
He was elected in 1860 associate and in 1862 full member of the
Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours. His work is memor-
able for its delicacy and minute finish, and for its daintiness and
pleasantness of sentiment.
See Birket Foster, his Life and Work (extra number of the Art
Journal) by Marcus B. Huish (1800), an interesting sketch; and
Birket Foster, R.W.S., by H. M. Cundall (London, 1906), a very
complete and fully illustrated biography.
FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864), American song
and ballad writer, was born near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the
4th of July 1826. He was the youngest child of a merchant of
Irish descent who became a member of the state legislature
and was related by marriage to President Buchanan. Stephen
early showed talent for music, and played upon the flageolet,
the guitar and the banjo; he also acquired a fair knowledge
of French and German. He was sent to school in Towanda,
Pennsylvania, and later to Athens, Pennsylvania, and when
thirteen years old he wrote the song " Sadly to Mine Heart
Appealing." At sixteen he wrote " Open thy Lattice, Love ";
at seventeen he entered his brother's business house, Cincinnati,
Ohio, where he remained about three years, composing meanwhile
such popular pieces as " Old Uncle Ned," " O Susannah!" and
others. He then adopted song-writing as a profession. His chief
successes were songs written for the negro melodists or Christy
minstrels. Besides those mentioned the following attained
great popularity: " Nelly was a Lady," " Old Kentucky Home,"
" Old Folks at Home," " Massa's in de Cold, Cold Ground," &c.
For these and other songs the composer received considerable
sums, "Old Folks at Home" bringing him, it is said, 15,000
dollars. For most of his songs Foster wrote both songs and music.
In 1850 he married and moved to New York, but soon returned
to Pittsburg. His reputation rests chiefly on his negro melodies,
many of which have been popular on both sides of the Atlantic
and sung in many tongues. " Old Black Joe," the last of these
negro melodies, appeared in 1861. His later songs were senti-
mental ballads. Among these are " Old Dog Tray," " Gentle
Annie," " Willie, we have missed you," &c. His " Come where
my Love lies Dreaming " is a well known vocal quartet. Al-
though as a musician and composer Foster has little claim to high
rank, his song-writing gives him a prominent place in the modern
developments of popular music. He died at New York on the
i3th of January 1864.
FOSTORIA, a city, partly in Seneca, partly in Hancock, and
partly in Wood county, Ohio, U.S.A., 35 m. S. by E. of Toledo.
Pop. (1890) 7070; (1900) 7730 (584 foreign-born); (1910)9597.
It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the New York, Chicago &
St Louis, the Ohio Central, the Lake Erie & Western, and the
Hocking Valley railways, and by two interurban electric lines.
The city is situated in an agricultural region, and oil abounds in
the vicinity. Among the city's manufactures are glass, flour,
planing mill products, brass and iron, carriages, barrels, incan-
descent lamps, carbons, wire nails and fences, automobile
engines and parts, railway torpedoes and muslin underwear.
The waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality.
In 1832, upon the coming of the first settlers, two towns, Rome
and Risdon, were laid out on the site of what is now Fostoria.
A bitter rivalry arose between them, but they were finally united
under one government, and the city thus formed was named in
734
FOTHERGILL FOUCHE
honour of Charles W. Foster, whose son Charles Foster (1828-
1904), governor of the state from 1880 to 1884 and secretary of
the United States treasury from 1891 to 1893, did much to pro-
mote its growth. Fostoria was chartered as a city in 1854.
FOTHERGILL, JOHN (1712-1780), English physician, was
born of a Quaker family on the 8th of March 1712 at Carr End
in Yorkshire. He took the degree of M.D. at Edinburgh in 1 736,
and after visiting the continent of Europe he in 1 740 settled in
London, where he gained an extensive practice. In the epidemics
of influenza in 1775 and 1776 he is said to have had sixty patients
daily. In his leisure he made a study of conchology and botany;
and at Upton, near Stratford, he had an extensive botanical
garden where he grew many rare plants obtained from various
parts of the world. He was the patron of Sidney Parkinson, the
South Sea voyager. A translation of the Bible (1764 sq.) by
Anthony Purver, a Quaker, was made and printed at his expense.
His pamphlet entitled " Account of the Sore Throat attended
with Ulcers " (1748) contains one of the first descriptions of
diphtheria in English, and was translated into several languages.
He died in London on the 26th of December 1780.
FOTHERINGHAY, a village of Northamptonshire, England,
picturesquely situated on the left bank of the river Nene, 15 m.
from Elton station on the Peterborough branch of the London
& North- Western railway. The castle, of which nothing but the
earthworks and foundations remain, is famous as the scene
of the imprisonment of Mary queen of Scots from September
1586 to her trial and execution on the 8th of February 1587. The
earthworks, commanding a ford of the river, are apparently of
very early date, and probably bore a castle from Norman times.
It became an important stronghold of the Plantagenets from
the time of Edward III., and was the birthplace of Richard III.
in 1452. The church of St Mary and All Saints, originally
collegiate, is Perpendicular, and only the nave with aisles, and
the tower surmounted by an octagon, remain; but the building
is in the best style of its period. Edward, second duke of York,
who was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415, Richard, the
third duke, and his duchess, Cicely (d. 1495), also his son the
earl of Rutland, who with Richard himself, fell at the battle of
Wakefield in 1460, are buried in the church. Their monuments
were erected by Queen Elizabeth, who found the choir and tombs
in ruins.
FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LEON (1819-1868), French
physicist, was the son of a publisher at Paris, where he was born
on the i8th of September 1819. After an education received
chiefly at home, he studied medicine, which, however, he speedily
abandoned for physical science, the improvement of L. J. M.
Daguerre's photographic processes being the object to which
he first directed his attention. During three years he was experi-
mental assistant to Alfred Donne (1801-1878) in his course of
lectures on microscopic anatomy. With A. H. L. Fizeau he
carried on a series of investigations on the intensity of the light
of the sun, as compared with that of carbon in the electric arc,
and of lime in the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; on the
interference of heat rays, and of light rays differing greatly in
lengths of path; and on the chromatic polarization of light.
In 1849 he contributed to the Comptcs Rendus a description
of an electromagnetic regulator for the electric arc lamp, and,
in conjunction with H. V. Regnault, a paper on binocular vision.
By the use of a revolving mirror similar to that used by Sir
Charles Wheatstone for measuring the rapidity of electric
currents, he was enabled in 1850 to demonstrate the greater
velocity of light in air than in water, and to establish that the
velocity of light in different media is inversely as the refractive
indices of the media. For his demonstration in 1851 of the
diurnal motion of the earth by the rotation of the plane of oscilla-
tion of a freely suspended, long and heavy pendulum exhibited
by him at the Pantheon in Paris, and again in the following
year by means of his invention the gyroscope, he received the
Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1855, and in the same year
he was made physical assistant in the imperial observatory at
Paris. In September of that year he discovered that the force
required for the rotation of a copper disk becomes greater when
it is made to rotate with its rim between the poles of a magnet,
the disk at the same time becoming heated by the eddy or
" Foucault currents " induced in its metal. Foucault invented
in 1857 the polarizer which bears his name, and in the succeeding
year devised a method of giving to the speculum of reflecting
telescopes the form of a spheroid or a paraboloid of revolution.
With Wheatstone's revolving mirror he in 1862 determined the
absolute velocity of light to be 298,000 kilometres (about 185,000
m.) a second, or 10,000 kilom. less than that obtained by previous
experimenters. He was created in that year a member of the
Bureau des Longitudes and an officer of the Legion of Honour,
in 1864 a foreign member of the Royal Society of London,
and next year a member of the mechanical section of the
Institute. In 1865 appeared his papers on a modification of
Watt's governor, upon which he had for some time been experi-
menting with a view to making its period of revolution constant,
and on a new apparatus for regulating the electric light; and in
the following year (Compt. Rend. Ixiii.) he showed how, by the
deposition of a transparently thin film of silver on the outer side
of the object glass of a telescope, the sun could be viewed without
injuring the eye by excess of light. Foucault died of paralysis
on the nth of February 1868 at Paris. From the year 1845
he edited the scientific portion of the Journal des Debats. His
chief scientific papers are to be found in the Comptes Rendus,
1847-1869.
See Revue cours sclent, vi. (1869), pp. 484-489; Proc. Roy. Soc.
xvii. (1869), pp. Ixxxiii.-lxxxiv. ; Lissajous, Notice historique sur la
vie et les travaux de Leon Foucault (Paris, 1875).
FOUCHE, JOSEPH, DUKE OF OTRANTO (1763-1820), French
statesman, was born in a small village near Nantes on the 2ist
of May 1763. His father, a seafaring man, destined him for the
sea; but the weakness of his frame and the precocity of his
talents soon caused this idea to be given up. He was educated
at the college of the Oratorians at Nantes, and showed marked
aptitude for studies both literary and scientific. Desiring to
enter the teaching profession he was sent to an institution kept
by brethren of the same order at Paris. There also he made
rapid progress, and soon entered upon tutorial duties at the
colleges of Niort, Saumur, Vendome, Juilly and Arras. At Arras
he had some dealings with Robespierre at the time of the begin-
ning of the French Revolution (1789).
In October 1790 he was transferred by the Oratorians to
their college at Nantes, owing to irregularities due to his zeal
for revolutionary principles; but at Nantes he showed even
more democratic fervour. His abilities and the zeal with which
he espoused the most subversive notions brought him into
favour with the populace at Nantes; he became a leading
member of the local Jacobin club; and on the dissolution of the
college of the Oratorians at Nantes in May 1792, Fouche gave
up all connexion with the church, whose major vows he had
not taken. After the downfall of the monarchy on the loth of
August 1792, he was elected as deputy for the department of
the Lower Loire to the National Convention which met at the
autumnal equinox and proclaimed the republic. The literary
and pedagogic sympathies of Fouche at first brought him into
touch with Condorcet and the party, or group, of the Girondists;
but their vacillation at the time of the trial and execution of
Louis XVI. (December 1792-January 21, 1793) led him to
espouse the cause of the Jacobins, the less scrupulous and more
thoroughgoing champions of revolutionary doctrine. On the
question of the execution of the king, Fouche, after some pre-
liminary hesitations, expressed himself with the utmost vigour
in favour of immediate execution, and denounced those who
" wavered before the shadow of a king."
The crisis which resulted from the declaration of war by the
Convention against England and Holland (Feb. i, 1793), and
a little later against Spain, brought Fouche into notoriety as
one of the fiercest of the Jacobinical fanatics who then held
power at Paris. While the armies of the first coalition threatened
the north-east of France, a revolt of the royalist peasants of
Brittany and la Vendee menaced the Convention on the west.
That body deputed Fouche with a colleague, Villers, to proceed
FOUCH
735
to the west as commissioners invested with almost dictatorial
powers for the crushing of the revolt of " the whites." The
vigour with which he carried out these duties earned him other
work, and he soon held the post of commissioner of the republic
in the department of the Nievre. Together with Chaumette,
he helped to initiate the atheistical movement, the founders of
which in the autumn of 1793 began to aim at the extinction of
Christianity in France. In the department of the Nievre he
ransacked the churches, sent their spoils to the treasury and
established the cult of the goddess of Reason. Over the
cemeteries, he ordered these words to be inscribed: " Death is
an eternal sleep." He also waged war against luxury and
wealth, and desired to abolish the use of money. The new cult
was inaugurated at Paris at Notre Dame by the strange orgy
known as " The Festival of Reason " (November 10, 1793).
Fouche then proceeded to Lyons to execute the vengeance
of the Convention on that city, which had revolted against the
new Jacobin tyranny. Preluding his work by a festival remark-
able for its obscene parody of religious rites, he then, along with
his colleague, Collot d'Herbois, set the guillotine and cannon to
work with a rigour which made his name odious. Modern
research, however, proves that at the close of those horrors
Fouche exercised a moderating influence. Outwardly his
conduct was marked by the utmost rigour, and on his return
to Paris early in April 1794, he thus characterised his policy:
" The blood of criminals fertilises the soil of liberty and estab-
lishes power on sure foundations." By that time Robespierre
had struck down the other leaders of the atheistical party; but
early in June 1794, at the time of the " Festival of the Supreme
Being," Fouche ventured to mock at the theistic revival which
Robespierre then inaugurated. Sharp passages of arms took
place between them, and Robespierre procured the ejection of
Fouche from the Jacobin Club (July 14, 1794). Fouche, however,
was working with his customary skill and energy, and along with
Tallien and ethers, managed to effect the overthrow of the
theistic dictator on Thermidor 10 (July 28), 1794. The ensuing
reaction in favour of more merciful methods of government
threatened to sweep away the group of Terrorists who had been
mainly instrumental in carrying through the coup d'etat of
Thermidor; but, thanks largely to the skill of Fouche in intrigue,
they managed for a time to keep at the head of affairs. Discords,
however, crept in which left him for a time almost isolated, and
it needed all his ability to withstand the attacks of the moderates.
A vigorous attack on him by Boissy d'Anglas, on the gth of
August 1795, caused him to be arrested, but the troubles which
ensued in Vendemiaire averted the doom that seemed to be
pending; and he owed his release to the amnesty which was
passed on the proclamation of the new constitution of the year
1795-
In the ensuing period, known as that of the Directory (1795-
1799), Fouche remained at first in obscurity, but the relations
which he had with the communists, once headed by Chaumette
and now by Francois N. (" Gracchus ") Babeuf (q.v.), helped
him to rise once more. He is said to have betrayed to the
director Barras the secret of the strange plot which Babeuf and
a few accomplices hatched in the year 1796; but recent research
has tended to throw doubt on the assertion. His rise from
poverty was slow, but in 1797 he gained an appointment for the
supply of military materiel, which offered opportunities direct
and indirect. After offering his services to the royalists, whose
movement was then gathering force, he again decided to support
the Jacobins and the director Barras (<?..) In the coup d'etat
of Fructidor 1797 he made himself serviceable to Barras, who in
1798 appointed him to be French ambassador to the Cisalpine
republic. At Milan he carried matters with so high a hand
against the Gallophobes of that government that his actions
were disavowed and he himself was removed; but in the confused
state in which matters then were, he was able for a time to hold
his own and to intrigue successfully against his successor. Early
in 1799 he returned to Paris, and after a brief tenure of office
as ambassador at The Hague, he became minister of police at
Paris (July 20, 1799). The newly elected director, Sieyes (<?.!>.),
was then in the ascendant and desired to curb the excesses of
the Jacobins, who had recently reopened their club. Fouche,
casting consistency to the winds, closed the Jacobins club in a
manner at once daring and clever. Thereupon he hunted down
the pamphleteers and editors, whether Jacobins or royalists,
who were obnoxious to the government, so that at the time of
the return of Bonaparte from Egypt (October 1799) the ex-
Ja-cobin was one of the most powerful men in France.
Knowing well the unpopularity of the directors, Fouche lent
himself to the schemes of Bonaparte and Sieyes for their over-
throw. His activity in furthering the coup d'etat of Brumaire
18-19 (November 9-10), 1799, procured him the favour of
Bonaparte, who kept him in office (v. Napoleon I.). In the
ensuing period of the Consulate (1799-1804) Fouche behaved
with the utmost adroitness. While curbing the royalists and
extreme Jacobins who at first alone opposed Bonaparte, Fouche
was careful to temper as far as possible the arbitrary actions of
the new master of France. In this difficult task he acquitted
himself with so much skill as to earn at times the gratitude
even of the royalists. Thus, while countermining a foolish
intrigue of theirs in which the duchesse de Guiche was the chief
agent, Fouche took care that she s'hould escape. Equally skilful
was his action in the affair of the so-called Arena-Ceracchi plot,
in which the agents provocateurs of the police were believed to
have played a sinister part. The chief " conspirators " were
easily ensnared and were executed when the affair of Nivose
(December 1800) enabled Bonaparte to act with rigour. This
far more serious attempt (in which royalist conspirators exploded
a bomb near the First Consul's carriage with results disastrous
to the bystanders) was soon seen by Fouche to be the work of
royalists; and when the First Consul, eager to entrap the still
formidable Jacobins, sought to fasten the blame on them, Fouche
firmly declared that he would not only assert but would prove
that the outrage was the work of royalists. All his efforts,
however, failed to avert the punishment which Bonaparte was
resolved to inflict on the leading Jacobins. In other matters
(especially in that known as the Plot of the Placards in the
spring of 1802) Fouche was thought to have secured the Jacobins
concerned from the vengeance of the First Consul. In any case
the latter resolved to rid himself of a man who had too much
power and too much skill in intrigue to be desirable as a sub-
ordinate. On the proclamation of Bonaparte as First Consul
for life (August i, 1802) Fouche was deprived of his office;
but the blow was softened by the suppression of the ministry of
police and by the attribution of most of its duties to an extended
ministry of justice. Fouche also became a senator and received
half of the reserve funds of the police which had accumulated
during his tenure of office. He continued, however, to intrigue
through his spies, whose information was so superior to that of
the new minister of police as to render great services to Napoleon
at the time of the Cadoudal-Pichegru conspiracy (February-
March 1804).
As a result Napoleon, now emperor, brought back Fouche
to the re-constituted ministry of police (July 1804); he also
later on entrusted to him that of the interior. His work was no
less important than at the time of the Consulate. His police
agents were ubiquitous, and the terror which Napoleon and
Fouche inspired, owing to their proven ability to benefit by plots,
partly accounts for the absence of conspiracies after 1804. After
Austerlitz (December 1805) Fouche uttered the mot of the
occasion: " Sire, Austerlitz has shattered the old aristocracy;
the boulevard St Germain no longer conspires."
That Napoleon retained some feeling of distrust, or even of
fear, of Fouche was proved by his conduct in the early days
of 1808. While engaged in the campaign of Spain, the emperor
heard rumours that Fouche and Talleyrand, once bitter enemies,
were having interviews at Paris in which Murat, king of Naples,
was concerned. At once the sensitive autocrat hurried to Paris,
but found nothing to incriminate Fouche. In that year Fouche
received the title of duke of Otranto. During the absence of
Napoleon in Austria in the campaign of 1809, the British
Walcheren expedition threatened for a time the safety of
FOUCHER
Antwerp. Fouche thereupon issued an order to the prefects of
the northern departments of the empire for the mobilization of
60,000 National Guards. He added to the order a statement
in which occurred the words: " Let us prove to Europe that
although the genius of Napoleon can throw lustre on France,
his presence is not necessary to enable us to repulse the enemy."
The emperor's approval of the measure was no less marked
than his disapproval of the words just quoted. The next months
brought further causes of friction between emperor and minister.
The latter, knowing the desire of his master for peace at the
close of the year 1809, undertook on his own account to make
secret overtures to the British ministry. A little later Napoleon
opened negotiations and found that Fouche had forestalled him.
His rage against his minister was extreme, and on the 3rd of June
1810 he dismissed him from his office. However, as it was not
the emperor's custom completely to disgrace a man who might
again be useful, Fouche received the governorship of Rome.
He went thither, not as governor but as fugitive, for on receiving
the emperor's order to give up certain important documents of
his former ministry, he handed over only a few, declaring that
the rest were destroyed. At this the emperor's anger burst
forth again, and Fouche on learning, after his arrival at Florence,
that the storm was still raging at Paris, prepared to sail to the
United States. Compelled, however, by stress of weather and
sickness to put back again, he found a mediator in Elisa Bona-
parte, grand duchess of Tuscany, thanks to whom he was allowed
to settle at Aix and finally to return to his domain of Point
Carre. In 1812 he sought vainly to turn Napoleon from the
projected invasion of Russia; and on the return of the emperor
in haste from Smorgoni to Paris at the close of that year, the
ex-minister of police was suspected of complicity in the con-
spiracy of General Malet, which came so strangely near to success.
From this suspicion Fouche cleared himself and gave the emperor
useful advice concerning internal affairs and the diplomatic
situation. Nevertheless, the emperor, still distrustful of the
arch-intriguer, ordered him to undertake the government of the
Illyrian provinces. On the break-up of the Napoleonic system
in Germany in October 1813 Fouche was ordered to repair to
Rome and thence to Naples, in order to watch the movements of
Murat. Before Fouche arrived at Naples Murat threw off the
mask and invaded the Roman territory, whereupon Fouche
received orders to return to France. He arrived at Paris on the
loth of April 1814 at the time when Napoleon was being con-
strained by his marshals to abdicate.
The conduct of Fouche at this crisis was characteristic. As
senator he advised the senate to send a deputation to the comte
d'Artois, brother of Louis XVIII., with a view to a reconciliation
between the monarchy and the nation. A little later he ad-
dressed to Napoleon, then at Elba, a letter begging him in the
interests of peace and of France to withdraw to the United
States. To the new sovereign Louis XVIII. he sent an appeal
in favour of liberty and recommending the adoption of measures
which would conciliate all interests. It was not successful, but
Fouchfi remained unmolested.
This was far from satisfying him, and when he found that
there were no hopes of advancement, he entered into relations
with conspirators who sought the overthrow of the Bourbons.
Lafayette and Davout were concerned in the affair, but their
refusal to take the course desired by Fouche and other bold
spirits led to nothing being done. Soon Napoleon escaped from
Elba and made his way in triumph to Paris. Shortly before
his arrival at Paris (March 19, 1815) Louis XVIII. sent to
Fouche an offer of the ministry of police, which he declined,
saying, " It is too late; the only plan to adopt is to retreat."
He then foiled an attempt of the royalists to arrest him, and on
the arrival of Napoleon he received for the third time the port-
folio of police. That, however, did not prevent him from
entering into secret relations with Metternich at Vienna, his aim
being then, as always, to prepare for all eventualities. Meanwhile
he used all his powers to induce the emperor to popularise his
rule, and he is said to have caused the insertion of the words
" The sovereignty resides in the people; it is the source of
power " in the declaration of the council of state. But the
autocratic tendencies of Napoleon could scarcely be held in
check, and Fouche seeing the fall of the emperor to be imminent,
took measures to expedite it and secure his own interests. On
the 22nd of June Napoleon abdicated for the second time, and
Fouch6 was next day elected president of the commission which
provisionally governed France. Already he was in touch with
Louis XVIII., then at Ghent, and now secretly received the
overtures of his agent at Paris. While ostensibly working for
the recognition of Napoleon II., he facilitated the success of the
Bourbon cause, and thus procured for himself a place in the
ministry of Louis XVIII. Even his skill, however, was unequal
to the task of conciliating hot-headed royalists who remembered
his vote as regicide and his fanaticism as terrorist. He resigned
office, and after acting for a brief space'as ambassador at Dresden,
he retired to Prague. Finally he settled at Trieste, where he
died on the 2$th of December 1820. He had accumulated great
wealth.
Marked at the outset by fanaticism, which, though cruel, was
at least conscientious, Fouche's character deteriorated in and
after the year 1794 into one of calculating cunning. The transi-
tion represented all that was worst in the life of France during
the period of the Revolution and Empire. In Fouche the
enthusiasm of the earlier period appeared as a cold, selfish and
remorseless fanaticism; in him the bureaucracy of the period
1795-1799 and the autocracy of Napoleon found their ablest
instrument. Yet his intellectual pride prevented him sinking
to the level of a mere tool. His relations to Napoleon were
marked by a certain aloofness. He multiplied the means of
resistance even to that irresistible autocrat, so that though
removed from office, he was never wholly disgraced. Despised
by all for his tergiversations, he nevertheless was sought by all
on account of his cleverness. He repaid the contempt of his
superiors and the adulation of his inferiors by a mask of im-
penetrable reserve or scorn. He sought for power and neglected
no means to make himself serviceable to the party whose success
appeared to be imminent. Yet, while appearing to be the
servant of the victors, present or prospective, he never gave
himself to any one party. In this versatility he resembles
Talleyrand, of whom he was a coarse replica. Both professed,
under all their shifts and turns, to be desirous of serving France.
Talleyrand certainly did so in the sphere of diplomacy; Fouchfi
may occasionally have done so in the sphere of intrigue.
Bibliography. Fouche wrote some political pamphlets and reports,
the chief of which are Reflexions sur lejugement de Louis Capet (i 793) ;
Reflexions sur ^education publiquc (1793); Rapport et pro jet de loi
relatif aux colleges (1793); Rapport sur la situation de Commune-
A/ranchie [Lyons] (1794); Lettre aux prefets concernant les pretres,
&c. (1801); also the letters of 1815 noted above, and a Lettre au
due de Wellington (1817). The best life of Fouche is that by L.
Madelin, Fouche (2 vols., Paris, 1901). The so-called Fouche Memoirs
are not genuine, but they were apparently compiled, at least in
part, from notes written by Fouche, and are often valuable, though
their account of events (e.g. of the negotiations of 1809-1810) is
not seldom untrustworthy. For those negotiations see Coquelle,
Napoleon et I'Angleterre (Paris, 1003, Eng. trans., London, 1904).
For the plots with which Fouche had to deal see E. Daudet, La
Police et les Chouans sous le Consulat et I' Empire (Paris, 1895);
P. M. C. Desmarest, Temoignages historiques, ou quinze ans de haute
police (Paris, 1833, 2nd ed., 1900); E. Picard, Bonaparte et Moreau
(Paris, 1905); G. A. Thierry, Conspirateurs et gens de police; le
complot de libelles (Paris, 1903) (Eng. trans., London, 1903); H.
Welschinger, Le Due d'Enghien (Paris, 1 888) ; E. Guillon, Les Complots
militaires sous le Consulat et V Empire (Paris, 1894). (J. HL. R.)
FOUCHER, SIMON (1644-1696), French philosopher, was
born at Dijon on the ist of March 1644. He was the son of a
merchant, and appears to have taken orders at a very early age.
For some years he held the position of honorary canon at Dijon,
but this he resigned in order to take up his residence in Paris.
He graduated at the Sorbonne, and spent the remainder of his
life in literary work in Paris, where he died on the 27th of April
1696. In his day Foucher enjoyed considerable repute as a keen
opponent of Malebranche. His philosophical standpoint was
one of scepticism in regard to external perception. He revived
the old arguments of the Academy, and advanced them with
much ingenuity against Malebranche's doctrine. Otherwise
FOUCQUET FOULD
737
his scepticism is subordinate to orthodox belief, the fundamental
dogmas of the church seeming to him intuitively evident. His
object was to reconcile his religious with his philosophical creed,
and to remain a Christian without ceasing to be an academician.
His writings against Malebranche were collected under the
title Dissertations sur la recherche de la verite, 1693..
See F. Rabbe, L'Abbe Simon Foucher (1867); C. Jourdain in
Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques (1875), pp. 557-559.
FOUCQUET, JEAN, or JEHAN (c. 1415-1485), French painter,
born at Tours, is the most representative and national French
painter of the isth century. Of his life little is known, but it is
certain that he was in Italy about 1437, where he executed the
portrait of Pope Eugenius IV., and that upon his return to
France, whilst retaining his purely French sentiment, he grafted
the elements of the Tuscan style, which he had acquired during
his sojourn in Italy, upon the style of the Van Eycks, which was
the basis of early 15th-century French art, and thus became
the founder of an important new school. He was court painter
to Louis XI. Though his supreme excellence as an illuminator
and miniaturist, of exquisite precision in the rendering of the
finest detail, and his power of clear characterization in work on
this minute scale, have long since procured him an eminent
position in the art of his country, his importance as a painter
was only realized when his portraits and altarpieces were for
the first time brought together from various parts of Europe
in 1904, at the exhibition of the French Primitives held at the
Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. One of Foucquet's most
important paintings is the diptych, formerly at Notre Dame
de Melun, of which one wing, depicting Agnes Sorel as the
Virgin, is now at the Antwerp Museum and the other in the
Berlin Gallery. The Louvre has his oil portraits of Charles
VII., of Count Wilczek, and of Jouvenal des Ursins, besides a
portrait drawing in crayon; whilst an authentic portrait from
his brush is in the Liechtenstein collection. Far more numerous
are his illuminated books and miniatures that have come down
to us. The Brentano-Laroche collection at Frankfort contains
forty miniatures from a Book of Hours, painted in 1461 for
Etienne Chevalier who is portrayed by Foucquet on the Berlin
wing of the Melun altarpiece. From Foucquet's hand again
are eleven out of the fourteen miniatures illustrating a translation
of Joseplms at the Bibliotheque Nationale. The second volume
of this MS., unfortunately with only one of the original thirteen
miniatures, was discovered and bought in 1903 by Mr Henry
Yates Thompson at a London sale, and restored by him to France.
' See CEuvres de Jehan Foucquet (Curmer, Paris, 18661867);
A. de Chatnpeaux and P. Gauchery, CEuvres d'art executees pour le due
de Berry, "Facsimiles of two histories by Jean Foucquet" from
vols. i. and ii. of the Anciennetes des Juifs (London, 1902); Charles
Blanc, Histoire des peintres de toutes les ecoles (introduction) ; and
Georges Lafenestre, Jehan Fouquet (Paris, 1902).
FOUGERES, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 30 m.
N.E. of Rennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 21,847. Fougeres is
built on the summit and slopes of a hill on the left bank of the
Nancon, a tributary of the Couesnon. It was formerly one of
the strongest places on the frontier towards Normandy, and it
still preserves some portions of its medieval fortifications,
notably a gateway of the isth century known as the Porte St
Sulpice. The castle, which is situated in the lower part of the
town, directly overlooking the Nancon, is now a picturesque
ruin, but gives abundant evidence in its towers and outworks of
its former strength and magnificence. The finest of the towers
was erected in 1242 by Hugues of Lusignan, and named after
Melusine, the mythical foundress of the family.. The churches
of St Leonard and St Sulpice both date, at least in part, from
the i sth century. An hotel de ville and a belfry, both of the 1 5th
century, are of architectural interest, and the town possesses
many curious old houses. There is a statue of General B. de
Lari Coisiere (d. 1812), born in the town. Fougeres is the seat
of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber
of commerce and a communal college. It is the chief industrial
town of its department, being a centre for the manufacture of
boots and shoes; tanning and leather-dressing and the manu-
x. 24
facture of sail-cloth and other fabrics are also important in-
dustries. Trade is in dairy produce and in the granite of the
neighbouring quarries. Fougeres frequently figures in Breton
history from the nth to the isth century. It was taken by the
English in 1166, and again in 1448; and the name of Surienne,
the captor on the second occasion, is still borne by one of the
towers of the castle. , In 1488 it was taken by the troops of
Charles VIII. under la Tremoille. In the middle ages Fougeres
was a lordship of some importance, which in the I3th century
passed into the possession of the family of Lusignan, and in
1307 was confiscated by the crown and afterwards changed
hands many times. In 1793, during the wars of the Vendee,
it was occupied by the insurgents.
FOUILLEE, ALFRED JULES EMILE (1838- ), French
philosopher, was born at La Poueze on the i8th of October
1838. He held several minor philosophical lectureships, and
from 1864 was professor of philosophy at the lycees of Douai,
Montpellier and Bordeaux successively. In 1867 and 1868 he
was crowned by the Academy of Moral Science for his work
on Plato and Socrates. In 1872 he was elected master of con-
ferences at the Ecole Normale, and was made doctor of philosophy
in recognition of his two treatises, Platonis Hippias Minor sive
Socratica contra liberum arbitrium argumenta and La Liberte et le
determinisme. The strain of the next three years' continuous
work undermined his health and his eyesight, and he was com-
pelled to retire from his professorship. During these years he
had published works on Plato and Socrates and a history of
philosophy (1875); but after his retirement he further developed
his philosophical position, a speculative eclecticism through
which he endeavoured to reconcile metaphysical idealism with
the naturalistic and mechanical standpoint of science. In
L' Ewlutionnisme des idees-forces (1890), La Psychologic des
idees-forces (1893), and La Morale des idees-forces (1907), is
elaborated his doctrine of idees-forces, or of mind as efficient
cause through the tendency of ideas to realize themselves in
appropriate movement. Ethical and sociological developments
of this theory succeed its physical and psychological treatment,
the consideration of the antinomy of freedom being especially
important. Fouillee's wife, who by a previous marriage was the
mother of the poet and philosopher Jean Marie Guyau (1854-
1888), is well known, under the pseudonym of " G. Bruno,"
as the author of educational books for children.
His other chief works are: L'Idee moderne du droit en Allemagne.
en Angleterre et en France (Paris, 1878); La Science sociale con-
temporaine (1880); La Propriete sociale et la democratic (1884);
(1891); Descartes (1893); Temperament et caractere (2nd ed., 1895);
Le Mouvement positiviste et la conception sociologique du monde ( 1 896) ;
Le Mouvement idealiste et la reaction centre la science positive (1896) ;
La Psychologie du per pie franc,ais (2nd ed., 1898); La France au
point de vue moral (1900) ; L'Esquisse psychologique des peuples
europeens (1903); Nietzsche et I' " immoralisme " (1903); Le Mora-
lisme de Kant (1905).
FOULD, ACHILLE (1800-1867), French financier and politician,
was born at Paris on the I7th of November 1800. The son of
a rich Jewish banker, he was associated with and afterwards
succeeded his father in the management of the business. As
early as 1842 he entered political life, having been elected in
that year as a deputy for the department of the Hautes Pyrenees.
From that time to his death he actively busied himself with the
affairs of his country. He readily acquiesced in the revolution
of February 1848, and is said to have exercised a decided influence
in financial matters on the provisional government then formed.
He shortly afterwards published two pamphlets against the use
of paper money, entitled, Pas d'Assignats I and Observations
sur la question financiere. During the presidency of Louis
Napoleon he was four times minister of finance, and took a
leading part in the economical reforms then made in France.
His strong conservative tendencies led him to oppose the doctrine
of free trade, and disposed him to hail the coup d'Uat and the
new empire. On the 25th of January 1852, in consequence of
the decree confiscating the property of the Orleans family,
738
FOULIS FOUNDATIONS
he resigned the office of minister of finance, but was on the
same day appointed senator, and soon after rejoined the govern-
ment as minister of state and of the imperial household. In
this capacity he directed the Paris exhibition of 1855. The
events of November 1860 led once more to his resignation, but
he was recalled to the ministry of finance in November of the
following year, and retained office until the publication of the
imperial letter of the igth of January 1867, when Emile OHivier
became the chief adviser of the emperor. During his last tenure
of office he had reduced the floating debt, which the Mexican
war had considerably increased, by the negotiation of a loan
of 300 millions of francs (1863). Fould, besides uncommon
financial abilities, had a taste for the fine arts, which he developed
and refined during his youth by visiting Italy and the eastern
coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1857 he was made a member
of the Academy of the Fine Arts. He died at Tarbes on the 5th
of October 1867.
FOULIS, ANDREW (1712-1775) and ROBERT (1707-1776),
Scottish printers and publishers, were the sons of a Glasgow
mailman. Robert was apprenticed to a barber; but his ability
attracted the attention of Dr Francis Hutcheson, who strongly
recommended him to establish a printing press. After spending
1738 and 1739 in England and France in company with his
brother Andrew, who had been intended for the church and had
received a better education, he started business in 1741 in
Glasgow, and in 1743 was appointed printer to the university.
In this same year he brought out Demetrius Phalereus de
eloculione, in Greek and Latin, the first Greek book ever printed
in Glasgow; and this was followed in 1774 by the famous I2mo
edition of Horace which was long but erroneously believed to
be immaculate: though the successive sheets were exposed in
the university and a reward offered for the discovery of any
inaccuracy, six errors at least, according to T. F. Dibdin, escaped
detection. Soon afterwards the brothers entered into partner-
ship, and they continued for about thirty years to issue carefully
corrected and beautifully printed editions of classical works in
Latin, Greek, English, French and Italian. They printed more
than five hundred separate publications, among them the small
editions of Cicero, Tacitus, Cornelius Nepos, Virgil, Tibullus and
Propertius, Lucretius and Juvenal; a beautiful edition of the
Greek Testament, in small 4to; Homer (4 vols. fol., 1756-1758);
Herodotus, Greek and Latin (9 vols. izmo, 1761); Xenophon,
Greek and Latin (12 vols. I2mo, 1762-1767); Gray's Poems;
Pope's Works; Milton's Poems. The Homer, for which Flax-
man's designs were executed, is perhaps the most famous produc-
tion of the Foulis press. The brothers spared no pains, and
Robert went to France to procure manuscripts of the classics,
and to engage a skilled engraver and a copper-plate printer.
Unfortunately it became their ambition to establish an institution
for the encouragement of the fine arts; and though one of their
chief patrons, the earl of Northumberland, warned them to
" print for posterity and prosper," they spent their money in
collecting pictures, pieces of sculpture and models, in paying
for the education and travelling of youthful artists, and in
copying the masterpieces of foreign art. Their countrymen
were not ripe for such an attempt, and the " Academy " not only
proved a failure but involved the projectors in ruin. Andrew
died on the i8th of September 1775, and his brother went to
London, hoping to realize a large sum by the sale of his pictures.
They were sold for much less than he anticipated, and Robert
returned broken-hearted to Scotland, where he died at Edinburgh
on the 2nd of June 1776. Robert was the author of a Catalogue
of Paintings with Critical Remarks. The business was afterwards
carried on under the same name by Robert's son Andrew.
See W. J. Duncan, Notices and Documents illustrative of the Literary
History of Glasgow, printed for the Maitland Club (1831), which
inter alia contains a catalogue of the works printed at the Foulis
press, and another of the pictures, statues and busts in plaster of
Paris produced at the " Academy " in the university of Glasgow.
FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANCOIS (1717-1789), French admini-
strator, was born at Saumur. During the Seven Years' War he
was intendant-general of the armies, and intendant of the army
and navy under Marshal de Belle-Isle. In 1771 he was appointed
intendant of finances. In 1789, when Necker was dismissed,
Foullon was appointed minister of the king's household, and
was thought of by the reactionary party as a substitute. But
he was unpopular on all sides. The farmers-general detested
him on account of his severity, the Parisians on account of
his wealth accumulated in utter indifference to the sufferings
of the poor; he was reported, probably quite without foundation,
to have said, " If the people cannot get bread, let them eat hay."
After the taking of the Bastille on the I4th of July, he withdrew
to his estate at Vitry and attempted to spread the news of his
death; but he was recognized, taken to Paris, carried off with
a bundle of hay tied to his back to the h&tel de ville, and, in spite
of the intervention of Lafayette, was dragged out by the populace
and hanged to a lamp-post on the 22nd of July 1789.
See Eugene Bonnemere, Histoire des paysans (4th ed., 1887),
tome iii. ; C. L. Chassin, Les Elections et les cahiers de Paris en 1789.
(Paris, 1889), tomes iii. and iv.
FOUNDATION (Lat. fundalio, from fundare, to found), the
act of building, constituting or instituting on a permanent
basis; especially the establishing of any institution by endowing
or providing it with funds for its continual maintenance. The
word is thus applied also to the institutions so established, such
as a college, monastery or hospital; and the terms " on the
foundation," or " foundationer," are used of members of such a
college or society who enjoy, as fellows, scholars, &c., the benefits
of the endowment. Formerly " foundation " also meant the
charter or incorporation of any such institution or society, and
it is still applied to the funds used for the endowment of such
institutions.
The terms " old foundation " and " new foundation " used in
connexion with the organizing of English cathedral chapters
have no reference to the age of the cathedrals. At the time
of the Reformation under Henry VIII. the old college chapters
were left unchanged, and are referred to as the " old foundations,"
but the monastic chapters were all suppressed, consequently
new chapters had to be formed for their cathedrals and these
constitute the " new foundations."
" Foundation " also means the base (natural or artificial)
on which any erection is built up; generally made below the
level of the ground (see FOUNDATIONS below). A foundation-
stone is. one of the stones at the base of a building, generally a
corner-stone, frequently laid with a public ceremony to celebrate
the commencement of the building. The term is also applied
to the ground-work of any structure, such as, in dress-making,
the underskirt over which the real skirt is hung, any material
used for stiffening purposes, as " foundation muslin or net."
In knitting or crochet the first stitches on to which all the rest
are worked are called the " foundation chain." In gem-cutting
the " foundation-square " is the first of eight squares round the
edges of a brilliant made in bevel planes and from which the
angles are all removed to form three-corner facets.
FOUNDATIONS, in building. The object of foundations is
to distribute the weight of a structure equally over the ground.
In the construction of a building the weights are concentrated
at given points on piers, columns, &c., and these foundations
require to be spread so as to reduce the weight to an average.
In the preparation of a foundation care must be taken to prevent
the lateral escape of the soil or the movement of a bed upon
sloping ground, and it is also necessary to provide against any
damage by the action of the atmosphere. The soils met with
in ordinary practice, such as rock, gravel, chalk, clay and sand,
vary as to their capabilities of bearing weight. There is no
provision in any English building acts as to the load that may
be placed on any of these soils, but under the New York Building
Code it is provided that, where no test of the sustaining power
of the soil is made, different soils, excluding mud, at the bottom
of the footings shall be deemed to safely sustain' the following
loads to the superficial foot:
per sq. ft.
Soft clay i ton.
Ordinary soft clay and sand, together in layers,
wet and springy 2 tons.
Loam, clay or fine sand, firm and dry ... 3 tons.
Very firm coarse sand, stiff gravel or hard clay . 4 tons.
FOUNDATIONS
739
A comparison of the pressure exerted on an ordinary founda-
tion by the walls of the several thicknesses and heights provided
for by the London Building Act of 1894, and a corn-
Load oa parison of a few of the principal authorities, will be
found useful in helping us to arrive at a decision as to
what can safely be allowed. Take as an example a
wall of the warehouse class, 70 ft. high, whose section at the base
for a height of 27 ft. is 25 bricks thick (or 225 in.), and for the
same distance in height again is 2 bricks thick (or 18 in.), the
remainder to the top being ij bricks thick (or 14 in.). The
weight of brickwork per foot run of such a wall is 4-05 tons on
any area of 3-75 ft. super, of brickwork. According to the act
the concrete is to project 4 in. on each side; we have then an
additional area of -66 ft. super, to add, thus making the total
foundation area of each foot run of wall 4-41 ft. super, to take
a weight of 4-05 tons or nearly a ton per foot super, (viz.
9 ton.)
Another factor must, however, be taken into consideration,
viz. the weight distributed from the loaded floor and from the
roof. In this case there would be at least six floors, and the
entire weight could hardly be taken at less than 6 tons, which
would give a total weight of 10-05 tons on an area of 4-41 ft.
super, or a load of 2-28 tons per foot super. This is on the
assumption that no extra weight has been thrown on the founda-
tions by openings or piers, or by girders, &c., in which case, in
addition to the work being executed in cement, the foundations
should be increased in area. Piers always involve a great
increase of weight on the foundations, and in very many instances
this increased weight, instead of being provided for by increasing
the area of the foundations and so reducing the weight per foot
super., is only partly met by the improper method of merely
increasing the depth of the concrete, while keeping the same
projection of concrete round the footings as for the walls. As an
example take an iron column to carry a safe load of 80 tons,
standing on a York stone template, and in turn supported by
a brick pier 225 in. square. In this case we should have, after
allowing for the projection of concrete on either side, an area of
4 ft. 5 in. square, or 19-6 ft. super., and this would give a pressure
of 4-1 tons per foot on the foundations, or almost twice as much
as in the previous example of a warehouse wall. Here, instead
of increasing the depth of the concrete, it would be necessary
to increase its width; if it were made 6 ft. square, we should have
an area of 36 ft. super, to take the 80 tons, and thus the pressure
would only be 2-2 tons per foot, and the cost of the foundation
be much the same.
If we compare a section of wall of the dwelling-house class,
as prescribed by the London Building Act, we find that, taking a
wall 50 ft. high and having a thickness at base of 225 in. as for
the warehouse wall to which we have referred, we have a wall
weighing 3-75 tons per foot super, on an area of 4-41 feet super.,
or -85 ton per foot without weight of floors and roof as against
the -9 ton in the warehouse example. To this must be added the
weight of, say, 5 floors and roof at a total of 3 tons per foot run
of wall, and we then have an aggregate of 6-75 tons per foot run
and 1-50 tons per foot super, as against 2-28 tons in the warehouse
class.
If we turn from the act to text-books we find that Colonel
Seddon in the A ide Memoir gives the load which ordinary f ounda-
tions will bear as a safe load per foot super, as follows:
tons.
Rock, moderately hard 9
Rock of strength of good concrete ... 3
Rock, very soft 1-8
Firm earth i to
Hard clay I to.
Clean dry gravel and clean sharp sand prevented from
spreading sideways i to i\
Most of the work in London may be classed under one of the
latter heads, and according to this table we have, when we erect
walls in accordance with the building act, to overload our
foundations.
As to the possibility of spreading weights, we have as an
example the chimney at Adkin's Soap Works in Birmingham,
312 ft. high, so arranged that its pressure on the foundations is
only 15 tons per foot super.; also the great St Rollox chimney
at Glasgow, which has a pressure of if tons; the weight of the
Eiffel Tower (7500 tons) is so spread over 4 bases, each 130 ft.
square, that the pressure is only -117 ton, or 23 cwt., per foot
super. The Tower Bridge has a load of 16 tons per foot on the
granite bed under the columns of towers, reduced by spreading
to an actual pressure on the clay foundation of 4 tons. The piers
under the Holborn Viaduct have a load of 2j tons only, those of
the Imperial Institute 2j tons, and those of the destructor cells
and chimney shaft at Great Yarmouth 4 tons 6f cwt. per foot
super. From these various examples it would appear that on
sound clay or gravel foundation a load of from 2 J to 4 tons may
be employed with safety.
One of the first and most important requirements in preparing
drawings for a large building is to ascertain the nature of the sub-
soil and strata at different levels over the proposed site,
so as to be able to arrange the footings accordingly at the '
various depths and to decide as to the various forms and
methods to be employed. For this purpose trial holes or borings
are sunk until a suitable bed or bottom is found, upon which the
concrete foundation may safely be put. If no such solid bottom is
found, as often happens near the water side, special foundations
must be employed, such as dock, gridiron, cantilever and pile founda-
tions, &c., all of which will be described hereafter. As examples
of the varying subsoils we may mention the following, in which will
be noticed the great depths dug before getting through the made
ground : At the Bank of England there were 22 ft. of made ground
resting on 4 ft. of gravel. Some of the made ground was of ancient
date, and preserved relics of Roman occupation. In some parts the
subsoils have been excavated for ballast or gravel, as at Kensington,
or for brick earth, as at Highbury, and the pits filled in with rubbish.
Rock, which forms an excellent and unchanging foundation in one
situation, may prove a dangerous foundation in another. Thus
chalk forms a good limestone foundation in certain positions, but
when it dips towards a slope or a cliff with an outcrop of the gaillt
or underlying clay, it is a very unsuitable foundation for any building,
as the landslips in the Isle of Wight and on the Dorsetshire coast
bear witness. A boring made in Tallis Street, near the Thames
embankment, showed: (l) 1 8 in. ballast, dirty; (2) 6 in. greensand,
wet and dirty ; (3) 2 ft. peat clay ; (4) 6 in. greensand ; (5) 5 J f t. peaty
bog; (6) 9 ft. running sand; and (7) 4 ft. clean ballast, resting at a
depth of 23 ft. below the ground line upon blue clay. A boring at
Highbury New Park gave: (i) 2 ft. made ground, (2) 18 ft. loam,
(3) 9 ft. sand, (4) 4 ft. peat, and (5) 8 ft. gravel and sand. These
examples show that while trial holes should always be made before
designing a foundation, to ascertain the nature of the subsoil, care
must be taken not to calculate upon uniformity. Thus at the block
2 of the admiralty extension new buildings (London), one of the trial
holes upon the south-west side of the old buildings showed the clay
to be about 294 ft. below the surface of the ground, while actual
excavation proved the dip of the clay to be such that in the execution
of the new building it became necessary to underpin the north-west
corner of the old building at the deepest part 42 ft. below the ground.
The foundations of block I of the new admiralty buildings are placed
in a dock, built upon the London clay at a depth of 30 ft. in solid
concrete 6 ft. thick. At the Hotel Victoria, in Northumberland
Avenue (London), the various subsoils are as follows: (i) 38 $ ft.
made ground clay and gravel mixed, (2) 4 ft. gravel and sand, (3)
6 ft. rising sand ; (4) 2 ft. fine ballast, and at a depth of 50 ft. blue
clay. At the south end the clay was 43 ft. down and at the north
end 37 ft. The front wall was constructed on a concrete bed 9 ft.
wide. The site was surrounded by a similar wall of concrete about
6 ft. wide, forming a species of boxes, and the whole was covered
with a depth of 6 ft. of concrete upon which the walls were raised.
The foundation for 53 Parliament Street, where running sand was
encountered, was constructed with short piles, 7 or 8 ft. long and
6 in. diam., pointed and placed as close together as possible over
the whole foundation, the tops were then sawn off level, and a
concrete raft, 7 or 8 ft. thick, was built over the whole area. At the
Institution of Civil Engineers, Great George Street, Westminster,
the foundations to the two party walls upon each side of the
building were carried down about 22 ft. below the pavement level,
that on the west side being 22 ft. deep and that on the east side
24 ft.
The London Building Act and the model by-laws prohibit the
erection of buildings on sites that have been used as " shoots " for
faecal matter or vegetable refuse, and in such cases the
objectionable material must be removed prior to the ~"
commencement of building operations, and the holes '
from which it was taken filled up with dry brick or other rubbish
well rammed. Foundations are usually executed by excavators or
navvies, and the tools and implements used are boning rods, level
pegs, lines, spirit level, pickaxe, various shovels, wheel-barrow,
rammer or punner, &c. In digging the ordinary trenches and
740
FOUNDATIONS
excavations, should the ground be loose, planking and strutting have
to be employed. This consists of rough boarding put along the sides
of the trenches and wedged tight with waling pieces and struts;
this work is done by navvies. Figs. I and 2 show the general forms
of planking and strutting for the different soils.
In very large works of excavation in soft soil a steam digger is
used for the bulk of the work. It consists of a large steel bucket
with a cutting edge; this is lowered by means of a crane into the
excavation, and on being
withdrawn cuts off a portion
of soil which is hoisted and
deposited in carts for re-
moval to any desired posi-
tion within the radius com-
manded by the crane. The
work of trimming the exca-
vation to a regular shape
must always be done by
manual labour.
Concrete for filling into
the foundations is usually
mixed by navvies; for large
works it is sometimes mixed
by machinery.
In order that the work of
excavating and constructing
the foundations may proceed
in a water-logged site, pumps
have to be employed, and
where the inrush of water is
great it is usual to sink a sump
hole lower than the depth
required for the foundations,
and to use a steam pump
kept going day and night.
The foundation of a wall is required to be as follows in accordance
with the London Building and Amendment Acts: " The projection
of the bottom of the footings of every wall on each side of the wall
shall be at least equal to half of the thickness of the wall at its base,
unless an adjoining wall interferes, in which case the projection may
be omitted where that wall adjoins, and the diminution of the
footings of every wall shall be formed in regular offsets and the
height from the bottom of such footing to the base of the wall shall
be at least equal to two-thirds of the thickness of the wall at its
base." (See BRICKWORK.) The base of a wall is the thickness above
the footing; the footing is the brickwork built directly on the top
of the concrete and diminishing in width in every course. Thus:
" The projection of the bottom footing to be equal to one-half the
thickness of wall on
both sides " means
that a IsJ-in. wall
would require to
have three courses
of footings, the
bottom one being
27 in. wide. " The
height from the
bottom of such
footing to the base
of the wall shall be
at least equal to
two-thirds the
thickness of wall at
its base " means
that in the case of
a I3j-in. wall the
height of footings
would have to be
9 in., or three
courses of brick-
work, each measur-
ing 3 in.
The New York
Building Code
enters more fully
into the require-
ments for the foundation of walls as regards depth than that in use
in London. Section 25, Part 5, requires that every building, except
buildings erected upon solid rock, or upon wharves and piers on the
water front, shall have foundations of brick, stone, iron or concrete
laid not less then 4 ft. below the surface of the earth, on the solid
ground or level surface of rock, or upon piles or ranging timbers
when solid earth or rock is not found. Piles intended to sustain a
wall, pier or post, shall be spaced not more than 36 in. nor less than
20 in. on centres; they must be driven to a solid bearing if practic-
able, and their number must be sufficient to support the super-
structure proposed. No pile shall be used of less dimensions than
5 in. at the small end and 10 in. at the butt for short piles, or piles
20 ft. or less in length. No pile shall be weighted with a load exceed-
ing 40,000 Ib. When a pile is not driven to refusal, its safe sustaining
,/*"
FIG. 2.
power shall be determined by the following formula: twice the
weight of the hammer in tons multiplied by the height of the fall
in feet divided by the least penetration of pile under the last blow
in inches plus one. There are also further requirements as to piles,
&c., and the commissioner of buildings must be notified when the
piles are to be driven.
The New York Code, Section 26, further goes on to say that
foundation walls shall be constructed to include all walls and piers
built below the curb level or nearest tier of beams to the curb, to
serve as supports for the walls, piers, columns, girders, posts or
beams. Foundation walls shall be built of stone, brick, Portland
cement concrete, iron or steel. If built of rubble stone or Portland
cement concrete, they shall be at least 8 in. thicker than the wall
above them to a depth of 12 ft. below the curb level, and for every
additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper, they shall be increased 4 in.
in thickness. If built of brick, they shall be at least 4 in. thicker
than the wall next above them to a depth of 12 ft. below the curb
level, and for every additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper, they
shall be increased 4 in. in thickness. The footing or base course
shall be of stone or concrete, or both, or of concrete and stepped up
brickwork of sufficient thickness and area to bear safely the weight
to be. imposed thereon. If the footing or base course be of concrete,
the concrete shall not be less than 12 in. thick; if of stone, the stones
shall not be less than 2 X3 ft. and at least 8 in. in thickness for walls,
and not less than 10 in. in thickness if under piers, columns or posts.
The footing or base course, whether formed of concrete or stone, shall
be at least 12 in. wider than the bottom width of walls, and at least
12 in. wider on all sides than the bottom width of said piers, columns
or posts. If the superimposed load is such as to cause undue trans-
verse strain on a footing projecting 12 in., the thickness of such
footing is to be increased so as to carry the load with safety. For
small structures and for small piers sustaining light loads the com-
missioner of buildings having jurisdiction may, in his discretion,
allow a reduction in the thickness and projection specified for
footing or base courses. All base stones shall be bedded and laid
crosswise, edge to edge. If stepped-up footing of brick is used in place
of stone above the concrete, the offsets if laid in single courses shall
each not exceed i-| in., or, if laid in double courses, then each shall
not exceed 3 in. offsetting the first course of brickwork back one-half
the thickness of the concrete base, so as properly to distribute the
load to be imposed thereon. It will be seen by the foregoing that
the American acts are far more extensive than in London. The
London Building Act mentions that the footings of a wall shall rest
upon the solid ground or concrete or upon other solid substructure.
The building act amendment says: " The foundations of the walls
of every house or building shall be formed of a bed of good concrete
not less than 9 in. thick, and projecting at least 4 in. on each side
of the lowest course of footings."
Various Types of Foundations. The most natural foundations
for walls are those constructed where the walls are built directly
upon the ground ; this is only possible where the ground is very hard
or consists of rock, and in either of these cases the ground is simply
levelled and the building commenced.
The next and most universally recognized method, which might
safely be said to be adopted in 95% of all modern buildings, is the
system of placing a bed of concrete under the walls, digging trenches
where the walls are to come until a solid bottom is reached, and
in these laying the concrete. The London Building Act requires this
concrete bed to be at least 4 in. wider than the bottom course of
footings on each side of the wall, but it is generally made 6 in. wider
on each side and in general circumstances the depth of the concrete
is varied according to the weight placed upon it.
Where a site is in close proximity to a river or old water-course,
&c., where deep basements are excavated, or where the ground lies
low, naturally water is met with, and where water is the ground is
soft. It is here that special foundations are required.
In certain cases it is necessary to use concrete legs or stilts. These
are placed in such positions as to take the weights of the building,
and sunk to depths of 40 ft. more or less as the case may
require according to the nature of the ground; and on
the tops of these stilts concrete arches or lintels are
turned over (fig. 3). As an example of the stilt principle,
mention may be made of some premises at Stratford and
a church at South Bermondsey, London, in which concrete piers
were sunk at 12 ft. centres apart and 43 ft. square, in pot holes dug
put of made ground; then concrete arches were formed over the
intervening untrustworthy ground with a minimum thickness of
1 8 in. or the piers were connected by concrete lintels 3 ft. thick in
which steel joists were embedded. At Sion College, Victoria Em-
bankment, London, the foundations were formed with cement
concrete stilts or piers 8 ft. square, and going down to the London
clay ; from the tops of these stilts brick arches were turned, spanning
the spaces between the piers, and upon these arches the walls were
built.
Pile foundations, used in the case of soft ground, for small works,
consist either of stout scaffold poles or of timbers varying from 6 in.
to 12 in. square according to requirements (fig. 4). The bottom
ends of these timbers have an iron shoe with a point, so as to
be easily driven into the ground, and the tops of the timbers have
an iron band round, so that when the timbers are being driven in
Concrete
piers,
legs, or
stilts.
FOUNDATIONS
the band prevents them from splitting (fig. 5). The methods of
driving these piles are various. The usual plan is to erect a tempor-
ary structure, upon one side of which is a guide path
faced with sheet-iron so as to give a smooth face. Up
and down this guide path a heavy iron weight, called a
monkey, is worked; the monkey is hoisted to the top of
the guide path by means of a crab worked by hand or steam, and
Pile
founda-
tions.
LONGITU
SECTION
TRANSVERSE
SECTION
FIG. 3.
when released descends with a good force, and so drives the piles into
the ground. The monkey usually weighs from 2 cwt. to 10 cwt.
and is allowed a drop of 15 to 40 ft.
Piles are driven all round under the walls at varying intervals or
under piers where the weights of a building are to be concentrated. In
the erection of the Chicago public library four Norway pine piles, each
with an average diameter of 13 in., were driven to a depth of 52 \ ft.
and loaded with a dead load of 50-7 tons per pile for a period of two
weeks, and no settlement taking place 30 tons per pile was adopted
as a safe load. The following are some examples of loads used in
practice: passenger station, Harrison Street, Chicago, piles 50 ft.
FIG. 4.
in length, each carrying 25 tons; elevator, Buffalo, N.Y., piles 20 ft.
in length, weight 25 tons; Trinity church, Boston, 2 tons; Schiller
building, Chicago, 55 tons per pile, but in this case the building
settled considerably. All timber grillage and the tops of all piles
should be kept below the lowest water level, and be capped with
concrete or stone. In Boston it is obligatory to cap with blocks
of granite.
Another form of foundation takes the shape of Portland cement
concrete blocks, and is used chiefly for bridges and in marshy land,
&c. In some cases cylinders of brickwork are built, and
the centres are filled with blocks of concrete and grouted
in. The Yarmouth destructor cells and chimney shaft
were built in this way; the cylinders were constructed of 9 in.
brickwork built in Portland cement, the lower 4 ft. being encased
in a wooden drum with cutting edge sunk into the gravel and sand
Concrete
pile*.
at least 2 ft. The cylinders were sunk by the aid of a grab, the
bottom being levelled and the concrete blocks laid by a diver.
Use is also made of piles consisting of Portland cement concrete
having steel rods embedded in it, and provided with iron shoes and
head for driving (fig. 6).
Cast iron screw piles (fig. 7) used in very loose sandy soils, consist
of large hollow cast iron columns with flat screw blades cast on the
lower ends. The projection of this screw from the pile may vary
from 9 in. to 18 in. with a pitch of from one-quarter to one-half of
the projection, the blade making a little over one turn round the
shaft. For most requirements a diameter of screw from 3J to 4^ ft.
will be found sufficient, a sandy foundation requiring the largest.
The lower end of the tube is generally left open, the edge being
FIG. 5.
FIG. 6.
FIG. 7.,
FlG. 8.
bevelled and occasionally provided with teeth to assist in cutting
into and penetrating the soil.
Another system of piling known as sheet piling (fig. 8), consists
in driving piles into the ground at intervals, and between these,
also driven into the ground, are timbers measuring 3 in. by 9 in.,
which form a wall to keep the soft earth up under the building. In
this way the earth is prevented from spreading out and so causing
the building to settle unevenly.
Another kind of foundation, known as plank foundation (fig. 9),
consists of elm planks, about 9 in. by 3 in. laid across the
trench and spiked together; on the top of these are laid
similar planks but at right angles to the last, and upon
the platform thus formed the wall is built. This method
is used in soft ground.
Caissons are usually employed by engineers for the construction
of the foundations of bridge piers, but instances of their use in
foundations for buildings are to be found in the American Caissons
Surety and the Manhattan Life Insurance buildings,
New York City. The latter building is 242 ft. high to the parapet,
and the dome and tower rise 108 ft. higher. The building is carried
Plank
founda-
tions.
FIG. 9.
on 16 solid masonry piers, taken down 54 ft. below the street level
to solid rock, and these piers support the 34 cast iron columns upon
which the building is erected. The piers to each building were
constructed by the pneumatic caisson process (see CAISSON).
A good plan for foundations when the ground is loose and sandy
is to build upon wells of brickwork, a method which has been suc-
cessfully practised in Madras. The wells are made
circular, about 3 ft. in diameter and one brick thick.
The first course is laid and cemented together on the
surface of the ground when it is dry, and the earth is
excavated inside and round about it to allow it to sink. Then another
is laid over it and again sunk. The well is thus built downwards.
The brickwork is sunk bodily to a depth of 10 ft. or more, according
Well
founda-
tions.
742
FOUNDATIONS
to building to be erected upon it, and the interior is filled up with
rubble work. All the public buildings at Madras were erected upon
foundations of this kind. Well foundations were employed under
the city hall, Kansas City, and the Stock Exchange, Chicago.
Coffer dams are wooden structures used to keep back the water
whilst putting in foundations on the waterside, and are constructed
with two rows of timbers, 12 in. square as piles spaced
about 6 ft. apart, and filled in between with a double row
of 2 in. o r 3 in. boards, the space between the rows being
packed with clay puddle (fig. 10). The general rule for the thickness of
a coffer dam is to make it equal to the depth of water. An interesting
Coffer
dams.
Cantilever
founda-
tions.
FlG. 10.
example of a coffer dam is that at the Keyham dock extension,
where piles varied in length from 65 ft. to 85 ft. They were driven in
a double row 5 ft. apart, and over 13,000 were used.
Dock foundations are constructed after the fashion of a large
concrete tank, and are adapted to large sites where a difficulty
arises as to the ingress of water. They are considered
the best method of constructing a building on soft ground
and of keeping a building dry (fig. n). This type of
foundation was used at the new colonial office, Whitehall,
London, and the new admiralty buildings at St James's Park,
London. A few buildings treated after the style of a dock, but in
some instances without the enclosing walls, are the following:
FIG. ii.
At the admiralty buildings already mentioned a concrete retaining
wall completely surrounds the exterior below the ground, and is
joined up to the underpinning work; the whole site being covered
with concrete 6 ft. thick, a huge tank is formed of an average inside
clear depth of 20 ft. in which the basements are built. The new
" Old Bailey " buildings in Newgate Street, London, are constructed
on a concrete table 5 ft. thick, as also are the Army and Navy
Auxiliary Stores, Victoria Street. At Kennel's Wharf, near South-
wark Bridge, a concrete table, 8 ft. thick, was spread all over the
site, with an extra thickness under the walls. Foundations formed
similarly to dock foundations, but in addition having steel joists and
rods inserted in the thickness of the concrete table, to tie the whole
together, are known as gridiron foundations.
In the Hennebique concrete system, all beams, &c., are formed
with small rods and then surrounded with concrete; it is designed
for floors and for spreading the weight of a building over an extended
foundation on soft ground.
Where a heavy wall is to be built against an old one and there is
not sufficient room for the foundations, the plan is adopted of
building pier foundations at some distance from the pro-
posed new wall. On the top of these piers rest
steel cantilevers over steel pin rockers upon cast
iron bedplates; the cantilevers are secured at one
end to a column, while the other ends go through the full
thickness of the new wall. Upon these last ends is placed a
steel girder upon which the wall is built. This construction
(fig. 12) has been used in America, and in the Ritz Hotel,
Piccadilly, London.
Another form of cantilever foundations was employed in
the case of some premises at Carr's Lane, Birmingham,
partly built over the Great Western railway tunnel (fig. 13).
In this instance large piers were built below the ground at
the side of the tunnel. From the tops of these piers large
steel cantilevers were erected projecting over the crown of
the tunnel, and on these steel girders were fixed and the
building constructed upon them.
In modern Tunis, a section of which city is built on marshy
ground, the subsoil is an oozy sediment, largely deposited
by the sewage water from the ancient or Arab Found*-
quarter of the city, which is situated on an adjacent tlons la
hill. This semi-fluid mud has a depth of about Tunis.
33 ft. To prepare the soil for supporting an
ordinary house, pits from 8 ft. to 10 ft. square are exca-
vated to a depth of about 10 ft., to the level of the ground
water. A mixture is made of the excavated soil and
powdered fat lime, procured from clinkers and unburnt
stone from the lime-kilns, which soon crumbles to fine dust
when exposed to the air. The mixture is thrown into pits in
layers about 12 in. thick and rammed down for a very long
time by specially trained labourers. A gang of 15 or 20
men will work at least 10 or 12 days ramming for the
foundations of a moderate-sized house. An extremely hard
bed is thus obtained, reaching to within 18 in. of the surface
of the ground, and on this artificial bed the foundations of
the building are laid. Although this method of construc-
tion is crude, it is stated that the practical results are
superior to those obtained by using piles, concrete or other
recognized methods, and in all cases the cost is much less,
for labour is cheap.
A novel and interesting foundation was designed for a
signal station at Cape Henlopen, Delaware. This is built on
top of the highest sandhill at Cape Henlopen, so Building
that the observer may have an unobstructed onsaa a.
view ; it rises about 80 ft. above the level of the
sea and is exposed to all winds and weather, while it is
absolutely required that it shall stand firmly planted in
such a way that even a hurricane shall not shake it or
make it tremble, since that would affect the sight of the telescope
in the observatory. The usual mode of securing such a building is
by means of a foundation of screw piles or of heavy timbers sunk
into the sand; this method, however, has the disadvantage that if
gtelcr M\ed dfffm and
with shtidunt obov*
FIG. 12.
the wind shifts the sand away from around the foundation, it
becomes undermined and its effect is destroyed. To avoid such an
accident, recourse was had to the following design, which was
considered to be cheap and at the same time to provide an effective
anchorage. The building is entirely of wood; it has a cellar,
above which are two rooms one above the other, and the whole is
FOUNDING
743
surmounted by the observatory proper. First, the ground sill is a
square of 20 ft., made of yellow pine sticks mortised together and
pinned with stout trunnels. The sill of the observatory is made
nkewise of heavy timbers, 12 ft. long. The two sills are joined
together by four stout yellow pine corner posts, which in turn are
mortised into both sills. The posts are 26 ft. in length. Five feet
above the lower sill is the sill which supports the floor of the first
room. Ten feet above this is the sill which supports the upper
room. Both these sills again are mortised into the corner posts.
The structure is sheathed outside with German siding, and inside
with rough boards covered with felt, and again by tongued and
grooved yellow pine boards. The observatory proper, octagonal
in shape, is securely mortised into the top sill and covered with a
plan at baftcment.
FIG. 13. Cantilever Foundation over Railway Tunnel.
corrugated iron roof conical in shape. The cellar is floored with
3 in. wood, and boarded all round on the inside of the posts. A pit
was first dug in the sand about 6 ft. deep and fully 20 ft. wide on
the bottom. The cellar sill was laid on this bottom, and the structure
built upon it; thus the whole depth of cellar is sunk below the top
of the hill or the level of the sand. The cellar was then filled up
with sand and packed solid all round, consequently the building is
anchored in its place by the load in the cellar, about 100 tons in
weight.
The subject of foundations, being naturally of the first importance,
is one that calls for most careful study. It is not of so much import-
ance that the ground be hard or even rocky as that :t be compact
and of similar consistency throughout. It is not always that a site
answers to this description, and the problem of what will be the best
form of foundation to use in placing a building, more especially if
that building be of large dimensions and consequently great weight,
on a site of soft yielding soil, is one that is often most difficult of
solution. The foregoing article indicates in a brief manner some of
the obstacles the architect or engineer is required to surmount before
his work can even be started on its way to completion.
AUTHORITIES. The principal books for reference on this subject
are: A Practical Treatise on Foundations, by W. M. Patton, C. E. ;
Building Construction and Superintendence, part L, by F. E. Kidder;
Notes on Building Construction, vols. i. ii. and iii. ; Aide Memoir,
vol. ii., by Colonel Seddon, R.E.; Advanced Building Construction,
by C. F. Mitchell; Modern House Construction, by G. L. Sutcliffe;
Building Construction, by Professor Henry Adams; Practical
Building Construction, by J. P. Allen. (J. BT.)
FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour), the process of casting
in metal, of making a reproduction of a given object by running
molten metal into a mould taken in sand, loam or plaster from
that object. To enable the founder to prepare a mould for the
casting, he must receive a pattern similar to the casting required.
Some few exceptions occur, to be noted presently, but the above
statement is true of perhaps 98% of all castings produced. The
construction of such patterns gives employment to a large
number of highly skilled men, who can only acquire the necessary
knowledge through an apprenticeship lasting from five to seven
years. A knowledge of two trades at least is involved in the
work of pattern construction that of the craft itself and that
of the moulder and founder. Patterns have to be constructed
strongly. They are generally of wood, and they thus require
skill in the use of woodworking tools and the making of timber
joints, together with a knowledge of the behaviour of timber,
&c. Some few patterns are made in iron, brass or white metal
alloys. They have to be embedded in a matrix of sand by the
founder, and being enclosed, they have to be withdrawn without
inflicting any damage in the way of fracture in the sand. Since
cast work involves shapes that are often very intricate, including
projections and hollow spaces of all forms, it is obvious that the
withdrawal of the patterns without entailing tearing up and
fracture of the sand must involve many difficult problems that
have to be as fully understood by the pattern-maker as by the
moulder. It is from this point of view that the work of the pattern-
maker should be approached in the first place. No closed mould
can possibly be made without one or more joints, for if a pattern
is wholly enclosed in a matrix of sand it cannot be withdrawn
except by making a parting in the sand, and it is not difficult to
conceive that the parting in the pattern might advantageously
be made to coincide, either exactly or approximately, with that
of the mould. Nor must obstacles exist to the free withdrawal
of patterns. They must therefore not be wider or larger in the
lower than in the upper parts; actually they are made a trifle
smaller or " tapered." Nor may they have any lateral extensions
into the lower sand, unless these can be made to withdraw
separately from the main portion of the pattern. Finally, there
are many internal spaces which cannot be formed by a pattern
directly in the sand, but provision for which must be made by
some means extraneous to the pattern, as by cores.
A single example must illustrate the main principles which have
just been stated. The object selected is a bracket which involves
questions of joints, of cores, of pattern construction and of moulding.
The casting, the pattern, and its mould are illustrated. Fig. I
illustrates in plan the casting of a double bracket, the end elevation
of which is seen in fig. 2; the pattern of which presents obvious
FIG.
FIG. 2.
difficulties in the way of withdrawal from a mould, supposing it
were made just like its casting. But if it be made as in fig. 3, with
the open spaces A, B, in fig. 2, occupied with core prints, and the
pieces A, A in fig. 3 left loosely skewered on, everything will " de-
liver " freely. Moreover the pattern might be made solidly as
shown in fig. 3, or else jointed and dowelled in the plane a-a, as
in fig. 4, or along the upper faces of the prints b-b, fig. 3. The
744
FOUNDING
timber shadings in figs. 3 and 4 illustrate points in the most suitable
arrangement of material. The prints are " boxed up." Fig. 4
shows a certain stage of the moulding, in which one half of the pattern
has been " rammed " in sand, and turned over in the " bottom^box,"
and the upper half is ready to be rammed in the " top box," with
" runner pin " or " git stick " A, set in place. The lower loose piece
has had its skewer removed during the ramming. Fig. 5 illustrates
the mould completed and ready for pouring. The boxes have been
parted, the pattern has
been withdrawn, cores,
inserted in the impres-
sions left by the prints,
vents taken from the
central body of
cinders, the pouring
basin made and the
boxes cottered
together.
Every single detail
now briefly noted in
connexion with this
bracket is applied and
modified in an almost
infinite number of
ways to suit the ever
varying character of
P foundry work. Yet
this process does not
touch some of the great subdivisions of moulding and casting.
There is a large volume of large and heavy work for which complete
patterns and core boxes are never made, because of the great expense
that would be involved in the pattern construction. There are also
some cases in which the methods adopted would not permit of the
use of patterns, as in that group of work in which the sand or loam
is " swept " to the form required for the moulds and cores by means
of striking boards, loam boards, core boards or strickles. In these
classes of moulding the loose green sands and core sands are not
much used; instead, loam a wet and plastic sand mixture is
employed, supported against bricks (loam moulds) or against core
bars and plates, and hay ropes (loam cores). All heavy marine
engine cylinders are thus made by sweeping, and all massive cores
for engine cylinders and large pipes, besides much large circular and
cylindrical work, as foundation cylinders, soap pans, lead pans,
mortar pans, large propeller blades, &c. In these cases the edge of
the striking board is a counterpart of the profile of the work swept
up. Joints also have to be made in such moulds, not of course in
order to provide for the removal of a pattern, but for the exposure
Print
FIG. 4.
of the separate parts in course of construction, and for closing them
up, or putting them together in their due relations. These joints
also are swept by the boards, generally cut to produce suitable
" checks," or " registers " to ensure that they accurately fit together.
Fig. 6, showing a portion of a swept-up mould, illustrates the general
arrangement. A plate, A, carries a quantity of bricks, B, which are
embedded in loam, and break joint. To a striking bar, C, sup-
ported in a step, a striking board or sweeping board, D, is bolted,
and is swept round against plastic loam, which is afterwards dried.
The check on the board at A corresponds with a similar check on the
board which strikes the interior of the pan, and by which top and
bottom portions of the mould are registered together. This is
indicated in dotted outline. Its mould also is swept on bricks, and
turned over into place, and the metal is poured into the space 6, b,
between the two moulds. There is also a large group of swept-up
work which is not symmetrical about a centre of rotation. Then
the movements of the sweeping boards are controlled by the edges
of " core plates," or of " core irons " (fig. 7). Bend pipes, and the
Pouring Basin
FIG. 5.
volute casings of centrifugal pumps and pipes, afford examples of
this kind. In fig. 7, A is the core iron, held down by weights, and
B the " strickle," sweeping up the half bend C, two such halves
pasted together completing the core.
FlG, 6. ...;;
Core-making is a special department of foundry work, often
involving as much detail as the construction and moulding of
patterns. Two perfectly plain boxes are shown in figs. 8 and 9, in
both of which provision exists for removing the box parts from the
core after the latter has been rammed. Core boxes are jointed and
tapered, and often have loose pieces within them, and also prints,
into the impressions of which other cores are inserted.
FIG. 7.
Machine-moulding. There is a development of modern
methods of founding which is effecting radical changes in some
departments of foundry practice, namely, moulding by machines.
The advantages of this method are manifold, and its limitations
FOUNDING
745
are being lessened continually. There are two broad departments
between which machine-moulding is divided. One, of less
importance, is that of toothed wheels; the other is that of general
work, except of a very massive character.
Gear-wheel' moulding machines are essentially a special
adaptation of the mechanism of the dividing engine, by means
of which, instead of using a complete pattern of a toothed wheel,
two or three pattern teeth
are used, and the machine
takes charge of the correct
pitching or division of the
teeth moulded therefrom,
leaving to the moulder the
FIG. 9.
work only of turning the handle of the division plate, and
ramming the sand around the pattern teeth. The result is
accurate pitching, and the use of two or three teeth instead of a
full pattern, together with any core boxes and striking boards
that are necessary for the arms.
The other department of machine moulding includes nearly
every conceivable class of work of small and medium dimensions.
There are some dozens of distinct types of machines in use, for
no one type is suitable for all classes of moulds, while some are
designed specially for one or two kinds only.
The fundamental principles of operation are briefly these: The
pattern parts constitute, by their method of attachment to a plate
or table A (fig. 10), an integral portion of the machine, so that they
must partake of
certain move-
ments which
are imparted to
it. Often pat-
terns mounted,
as in fig. 10, are
moulded by
hand, without
any aid from
a machine, by
met hod s of
" plate - mould-
ing." The de-
livery of the
pattern from
the sand is in-
variably ac-
complished by
a perpendicular
movement of a
portion of the
machine (fig.
ll), withdraw-
ing either the
pattern from
the mould or
the mould from
the pattern.
The important
point is that
the perpendicu-
lar movement,
being under the
coercion of the
vertical guides
provided in the
hand machines,
or the hydraulic
FIG. 10.
ram in fig. II, is free from the unsteadiness which is incidental
to withdrawal by the hands of the moulder; and if the machine
performed nothing more than this it would justify its" existence.
Little or no taper is required in the pattern, and the moulds
are more nearly uniform in dimensions than hand-made moulds.
But there arc other advantages. In machine-moulding the joint
faces for parting moulds are produced by the faces of the plates
on which the pattern is mounted (figs. 10 and ll), instead of by
the hands and trowel of the moulder. When the joint face is of
irregular outline, as it often is, this item alone saves a good deal of
time, which again is multiplied by the number of moulds repeated,
often amounting to thousands. Further, provision is generally
made on machine plates for the ingates and runners (fig. 10)
through which the metal enters the mould, the preparation of which
in hand work occupies a considerable amount of time. Another
great advantage applies especially to the case of deep moulds.
These give much trouble in hand-moulding in consequence of the
liability of the sand to become torn up during the withdrawal of
the pattern. But in machine-moulding such patterns are encircled
by a plate, termed a " stripping plate," which is pierced to allow
the patterns to pass through, and which, being maintained firmly
on the sand during the lifting of the pattern, prevents it from
becoming torn up. This is not merely a matter of convenience, but
is a necessity in numerous instances. The most familiar example
is that of the teeth of gear wheels, in which even a very slight amount
of taper interferes with accurate engagement, and this is repre-
sentative of many other portions of mechanism. These stripping
FIG. II.
plates are of metal, but in order to save the cost of filing them in
iron or steel, many are cheaply made by casting a white metal alloy
round the actual pattern itself in the first place, the white metal
being enclosed and retained in a plain iron frame which forms the
body of the plate. Lastly, many machines, but not the majority,
include provision for mechanically ramming the sand around the
pattern by power instead of by hand. This is really the least
valuable feature of a moulding machine, because it is not applicable
to any but rather shallow moulds. It is commonly used for these,
but the consistence and homogeneity of a mass of sand round a
pattern having deep perpendicular sides can only be ensured by
careful hand ramming.
The highest economies of machine-moulding are obtained when
(l) several small patterns are mounted and moulded at once on a
single plate (fig. 10); (2) when top and bottom parts of a mould
are produced on different machines, carrying each its moiety of
the pattern ; (3) when the machine and pattern details are simplified
so much that the labour of trained moulders is displaced by that of
unskilled attendants who are taught in a month or two the few
simple operations required. That is the direction in which repetitive
casting is now rapidly tending.
In fig. II A is the plate, which in its essentials corresponds with
the plate A in fig. 10, but which in the machine is made to swivel so
as to bring each half of the pattern B, B in turn uppermost for
ramming in the box parts C, C. The ramming is done by hand, the
final squeeze being imparted against the presser D by the action of
the hydraulic ram E pushing the plate, mould and box up against D.
The plate being then lowered, and turned over, the further descent
of the ram withdraws the bottom box from the pattern, which is the
stage seen in the illustration. Then the half mould is run away on
the carriage F, provided with wheels to run on rails.
Though casting in iron, steel, the bronzes, aluminium, &c., is
746
FOUNDLING HOSPITALS
carried on by different men in distinct shops, yet the foregoing
principles and methods apply to all alike. Work is done in green,
i.e. moist sand, in dry sand (the moulds being dried before being
used), and in plastic loam (which is subsequently dried). Hand and
machine moulding are practised in each, the last-named excepted.
The differences in working are those due to the various characteristics
of the different metals and alloys, which involve differences in the
sand mixtures used, in the dimensions of the pouring channels, of
the temperature at which the metal or alloy must be poured, of the
fluxing and cleansing of the metal, and other details of a practical
character. Hence the practice which is suitable, for one department
must be modified in others. Many castings in steel would inevitably
fracture if poured into moulds prepared for iron, many iron castings
would fracture if poured into moulds suitable for brass, and neither
brass nor steel would fill a mould having ingates proportioned
suitably for iron.
A soecial kind of casting is that into " chill moulds," adopted in
a considerable number of iron castings, such as the railway wheels
in the United States, ordinary tramway wheels, the rolls of iron and
steel rolling mills, the bores of cast wheel hubs, &c. The chill ranges
in depth from J in. to I in., and is produced by pouring a special
mixture of mottled, or strong, iron against a cold iron surface, the
parts of the casting which are not required to be chilled being sur-
rounded by an ordinary mould of sand. The purpose of chill-casting
is to produce a surface hardness in the metal.
The shrinkage of metal is a fact which has to be taken account
of by the pattern-maker and moujder. A pattern and mould are
made larger than the size of the casting required by the exact amount
that the metal will shrink in cooling from the molten to the cold
state. This amount varies from J in. in 15 in., in thin iron castings,
to i in. in 12 in. in heavy ones. It ranges from fg in. to ft in. per
foot in steel, brass and aluminium. Its variable amount has to be
borne in mind in making light and heavy castings, and castings with
or without cores, for massive cores retard shrinkage. It is also a
fruitful cause of fracture in badly proportioned castings, particularly
of those in steel. Brass is less liable to suffer in this respect than
iron, and iron much less than steel. (J. G. H.)
FOUNDLING HOSPITALS, originally institutions for the
reception of " foundlings," i.e. children who have been abandoned
or exposed, and left for the public to find and save. The early
history of such institutions is connected with the practice of
infanticide, and in western Europe where social disorder was
rife and famine of frequent occurrence, exposure and extensive
sales of children were the necessary consequences. Against these
evils, which were noticed by several councils, the church provided
a rough system of relief, children being deposited (jaclali) in
marble shells at the church doors, and tended first by the
tnalricularii or male nurses, and then by the nutricarii or foster-
parents. 1 But it was in the 7th and 8th centuries that definite
institutions for foundlings were established in such towns as
Treves, Milan and Montpellier. In the isth century Garcias,
archbishop of Valencia, was a conspicuous figure in this charitable
work; but his fame is entirely eclipsed by that of St Vincent de
Paul, who in the reign of Louis XIII., with the help of the
countess of Joigny, Mme le Gras and other religious ladies,
rescued the foundlings of Paris from the horrors of a primitive
institution named La Couche (rue St Landry), and ultimately
obtained from Louis XIV. the use of the Bicetre for their accom-
modation. Letters patent were granted to the Paris hospital
in 1670. The H&tel-Dieu of Lyons was the next in importance.
No provision, however, was made outside the great towns; the
houses in the cities were overcrowded and administered with
laxity; and in 1784 Necker prophesied that the state would yet
be seriously embarrassed by this increasing evil. 2 From 1452
to 1789 the law had imposed on the seigneurs de haute justice the
duty of succouring children found deserted on their territories.
The first constitutions of the Revolution undertook as a state
debt the support of every foundling. For a time premiums were
given to the mothers of illegitimate children, the " enfants de la
patrie." By the law of 12 Brumaire, An II. " Toute recherche
de la paternite est interdite," while by art. 341 of the Code
Napoleon, " la recherche de la maternite est admise."
France. The laws of France relating to this part of what is called
L' Assistance Publique are the decree of January 181 1, the instruction
of February 1823, the decree of the 5th of March 1852, the law of
1 See Capitularia regum Francorum, ii. 474.
* De I' administration des finances, iii. 136; see also the article
" Enfant expose " in Diderot's Encyclopedic, 1755, and Chamousset's
Memoire politique sur les enfants, 1757.
the sth of May 1869, the law of the 24th of July 1889 and the law
of the 27th of June 1904. These laws carry out the general principles
of the law of 7 Frimaire An V., which completely decentralized the
system of national poor relief established by the Revolution. The
enfants assistes include, besides (i) orphans and (2) foundlings
proper, (3) children abandoned by their parents, (4) ill-treated,
neglected or morally abandoned children whose parents have been
deprived of their parental rights by the decision of a court of justice,
(5) children, under sixteen years of age, of parents condemned for
certain crimes, whose parental rights have been delegated by a
tribunal to the state. Children classified under 1-5 are termed
pupilles de I'assistance, " wards of public charity," and are distin-
guished by the law of 1904 from children under the protection of the
state, classified as: (i) enfants secourus, i.e. children whose parents
or relatives are unable, through poverty, to support them; (2)
enfants en depot, i.e. children of persons undergoing a judicial sentence
and children temporarily taken in while their parents are in hospital,
and (3) enfants en garde, i.e. children who have either committed or
been the victim of some felony or crime and are placed under state
care by judicial authority. The asylum which receives all these
children is a departmental (etablissement depositaire), and not a
communal institution. The Etablissement dfepositaire is usually
the ward of an hospice, in which with the exception of children
en dep6t the stay is of the shortest, for by the law of 1904, continuing
the principle laid down in 1811, all children under thirteen years of
age under the guardianship of the state, except the mentally or
physically infirm, must be boarded out in country districts. They
are generally apprenticed to some one engaged in the agricultural
industry, and until majority they remain under the guardianship
of the administrative commissioners of the department. The state
pays the whole of the cost of inspection and supervision. The
expenses of administration, the " home " expenses, for the nurse
(nourrice sedentaire) or the wet nurse (nourrice au sein), the prime
de survie (premium on' survival), washing, clothes, and the "out-
door " expenses, which include (i) temporary assistance to un-
married mothers in order to prevent desertion ; (2) allowances to the
foster-parents (nourriciers) in the country for board, school-money,
&c. ; (3) clothing; (4) travelling-money for nurses and children;
(5) printing, &c. ; (6) expenses in time of sickness and for burials
and apprentice fees are borne in the proportion of two-fifths by
the state two-fifths by the department, and the remaining fifth by
the communes. The following figures show the number of children
(exclusive of enfants secourus) relieved at various periods:
Year. Number relieved.
1890 .... 95.701
1895 .... 121,201
1900 .... 138,308
1905 .... 149.803
The droit de recherche is conceded to the parent on payment of a
small fee. The decree of 1811 contemplated the repayment of all
expenses by a parent reclaiming a child. The same decree directed
a tour or revolving box (Drehcylinder in Germany) to be kept at
each hospital. These have been discontinued. The " Assistance
Publique " of Paris is managed by a " directeur " appointed by the
minister of the interior, and associated with a representative conseil
de surveillance. The Paris Hospice des Enfants-Assistes contains
about 700 beds. There are also in Paris numerous private charities
for the adoption of poor children and orphans. It is impossible
here to give even a sketch of the long and able controversies which
have occurred in France on the principles of management of found-
ling hospitals, the advantages of tours and the system of admission
d bureau ouvert, the transfer of orphans from one department to
another, the hygiene and service of hospitals and the inspection of
nurses, the education and reclamation of the children and the rights
of the state in their future. Reference may be made to the works
noticed at the end of this article.
Belgium. In this country the arrangements for the relief of
foundlings and tha appropriation of public funds for that purpose
very much resemble those in France, and can hardly be usefully
described apart from the general questions of local government and
poor law administration. The Commissions des Hospices Civiles,
however, are purely communal bodies, although they receive
pecuniary assistance from both the departments and the state. A
decree of 1811 directed that there should be an asylum and a wheel
for receiving foundlings in every arrondissement. The last " wheel,"
that of Antwerp, was closed in 1860. (See Des Institutions de
bienfaisance el de prevoyance en Belgique, 1850 a 1860, par M. P.
Lentz.)
Italy is very rich in foundling hospitals, pure and simple, orphans
and other destitute children being separately provided for. (See
Delia carita prevenliva in Italia, by Signer Fano.) Jn Rome one
branch of the Santo Spirito in Sassia (so called from the Schola
Saxonum built in 728 by King Ina in the Borgo) has, since the time
of Pope Sixtus IV., been devoted to foundlings. The average annual
number of foundlings supported is about 3000. (See The Charitable
Institutions of Rome, by Cardinal Morichini.) In Venice the Casa
degli Esposti or foundling hospital, founded in 1346, and receiving
450 children annually, is under provincial administration. The
splendid legacy of the last doge, Ludovico Manin, is applied to the
FOUNTAIN
747
support of about 160 children by the " Congregazione di Carita "
acting through 30 parish boards (deputazione fralcrnate) .
Austria. InAustriafoundling hospitals occupiedavery prominent
place in the general instructions which, by rescript dated 1 6th of April
1781, the emperor Joseph II. issued to the charitable endowment
commission. In 1818 foundling asylums and lying-in houses were
declared to be state institutions. They were accordingly supported
by the state treasury until the fundamental law of 2Oth October
1860 handed them over to the provincial committees. They are
now local institutions, depending on provincial funds, and are quite
separate from the ordinary parochial poor institute. Admission is
gratuitous when the child is actually found on the street, or is sent
by a criminal court, or where the mother undertakes to serve for
four months as nurse or midwife in an asylum, or produces a
certificate from the parish priest and " poor-father " (the parish
inspector of the poor-law administration) that she has no money.
In other cases payments of 30 to 100 florins are made. When two
months old the child is sent for six or ten years to the houses in the
neighbourhood of respectable married persons, who have certificates
from the police or the poor-law authorities, and who are inspected
by the latter and by a special medical officer. These persons receive
a constantly diminishing allowance, and the arrangement may be
determined by 14 days' notice on either side. The foster-parents
may retain the child in their service or employment till the age of
twenty-two, but the true parents may at any time reclaim the
foundling on reimbursing the asylum and compensating the foster-
parents.
Russia Under the old Russian system of Peter I. foundlings
were received at the church windows by a staff of women paid by
the state. But since the reign of Catherine II. the foundling hospitals
have been in the hands of the provincial officer of public charity
(prykaz obshestvennago pryzrenya). The great central institutions
(Vospitatelnoi Dom), at Moscow and St Petersburg (with a branch
at Gatchina), were founded by Catherine. When a child is brought
the baptismal name is asked, and a receipt is given, by which the
child may be reclaimed up to the age of ten. The mother may nurse
her child. After the usual period of six years in the country very
great care is taken with the education, especially of the more promis-
ing children. The hospital is a vajuable source of recruits for the
public service. Malthus (The Principles of Population, vol. i. p. 434)
has made a violent attack on these Russian charities. He argues
that they discourage marriage and therefore population, and that
the best management is unable to prevent a high mortality. He
adds: " An occasional child murder from false shame is saved
at a very high price if it can be done only by the sacrifice of some
of the best and most useful feelings of the human heart in a great
part of the nation." It does not appear, however, that the rate of
illegitimacy in Russia is comparatively high ; it is so in the two great
cities. The rights of parents over the children were very much re-
stricted, and those of the government much extended by a ukase
issued by the emperor Nicholas in 1837. The most eminent Russian
writer on this subject is M. Gourov. See his Recherches sur les
enfants trouves, and Essai sur I'hisloire des enfants trouves (Paris,
1829).
In America, foundling hospitals, which are chiefly private charities,
exist in most of the large cities.
Great Britain. The Foundling Hospital of London was incor-
porated by royal charter in 1 739 " for the maintenance and education
of exposed and deserted young children." The petition of Captain
Thomas Coram, who isentitled to the whole credit of the foundation, 1
states as its objects " to prevent the frequent murders of poor
miserable children at their birth, and to suppress the inhuman
custom of exposing new-born infants to perish in the streets." At
first no questions were asked about child or parent, but a distin-
guishing mark was put on each child by the parent. These were
often marked coins, trinkets, pieces of cotton or ribbon, verses
written on scraps of paper. The clothes, if any, were carefully
recorded. One entry is, Paper on the breast, clout on the head."
The applications became too numerous, and a system of balloting
with red, white and black balls was adopted. In 1756 the House of
Commons came to a resolution that all children offered should be
received, that local receiving places should be appointed all over
the country, and that the funds should be publicly guaranteed. A
basket was accordingly hung outside the hospital; the maximum
age for admission was raised from two to twelve months, and a flood
of children poured in from the country workhouses. In less than
four years 14,934 children were presented, and a vile trade grew up
among vagrants of undertaking to carry children from the country
to the hospital, an undertaking which, like the French meneurs,
they often did not perform or performed with great cruelty. Of
these 15,000 only 4400 lived to be apprenticed out. The total ex-
pense was about 500,000. This alarmed the House of Commons.
After throwing out a bill which proposed to raise the necessary
funds by fees from a general system of parochial registration, they
came to the conclusion that the indiscriminate admission should be
discontinued. The hospital, being thus thrown on its own resources,
adopted a pernicious system of receiving children with considerable
1 Addison had suggested such a charity (Guardian, No. 3).
sums (e.g. 100), which sometimes led to the children being re-
claimed by the parent. This was finally stopped in 1801; and it
is now a fundamental rule that no money is received. The com-
mittee of inquiry must now be satisfied of the previous good char-
acter and present necessity of the mother, and that the father of the
child has deserted it and the mother, and that the reception of
the child will probably replace the mother in the course of virtue
and in the way of an honest livelihood. All the children at the
Foundling hospital are those of unmarried women, and they are all
first child/en of their mothers. The principle is in fact that laid
down by Fielding in Tom Jones " Too true I am afraid it is that
many women have become abandoned and have sunk to the last
degree of vice by being unable to retrieve the first slip." At present
the hospital supports about 500 children up to the age of fifteen.
The average annual number of applications is over 200, and of
admissions between 40 and 50. The children used to be named
after the patrons and governors, but the treasurer now prepares a
list. Children are seldom taken after they are twelve months old.
On reception they are sent down to the country, where they stay
until they are about four or five years old. At sixteen the girls
are generally apprenticed as servants for four years, and the boys at
the age of fourteen as mechanics for seven years. There is a small
benevolent fund for adults. The musical service, which was origin-
ally sung by the blind children only, was made fashionable by the
generosity of Handel, who frequently had the " Messiah " per-
formed there, and who bequeathed to the hospital a MS. copy (full
score) of his greatest oratorio. The altar-piece is West's picture of
Christ presenting a little Child. In 1774 Dr Burney and Signer
Giardini made an unsuccessful attempt to form in connexion with
the hospital a public music school, in imitation of the Conserva-
torium of the Continent. In 1847, however, a successful " Juvenile
Band " was started. The educational effects of music have been
found excellent, and the hospital supplies many musicians to the best
army and navy bands. The early connexion between the hospital
and the eminent painters of the reign of George II. is one of extreme
interest. The exhibitions of pictures at the Foundling, which were
organized by the Dilettanti Club, undoubtedly led to the formation
of the Royal Academy in 1768. Hogarth painted a portrait of
Captain Coram for the hospital, which also contains his March to
Finchley, and Roubillac's bust of Handel. (See History and Objects of
the Foundling Hospital, with Memoir of its Founder, by J. Brownlow.)
In_ 1704 the Foundling hospital of Dublin was opened. No
inquiry was made about the parents, and no money received. From
1500 to 2000 children were received annually. A large income was
derived from a duty on coal and the produce of car licences. In
1822 an admission fee of 5 was charged on the parish from which
the child came. This reduced the annual arrivals to about 500.
In 1829 the select committee on the Irish miscellaneous estimates
recommended that no further assistance should be given. The
hospital had not preserved life or educated the foundlings. The
mortality was nearly 4 in 5, and the total cost 10,000 a year.
Accordingly in 1835 Lord Glenelg (then Irish Secretary) closed the
institution.
Scotland never seems to have possessed a foundling hospital. In
1759 John Watson left funds which were to be applied to the pious
and charitable purpose " of preventing child murder " by the
establishment of a hospital for receiving pregnant women and
taking care of their children as foundlings. But by an act of parlia-
ment in 1822, which sets forth " doubts as to the propriety " of the
original purpose, the money was given to trustees to erect a hospital
for the maintenance and education of destitute children.
AUTHORITIES. Histoire statistiijue et morale des enfants trouves
by MM. Terme et Montfalcon (Pans, 1837) (the authors were eminent
medical men at Lyons, connected with the administration of the
foundling hospital) ; Remacle, Des hospices d'enfants trouves e.n
Europe (Paris, 1838) ; Hiigel, Die Findelhauser und das Findehvesen
Europas ( Vienna, 1863) ; Emminghaus, " Das Armenwesen und die
Armengesetzgebung," in Europdischen Staaten (Berlin, 1870);
Sennichon, Histoire des enfants abandonnes (Paris, 1880) ; the annual
Rapport sur le service des enfants assistes du dcpartement de la Seine;
Epstein, Sludien zur Frage der Findelanstalten (Prague, 1882)-
Florence D. Hill, Children of the State (2nd ed., 1889). For United
States, see H. Folks, Care of Neglected and Dependent Children (1901 );
A. G. Warner, American Charities (enlarged, 1908) and Reports of
Massachusetts State Board of Charities. Information may also be got
in the Reports on Poor Laws in Foreign Countries, communicated to
the Local Government Board by the foreign secretary; Accounts and
Papers (1875), vol. Ixv. c. 1225; Report of Committee on the Infant
Life Protection Bill (1890) ; Report of Lords Committee on the Infant
Life Protection Bill (1896). (See also CHARITY AND CHARITIES.)
FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from fans, a spring), a term
applied in a restricted sense to such outlets of water as, whether
fed by natural or artificial means, have contrivances of human
art at a point where the water emerges. A very early existing
example is preserved in the carved Babylonian basin (about 3000
B.C.) found at Tello, the ancient Lagash, and Layard mentions
an Assyrian fountain, found by him in a gorge of the river Gomc] t
74 8
FOUNTAIN
which consists of a series of basins cut in the solid rock and
descending in steps to the stream. The water had been originally
led from one to the other by small conduits, the lowest of which
was ornamented by two rampant lions in relief. The term is
applied equally to the simpler arrangements for letting water
gush into an ornamental basin or to the more elaborate ones
by which water is mechanically forced into high jets; and a
" fountain " may be either the ornamental receptacle or the jet
of water itself. In modern times the examples of ornamental
or useful fountains are legion, and it will suffice here to mention
some of the more important facts of historical interest.
Among the Greeks fountains were very common in the cities.
Springs being very plentiful in Greece, little engineering skill
was required to convey the water from place to place. Receptacles
of sufficient size were made for it at the springs; and to maintain
its purity, structures were raised enclosing and covering the
receptacle. In Greece they were dedicated to gods and goddesses,
nymphs and heroes, and were frequently placed in or near temples.
That of Pirene at Corinth (mentioned also by Herodotus) was
formed of white stone, and contained a number of cells from which
the pleasant water flowed into an open basin. Legend connects
it with the nymph Pirene, who shed such copious tears, when
bewailing her son who had been slain by Diana, that she was
changed into a fountain. The city of Corinth possessed
many fountains. In one near the statues of Diana and Belle-
rophon the water flowed through the hoofs of the horse
Pegasus.' The fountain of Glauce, enclosed in the Odeum, was
dedicated to Glauce, because she was said to have thrown
herself into it believing that its waters could counteract the
poisons of Medea. Another Corinthian fountain had a bronze
statue of Poseidon standing on a dolphin from which the water
flowed. The fountain constructed by Theagenes at Megara
was remarkable for its size and decorations, and for the number
of its columns. One at Lerna was surrounded with pillars, and
the structure contained a number of seats affording a cool
summer retreat. Near Pharae was a grove dedicated to Apollo,
and in it a fountain of water. Pausanias gives a definite archi-
tectural detail when he says that a fountain at Patrae was
reached from without by descending steps. Mystical, medicinal,
surgical and other qualities, as well as supernatural origin,
were ascribed to fountains. One at Cyane in Lycia was said
to possess the quality of endowing all persons descending into
it with power to see whatever they desired to see; while the
legends of fountains and other waters with strange powers to
heal are numerous in many lands. The fountain Enneacrunus
at Athens was called Callirrhoe before the time the water was
drawn from it by the nine pipes from which it took its later name.
Two temples were above it, according to Pausanias, one dedicated
to Demeter and Persephone, and the other to Triptolemus. The
fountain in the temple of Erechtheus at Athens was supplied
by a spring of salt water, and a similar spring supplied that in
the temple of Poseidon Hippios at Mantinea.
The water-supply of Rome and the works auxiliary to it were
on a scale to be expected fr.om a people of such great practical
power. The remains of the aqueducts which stretched from the
city across the Campagna are amongst the most striking monu-
ments of Italy. Vitruvius (book viii.) gives minute particulars
concerning the methods to be employed for the discovery,
testing and distribution of water, and describes the properties
of different waters with great care, proving the importance which
was attached to these matters by the Remans. The aqueducts
supplied the baths and the public fountains, from which last
all the populace, except such as could afford to pay for a separate
pipe to their houses, obtained their water. These fountains
were therefore of large size and numerous. They were formed
at many of the castella of the aqueducts. According to Vitruvius,
each caslellum should have three pipes, one for public fountains,
one for baths and the third for private houses. Considerable
revenue was drawn from the possessors of private water-pipes.
The Roman fountains were generally decorated with figures
and heads.' Fountains were often also the ornament of Roman
villas and country houses; in those so situated the water gener-
ally fell from above into a large marble basin, with at times a
second fall into a still lower receptacle. Two adjacent houses
in Pompeii had very remarkable fountains. One, says Cell,
" is covered with a sort of mosaic consisting of vitrified tesserae
of different colours, but in which blue predominates. These are
sometimes arranged in not inelegant patterns, and the grand
divisions as well as the borders are entirely formed and orna-
mented with real sea-shells, neither calcined by the heat of the
eruption nor changed by the lapse of so many centuries " (Pom-
peiana, i. 196). Another of large size was similarly decorated
with marine shells, and is supposed to have borne two sculptured
figures, one of which, a bronze, is in the museum at Naples.
This fountain projects 5 ft. 7 in. from the wall against which it is
placed, and is 7 ft. wide in front, while the height of the structure
up to the eaves of the pediment is 7 ft. 7 in. On a central column
in the piscina was a statue of Cupid, with a dove, from the mouth
of which water issued. Cicero had, at his villa at Formiae, a
fountain which was decorated with marine shells.
Fountains were very common in the open spaces and at the
crossways in Pompeii. They were supplied by leaden pipes
from the reservoirs, and had little ornament except a human
or animal head, from the mouth of which it was arranged that the
water should issue. Not only did simple running fountains
exist, but the remains of jets d'eau have been found; and a
drawing exists representing a vase with a double jet of water,
standing on a pedestal placed in what is supposed to have been
the impluvium of a house. There was also a jet d'eau at the
eastern end of the peristyle of the Fullonica at Pompeii.
As among the Greeks, so with the early Celts, traces of super-
stitious beliefs and usages with relation to fountains can be
traced in monumental and legendary remains. Near the village
of Primaleon in Brittany was a very remarkable monument,
one possibly unique, as giving distinct proof of the existence
of an ancient cult of fountains. Here is a dolmen composed of a
horizontal table supported by two stones only, one at each end.
All the space beneath this altar is occupied by a long square
basin formed of large flat stones, which receives a fountain of
water. At Lochrist is another vestige of the Celtic cult of
fountains. Beneath the church, and at the foot of the hill upon
which it is built, is a sacred fountain, near which is erected an
ancient chapel, which with its ivy-covered walls has a most
romantic appearance. A Gothic vault protects this fountain.
Miraculous virtues are still attributed to its water, and on
certain days the country people still come with offerings to draw
it (see La Poix de Freminville, Antiquitesdela Bretagne,\. p. 101).
In the enchanted forest of, Brochelande, so famous from its
connexion with Merlin, was the fountain of Baranton, which was
said to possess strange characteristics. Whoever drew water
from it, and sprinkled the steps therewith, produced a tremendous
storm of thunder and hail, accompanied with thick darkness.
Christianity transferred to its own uses the ancient religious
feeling concerning fountains. Statues of the Virgin or of saints
were erected upon the rude structures that collected the water
and preserved its purity. There is some uniformity in the
architectural characteristics of these structures during the
middle ages. A very common form in rural districts was that
in which the fountain was reached by descending steps (fontaine
grotte). A large basin received the water, sometimes from a
spout, but often from the spring itself. This basin was covered
by a sort of porch or vault, with at times moulded arches and
sculptured figures and escutcheons. On the bank of the Clain
at Poitiers is a fountain of this kind, the Fontaine Joubert,
which though restored in 1597 was originally a structure of the
i4th century. This kind of fountain is frequently decorated with
figures of the Virgin or of saints, or with the family arms of its
founder; often, too, the water is the only ornament of the
structure, which bears a simple inscription. A large number
of these fountains are to be found in Brittany and indeed through-
out France, and the great antiquity of some of them is proved
by the superstitions regarding them which still exist amongst
the peasantry. A form more common in populous districts was
that of a large open basin, round, square, polygonal, or lobed in
FOUNTAINS ABBEY FOUQUE
749
form, with a columnar structure at the centre, from the lower
part of which it was arranged that spouts should issue, playing
into an open basin, and supplying vessels brought for the purpose
in the cleanest and quickest manner. The columns take very
various forms, from that of a simple regular geometrical solid,
with only grotesque masks at the spouts, to that of an elaborate
and ornate Gothic structure, with figures of virgins, saints and
warriors, with mouldings, arches, crockets and finials. At
Provins there is a fountain said to be of the i2th century, which
is in form an hexagonal vase with a large column in the centre,
the capital of which is pierced by three mouths, which are
furnished with heads of bronze projecting far enough to cast the
water into the basin. In the public market-place at Brunswick
is a fountain of the isth century, of which the central structure
is made of bronze. Many fountains are still existing in France
and Germany which, though their actual present structure may
date no earlier than the isth or i6th century, have been found
on the place of, and perhaps may almost be considered as restora-
tions of, pre-existing fountains. Except in Italy few fountains
are of earlier date than the i4th century. Two of that date are
at the abbey of Fontaine Daniel, near'Mayenne, and another,
of granite, is at Limoges. Some of these middle-age fountains
are simple, open reservoirs enclosed in structures which, however
plain, still carry the charm that belongs to the stone-work of
those times. There is one of this kind at Cully, Calvados, walled
on three sides, and fed from the spring by two circular openings.
Its only ornamentation is a small empty niche with mouldings.
At Lincoln is a fountain of the time of Henry VIII., in front of
the church of St Mary Wickiord. At Durham is one of octangular
plan, which bears a statue of Neptune.
The decay of architectural taste in the later centuries is shown
by the fountain of Limoges. It is in form a rock representing
Mount Parnassus, upon which are carved in relief Apollo, the
horse Pegasus, Philosophy and the Nine Muses. At the top
Apollo, in the 16th-century costume, plays a harp. Rocks, grass
and sheep fill up the scene.
Purely ornamental fountains and jets d'eau are found \n or
near many large cities, royal palaces and private seats. The
celebrated Fontana di Trevi, at Rome, was erected early in the
i8th century under Pope Clement XII., and has all the character-
istics of decadence. La Fontana Paolina and those in the piazza
of St Peter's are perhaps next in celebrity to that of Trevi, and
are certainly in better taste. At Paris the Fontaine des Innocens
(the earliest) and those of the Place Royal, of the Champs Elysees
and of the Place de la Concorde are the most noticeable. The
fountain of the lions and other fountains in the Alhambra palace
are, with their surroundings, a very magnificent sight. The
largest jets d'eau are those at Versailles, at the Sydenham
Crystal Palace and at San Ildefonso.
About the earliest drawing of any drinking fountain in England
occurs in Moxon's Tutor to Astronomic and Geographic (1659);
it is " surmounted by a diall, which was made by Mr John Leak,
and set upon a composite column at Leadenhall corner, in the
majoralty of Sir John Dethick, Knight." The water springs
from the top and base of the column, which stands upon a square
pedestal and bears four female figures, one at least of which
represents the costume of the period.
In the East the public drinking fountains are a very important
institution. In Cairo alone there are three hundred. These
" sebeels " are not only to be seen in the cities, but are plentiful
in the fields and villages.
The Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association (1859) has
done much to provide facilities in London for both man and
beast to get water to drink in the streets. And in the United
States liberal provision has also been made by private and public
enterprise.
FOUNTAINS ABBEY, one of the most celebrated ecclesiastical
ruins in England. It lies in the sequestered valley of the river
Skell, 3 m. S.W. of the city of Ripon in Yorkshire. The situation
is most beautiful. The little Skell descends from the uplands
of Pateley Moor to the west a clear swift stream, traversing a
valley clothed with woods, conspicuous among which are some
ancient yew trees which may have sheltered the monks who
first sought retreat here. Steep rocky hills enclose the vale.
Mainly on the north side of the stream, in an open glade, rise
the picturesque and extensive ruins, the church with its stately
tower, and the numerous remnants of domestic buildings which
enable the great abbey to be almost completely reconstructed
in the mind. The arrangements are typical of a Cistercian
house (see ABBEY). Building began in earnest about 1135,
and was continued steadily until the middle of the i3th century,
after which the only important erection was Abbot Huby's
tower (c. 1500). The demesne of Studley Royal (marquess of
Ripon) contains the ruins. It is in part laid out in the formal
Dutch style, the work of John Aislabie, lord cf the manor in the
early part of the i8th century. Near the abbey is the picturesque
Jacobean mansion of Fountains Hall.
In 1132 the prior and twelve monks of St Mary's abbey, York,
being dissatisfied with the easy life they were living, left the
monastery and with the assistance of Thurstan, archbishop of
York, founded a house in the valley of the Skell, where they
adopted the Cistercian rule. While building their monastery
the monks are said to have lived at first under an elm and then
under seven yew trees called the Seven Sisters. Two years
later they were joined by Hugh, dean of St Peter's, York, who
brought with him a large sum of money and a valuable collection
of books. His example was followed by Serlo, a monk of St
Mary's abbey, York, and by Tosti, a canon of York, and others.
Henry I. and succeeding sovereigns granted them many privileges.
During the reign of Edward I. the monks appear to have again
suffered from poverty, partly no doubt owing to the invasion of
the Scots, but partly also through their own " misconduct and ex-
travagance." On account of this Edward I. in 1291 appointed
John de Berwick custodian of the abbey so that he might pay
their debts from the issues of their estates, allowing them enough
for their maintenance, and Edward II. in 1319 granted them
exemption from taxes. After the Dissolution Henry VIII. sold
the manor and site of the monastery to Sir Richard Gresham,
and from him after passing through several families it came to
the marquess of Ripon.
See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; Dugdale, Monasticon;
Surtees Society, Memorials of the Abbey of St Mary of Fountains,
collected and edited by J. R. Walbran (1863-78).
FOUQU6, FERDINAND ANDRE (1828-1904), French geologist
and petrologist, was born at Mortain, dept. of La Manche, on
the 2ist of June 1828. At the age of twenty-one he entered the
Ecole Normale in Paris, and from 1853 to 1858 he held the ap-
pointment of keeper of the scientific collections. In 1877 he
became professor of natural history at the College de France,
in Paris, and in 1881 he was elected a member of the Academy
of Sciences. As a stratigraphical geologist he rendered much
assistance on the Geological Survey of France, but in the course
of time he gave his special attention to the study of volcanic
phenomena and earthquakes, to minerals and rocks; and he was
the first to introduce modern petrographical methods into France.
His studies of the eruptive rocks of Corsica, Santorin and else-
where; his researches on the artificial reproduction of eruptive
rocks, and his treatise on the optical characters of felspars
deserve special mention; but he was perhaps best known for
the joint work which he carried on with his friend Michel Levy.
He died on the 7th of March 1904. His chief publications
were: Santorin el ses eruptions, 1879; (with A. Michel Levy)
Mineralogie micrographique, Roches eruptives franfaises (2 vols.,
1879) ; and Synthese des min&raux et des roches (188:).
FOUQUE, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH KARL DE LA MOTTE,
BARON (1777-1843), German writer of the romantic movement,
was born on the i2th of February 1777 at Brandenburg. His
grandfather had been one of Frederick the Great's generals
and his father was a Prussian officer. Although not originally
intended for a military career, Friedrich de la Motte Fouque
ultimately gave up his university studies at Halle to join the
army, and he took part in the Rhine campaign of 1 794. The rest
of his life was devoted mainly to literary pursuits. Like so many
of the younger romanticists, Fouque owed his introduction to
75
FOUQUET
literature to A. W. Schlegel, who published his first book,
Dramatische Spiele von Pellegrin in 1804. His next work,
Romanzen iiom Tal Ronceval (1805), showed more plainly his
allegiance to the romantic leaders, and in the Historic wm edlen
Ritler Galmy (1806) he versified a 16th-century romance of
medieval chivalry. Sigurd der Schlangentoter, ein Heldenspiel
(1808), the first modern German dramatization of the Nibelungen
saga, attracted attention to him, and influenced considerably
subsequent versions of the story, such as Hebbel's Nibelungen
and Wagner's Ring des Nibelungen. These early writings indicate
the lines which Fouque's subsequent literary activity followed;
his interests were divided between medieval chivalry on the one
hand and northern mythology on the other. In 1813, the year
of the rising against Napoleon, he again fought with the Prussian
army, and the new patriotism awakened in the German people
left its mark upon his writings.
Between 1810 and 1815 Fouque's popularity was at its height;
the many romances and novels, plays and epics, which he turned
out with extraordinary rapidity, appealed exactly to the mood
of the hour. The earliest of these are the best Undine, which
appeared in 1811, being, indeed, one of the most charming of all
German Mdrchen and the only work by which Fouque's memory
still lives to-day. A more comprehensive idea of his powers
may, however, be obtained from the two romances Der Zauberring
(1813) and DieFahrten Thiodulfs des Islanders (1815). From 1820
onwards the quality of Fouque's work rapidly degenerated, partly
owing to the fatal ease with which he wrote, partly to his inability
to keep pace with the changes in German taste. He remained
the belated romanticist, who, as the reading world turned to
new interests, clung the more tenaciously to the paraphernalia
of romanticism; but in the cold, sober light of the post-romantic
age, these appeared merely flimsy and theatrical. The vitalizing
imaginative power of his early years deserted him, and the
sobriquet of a " Don Quixote of Romanticism " which his
enemies applied to him was not unjustified.
Fouque's first marriage had been unhappy and soon ended
in divorce. His second wife, Karoline von Briest (1773-1831)
enjoyed some reputation as a novelist in her day. After her
death Fouqu6 married a third time. Some consolation for the
ebbing tide of popular favour was afforded him by the munifi-
cence of Frederick William IV. of Prussia, who granted him a
pension which allowed him to spend his later years in comfort.
He died in Berlin on the 23rd of January 1843.
Fouque's Ausgewdhlte Werke, edited by himself, appeared in 12
yols. (Berlin, 1841); a selection, edited by M. Koch, will be found
in Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. 146, part ii. (Stuttgart,
1893); Undine, Sintram, &c., in innumerable reprints. Biblio-
graphy in Goedeke's Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung
(2nd ed., vi. pp. 115 ff., Dresden, 1898). Most of Fouque's works
have been translated, and the English versions of Aslauga's Knight
(by Carlyle), Sintram and his Companions and Undine, have been
frequently republished. For Fouqu6's life cp. Lebensgeschichte des
Baron Friedrich de la Motte Fouque. Aufgezeichnet durch ihn selbst
(Halle, 1840), (only to the year 1813), and also the introduction to
Koch's selections in the Deutsche Nationalliteratur. (J. G. R.)
FOUQUET (or FOUCQUET), NICOLAS (i6r 5-1680), viscount of
Melun and of Vaux, marquis of Belle-Isle, superintendent of
finance in France under Louis XIV., was born at Paris in r6i5.
He belonged to an influential family of the noblesse de la robe,
and after some preliminary schooling with the Jesuits, at the age
of thirteen was admitted as awcat at the parlement of Paris.
While still in his teens he held several responsible posts, and in
1636, when just twenty, he was able to buy the post of maitre
des requ&es. From 1642 to 1650 he held various intendancies at
first in the provinces and then with the army of Mazarin, and,
coming thus in touch with the court, was permitted in 1650 to
buy the important position of procureur general to the parlement
of Paris. During Mazarin's exile Fouquet shrewdly remained
loyal to him, protecting his property and keeping him informed
of the situation at court.
Upon the cardinal's return, Fouquet demanded and received
as reward the office of superintendent of the finances (1653), a
position which, in the unsettled condition of the government,
threw into his hands not merely the decision as to which funds
should be applied to meet the demands of the state's creditors,
but also the negotiations with the great financiers who lent
money to the king. The appointment was a popular one with
the moneyed class, for Fouquet's great wealth had been largely
augmented by his marriage in 1651 with Marie de Castille,
who also belonged to a wealthy family of the legal nobility. His
own credit, and above all his unfailing confidence in himself,
strengthened the credit of the government, while his high position
at the parlement (he still remained procureur general} secured
financial transactions from investigation. As minister of finance,
he soon had Mazarin almost in the position of a suppliant.
The long wars, and the greed of the courtiers, who followed the
example of Mazarin, made it necessary at times for Fouquet to
meet the demands upon him by borrowing upon his own credit,
but he soon turned this confusion of the public purse with his own
to good account. The disorder in the accounts became hopeless;
fraudulent operations were entered into with impunity, and the
financiers were kept in the position of clients by official favours
and by generous aid whenever they needed it. Fouquet's fortune
now surpassed even Mazarin's, but the latter was too deeply
implicated in similar operations to interfere, and was obliged to
leave the day of reckoning to his agent and successor Colbert.
Upon Mazarin's death Fouquet expected to be made head of the
government; but Louis XIV. was suspicious of his' poorly
dissembled ambition, and it was with Fouquet in mind that he
made the well-known statement, upon assuming the govern-
ment, that he would be his own chief minister. Colbert fed the
king's displeasure with adverse reports upon the deficit, and
made the worst of the case against Fouquet. The extravagant
expenditure and personal display of the superintendent served to
intensify the ill-will of the king. Fouquet had bought the port
of Belle Isle and strengthened the fortifications, with a view to
taking refuge there in case of disgrace. He had spent enormous
sums in building a palace on his estate of Vaux, which in extent,
magnificence, and splendour of decoration was a forecast of
Versailles. Here he gathered the rarest manuscripts, the finest
paintings, jewels and antiques in profusion, and above all sur-
rounded himself with artists and authors. The table was open
to all people of quality, and the kitchen was presided over by
Vatel. Lafontaine, Corneille, Scarron, were among the multitude
of his clients. In August 1661 Louis XIV., already set upon his
destruction, was entertained at Vaux with a file rivalled in
magnificence by only one or two in French history, at which
Moliere's Les Fdcheux was produced for the first time. The
splendour of the entertainment sealed Fouquet's fate. The king,
however, was afraid to act openly against so powerful a minister.
By crafty devices Fouquet was induced to sell his office of pro-
cureur general, thus losing the protection of its privileges, and he
paid the price of it into the treasury.
Three weeks after his visit to Vaux the king withdrew to
Nantes, taking Fouquet with him, and had him arrested when he
was leaving the presence chamber, flattered with the assurance
of his esteem. The trial lasted almost three years, and its viola-
tion of the forms of justice is still the subject of frequent mono-
graphs by members of the French bar. Public sympathy was
strongly with Fouquet, and Lafontaine, Madame de Sevigne
and many others wrote on his behalf; but when Fouquet was
sentenced to banishment, the king, disappointed, " commuted "
the sentence to imprisonment for life. He was sent at the
beginning of 1665 to the fortressof Pignerol, where heundoubtedly
died on the 23rd of March 1680.* Louis acted throughout " as
though he were conducting a campaign," evidently fearing that
Fouquet would play the part of a Richelieu. Fouquet bore
himself with manly fortitude, and composed several mediocre
translations in prison. The devotional works bearing his name
are apocryphal. A report of his trial was published in Holland,
in 15 volumes, in 1665-1667, in spite of the remonstrances
which Colbert addressed to the States-General. A second
edition under the title of CEuvres de M. Fouquet appeared
in 1696.
1 Fouquet has been identified with the " Man with the Iron Mask "
(see IRON MASK), but this theory is quite impossible.
FOUQUIER-TINVILLE FOURIER, F. C. M.
See Cheruel, Memoires sur la vie publique et privee de Fouquet . ._ .
d'apres ses lettres et des pieces inedites (2 vols., Paris, 1864); J. Lair,
Nicolas Foucquet, procureur general, surintendant des finances,
ministre d'tat de Louis XIV (2 vols., Paris, 1890) ; U. V. Chatelain,
Le Surintendant Nicolas Fouquet, protecteur des lettres, des arts et
des sciences (Paris, 1905) ; R. Pfnor et A. France, Le Ch&teau de
Vaux-le-Vicomte dessine et grave (Paris, 1888).
FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE QUENTIN (1746-1795),
French revolutionist, was born at Herouel, a village in the
department of the Aisne. Originally a procureur attached to
the Chatelet at Paris, he sold his office in 1783, and became a
clerk under the lieutenant-general of police. He seems to have
early adopted revolutionary ideas, but little is known of the part
he played at the outbreak of the Revolution. When the Revolu-
tionary Tribunal of Paris was established on the loth of March
1793, he was appointed public prosecutor to it, an office which
he filled until the 28th of July 1794. His activity during this
time earned him the reputation of one of the most terrible and
sinister figures of the Revolution. His function as public
prosecutor was not so much to convict the guilty as to see that
the proscriptions ordered by the faction for the time being in
power were carried out with a due regard to a show of legality.
He was as ruthless and as incorrupt as Robespierre himself; he
could be moved from his purpose neither by pity nor by bribes;
nor was there in his cruelty any of that quality which made the
ordinary Jacobin enrage by turns ferocious and sentimental. It
was this very quality of passionless detachment that made him
so effective an instrument of the Terror. He had no forensic
eloquence; but the cold obstinacy with which he pressed his
charges was more convincing than any rhetoric, and he seldom
failed to secure a conviction.
His horrible career ended with the fall of Robespierre and the
terrorists on the 9th Thermidor. On the ist of August 1794 he
was imprisoned by order of the Convention and brought to trial.
His defence was that he had only obeyed the orders of the Com-
mittee of Public Safety; but, after a trial which lasted forty-one
days, he was condemned to death, and guillotined on the 7th of
May 1795.
See Memoire pour A. Q. Fouquier ex-accusateur public pres le
tribunal revolutionnaire, &c. (Paris, 1794); Domenget, Fouquier-
Tinville et le tribunal revolutionnaire (Paris, 1878); H. Wallon,
Histoire du tribunal revolutionnaire de Paris (1880-1882) (a work
of general interest, but not always exact) ; George Lecocq, Notes et
documents sur Fouquier-Tinville (Paris, 1885). See also the docu-
ments relating to his trial enumerated by M. Tourneux in Biblio-
graphic de I'histoire de Paris pendant la Revolution Franc,aise, vol. i.
Nos. 4445-4454 (1890).
FOURCHAMBAULT, a town of central France in the depart-
ment of Nievre, on the right bank of the Loire, 43 m. N.W. of
Nevers, on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4591. It owes
its importance to its extensive iron-works, established in 1821,
which give employment to 2000 workmen and produce engineer-
ing material for railway, military and other purposes. Among
the more remarkable chefs-d' ceuvre which have been produced at
Fourchambault are the metal portions of the Pont du Carrousel,
the iron beams of the roof of the cathedral at Chartres, and the
vast spans of the bridge over the Dordogne at Cubzac. A small
canal unites the works to the Lateral canal of the Loire.
FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS, COMTE DE (1755-1809),
French chemist, the son of an apothecary in the household of
the duke of Orleans, was born at Paris on the i5th of June 1755.
He took up medical studies by the advice of the anatomist
Felix Vicq d'Azyr (1748-1794), and after many difficulties
caused by lack of means finally in 1780 obtained his doctor's
diploma. His attention was specially turned to chemistry by
J. B. M. Bucquet (1746-1780), the professor of chemistry at the
Medical School of Paris, and in 1784 he was chosen to succeed
P. J. Macquer (1718-1784) as lecturer in chemistry at the college
of the Jardin du Roi, where his lectures attained great popularity.
He was one of the earliest converts to the views of Lavoisier,
which he helped to promulgate by his voluminous writings,
but though his name appears on a large number of chemical
and also physiological and pathological memoirs, either alone or
with others, he was rather a teacher and an organizer than an
original investigator. A member of the committees for public
instruction and public safety, and later, under Napoleon,
director general of instruction, he took a leading part in the
establishment of schools for both primary and secondary educa-
tion, scientific studies being especially provided for. Fourcroy
died at Paris on the i6th of December 1809, the very day on
which he had been created a count of the French empire. By
his conduct as a member of the Convention he has been accused
of contributing to the death of Lavoisier. Baron Cuvier in his
loge historique of Fourcroy repels the charge, but he can
scarcely be acquitted of time-serving indifference, if indeed
active, though secret, participation be not proved against him.
The Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers enumerates 59
memoirs by Fourcroy himself, and 58 written jointly by him and
others, mostly L. N. Vauquelin.
FOURIER, FRANCOIS CHARLES MARIE (1772-1837),
French socialist writer, was born at Besancon in Franche-Comte
on the 7th of April 1772. His father was a draper in good
circumstances, and Fourier received an excellent education at
the college in his native town. After completing his studies
there he travelled for some time in France, Germany and Holland.
On the death of his father he inherited a considerable amount of
property, which, however, was lost when Lyons was besieged
by the troops of the Convention. Being thus deprived of his
means of livelihood Fourier entered the army, but after two
years' service as a chasseur was discharged on account of ill-
health. In 1803 he published a remarkable article on European
politics which attracted the notice of Napoleon, some of whose
ideas were foreshadowed in it. Inquiries were made after the
author, but nothing seems to have come of them. After leaving
the army Fourier entered a merchant's office in Lyons, and
some years later undertook on his own account a small business
as broker. He obtained in this way just sufficient to supply his
wants, and devoted all his leisure time to the elaboration of his
first work on the organization of society.
During the early part of his life, and while engaged in com-
merce, he had become deeply impressed with the conviction that
social arrangements resulting from the principles of individualism
and competition were essentially imperfect and immoral. He
proposed to substitute for these principles co-operation or united
effort, by means of which full and harmonious development
might be given to human nature. The scheme, worked out in
detail in his first work, Theorie des quatre mouvements (2 vols.,
Lyons, 1808, published anonymously), has for foundation a
particular psychological proposition and a special economical
doctrine. Psychologically Fourier held what may with some
laxity of language be called natural optimism, the view that
the full, free development of human nature or the unrestrained
indulgence of human passion is the only possible way to happiness
and virtue, and that misery and vice spring from the unnatural
restraints imposed by society on the gratification of desire.
This principle of harmony among the passions he regarded as his
grandest discovery a discovery which did more than set him on
a level with Newton, the discoverer of the principle of attraction
or harmony among material bodies. Throughout his works,
in uncouth, obscure and often unintelligible language, he
endeavours to show that the same fundamental fact of harmony
is to be found in the four great departments, society, animal
life, organic life and the material universe. In order to give
effect to this principle and obtain the resulting social harmony,
it was needful that society should be reconstructed; for, as
the social organism is at present constituted, innumerable
restrictions are imposed upon the free development of human
desire. As practical principle for such a reconstruction Fourier
advocated co-operative or united industry. In many respects
what he says of co-operation, in particular as to the enormous
waste of economic force which the actual arrangements of
society entail, still deserves attention, and some of the most
recent efforts towards extension of the co-operative method,
e.g. to house-keeping, were in essentials anticipated by him.
But the full realization of his scheme demanded much more than
the mere admission that co-operation is economically more
752
efficacious than individualism. Society as a whole must be
organized on the lines requisite to give full scope to co-operation
and to the harmonious evolution of human nature. The details
of [this reorganization of the social structure cannot be given
briefly, but the broad outlines may be thus sketched. Society,
on his scheme, is to be divided into departments or phalanges
each phalange numbering about 1600 persons. Each phalange
inhabits a phalanstere or common building, and has a certain
portion of soil allotted to it for cultivation. The phalansteres
are built after a uniform plan, and the domestic arrangements
are laid down very elaborately. The staple industry of the
phalanges is, of course, agriculture, but the various series and
groupes into which the members are divided may devote them-
selves to such occupations as are most to their taste; nor need
any occupation become irksome from constant devotion to it.
Any member of a group may vary his employment at pleasure,
may pass from one task to another. The tasks regarded as
menial or degrading in ordinary society can be rendered attractive
if advantage is taken of the proper principles of human nature:
thus children, who have a natural affinity for dirt, and a fondness
for " cleaning up," may easily be induced to accept with eager-
ness the functions of public scavengers. It is not, on Fourier's
scheme, necessary that private property should be abolished,
nor is the privacy of family life impossible within the phalanstere.
Each family may have separate apartments, and there may
be richer and poorer members. But the rich and poor are to be
locally intermingled, in order that the broad distinction between
them, which is so painful a feature in actual society, may become
almost imperceptible. Out of the common gain of the phalange
a certain portion is deducted to furnish to each member the
minimum of subsistence; the remainder is distributed in shares
to labour, capital and talent, five-twelfths going to the first,
four-twelfths to the second and three-twelfths to the third.
Upon the changes requisite in the private life of the members
Fourier was in his first work "more explicit than in his later
writings. The institution of marriage, which imposes unnatural
bonds on human passion, is of necessity abolished; a new and
ingeniously constructed system of licence is substituted for it.
Considerable offence seems to have been given by Fourier's
utterances with regard to marriage, and generally the later
advocates of his views are content to pass the matter over in
silence or to veil their teaching under obscure and metaphorical
language.
The scheme thus sketched attracted no attention when the
Theorie first appeared, and for some years Fourier remained in
his obscure position at Lyons. In 1812 the death of his mother
put him in possession of a small sum of money, with which he
retired to Bellay in order to perfect his second work. The
Traite de {'association agricole domestique was published in 2 vols.
at Paris in 1822, and a summary appeared in the following year.
After its publication the author proceeded to Paris in the hope
that some wealthy capitalist might be induced to attempt the
realization of the projected scheme. Disappointed in this
expectation he returned to Lyons. In 1826 he again visited
Paris, and as a considerable portion of his means had been
expended in the publication of his book, he accepted a clerkship
in an American firm. In 1829 and 1830 appeared what is
probably the most finished exposition of his views, Le Nouveau
Monde industriel. In 1831 he attacked the rival socialist doc-
trines of Saint-Simon and Owen in the small work Pieges et
charlatanisme de deux sectes, St Simon et Owen. His writings now
began to attract some attention. A small body of adherents
gathered round him, and the most ardent of them was Victor
Considerant (q.v.). In 1832 a newspaper, Le Phalanstere ou la
reforme industriette was started to propagate the views of the
school, but its success was not great. In 1833 it declined from
a weekly to a monthly, and in 1834 it died of inanition. It was
revived in 1836 as Le Phalange, and in 1843 became a daily paper,
La Democratic pacifique. In 1850 it was suppressed.
Fourier did not live to see the success of his newspaper, and
the only practical attempt during his lifetime to establish a
phalanstere was a complete failure. In 1832 M. Baudet Dulary,
FOURIER, J. B. J.
deputy for Seine-et-Oise, who had become a convert, purchased
an estate at Conde-sur-Vesgre, near the forest of Rambouillot,
and proceeded to establish a socialist community. The capital
supplied was, however, inadequate, and the community broke
up in disgust. Fourier was in no way discouraged by this failure,
and till his death, on the loth of October 1837, he lived in daily
expectation that wealthy capitalists would see the merits of his
scheme and be induced to devote their fortunes to its realization.
It may be added that subsequent attempts to establish the
phalanstere have been uniformly unsuccessful. 1
Fourier seems to have been of an extremely retiring and sensi-
tive disposition. He mixed little in society, and appeared, indeed,
as if he were the denizen of some other planet. Of the true
nature of social arrangements, and of the manner in which they
naturally grow and become organized, he must be pronounced
extremely ignorant. The faults of existing institutions presented
themselves to him in an altogether distorted manner, and he
never appears to have recognized that the evils of actual society
are immeasurably less serious than the consequences of his
arbitrary scheme. Out of the chaos of human passion he supposed
harmony was to be evolved by the adoption of a few theoretically
disputable principles, which themselves impose restraints even
more irksome than those due to actual social facts. With regard
to the economic aspects of his proposed new method, it is of course
to be granted that co-operation is more effective than individual
effort, but he has nowhere faced the question as to the probable
consequences of organizing society on the abolition of those
great institutions which have grown with its growth. His
temperament was too ardent, his imagination too strong, and
his acquaintance with the realities of life too slight to enable him
justly to estimate the merits of his fantastic views. That this
description of him is not expressed in over-strong language
must be clear to any one who not only considers what is true in
his works, and the portion of truth is by no means a peculiar
discovery of Fourier's, but who takes into account the whole
body of. his speculations, the cosmological and historical as well
as the economical and social. No words can adequately describe
the fantastic nonsense which he pours forth, partly in the form
of general speculation on the universe, partly in the form of
prophetic utterances with regard to the future changes in
humanity and its material environment. From these extra-
ordinary writings it is no extreme conclusion that there was much
of insanity in Fourier's mental constitution.
AUTHORITIES. Ch. Pellarin, Fourier, sa vie et sa theorie (5th ed.,.
1872); Sargant, Social Innovators (1859); Reybaud, Reformateurs
modernes (7th ed., 1864); Stein, Socialismus und Communismus des
heutigen Frankreichs (2nd ed., 1848); A. J. Booth, Fortnightly
Review, N. S., vol. xii.; Czynskj, Notice bibliographique sur C.
Fourier (1841) ; Ferraz, Le Socialisme, le naturalisme et le positivisme
(1877) ; Considerant, Exposition abregee du systeme de Fourier (1845) ;
Transpn, Theorie societaire de Charles Fourier (1832); Stein,
Geschichte der sozialen Bewegung in Frankreich (1850); Mario,
Untersuchungen iiber die Organisation der Arbeit (1853) ; J . H. Noyes,
History of American Socialisms '(1870) ; Bebel, Charles Fourier
[1888); Varschauer, Geschichte des Sozialismus und Kammunismus
m ip. Jahrhundert (1903) ; Sambuc, Le Socialisme de Fourier (1900) ;
VI. Hillquit, History of Socialism in the United States (1903);
rl. Bourgin, Fourier, contribution a I'etude de Socialisme franqais
(1905). (R. AD.)
FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1768-1830), French
mathematician, was born at Auxerre on the 2ist of March 1768.
Se was the son of a tailor, and was left an orphan in his eighth
year; but, through the kindness of a friend, admission was gained
or him into the military school of his native town, which was then
under the direction of the Benedictines of Saint-Maur. He soon
distinguished himself as a student and made rapid progress,
especially in mathematics. Debarred from entering the army
on account of his lowness of birth and poverty, he was appointed
1 Several experiments were made to this end in the United States
see COMMUNISM) by American followers of Fourier, whose doctrines
were introduced there by Albert Brisbane (1809-1890). Indeed, in
he years between 1840 and 1850, during which the movement
waxed and waned, no fewer than forty-one phalanges were founded,
of which some definite record can be found. The most interesting
of all the experiments, not alone from its own history, but also from
:he fact that it attracted the support of many of the most iatel-
ectual and cultured Americans was that of Brook Farm (q.v.}.
FOURIER'S SERIES
753
professor of mathematics in the school in which he had been a
pupil. In 1 787 he became a novice at the abbey of St Benoit-sur-
Loire; but he left the abbey in 1789 and returned to his college,
where, in addition to his mathematical duties, he was frequently
called to lecture on other subjects, rhetoric, philosophy and
history. On the institution of the Ecole Normale at Paris in
1795 he was sent to teach in it, and was afterwards attached
to the Ecole Polytechnique, where he occupied the chair of
analysis. Fourier was one of the savants who accompanied
Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798; and during this expedition he
was called to discharge important political duties in addition to
his scientific ones. He was for a time virtually governor of half
Egypt, and for three years was secretary of the Institut du
Caire; he also delivered the funeral orations for Kleber and
Desaix. He returned to France in 1801, and in the following
year he was nominated prefect of Isere, and was created baron
and chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He took an important
part in the preparation of the famous Description de I'Egypte
and wrote the historical introduction. He held his prefecture
for fourteen years; and it was during this period that he carried
on his elaborate and fruitful investigations on the conduction
of heat. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, in 1815, Fourier
published a royalist proclamation, and left Grenoble as Napoleon
entered it. He was then deprived of his prefecture, and, although
immediately named prefect of the Rhone, was soon after again
deprived. He now settled at Paris, was elected to the Academic
des Sciences in 1816, but in consequence of the opposition of
Louis XVIII. was not admitted till the following year, when he
succeeded the Abbe Alexis de Rochon. In 1822 he was made
perpetual secretary in conjunction with Cuvier, in succession to
Delambre. In 1826 Fourier became a member of the French
Academy, and in 1827 succeeded Laplace as president of the
council of the ficole Polytechnique. In 1828 he became a
member of the government commission established for the
encouragement of literature. He died at Paris on the i6th of
May 1830.
As a politician Fourier achieved uncommon success, but his
fame chiefly rests on his strikingly original contributions to
science and mathematics. The theory of heat engaged his
attention quite early, and in 1812 he obtained a prize offered
by the Academic des Sciences with a memoir in two parts,
Theorie des mouvements de la chaleur dans les corps solides. The
first part was republished in 1822 as La Theorie analytique de la
chaleur, which by its new methods and great results made an
epoch in the history of mathematical and physical science
(see below: FOURIER'S SERIES). An English translation has
been published by A. Freeman (Cambridge, 1872), and a German
by Weinstein (Berlin, 1884). His mathematical researches
were also concerned with the theory of equations, but the
question as to his priority on several points has been keenly
discussed. After his death Navier completed and published
Fourier's unfinished work, Analyse des equations indeterminees
( 1 83 1 ) , which contains much original matter. In addition to the
works above mentioned, Fourier wrote many memoirs on
scientific subjects, and eloges of distinguished men of science.
His works have been collected and edited by Gaston Darboux
with the title (Euvres de Fourier (Paris, 1880-1890).
For a list of Fourier's publications see the Catalogue of Scientific
Papers of the Royal Society of London. Reference may also be made
to Arago, " Joseph Fourier," in the Smithsonian Report (1871).
FOURIER'S SERIES, in mathematics, those series which
proceed according to sines and cosines of multiples of a variable,
the various multiples being in the ratio of the natural numbers;
they are used for the representation of a function of the variable
for values of the variable which lie between prescribed finite
limits. Although the importance of such series, especially in the
theory of vibrations, had been recognized by D. Bernoulli,
Lagrange and other mathematicians, and had led to some dis-
cussion of their properties, J. B. J. Fourier (see above) was the
first clearly to recognize the arbitrary character of the functions
which the series can represent, and to make any serious attempt
to prove the validity of such representation; the series are
consequently usually associated with the name of Fourier.
More general cases of trigonometrical series, in which the
multiples are given as the roots of certain transcendental equa-
tions, were also considered by Fourier.
Before proceeding to the consideration of the special class of
series to be discussed, it is necessary to define with some precision
what is to be understood by the representation of an arbitrary
function by an infinite series. Suppose a function of a variable x
to be arbitrarily given for values of x between two fixed values a
and b; this means that, corresponding to every value of x such
that a-^x-^b, a definite arithmetical value of the function is assigned
by means of some prescribed set of rules. A function so denned
may be denoted by /(*) ; the rules by which the values of the
function are determined may be embodied in a single explicit
analytical formula, or in several such formulae applicable to different
portions of the interval, but it would be an undue restriction of
the nature of an arbitrarily given function to assume a priori that
it is necessarily given in this manner, the possibility of the repre-
sentation of such a function by means of a single analytical ex-
pression being the very point which we have to discuss. The
variable x may be represented by a point at the extremity of an
interval measured along a straight line from a fixed origin; thus
we may speak of the point c as synonymous with the value x = c
of the variable, and of f(c) as the value of the function assigned to
the point c. For any number of points between a and b the function
may be discontinuous, i.e. it may at such points undergo abrupt
changes of value; it will here be assumed that the number of such
points is finite. The only discontinuities here considered will be
those known as' ordinary discontinuities. Such a discontinuity
exists at the point c if f(c + e), f(c t) have distinct but definite
limiting values as c is indefinitely diminished ; these limiting values
are known as the limits on the right and on the left respectively
of the function at c, and may be denoted by f(c+o), f(c o). The
discontinuity consists therefore of a sudden change of value of the
function from/(c o) to/(c+o), as x increases through the value c.
If there is such a discontinuity at the point x = o, we may denote
the limits on the right and on the left respectively by/(-fo),/( o).
Suppose we have an infinite series u\ (x) -\-Ui(x) + . . . -\-u n (x) + . . .
in which each term -is a function of x, of known analytical form;
let any value x = c(a = c = b) be substituted in the terms of the
series, and suppose the sum of n terms of the arithmetical series so
obtained approaches a definite limit as n is indefinitely increased ;
this limit is known as the sum of the series. If for every value of
c such that a =c =6 the sum exists and agrees with the value of
f(c), the series ZMnOt) is said to represent the f unction (/*) between
the values a., b of the variable. If this is the case for all points
within the given interval with the exception of a finite number, at
any one of which either the series has no sum, or has a sum which
does not agree with the value of the function, the series is said to
represent " in general " the function for the given interval. If
the sum of n terms of the series be denoted by (<;), the condition
that S n (c) converges to the value f(c) is that, corresponding to any
finite positive number 8 as small as we please, a value n\ of n can
be found such that if n=n\, |/(c) S n (c)|<5.
Functions have also been considered which for an infinite number
of points within the given interval have no definite value, and series
have also been discussed which at an infinite number of points in
the interval cease either to have a sum, or to have one which agrees
with the value of the function; the narrower conception above will
however be retained in the treatment of the subject in this article,
reference to the wider class of cases being made only in connexion
with the history of the theory of Fourier's Series.
Uniform Convergence of Series. If the series Ui(x)+Uz(x) + . . . +
tt^(x)-\-. . .converge for every value of x in a given interval a to b,
and its sum be denoted by S(#), then if, corresponding to a finite
positive number 8, as small as we please, a finite number n t can be
found such that the arithmetical value of S(x) S n (x), wheren=ini
is less than 6, for every value of x in the given interval, the series is
said to converge uniformly in that interval. It may however happen
that as x approaches a particular value the number of terms of the
series which must be taken so that| S(x)S n (x) \ may be <5, in-
creases indefinitely; the convergence of the series is then infinitely
slow in the neighbourhood of such a point, and the series is not uni-
formly convergent throughout the given interval, although it con-
verges at each point of the interval. If the number of such points
in the neighbourhood of which the series ceases to converge uni-
formly be finite, they may be excluded by taking intervals of finite
magnitude as small as we please containing such points, and con-
sidering the convergence of the series in the given interval with
such sub-intervals excluded ; the convergence of the series is now
uniform throughout the remainder of the interval. The series is
said to be in general uniformly convergent within the given interval
a to b if it can be made uniformly convergent by the exclusion
of a finite number of portions of the interval, each such portion
being arbitrarily small. It is known that the sum of an infinite
series of continuous terms can be discontinuous only at points in
the neighbourhood of which the convergence of the series is not
754
FOURIER'S SERIES
uniform, but non-uniformity of convergence of the series does not
necessarily imply discontinuity in the sum.
Form of Fourier's Series. If it be assumed that a function /(x)
arbitrarily given for values of x such that ox<l is capable of
being represented in general by an infinite series of the form
A, sin +A 2 sin
i . . mrx
.+A Sin j
and if it be further assumed that the series is in general uniformly
convergent throughout the interval o to /, the form of the co-
efficients A can be determined. Multiply each term of the series
by sin ?*,*, and integrate the product between the limits o and I,
then in virtue of the propertyj sin ^j^ sin ^-j- dx = 0, or \l, accord-
ing as n'is not, or is, equal to n, we have J/A= j /(*) siq-j-dx, and
thus the series is of the form ?2sin5p^/(*) sin^te . . . (i)
This method of determining the coefficients in the series would
not be valid without the assumption that the series is in general
uniformly convergent, for in accordance with a known theorem
the sum of the integrals of the separate terms of the series is otherwise
not necessarily equal to the integral of the sum. This assumption
being made, it is further assumed that /(x) is such that J /(x)sin^y*dx
has a definite meaning for every value of n.
Before we proceed to examine the justification for the assumptions
made, it is desirable to examine the result obtained, and to deduce
other series from it. In order to obtain a series of the form
~ . T-. TTX i r> 2lTX , i r ttirX .
Bo+Bi cos-y+Bj cos, f- . . . +B n cos -j h
for the representation of f(x) in the interval o to /, let us apply the
series (i) to represent the function /(x) sin-; we thus find
mrx .
) cos | dx.
1~ irx,
j-Ssin-
*P/C*)i
J </ w I
On rearrangement of the terms this becomes
1 . irx/"',, ,, , 2_ . irx mrx ("I,, ,
j sin j-j f(x)dx +jX sm-ycos J /(x)
hence /(x) is represented for the interval o to / by the series of cosines
1 ft,, ., , 2S mrx ft,, . nirx, , ,
jl /(x)<2x+j2 cos-^-J /(x) cos dx ... (2)
We have thus seen, that with the assumptions made, the arbitrary
function /(x) may be represented, for the given interval, either by a
series of sines, as in (i), or by a series of cosines, as in (2). Some
important differences between the two series must, however, be
noticed. In the first place, the series of sines has a vanishing sum
when x = o or x=/; it therefore does not represent the function at
the point x = o, unless /(o) =o, or at the point x = l, unless /(/)=o,
whereas the series (2) of cosines may represent the function at both
these points. Again, let us consider what is represented by (i) and
(2) for values of x which do not lie between o and /. As/(x) is given
only for values of x between o and /, the series at points beyond these
limits have no necessary connexion with/(x) unless we suppose that
/(x) is also given for such general values of x in such a way that the
series continue to represent that function. If in (i) we change x into
-x, leaving the coefficients unaltered, the series changes sign,
and if x be changed into x+2l, the series is unaltered; we infer that
the series (i) represents an odd function of x and is periodic of
period 2l; thus (i) will represent /(x) in general for values of x
between 00, only if /(x) is odd and has a period 2/. If in (2) we
Change x into x, the series is unaltered, and it is also unaltered
by changing x into x+2l; from this we see that the series (2) repre-
sents /(x) for values of x between o> , only if /(x) is an even function,
and is periodic of period 2l. In general a function /(x) arbitrarily
given for all values of x between QO is neither periodic nor odd,
nor even, and is therefore not represented by either (i) or (2) except
for the interval o to /.
From (i) and (2) we can deduce a series containing both sines
and cosines, which will represent a function /(x) arbitrarily given
in the interval -I to /, for that interval. We can express by (i)
the function i|/(x) /( x)J which is an odd function, and thus
this function is represented for the interval / to +1 by
2 _ . nirx /"!,,.,. ,, . . . nirx ,
j 2 sin -j-j o *l/(x)-/(-x)) sin dx;
we can also express J|/(x)+/(-x)}, which is an even function, by
means of (2), thus for the interval / to +1 this function is repre-
sented by
J J^I/(*)+/(-x))<Zx+ j2 COS ^J^/(*)+/(-*)|cOs2y^X.
It must be observed that /(-x) is absolutely independent of /(x),
the former being not necessarily deducible from the latter by putting
x for x in a formula; both /(x) and f(x) are functions given
arbitrarily and independently for the intervaj o to /. On adding the
expressions together we obtain a series of sines and cosines which
represents f(x) for the interval / to /. The integrals
f ; /(-
JO
are equivalent to
r-l,, ,
I f(x)
thus the series is
mrx,
cos -j^-dx,
, C' f( - x ) sin ni*_ dx
'JO i
. r-l,, . . mix,
+ I f(x) sin -j-dx,
.. nirx
^ cos ~~
iS .
+ 7T sm
which may be written
^x' ... (3)
The series (3), which represents a function f(x) arbitrarily given
for the interval I to /, is what is known as Fourier's Series; the
expressions (i) and (2) being regarded as the particular forms which
(3) takes in the two cases, in which /( x) = /(*), OT}(x)f(x)
respectively. The expression (3) does not represent f(x) at points
beyond the interval / to /, unless f(x) has a period 21. For a value
of x within the interval, at which f(x) is discontinuous, the sum of
the series may cease to represent f(x), but, as will be seen hereafter,
has the value i{/(x+o)-|-/(x-o)!, the mean of the limits at the
points on the right and the left. The series represents the function
at x = o, unless the function is there discontinuous, in which case
the series is ||/(+o)+/( o)|; the series does not necessarily
represent the function at the points I and /, unless /(/)=/(/).
Its sum at either of these points is i{/(/)+/( /)).
Examples of Fourier's Series. (a) Let f(x) be given from o to /,
by f(x)=c, when o<x<%l, and by /(*) = c from ?l to /; it is
required to find a sine series, and also a cosine series, which shall
represent the function in the interval.
We have
/"'
I
rV . mrx, ' C I . nirx ,
c\ s\nj-dx-c\ sin dx
= (cos me 2 cos
it is equal to
This vanishes if n is odd, and if n = 4, but if n =
e,dlmc ; the series is therefore
4c II . 2irx . 1 . 6irX , 1 . lOirx ,
For unrestricted values of x, this series represents the ordinates
of the series of straight lines in fig. i, except that it vanishes at
the points o, }/, /, |/ . . .
-21
-I
tl
FIG. i.
We find similarly that the same function is represented by the
series .
4c 1 irx 1 SJTX . 1 5irx
during the interval o to I; for general values of x the series repre-
sents the ordinate of the broken line in fig. 2, except that it vanishes
at the points j/, f / . . .
-21
FIG. 2.
6) Let /(x)=x from o to %l, and /(x)=/-x, from / to /; then
fl . . . mrx, rV . mrx, . ft .. . . mrx,
I f(x) sin -j-dx= I xsm-j-dx+ j ^(l x) sin -^j-dx
, P P mr. P . mr 2P . Wt
+ _ cosn7r __ cos _ + __ sln _ = __ sln _
FOURIER'S SERIES
755
hence the sine series is
. nx
3c
For general values of x, the series represents the ordinates of the
row of broken lines in fig. 3.
/X
FIG. 3.
The cosine series, which represents the same- function for the
interval o to /, may be found to be
1. 21 I 2*x . 1 fax. 1 Wirx , \
4*~^( cos ~l r-pcos ^ hijicos ^ 1- ...i
This series represents for general values of x the ordinate of the
set of broken lines in fig. 4.
FIG. 4.
Dirichlefs Integral. The method indicated by Fourier, but first
carried out rigorously by Dirichlet, of proving that, with certain
restrictions as to the nature of the function f(x), that function is in
general represented by the series (3), consists in finding the sum of
n+l terms of that series, and then investigating the limiting value
of the sum, when n is increased indefinitely. It thus appears that
the series is convergent, and that the value towards which its sum
converges is ${f(x+o)+f(x-o)\, which is in general equal to /(*).
It will be convenient throughout to take IT to * as the given in-
terval; any interval -/ to I may be reduced to this by changing x
into Ixjir, and thus there is no loss of generality.
We find by an elementary process that
J+cos (*-*')+ cos 2(x-x')+ . . . + cos (*-*')
2 sin y(x' x)
Hence, with the new notation, the sum of the first n + i terms
of (3) is
If we suppose f(x) to be continued beyond the interval -T to *-, in
such a way that f(x)=f(x-\-2ir), we may replace the limits in this
integral by X+JT, xx respectively; if we then put x'-x = 2z, and
let /(x')=F(z), the expression becomes I ' F(z)% </z, where
"J Dill Z
this expression may be written in the form
We require therefore to find the limiting value, when m is
indefinitely increased, of I *F(z) dz; the form of the second
j o sin z
integral being essentially the same. This integral, or rather the
slightly more general one I F(z) = dz, when 0< h<?ir, is known
J o
as Dirichlet's integral. If we write X(z)=F(z)- -, the integral
becomes j X(z) - dz, which is the form in which the integral
is frequently considered.
The Second Mean-Value Theorem. The limiting value of Dirich-
let's integral may be conveniently investigated by means of a
theorem in the integral calculus known as the second mean-value
theorem. Let a, b be two fixed finite numbers such that a<6,
and suppose }(x), <t>(x) are two functions which have finite and
determinate values everywhere in the interval except for a finite
number of points; suppose further that the functions }(x), <t>(x)
are integrable throughout the interval, and that as x increases
from a to b the f unction f(x) is monotone, i.e. either never diminishes
or never increases; the theorem is that
when { is some point between a and 6, and/(a),/(6) may be written
for /(a+o), /(fr-o) unless a or b is a point of discontinuity of the
function /(a;).
To prove this theorem, we observe that, since the product of two
integrable functions is an integrable function, J f(x)<t>(x)dx exists,
and may be regarded as the limit of the sum of a series
(*K *K-I), Yo = o.
where Xo = a, x n = b and xi, Xi . . . Xn-i are n l intermediate
points. We can express <t>(Xr) (x^.i-x r ) in the form Yr+i-Yr, by
putting Y r = S
K. = i
Writing X, for/(av), the series becomes
Xo(Y 1 -Y )+X,(Y 2 -Y 1 )+. . .+X_ 1 (Y-Y_,)
or Y 1 (Xo-X,)+Y 2 (X 1 -X 2 ) + . . . + Yn(X_,-X.) + YX n .
Now, by supposition, all the numbers Yi, Y 2 . . . Y n are finite,
and all the numbers X,_i-Xr are of the same sign, hence by a known
algebraical theorem the series is equal to M(Xo X n )+Y n X n where
M is a number intermediate between the greatest and the least of
the numbers Yi, Y 2 , . . . Y n . This remains true however many
partial intervals are taken, and therefore, when their number is
increased indefinitely, and their breadths are diminished indefinitely
according to any law, we have
when M is intermediate between the greatest and least values
which j <f>(x)dx can have, when * is in the given integral. Now
this integral is a continuous function of its upper limit x, and there-
fore there is a value of * in the interval, for which it takes any
particular value between the greatest and least values that it has.
There is therefore a value between a and b, such that M = J 4>(x)dx>
hence
If the interval contains any finite numbers of points of discontinuity
of f(x) or <t>(x), the method of proof still holds good, provided these
points are avoided in making the subdivisions; in particular if
either of the ends be a point of discontinuity of f(x), we write /(a+o)
or/(6-o), for /(a) or/(6), it being assumed that these limits exist.
Functions, with Limited Variation. The condition that /(a:), in the
mean-value theorem, either never increases or never diminishes as x
increases from a to b, places a restriction ^upon the applications of the
theorem. We can, however, show that a f unction /(x) which is finite
and continuous between a and 6, except for a finite number of
ordinary discontinuities, and which only changes from increasing to
diminishing or vice versa, a finite number of times, as x increases
from a to b, may be expressed as the difference of two functions
fi(x), MX), neither of which ever diminishes as x passes from a to b,
and that these functions are finite and continuous, except that one
or both of them are discontinuous at the points where the given
function is discontinuous. Let o, /8 be two consecutive points at
which f(x) is discontinuous, consider any point x\, such that a < x\ < ft,
and suppose that at the points MI, M2 . . . M r between a and x\,
f(x) is a maximum, and at mi, mt . . . nir it is a minimum; we will
suppose, for example, that the ascending order of values is a, Mi, mi,
M 2 , mt . . . M r , m r , Xi it will make no essential difference in the
argument if mi comes before MI, or if M r immediately precedes Xi,
M r _i being then the last minimum.
Let *(*,) = [/(M,)-/(a+o)] +[/(M 2 )-/(m,)] + . . .
+[/(M r )-/( T _ 1 )] + [/(* 1 )-/(m,)] ;
now let Xi increase until it reaches the value M r+ i at which /(*) is
again a maximum, then let
and suppose as x increases beyond the value M,+i, ^(*i) remains
constant until the next minimum rrir+i is reached, when it again
becomes variable; we see that t(xi) is essentially positive and
never diminishes as x increases.
Let
then let Xi increase until it is beyond the next maximum M,+i,
and then let x(*i)=[/(M 1 )-/(m 1 )]+[/(M)-/(m,)]+ . . .
thus x(*i) never diminishes, and is alternately constant and variable.
We see that ^(xi)-x(xi) is continuous as x\ increases from a to 0,
and that ^(*i)-x(*i) =f(xi)-f(a+o), and when xi reaches /3, we have
(xi) =/(/S-o)-/(a+o). Hence it is seen that between a and
= [lK*)+/(a+o)]-x(*), where *(*)+/(+<>), x(*) are con-
tinuous and never diminish as x increases; the same reasoning
75 6
FOURIER'S SERIES
applies to every continuous portion of /(*), for which the functions
<l>(x) x(*)are formed in the same manner; we nowtake/i(x) = il/(x) +
/(a+o) +C,Mx) = x(x) +C, where C is constant between consecutive
discontinuities, but may have different values in the next interval
between discontinuities; the C can be so chosen that neither MX)
nor f,(x) diminishes as x increases through a value for which /(x) is
discontinuous. We thus see that/(*) =fi(x)-Mx), where MX), MX)
never diminish as x increases from a to b, and are discontinuous only
where f(x) is so. The function/^) is a particular case of a class of
functions defined and discussed by Jordan, under the name " func-
tions with limited variation " (fonctions d variation bornee) ; in
general such functions have not necessarily only a finite number of
maxima and minima.
Proof of the Convergence of Fourier's Series. It will now be
assumed that a function f(x) arbitrarily given between the values
-IT and +*, has the following properties:
(a) The function is everywhere numerically less than some fixed
positive number, and continuous except for a finite number of values
of the variable, for which it may be ordinarily discontinuous.
(b) The function only changes from increasing to diminishing or
vice versa, a finite number of times within the interval; this is
usually expressed by saying that the number of maxima and minima
is finite.
These limitations on the nature of the function are known as
Dirichlet's conditions; it follows from them that the function is
integrable throughout the interval.
On these assumptions, we can investigate the limiting value of
Dirichlet's integral; it will be necessary to consider only the case
of a function F(z) which does not diminish as z increases from o to
Jir, since it has been shown that in the general case the difference
of two such functions may be taken. The following lemmas will
be required:
i. Since
r|
J o
osin z
this result holds however large the odd integer m may be.
2.
when ' lies between M and \TT. When m is indefinitely increased,
:he two last integrals have the limit zero in virtue of lemma (2).
To evaluate the first integral on the right-hand side, let G(z) =
F(z)-F(o)l -3 , and observe that G(z) increases as z increases
sin z
from o to M, hence if we apply the mean-value theorem
where o<< M , since G(z) has the limit zero when z = o. If be an
arbitrarily chosen positive number, a fixed value of M may be so
chosenthatTG( M )'<Kandthusthat|J"^G(z)5 m J^d 2 <\ f . When
has been so fixed, m may now be so chosen that
i
It has now been shown that when m is indefinitely increased
has the limit zero.
sin z 2
Returning to the form (4), we now see that the limiting value of
bence the sum of + i terms of the series
1 n //
j _ { f(
NJ
x)dx
rt**n* dsa ^L_ F sin mz d z +-J- P 1 sin mz dz
J a sin z sin aj sin pj y
where a < y < p, hence
I p sin mz^
2 -(J+-L-} < _J_
n \sin a sin/3/ m sin a'
| J a sin z
a precisely similar proof show
- tli-it 1 C P sin mz d- - 4
\J a z ma
h_ *u * i. fPsinrntj. ft fame j. .,, tr, tVip limit
hence the integrals 1 .
.' a, bin z
'"' J a Z
zero, as m is indefinitely increased.
C sin ,.
3. Ifa>o, -j- de cai
J a v
mot exceed JIT. For by the mean-
value theorem I ? <20 <
2,2
a+h'
, . r h sin 6 ,. .
hence L I s~oS SL
J - "
! t
l'
in particular if a ^ ir, 1
r^ * |<|-
. . d r sin 8 , a sin a
A & in rJ de= ' 0>0 '
therefore I ^^~dd increases as a diminishes, when < a < TT ;
J a "
but lim zd = 5.
hence r s -^d8 <-,
a 0_/ a 2
J a 6 2
where a<w, and <- where a^ TT. It follows that
7T
\Ja~~e~ d0 =
^ IT, provided o^ a</3.
To find the limit of J oF(z)
sin mz, .
= dz, we observe that it may be
written in the form
converges to the value i|/(.t+o)+/(*-o)l, or to f(x) at a point
where /(x) is continuous, provided f(x) satisfies Dirichlel's conditions
for the interval from -/ to /.
Proof that Fourier's Series is in General Uniformly Convergent.
To prove that Fourier's Series converges uniformly to its sum
for all values of x, provided that the immediate neighbourhoods
of the points of discontinuity of f(x) are excluded, we have
"Goo+j^Ffc+oi-Fcoji
Using this inequality and the corresponding one for F(-z), we have
+|> cpsec
where A is some fixed number independent of m. In any
interval (a, b) in which f(x) is continuous, a value MI of M can be
chosen such that, for every value of x in (o, 6), \f(x+2p)-f(x)\,
\f(x-2n)-f(x)\ are less than an arbitrarily prescribed positive
number e, provided M = MI- Also a value MZ of M can be so chosen
that CMS cosec M2<i'7, where TJ is an arbitrarily assigned positive
number. Take for M the lesser of the numbers MI. M2, then | Sjn+i -
/(*)(< 1+A|z cosec M for every value of x in (a, 6). It follows that,
since i\ and m are independent of x, \ S^n+i-f(x) \<2e, provided n is
greater than some fixed value n\ dependent only on t. Therefore
Sjn+i converges to/(#) uniformly in the interval (a, b).
Case of a Function with Infinities. The limitation that /(*) must
be numerically less than a fixed positive number throughout the
interval may, under a certain restriction, be removed. Suppose F(z)
is indefinitely great in the neighbourhood of the point z = c, and is
such that the limits of the two integrals J ~' F(z)<fz are both zero, as e
is indefinitely diminished, then
K
J
- F(z) " <fz denotes the limit when t = o, e l =o of
o sin z
d2+ C^
Jc+t 1
where M is a fixed number as small as we please; hence if we use
lemma (i), and apply the second mean-value theorem,
mz d fa h h ,j j existing . the
in z
first of these integrals has jrF(+o) for its limiting value when m is in-
definitely increased, and the second has zero for its limit. The theorem
therefore holds if F(z) has an infinity up to which it is absolutely
integrable;' this will, for example, be the case if F(z) near the point
C is of the form x(z) (z-c)~+<l'(z), where x(c), t(c) are finite, and
O<M<I. It is thus seen that/(x) may have a finite number of
infinities within the given interval, provided the function is in-
tegrable through any one of these points; the function is in that
case still representable by Fourier's Series.
The Ultimate Values of the Coefficients in Fourier's Series. If
f(x) is everywhere finite within the given interval JT to +ir, it
can be shown that o, 6, the coefficients of cos nx, sin nx in the
series which represent the function, are such that na n> nb n , however
FOURIER'S SERIES
757
great n is, are each less than a fixed finite quantity.
f(x)=fi(x)-fi(x), we have
C f 1 (x)cosnxdx=f i (
J T .
hence
) f
J ~
+0) f cos nxdx +^(
) C
J *
For writing
cos nxdx
C
J ~ v
~
with a similar expression, with f 2 (x) for /,(*), being between JT
and ir; the result then follows at once, and is obtained similarly
for the other coefficient.
If /(x) is infinite at x = c, and is of the form (%_*!% near the point
0(x)
(x^p
cos nxdx
cos nxdx ; consider the first of these, and put x = c+u,
c, where o<K<i, the integral
f /(x) cos nxdx contains portions of the form j
r 7 w
J _e <->
it thus becomes ( - K cos n(c+u)du, which is of the form
J o
C'cosn(c+u) .
4,( c +0 f ) | -g -du; now let nu=v, the integral becomes
J
( cos nc f nt cos p , sin nc /"*' sin u , )
\ n'~ K J o ^ n 1 J a v )
hence n 1-K f /(x) cos nxdx becomes, as n is definitely increased,
( f cos v , T 03 sin v , )
of the form <t>(c) j cos nc I -^g-dzi-sm nc J ^ -pj-* $
which is finite, both the integrals being convergent and of known
value. The other integral has a similar property, and we infer
that n'-Ko,,, n'~K6 n are less than fixed finite numbers.
The Differentiation of Fourier's Series. If we assume that the
differential coefficient of a function /(x) represented by a Fourier's
Series exists, that function /'(*) | s not necessarily representable by
the series obtained by differentiating the terms of the Fourier's
Series, such derived series being in fact not necessarily convergent.
Stokes has obtained general . formulae for finding the series which
represent /'(x), /"(x) the successive differential coefficients of a
limited function /(x). As an example of such formulae, consider
the sine series (i);/(x) is represented by
on integration by parts we have | /(x) sin-j-dx
:cos^j%(a+0)-/(a-0)j]
where o represent the points where /(x) is discontinuous. Hence
if /(x) is represented by the series 2a n sin j-, and f'(x) by the
series 2& cos -7, we have the relation
6 = % n -?[/(+0) /(/-0)+ 2 cos^p|/(a+0)-/(a-0))l
tr I \_ * J
hence only when the function is everywhere continuous, and/(+o),
/(/ o) are both zero, is the series which represents /'(x) obtained
at once by differentiating that which represents /(x). The form
of the coefficient a n discloses the discontinuities of the function and
of its differential coefficients, for on continuing the integration
by parts we find
2cos^j/(a+0)-/(a-0)l]
2 sin n -^j-\ /'(/3+0)-/'(j3-0) j +&c.
where are the points at which /'(x) is discontinuous.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF THE THEORY
The history of the theory of the representation of functions by
series of sines and cosines is of great interest in connexion with
the progressive development of the notion of an arbitrary function
of a real variable, and of the peculiarities which such a function
may possess; the modern views on the foundations of the infini-
tesimal calculus have been to a very considerable extent formed in
this connexion (see FUNCTION). The representation of functions by
these series was first considered in the i8th century, in connexion
with the problem of a vibrating cord, and led to a controversy as to
the possibility of such expansions. In a memoir published in 1747
(Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin, vol. iii.) D'Alembert showed thai
the ordinate y at any time t of a vibrating cord satisfies a differentia
equation of the form rrf = o-""T2' where x is measured along the
undisturbed length of the cord, and that with the ends of the cord o!
length / fixed, the appropriate solution is y=f(at+x)-f(at-x), where
f is a function such that /(*)=/(* +2/); in another memoir in the
>ame volume he seeks for functions which satisfy this condition.
:n the year 1748 (Berlin Memoirs, vol. iv.) Euler, in discussing
:he problem, gave /(*) = a sin y+ sin -p+ . as a particular
solution, and maintained that every curve, whether regular or
rregular, must be representable in this form. This was objected
o by D'Alembert (1750) and also by Lagrange on the ground that
rregular curves are inadmissible. D. Bernoulli (Berlin Memoirs,
m\. ix., 1753) based a similar result to that of Euler on physical
ntuition; his method was criticized by Euler (1753)- The question
was then considered from a new point of view by Lagrange, in a
memoir on the nature and propagation of sound (Miscellanea
faurensia, 1759; (Euvres, vol. i.), who, while criticizing Euler's
method, considers a finite number of vibrating particles, and then
makes the number of them infinite; he did not, however, quite fully
carry out the determination of the coefficients in Bernoulli's Series.
These mathematicians were hampered by the narrow conception of
a function, in which it is regarded as necessarily continuous; a
discontinuous function was considered only as a succession of
several different functions. Thus the possibility of the expansion
of a broken function was not generally admitted. The first cases
n which rational functions are expressed in sines and cosines were
,jiven by Euler (Subsidium calculi sinmtm, Novi Comm. Petrop.,
vol. v., 1754-1755), who obtained the formulae
sin 3<t> . . .
-
12 4=cos <-j cos 20+ J cos 3<> . ..
In a memoir presented to the Academy of St Petersburg in 1777,
3Ut not published until 1798, Euler gave the method afterwards
ased by Fourier, of determining the coefficients in the expansions ;
ie remarked that if * is expansible in the form
A+Bcos4>+Ccos2<#>+...,thenA = - (%</<*>, B=~ f^* cos <i>d<t>, &c.
Jo Jo
The second period in the development of the theory commenced
in 1807, when Fourier communicated his first memoir on the Theory
of Heat to the French Academy. His exposition of the present
theory is contained in a memoir sent to the Academy in 1811, of
which his great treatise the Theorie analytique de la chaleur, pub-
lished in 1822, is, in the main, a reproduction. Fourier set himself
to consider the representation of a function given graphically,
and was the first fully to grasp the idea that a single function may
consist of detached portions given arbitrarily by a graph. He
had an accurate conception of the convergence of a series, and
although he did not give a formally complete proof that a function
with discontinuities is representable by the series, he indicated in
particular cases the method of procedure afterwards carried out by
Dirichlet. As an exposition of principles, Fourier's work is still
worthy of careful perusal by all students of the subject. Poisson's
tieatment of the subject, which has been adopted in English works
(see the Journal de I'ecole poly technique, vol. xi., 1820, and vol.
xii., 1823, and also his treatise, Theorie de la chaleur, 1835),
TT 1 h 1 *
depends upon the equality f /() l-2h cos (x-o) +h lda
= ^ CfW'+v 2 * B /"V (a) cos " < - x ~^ da
where o< h< I ; the limit of the integral on the left-hand side is
evaluated when h = l, and found to be il/(x+o)+/(x o)j, the
series on the right-hand side becoming Fourier's Series. The
equality of the two limits is then inferred. If the series is assumed
to be convergent when h = l, by a theorem of Abel's its sum is
continuous with the sum for values of h less than unity, but a
proof of the convergency for h = I is requisite for the validity of
Poisson's proof; as Poisson gave no such proof of convergency,
his proof of the general theorem cannot be accepted. The deficiency
cannot be removed except by a process of the same nature as that
afterwards applied by Dirichlet. The definite integral has been
carefully studied by Schwarz (see two memoirs in his collected
works on the integration of the equation gp+| 2 = 0), who showed
that the limiting value of the integral depends upon the manner
in which the limit is approached. Investigations of Fourier's
Series were also given by Cauchy (see his " MiSmoire sur les d6veloppe-
ments des fonctions en s6ries periodiques," Mem. de Vlnst., vol. vi.,
also (Euvres completes, vol. vii.) ; his method, which depends upon
a use of complex variables, was accepted, with some modification,
as valid by Riemann, but one at least of his proofs is no longer
regarded as satisfactory. The first completely satisfactory in-
vestigation is due to Dirichlet ; his first memoir appeared in Crelle's
Journal for 1829, and the. second, which is a model of clearness, in
Dove's Repertorium der Physik. Dirichlet laid down certain definite
sufficient conditions in regard to the nature of a function which
is expansible, and found under these conditions the limiting value
of the sum of n terms of the series. Dirichlet's determination
of the sum of the series at a point of discontinuity has been criticized
by Schlafli (see Crelle's Journal, vol. Ixxii.) and by Du Bois-Reymond
(Mathem. Annalen, vol. vii.), who maintained that the sum is really
FOURMIES FOURNIER
indeterminate. Their objection appears, however, to rest upon a
misapprehension as to the meaning of the sum of the series; if *i be
the point of discontinuity, it is possible to make x approach *i,
and n become indefinitely great, so that the sum of the series
takes any assigned value in a certain interval, whereas we ought
to make x = x l first and afterwards n=oo, and no other way of
going to the double limit is really admissible. Other papers by
Dircksen (Crelle, vol. iv.) and Bessel (Astronomische Nachrichten, vol.
xvi.), on similar lines to those by Dirichlet, are of inferior importance.
Many of the investigations subsequent to Dirichlet's have the object
of freeing a function from some of the restrictions which were imposed
upon it in Dirichlet's proof, but no complete set of necessary and
sufficient conditions as to the nature of the function has been ob-
tained. Lipschitz (" De explicatione per series trigonometricas,"
Crelle's Journal, vol. Ixiii., 1864) showed that, under a certain con-
dition, a function which has an infinite number of maxima and
minima in the neighbourhood of a point is still expansible; his
condition is that at the point of discontinuity 0, \f(P+6) -/(/3) | < Ba
as S converges to zero, B being a constant, and a a positive exponent.
A somewhat wider condition is
/(/5+S)-/(/3)l log 8 = 0,
S = o
for which Lipschitz's results would hold. This last condition is
adopted by Dini in his treatise (Sopra la serie di Fourier, &c., Pisa,
1880).
The modern period in the theory was inaugurated by the publi-
cation by Riemann in 1867 of his very important memoir, written
in 1854, Ober die Darstellbarkeit einer Function durch eine trigo-
nometrische Reihe. The first part of his memoir contains a historical
account of the work of previous investigators; in the second part
there is a discussion of the foundations of the Integral Calculus,
and the third part is mainly devoted to a discussion of what can
be inferred as to the nature of a function respecting the changes in
its value for a continuous change in the variable, if the function is
capable of representation by a trigonometrical series. Dirichlet
and probably Riemann thought that all continuous functions were
everywhere representable by the series; this view was refuted by Du
Bois-Reymond (Abh. der Bayer. Akad. vol. xii. 2). It was shown
by Riemann that the convergence or non-convergence of the series
at a particular point x depends only upon the nature of the function
in an arbitrarily small neighbourhood of the point x. The first to call
attention to the importance of the theory or uniform convergence of
series in connexion with Fourier's Series was Stokes, in his memoir
" On the Critical Values of the Sums of Periodic Series " (Camb. Phil.
Trans., 1847 ; Collected Papers, vol. i.). As the method of determin-
ing the coefficients in a trigonometrical series is invalid unless the
series converges in general uniformly, the question arose whether
series with coefficients other than those of Fourier exist which
represent arbitrary functions. Heine showed (Crelle's Journal,
vol. Ixxi., 1870, and in his treatise Kugelfunctionen, vol. i.) that
Fourier's Series is in general uniformly convergent, and that if
there is a uniformly convergent series which represents a function,
it is the only one of the kind. G. Cantor then showed (Crelle's
Journal, vols. Ixxii. Ixxiii.) that even if uniform convergence be
not demanded, there can be but one convergent expansion for a
function, and that it is that of Fourier. In the Math. Ann. vol.
v., Cantor extended his investigation to functions having an in-
finite number of discontinuities. Important contributions to the
theory of the series have been published by Du Bois-Reymond
(Abh. der Bayer. Akademie, vol. xii., 1875, two memoirs, also in
Crelle's Journal, vols. Ixxiv. Ixxvi. Ixxix.), by Kronecker (Berliner
Berichte, 1885), by O. Holder (Berliner Berichte, 1885), by Jordan
(Comptes rendus, 1881, vol. xcii.), by Ascoli (Math. AnnaL, 1873,
and Annali di matematica, vol. vi.), and by Genocchi (Atti delta
R. Ace. di Torino, vol. x., 1875). Hamilton's memoir on " Fluctuat-
ing Functions " (Trans. R.I.A., vol. xix., 1842) may also be studied
with profit in this connexion. A memoir by Broden (Math. Annalen,
vol. Hi.) contains a good investigation of some of the most recent
results on the subject. The scope of Fourier's Series has been
extended by Lebesgue, who introduced a conception of integration
wider than that due to Riemann. Lebesgue's work on Fourier's
Series will be found in his treatise, Lefons sur les series trigono-
metriques (1906) ; also in a memoir, " Sur les series trigonometriques,"
Annales sc. de Vecole normale superieure, series ii. vol. xx. (1903),
and in a paper " Sur la convergence des series de Fourier," Math.
Annalen, vol. Ixiv. (1905).
AUTHORITIES. The foregoing historical account has been mainly
drawn from A. Sachse's work, " Versuch einer Geschichte der
Darstellung willkurlicher Functionen einer Variabeln durch trigono-
metrische Reihen," published in Schlomilch's Zeitschrift fur Mathe-
malik, Supp., vol. xxv. 1880, and from a paper by G. A. Gibson
On the History of the Fourier Series " (Proc. Ed. Math. Soc. vol.
i" i S Geschichte der unendlichen Reihen may also be consulted,
and also the first part of Riemann's memoir referred to above
Besides Dini s treatise already referred to, there is a lucid treatment
ol the subject from an elementary point of view in C. Neumann's
treatise, Uber die nach Kreis-, Kugel- und Cylinder- Functionen
fortschreitenden Entwickelungen. Jordan's discussion of the subject
in his Lours d analyse is worthy of attention ; an account of functions
with limited variation is given in vol. i. ; see also a paper by Study
in the Math. Annalen, vol. xlvii. On the second mean- value theorem
papers by Bonnet (Brux. Memoires, vol. xxiii., 1849, Lionvitte's.
Journal, vol. xiv., 1849), by Du Bois-Reymond (Crelle's Journal, vol.
Ixxix., 1875), by Hankel (Zeitschrift fur Math, und Physik, vol. xiv.,
1869), by Meyer (Math. Ann., vol. vi., 1872) and by Holder (Gottinger
Anzeigen, 1894) may be consulted; the most general form of the
theorem has been given by Hobson (Proc. London Math. Soc., Series
II. vol. vii., 1909). On the theory of uniform convergence of series,
a memoir by W. F. Osgood (Amer. Journal of Math, xix.) may be with
advantage consulted. On the theory of series 1n general, in relation
to the functions which they can represent, a memoir by Baire
(Annali di matematica. Series III. vol. iii.) is of great import-
ance. Bromwich's Theory of Infinite Series (1908) contains much
information on the general theory of series. B6cher's " Intro-
duction to the Theory of Fourier's Series," Annals of Math., Series
II. vol. vii., 1906, will be found useful. See also Carslaw's In-
troduction to the Theory of Fourier's Series and Integrals, and the
Mathematical Theory of the Conduction of Heat (1906). A full account
of the theory will be found in Hobson's treatise On the Theory
of Functions of a Real Variable and on the Theory of Fourier's Series
(1907). (E. W. H.)
FOURMIES, a town of northern France, in the department
of Nord, on an affluent of the Sambre, 39 m. S.E. of Valenciennes
by rail. Pop. (1906) 13,308. It is one of the chief centres in
France for wool combing and spinning, and produces a great
variety of cloths. The glass-works of Fourmies date from
1 599, and were the first established in the north of France. Iron
is worked in the vicinity, and there are important forges and
foundries. Enamel-ware is also manufactured. In 1891 labour
troubles brought about military intervention and consequent
bloodshed. A board of trade arbitration and a school of com-
merce and industry are among the public institutions.
FOURMONT, fiTIENNE (1683-1745), French orientalist, was
born at Herbelai, near Saint Denis, on the 23rd of June 1683.
He studied at the College Mazarin, Paris, and afterwards in the
College Montaigu, where his attention was attracted to Oriental
languages. Shortly after leaving the college he published a
Traduction du commentaire du Rabbin Abraham Aben Esra sur
I'ecdesiaste. In 1711 Louis XIV. appointed Fourmont to
assist a young Chinese, Hoan-ji, in compiling a Chinese grammar.
Hoan-ji died in 1716, and it was not until 1737 that Fourmont
published Meditationes Sinicae and in 1742 Crammatica Sinica.
He also wrote Reflexions critiques sur les histoires des anciens
peuples (1735), and several dissertations printed in the Memoires
of the Academy of Inscriptions. He became professor of Arabic
in the College de France in 1715. In 1713 he was elected a
member of the Academy of Inscriptions, in 1738 a member
of the Royal Society of London, and in 1742 a member of that
of Berlin. He died at Paris on the iQth of December 1745.
His brother, Michel Fourmont (1690-1 746), was also a member
of the Academy of Inscriptions, and professor of the Syriac
language in the Royal College, and was sent by the government
to copy inscriptions in Greece.
An account of Etienne Fourmont's life and a catalogue of his
works will be found in the second edition (1747) of his Reflexions
critiques.
FOURNET, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTS XAVIER (1801-1869),
French geologist and metallurgist, was born at Strassburg on
the isth of May 1801. He was educated at the Ecole des Mines
at Paris, and after considerable experience as a mining engineer
he was in 1834 appointed professor of geology at Lyons. He was
a man of wide knowledge and extensive research, and wrote
memoirs on chemical and mineralogical subjects, on eruptive
rocks, on the structure of the Jura, the metamorphism of the
Western Alps, on the formation of oolitic limestones, on kaolin-
ization and on metalliferous veins. On metallurgical subjects
also he was an acknowledged authority; and he published
observations on the order of sulphurability of metals (loi de
Fournet). He died at Lyons on the 8th of January 1869. His
chief publications were: Etudes sur les depdts metalliferes (Paris,
1834); Histoire de la dolomie (Lyons, 1847); De I' extension
des terrains houillers (1855); Geologic lyonnaise (Lyons, 1861).
FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON (1712-1768), French engraver
and typefounder, was born at Paris on the isth of September
1712. He was the son of a printer, and was brought up to his
father's business. After studying drawing under the painter
FOURNIER L'HERITIER FOWEY
759
Colson, he practised for some time the art of wood-engraving,
and ultimately turned his attention to the engraving and casting
of types. He designed many new characters, and his foundry
became celebrated not only in France, but in foreign countries.
Not content with his practical achievements, he sought to
stimulate public interest in his art by the production of various
works on the subject. In 1737 he published his Table des
proportions qu'il faut observer entre les caracleres, which was
followed by several other technical treatises. In 1 7 58 he assailed
the title of Gutenberg to the honour awarded him as inventor
of printing, claiming it for Schoffer, in his Dissertation sur
I'origine el les progres de I'art de graver en bois. This gave rise
to a controversy in which Schopflin and Baer were his opponents.
Fournier's contributions to this debate were collected and re-
printed under the title of Trailes historiques el critiques sur
I'origine de I'imprimerie. His principal work, however, was the
Manuel typographique, which appeared in 2 vols. 8vo in 1764,
the first volume treating of engraving and type-founding, the
second of printing, with examples of different alphabets. It
was the author's design to complete the work in four volumes,
but he did not live to execute it. He died at Paris on the 8th of
October 1768.
FOURNIER L'HfiRITIER, CLAUDE ('745-1825), French
revolutionist, called " I'Americain," was born at Auzon (Haute-
Loire) on the 2ist of December 1745, the son of a poor weaver.
He went to America to seek his fortune, and started at San
Domingo an establishment for making tafia (an inferior quality
of rum), but lost his money in a fire. Returning to France
he threw himself into the Revolution with enthusiasm, and
specially distinguished himself by the active part he took in the
organization of the popular armed force by means of which the
most famous of the revolutionary coups were effected. His
influence was principally manifested in the insurrections of the
5th and 6th of October 1789, the i?th of July 1791, and the
2oth of June and the loth of August 1792. He was on bad
terms with the majority of the politicians, and particularly
with Marat, and spent a great part of his time in prison, all the
governments regarding him as an agitator and accusing him of
inciting to insurrection. Arrested for the first time for trying
to force an entrance into the club of the Cordeliers, from which
he had been expelled, he was released, but was in prison from
the I2th of December 1793 to the 2ist of September 1794, and
again from the 9th of March 1795 to the 26th of October 1795.
After the attempt on the First Consul in the rue Sainte-Nicaise
he was deported to Guiana, but was allowed to return to France
in 1809. In 1811, while under surveillance at Auxerre, he was
accused of having provoked an emeute against taxes known as
the droits reunis (afterwards called contributions indirectes),
and was imprisoned in the Chateau d'lf, where he remained till
1814. On the second restoration of the Bourbons Fournier
was confined for about nine months in the prison of La Force.
After 1816 he was left unmolested, turned royalist, and passed
his last years in importuning the Restoration government for
compensation for his lost property in San Domingo. He died
in obscurity.
For further details see preface to F. A. Aulard's edition of Fournier's
Memoires secrets (Paris, 1890), published by the Societe de 1'histoire
de la Revolution.
FOURTOU, MARIE FRANCOIS OSCAR BARDY DE (1836-
1897), French politician, was born at Riberac (Dordogne) on
the 3rd of January 1836, and represented his native department
in the National Assembly after the Franco-German War. There
he proved a useful adherent to Thiers, who made him minister
of public works in December 1872. He was minister of religion
in the cabinet of May 18-24, 1873, being the only member of the
Right included by Thiers in that short-lived ministry. As
minister of education, religion and the fine arts in the recon-
structed cabinet of the due de Broglie he had used his adminis-
trative powers to further clerical ends, and as minister of the
interior in Broglie 's cabinet in 1877 he resumed the adminis-
trative methods of the Second Empire. With a well-known
Bonapartist, Baron R. C. F. Reille, as his secretary, he replaced
republican functionaries by Bonapartist partisans, reserving
a few places for the Legitimists. In the general elections of
that year he used the whole weight of officialdom to secure a
majority for the Right, to support a clerical and reactionary
programme. He accompanied Marshal MacMahon in his tour
through southern France, and the presidential manifesto of
September, stating that the president would rely solely on the
Senate should the elections prove unfavourable, was generally
attributed to Fourtou. In spite of these efforts the cabinet fell,
and a commission was appointed to inquire into their uncon-
stitutional abuse of power. Fourtou was unseated in consequence
of the revelations made in the report of the commission. In the
Chamber of Deputies Gambetta gave the lie direct to Fourtou's
allegation that the republican party opposed every republican
principle that was not antiquated. A duel was fought in con-
sequence, but neither party was injured. He was re-elected to
the chamber in 1879 and entered the Senate the next year.
Failing to secure re-election to the Senate in 1885 he again entered
the popular chamber as Legitimist candidate in 1889, but he
took no further active part in politics. He died in Paris in 1897.
His works include Histoire de Louis XVI (1840); Histoire de
Saint Pie V (1845); Mme Swetchine, sa vie et ses ceuvres (2 vols.,
1859); La Question italienne (1860); De la centre-revolution (1876);
and Memoires d'un royaliste (2 vols., if"
FOUSSA, or FOSSA, the native name of Cryploprocla ferox, a
somewhat cat-like or civet-like mammal peculiar to Madagascar,
where it is the largest carnivorous animal. It is about twice
the size of a cat (5 ft. from nose to end of tail), with short close
fur of nearly uniform pale brown. Little is known of its habits,
except that it is nocturnal, frequently attacks and carries off
goats, and especially kids, and shows great ferocity when
wounded, on which account it is much dreaded by the natives.
An example lived in the London zoological gardens for nearly
fourteen years. See CARNIVORA.
FOWEY (usually pronounced Foy), a seaport and market-
town in the Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England,
on the Great Western railway, 25 m. by sea W. of Plymouth.
Pop. (1901) 2258. It lies on the west shore of the picturesque
estuary of the river Fowey, close to the water's edge, and
sheltered by a screen of hills. Its church of St Nicholas is said
to have been built in the I4th century, on the site of a still older
edifice dedicated to St Finbar of Cork. It has a fine tower and
late Norman doorway. Within are a priest's chamber over the
porch, a handsome oak ceiling, a 15th-century pulpit, and some
curious monuments and brasses. Place House, adjacent to the
church, is a highly ornate Tudor building. A few ancient
houses remain in the town. Deep-sea fishing is carried on;
but the staple trade consists in the export of china clay and
minerals, coal being imported. Fowey harbour, which is easy
of access in clear weather, will admit large vessels at any state
of the tide. St Catherine's Fort, dating from the days of Henry
VIII. and now ruined, stands at the harbour's mouth, and
once formed the main defence of the town. Opposite the town,
and connected with it by Bodeneck Ferry, is the village of Polruan.
Its main features are St Saviour's Chapel, with an ancient rood-
stone, and the remains of Hall House, which was garrisoned
during the civil wars of the i7th century.
Fowey (Fawy, Vawy, Fowyk) held a leading position amongst
Cornish ports from the reign of Edward I. to the days of the
Tudors. The numerous references to the privateering exploits
of its ships in the Patent and Close Rolls and the extraordinary
number of them at the siege of Calais in 1346 alike testify to its
importance. During this period the king's mandates were
addressed to the bailiffs or to the mayor and bailiffs, and no
charter of incorporation appears to have been granted until the
reign of James II. Under the second charter of 1690 the common
council consisted of a mayor and eight aldermen and these
with a recorder elected the free burgesses. A member for Fowey
and Looe was summoned to a council at Westminster in 1340,
but from that date until 1571, when it was entrusted with the
privilege of returning two members, it had no parliamentary
representation. By the Reform Act of 1832 it lost both its
760
FOWL FOWLER, E.
members. It had ceased to exercise its municipal functions a
few years previously. In 1316 the prior of Tywardreath, as
lord of the manor, obtained the right to hold a Monday market
and two fairs on the feasts of St Finbar and St Lucy, but by the
charter of 1690 provision was made for a Saturday market and
three fairs, on the ist of May, loth of September and Shrove
Tuesday, and only these three continue to be held.
FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel), a term originally used in the
sense that bird ' now is, but, except in composition, as sea-fowl,
wild-fowl and the like, practically almost confined 2 at present
to designate the otherwise nameless species which struts on our
dunghills, gathers round our barn-doors, or stocks our poultry
yards the type of the genus Callus of ornithologists, of which
four well-marked species are known. The first of these is the
red jungle-fowl of the greater part of India, G. ferrugineus,
called by many writers G. bankiva, which is undoubtedly the
parent stock of all the domestic races (cf. Darwin, Animals and
Plants under Domestication, i. pp. 233-246) . It inhabits northern
India from Sind to Burma and Cochin China, as well as the Malay
Peninsula and many of the islands as far as Timor, besides the
Philippines. It occurs on the Himalayas up to the height of
4000 ft., and its southern limits in the west of India proper are,
according to Jerdon, found on the Raj-peepla hills to the south
of the Nerbudda, and in the east near the left bank of the
Godavery, or perhaps even farther, as he had heard of its being
killed at Cummum. This species resembles in plumage what is
commonly known among poultry-fanciers as the " Black-breasted
game " breed, and this is said to be especially the case with
examples from the Malay countries, between which and examples
from India some differences are observable the latter having
the plumage less red, the ear-lappets almost invariably white,
and slate-coloured legs, while in the former the ear-lappets are
crimson, like the comb and wattles, and the legs yellowish. If
the Malayan birds be considered distinct, it is to them that the
name G. bankiva properly applies. This species is said to be
found in lofty forests and in dense thickets, as well as in ordinary
bamboo-jungles, and when cultivated land is near its haunts,
it may be seen in the fields after the crops are cut in straggling
parties of from 10 to 20. The crow to which the cock gives
utterance morning and evening is just like that of a bantam,
never prolonged as in most domestic birds. The hen breeds
from January to July, according to the locality; and lays from
8 to 12 creamy-white eggs, occasionally scraping together a few
leaves or a little dry grass by way of a nest. The so-called G.
giganleus, formerly taken by some ornithologists for a distinct
species, is now regarded as a tame breed of G. ferrugineus or
bankiva. ' The second good species is the grey jungle-fowl, G.
sonnerali, whose range begins a little to the northward of the
limits of the preceding, and it occupies the southern part of the
Indian peninsula, without being found elsewhere. The cock
has the end of the shaft of the neck-hackles dilated, forming a
horny plate, like a drop of yellow sealing-wax. His call is very
peculiar, being a broken and imperfect kind of crow, quite unlike
that of G. ferrugineus and more like a cackle. The two species
where their respective ranges overlap, occasionally interbreed
in a wild state, and the present readily crosses in confinement
with domestic poultry, but the hybrids are nearly always sterile.
The third species is the Sinhalese jungle-fowl, G. stanleyi (the
G. lafayellii of some authors), peculiar to Ceylon. This also
greatly resembles in plumage some domestic birds, but the cock
is red beneath, and has a yellow comb with a red edge and
purplish-red cheeks and wattles. He has also a singularly
different voice, his crow being dissyllabic. This bird crosses
readily with tame hens, but the hybrids are believed to be infertile.
The fourth species, G. varius (the G. furcalus of some authors) ,
inhabits Java and the islands eastwards as far as Flores. This
differs remarkably from the others in not possessing hackles, and
1 Bird (cognate with breed and brood) was originally the young of
any animal, and an early Act of the Scottish parliament speaks of
" Wolf-birdis," i.e. Wolf-cubs.
2 Like Deer (Dan. Dyr. Ger. Tier). Beast, too, with some men
has almost attained as much specialization.
in having a large unserrated comb of red and blue and only a
single chin wattle. The predominance of green in its plumage
is another easy mark of distinction. Hybrids between this
species and domestic birds are often produced, but they are most
commonly sterile. Some of them have been mistaken for distinct
species, as those which have received the names of G. aeneus
and G. temmincki.
Several circumstances seem to render it likely that fowls
were first domesticated in Burma or the countries adjacent
thereto, and it is the tradition of the Chinese that they received
their poultry from the West about the year 1400 B.C. By the
Institutes of Manu, the tame fowl is forbidden, though the wild
is allowed to be eaten showing that its domestication was
accomplished when they were written. The bird is not mentioned
in the Old Testament nor by Homer, though he has 'AXewcop
(cock) as the name of a man, nor is it figured on ancient Egyptian
monuments. Pindar mentions it, and Aristophanes calls it the
Persian bird, thus indicating it to have been introduced to Greece
through Persia, and it is figured on Babylonian cylinders between
the 6th and 7th centuries B.C. It is sculptured on the Lycian
marbles in the British Museum (c. 600 B.C.), and E. Blyth
remarks (Ibis, 1867, p. 157) that it is there represented with the
appearance of a true jungle-fowl, for none of the wild Galli
have the upright bearing of the tame breed, but carry their
tail in a drooping position. For further particulars of these
breeds see POUL!RY. (A. N.)
FOWLER, CHARLES (1792-1867), English architect, was
born at Cullompton, Devon, on the i7th of May 1792. After
serving an apprenticeship of five years at Exeter, he went to
London in 1814, and entered the office of David Laing, where
he remained till he commenced practice for himself. His first
work of importance was the court of bankruptcy in Basinghall
Street, finished in 1821. In the following year he gained the
first premium for a design for the new London bridge, which,
however, was ultimately built according to the design of another
architect. Fowler's other designs for bridges include one con-
structed across the Dart at Totnes. He was also the architect
for the markets of Covent Garden and Hungerford, the new
market at Gravesend, and Exeter lower market, and besides
several churches he designed Devon lunatic asylum (1845),
the London fever hospital (1849), and the hall of the Wax
Chandlers' Company, Gresham Street (1853). For some years
he was honorary secretary of the institute of British architects,
and he was afterwards created vice-president. He retired from
his profession in 1853, and died at Great Marlow, Bucks, on the
26th of September 1867.
FOWLER, EDWARD (1632-1714), English divine, was born
in 1632 at Westerleigh, Gloucestershire, and was educated at
Corpus Christi College, Oxford, afterwards migrating to Trinity
College, Cambridge. He was successively rector of Norhill,
Bedfordshire (1656) and of All Hallows, Bread Street, London
(1673), and in 1676 was elected a canon of Gloucester, his friend
Henry More, the Cambridge Platonist, resigning in his favour.
In 1 68 1 he became vicar of St Giles, Cripplegate, but after four
years was suspended for Whiggism. When the Declaration
of Indulgence was published in 1687 he successfully influenced
the London clergy against reading it. In 1691 he was consecrated
bishop of Gloucester and held the see until his death on the
26th of August 1714. Fowler was suspected of Pelagian ten-
dencies, and his earliest book was a Free Discourse in defence of
The Practices of Certain Moderate Divines called Laliludinarians
(1670). The Design of Christianity, published by him in the
following year, in which he laid stress on the moral design of
revelation, was criticized by Baxter in his How far Holiness
is the Design of Christianity (1671) and by Bunyan in his Defence
of the Doctrine of Justification by Faith (1672), the latter describing
the Design as "a mixture of Popery, Socinianism and Quakerism,"
a horrid accusation to which Fowler replied in a scurrilous
pamphlet entitled Dirt Wip'd Off. He also published, in 1693,
Twenty-Eight Propositions, by which the Doctrine of the Trinity
is endeavoured to be explained, challenging with some success the
Socinian position.
FOWLER, J. FOX, C. J.
761
FOWLER, JOHN (1826-1864), English inventor, was born
at Melksham, Wilts, on the nth of July 1826. He learned
practical engineering at Middlesborough-on-Tees, and about
1850 invented a mechanical system for the drainage of land.
In 1852 he began experiments in steam cultivation, and in 1858
the Royal Agricultural Society awarded him the prize of 500
which it had offered for a steam-cultivator that should be an
economic substitute for the plough or the spade. In 1860 he
founded at Hunslet, Leeds, the firm of Fowler & Co., manu-
facturers of agricultural machinery, traction engines, &c. He
died at Ackworth, Yorkshire, on the 4th of December 1864.
FOWLER, SIR JOHN (1817-1898), English civil engineer,
was born on the 1 5th of July 1 8 1 7 at Wadsley Hall, near Sheffield,
where his father was a land-surveyor. At the age of sixteen
he became a pupil of John Towlerton Leather, the engineer of
the Sheffield water-works. The latter's uncle, George Leather,
was engineer of the Great Aire and Calder Navigation Company,
of the Goole Docks, and other similar works, and Fowler passed
occasionally into his employment, in which he acquired a
thorough knowledge of hydraulic engineering. The era of
railway construction soon swept both Fowler and his employers
into its service, and one of his first employments was to oppose
the route of the Midland railway, chosen by the Stephensons,
which left Sheffield on a branch line, and was therefore strongly
resented by the inhabitants. The prestige of the Stephensons
carried all before it, but in later life Sir John Fowler had the
satisfaction of seeing the opposition of his clients justified, and
Sheffield placed on the main line. In 1838 he went into the
office of John Urpeth Rastrick, one of the leading railway
engineers of the day, where he was employed in designing bridges
lor the line from London to Brighton, and also in surveying for
railways in Lancashire. In 1839 he went as representative of
Mr Leather to take charge of the construction of the Stockton
& Hartlepool railway and remained as manager of the line after
it was finished. In 1844 he began his independent career as an
engineer, and from the first was largely employed, more particu-
larly in laying out the small railway systems which eventually
were amalgamated under the title of the Manchester, Sheffield
& Lincolnshire. In the course of this work he designed a
bridge known as Torksey Bridge, which was disallowed by the
Board of Trade inspector, Captain (afterwards Field-Marshal Sir)
Lintorn Simmons. The engineering profession espoused Fowler's
side in the controversy which followed, and as a result the verdict
of the Board of Trade was modified. The episode was the
beginning of a warm friendship between these distinguished
representatives of civil and military engineering. Fowler was
engineer of the London Metropolitan railway, the pioneer of
underground railways, and noteworthy in that it was mostly
made not by tunnelling, but by excavating from the surface and
then covering in the permanent way; and he lived to be one of
the engineers officially connected with the deep tunnelling " tube"
system extensively adopted for electric railways in London.
He was also engaged in the making of railways in Ireland, and
in 1867 he was selected by Disraeli to serve on a commission to
advise the government in respect of a proposal for a state-
purchase of the Irish railway system. He also carried out
considerable works in relation to the Nene Valley drainage and
the reclamation of land at the Norfolk estuary.
In 1865 he was elected president of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, the youngest president who had ever sat in the chair.
He was strongly opposed to the project of a Channel tunnel to
France, and in 1872 he endeavoured to obtain the consent of
parliament to a Channel ferry scheme, whereby trains were to be
transported across the strait in large ferry steamers. The
proposal involved the making of enlarged harbours at Dover
and Audresselles on the French coast, and the bill, after passing
the Commons, was' thrown out by the casting vote of the chairman
of a committee of the House of Lords. In 1875 he was enabled
to render, in his private capacity, a signal service to the Italian
government, which was much embarrassed by impracticable
proposals pressed on it by Garibaldi for a rectification of the
course of the Tiber and other engineering works. He had
several interviews with the Italian patriot, and persuaded him
of the impracticable nature of his plan, thereby obtaining for
the government leisure to devise a more reasonable scheme.
For eight years from 1871 he acted as general engineering adviser
in Egypt to the Khedive Ismail. He projected a railway to the
Sudan, and also the reparation of the barrage. These and many
other plans came to an end owing to financial reasons. But the
maps and surveys for the railway were given to the war office,
and proved most useful to Lord Wolseley in his Nile expedition.
For his service Fowler was made K.C.M.G. (1885). He was
created a baronet in 1890 on the completion of the Forth bridge,
of which with his partner Sir Benjamin Baker he was joint
engineer. He died at Bournemouth on the 2oth of November
1898.
FOWLER, WILLIAM (c. 1560-1614), Scottish poet, was born
about the year 1560. He attended St Leonard's college, St
Andrews, between 1574 and 1578, and in 1581 he was in Paris
studying civil law. In 1581 he issued a pamphlet against John
Hamilton and other Catholics, who had, he said, driven him from
his country. He subsequently (about ?i59o) became private
secretary and Master of Requests to Anne of Denmark, wife of
James VI., and was renominated to these offices when the queen
went to England. In 1609 his services were rewarded by a grant
of 2000 acres in Ulster. His sister Susannah Fowler married
Sir John Drummond, and was mother of the poet William
Drummond of Hawthornden. On the title-page of The Triumphs
of Petrarke, Fowler styles himself " P. of Hawick," whii-h has
been held to mean that he was parson of Hawick, but this is
doubtful. A MS. collection of seventy-two sonnets, entitled
The Tarantula of Love, and a translation (1587) from the Italian
of the Triumphs of Petrarke are preserved in the library of the
university of Edinburgh, in the collection bequeathed by his
nephew, William Drummond. Two other volumes of his manu-
script notes, scrolls of poems, &c., are preserved among the
Drummond MSS., now in the library of the Society of Anti-
quaries of Scotland. Specimens of Fowler's verses were pub-
lished in 1803 by John Leyden in his Scottish Descriptive Poems.
Fowler contributed a prefatory sonnet to James VI. 's Furies;
and James, in return, commended, in verse, Fowler's Triumphs.
FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806), British statesman and
orator, was the third son of Henry Fox, ist Lord Holland, and
his wife, Lady Caroline Lennox, eldest daughter of Charles
Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond. He was born at 9 Conduit
Street, Westminster, on the 24th of January 1749. The father,
who treated his children with extreme indulgence, allowed him
to choose his school, and he elected to go to one kept at Wands-
worth by a French refugee, named Pampelonne. In a very short
time he asked to be sent to Eton, where he went in 1757. At
Eton he did no more work than was acceptable to him, but he
had an inborn love of . literature, and he laid the foundation of
that knowledge of the classic languages which in after years was
the delight of his life. The vehemence of his temper was con-
trolled by an affectionate disposition. When quite a boy he
checked his own tendency to fits of passion on learning that his
father trusted him to cure his defects.
That he learnt anything, and that he grew up an amiable and
magnanimous man, were solely due to his natural worth, for no
one ever owed less to education or to family example. The
relations of Lord Holland to his sons would be difficult to parallel.
He not only treated them, and in particular Charles, as friends
and companions in pleasure from the first, but he did his best
to encourage them in dissipation. In 1763 he took Charles for
a tour on the continent, introduced him to the most immoral
society of the time and gave him money with which to gamble.
The boy came back to Eton a precocious rake. It was his good
fortune that he did go back, for he was subjected to a wholesome
course of ridicule by the other boys, and was flogged by Dr
Barnard, the headmaster. In 1764 Charles proceeded to
Hertford College, Oxford. At Oxford, as at Eton, he read
literature from natural liking, and he paid some attention to
mathematics. His often quoted saying that he found mathe-
matics entertaining was probably meant as a jest at the expense
762
FOX, C. J.
of Sir G. Macartney, to whom he was writing, and who was
known to maintain that it was useless. His own account of his
school and college training, given in a letter to the same corre-
spondent (6th August 1767), is: "I employed almost my
whole time at Oxford in the mathematical and classical know-
ledge, but more particularly in the latter, so that I understand
Latin and Greek tolerably well. I am totally ignorant in every
part of useful knowledge. I am more convinced every day how
little advantage there is in being what at school and the uni-
versity is called a good scholar: one receives a good deal of
amusement from it, but that is all. At present I read nothing
but Italian, which I am immoderately fond of, particularly of
the poetry. ... As for French, I am far from being so thorough
a master of it as I could wish, but I know so much of it that I
could perfect myself in it at any time with very little trouble,
especially if I pass three or four months in France." The passage
is characteristic. It shows at once his love of good literature
and his thoroughness. Fox's youth was disorderly, but it was
never indolent. He was incapable of half doing anything which
he did at all. He did perfect himself in French, and he showed
no less determination to master mere sports. At a later period
when he had grown fat he accounted for his skill in taking " cut
balls " at tennis by saying that he was a very " painstaking
man." He was all his life a great and steady walker.
The disorders of his early years were notorious, and were a
common subject of gossip. In the spring of 1767 he left Oxford
and joined his father on the continent during a tour in France
and Italy. In 1768 Lord Holland bought the pocket borough
of Midhurst for him, and he entered on his parliamentary career,
and on London society, in 1769. Within the next few years Lord
Holland reaped to the full the reward for all that was good, and
whatever was evil, in the training he had given his son. The
affection of Charles Fox for his father was unbounded, but the
passion for gambling which had been instilled in him as a boy
proved the ruin of the family fortune. He kept racehorses,
and bet on them largely. On the racecourse he was successful,
and it is another proof of his native thoroughness that he gained
a reputation as a handicapper. It is said that he won more than
he lost on the course. At the gambling table he was unfortunate,
and there can be little question that he was fleeced both in
London and in Paris by unscrupulous players of his own social
rank, who took advantage of his generosity and whose worth-
lessness he knew. In the ardour of his passion Fox took his
losses and their consequences with an attractive gaiety. He
called the room in which he did business with the Jew money-
lenders his " Jerusalem chamber." When his elder brother had
a son, and his prospects were injured, he said that the boy was
a second Messiah, who had appeared for the destruction of the
Jews. " He had his jest, and they had his estate." In 1774
Lord Holland had to find 140,000 to pay the gambling debts of
his sons. For years Charles lived in pecuniary embarrassment,
and during his later years, when he had given up gambling, he
was supported by the contributions of wealthy friends, who in
1793 formed a fund of 70,000 for his benefit.
His public career did not supply him with a check on habits
of dissipation in the shape of the responsibilities of office. He
began, as was to be expected in his father's son, by supporting
the court; and in 1770, when only twenty-one, he was appointed
a junior lord of the admiralty with Lord North. During the
violent conflict over the Middlesex election (see WILKES, JOHN)
he took the unpopular side, and vehemently asserted the right
of the House of Commons to exclude Wilkes. In 1772 during
the proceedings against Crosby and Oliver a part of the " Wilkes
and liberty " agitation he and Lord North were attacked by
a mob and rolled in the mud. But Fox's character was incom-
patible with ministerial service under King George III. The
king, himself a man of orderly life, detested him as a gambler
and a rake. And Fox was too independent to please a master
who expected obedience. In February 1772 he threw up his
place to be free to oppose the Royal Marriage Act, on which
the king's heart was set. He returned to office as junior lord
of the treasury in December. But he was insubordinate; his
sympathy' with the American colonies, which were now beginning
to resist the claims of the mother country to tax them, made
him intolerable to the king and he was dismissed in February
1774. The death of his father on the ist of July of that year
removed an influence which tended to keep him subordinate to
the court, and his friendship for Burke drew him into close
alliance with the Rockingham Whigs. From the first his ability
had won him admiration in the House of Commons. He had
prepared to distinguish himself as an orator by the elaborate
cultivation of his voice, which was naturally harsh and shrill.
His argumentative force was recognized at once, but the full scope
of his powers was first shown on the2ndof February 1775, when
he spoke on the disputes with the colonies. The speech is
unfortunately lost, but Gibbon, who heard it, told his friend
Holroyd (afterwards Earl of Sheffield) that Fox, " taking the
vast compass of the question before us, discovered powers for
regular debate which neither his friends hoped nor his enemies
dreaded."
His great political career dates from that day. It is unique
among the careers of British statesmen of the first rank, for it was
passed almost wholly in opposition. Except for a few months in
1782 and 1783, and again for a few months before his death in
1806, he was out of office. If he was absolutely sincere in the
statement he made to his friend Fitzpatrick, in a letter of the
3rd of February 1778, his life -was all he could have wished.
" I am," he wrote, " certainly ambitious by nature, but I really
have, or think I have, totally subdued that passion. I have still
as much vanity as ever, which is a happier passion by far, because
great reputation I think I may acquire and keep, great situation
I never can acquire, nor if acquired keep, without making
sacrifices that I never will make." His words show that he judged
himself and read the future accurately. Yet it was certainly
a cause of bitter disappointment to him that he had to stand by
while the country was in his opinion not only misgoverned, but
led to ruin. His reputation as an orator and a political critic,
which was great from the first and grew as he lived, most assuredly
did not console him for his impotence as a statesman. Of the
causes which rendered his brilliant capacity useless for the
purpose of obtaining practical success the most important,
perhaps the only one of real importance, was his personal
character. Lord John Russell (afterwards Earl Russell), his
friendly biographer, has to confess that Fox might have joined in
the confession of Mirabeau: " The public cause suffers for the
immoralities of my youth." His reputation as a rake and
gambler was so well established at the very beginning of his
career that when he was dismissed from office in 1774 there was
a general belief among the vulgar that he had been detected in
actual theft. His perfect openness, the notoriety of his bank-
ruptcies and of the seizure of his books and furniture in execution,
kept him before the world as a model of dissipation. In 1776,
when he was leading the resistance to Lord North's colonial
policy, he " neither abandoned gaming nor his rakish life. He
was seldom in bed before five in the morning nor out of it before
two at noon." At the most important crisis of his life in 1783,
he almost made an ostentation of disorder and of indifference not
only to appearances, but even to decency. Horace Walpole has.
drawn a picture of him at that time which Lord Holland, Fox's
beloved and admiring nephew, speaking from his early recollec-
tions of his uncle, confesses has " some justification." Coming,
from such an authority the certificate may be held to confirm the
substantial accuracy of Walpole. " Fox lodged in St James's
Street, and as soon as he rose, which was very late, had a levee
of his followers and of the gaming club at Brooks's all his
disciples. His bristly black person, and shagged breast quite
open and rarely purified by any ablutions, was wrapped in a foul
linen nightgown and his bushy hair dishevelled. In these cynic
weeds and with Epicurean good humour did he dictate his politics,
and in this school did the heir of the empire attend his lessons,
and imbibe them." That this cynic manner, and Epicurean
speech, were only the outside of a manly and generous nature-
was well known to the personal friends of Fox, and is now
universally allowed. But by the bulk of his contemporaries,.
FOX, C. J.
763
who could not fail to see the weaknesses he ostentatiously
displayed, Fox was, not unnaturally, suspected as being immoral
and untrustworthy. Therefore when he came into collision with
the will of the king he failed to secure the confidence of the nation
which was his only support. Nor ought any critical admirer
of Fox to deny that George III. was not wholly wrong when
he said that the great orator " was totally destitute of discretion
and sound judgment." Fox made many mistakes, due in some
cases to vehemence of temperament, and in others only to be
ascribed to want of sagacity. That he fought unpopular causes
is a very insufficient explanation of his failure as a practical
statesman. He could have profited by the reaction which
followed popular excitement but for his bad reputation and his
want of discretion.
During the eight years between his expulsion from office in
1774 and the fall of Lord North's ministry in March 1782 he
may indeed be said to have done one very great thing in politics.
He planted the seed of the modern Liberal party as opposed to
the pure Whigs. In political allegiance he became a member
of the Rockingham party and worked in alliance with the marquis
and with Burke, whose influence on him was great. In opposing
the attempt to coerce the American colonists, and in assailing
the waste and corruption of Lord North's administration, as
well as the undue influence of the crown, he was at one with the
Rockingham Whigs. During the agitation against corruption,
and in favour of honest management of the public money,
which was very strong between 1779 and 1782, he and they
worked heartily together. It had a considerable effect, and
prepared, the way for the reforms begun by Burke and continued
by Pitt. But if Fox learnt much from Burke he learnt with
originality. He declined to accept the revolution settlement
as final, or to think with Burke that the constitution of the House
of Commons could not be bettered. Fox acquired the conviction
that, if the House was to be made an efficient instrument for
restraining the interference of the king and for securing good
:government, it must cease to be filled to a very large extent
by the nominees of boroughmongers and the treasury. He be-
came a strong advocate for parliamentary reform. In all ways
he was the ardent advocate of what have in later times been
known as " Liberal causes," the removal of all religious dis-
abilities and tests, the suppression of private interests which
hampered the public good, the abolition of the slave trade, and
the emancipation of all classes and races of men from the strict
control of authority.
A detailed account of his activity from 1774 to 1782 would
entail the mention of every crisis of the American War of In-
dependence and of every serious debate in parliament. Through-
out the struggle Fox was uniformly opposed to the coercion of
the colonies and was the untiring critic of Lord North. While
the result must be held to prove that he was right, he prepared
future difficulties for himself by the fury of his language. He
was the last man in the world to act on the worldly-wise maxim
that an enemy should always be treated as if he may one day
be a friend, and a friend as if he might become an enemy. On
the 29th of November 1779 Fox was wounded in a duel with
Mr William Adam, a supporter of Lord North's whom he had
savagely denounced. He assailed Lord North with unmeasured
invective, directed not only at his policy but at his personal
character, though he well knew that the prime minister was an
amiable though pliable man, who remained in office against
his own wish, in deference to the king who appealed to his
loyalty. When the disasters of the American war had at last
made a change of ministry necessary, and the king applied to
the Whigs, through the intermediary of Lord Shelburne, Fox
made a very serious mistake in persuading the marquess of
Rockingham not to insist on dealing directly with the sovereign.
The result was the formation of a cabinet belonging, in Fox's
own words, partly to the king and partly to the country that
is to say, partly of Whigs who wished to restrain the king, and
partly of the king's friends, represented by Lord Shelburne,
whose real function was to baffle the Whigs. Dissensions began
from the first, and were peculiarly acute between Shelburne
and Fox, the two secretaries of state. The old division of duties
by which the southern secretary had the correspondence with
the colonies and the western powers of Europe, and the northern
secretary with the others, had been abolished on the formation
of the Rockingham cabinet. All foreign affairs were entrusted
to Fox. Lord Shelburne meddled in the negotiations for the
peace at Paris. He also persuaded his colleagues to grant some
rather scandalous pensions, and Fox's acquiescence in this abuse
after his recent agitation against Lord North's waste did him
injury. When the marquess of Rockingham died on the ist of
July 1782, and the king offered the premiership to Shelburne,
Fox resigned, and was followed by a part of the Rockingham
Whigs.
In refusing to serve under Shelburne he was undoubtedly
consistent, but his next step was ruinous to himself and his
party. On the i4th of February 1783 he formed a coalition
with Lord North, based as they declared on " mutual goodwill
and confidence." Plausible excuses were made for the alliance,
but to the country at large this union, formed with a man whom
he had denounced for years, had the appearance of an un-
scrupulous conspiracy to obtain office on any terms. In the
House of Commons the coalition was strong enough to drive
Shelburne from office on the 24th of February. The king made
a prolonged resistance to the pressure put on him to accept Fox
and North as his ministers (see PITT, WILLIAM). On the 2nd
of April he was constrained to submit to the formation of a new
ministry, in which the duke of Portland was prime minister and
Fox and North were secretaries of state. The new administration
was ill liked by some of the followers of both. Fox increased its
unpopularity both in the House and in the country by consenting
against the wish of most of his colleagues to ask for the grant
of a sum of 100,000 a year to the prince of Wales. The act had
the appearance of a deliberate offence to the king, who was on
bad terms with his son. The magnitude of the sum, and his
acquiescence in the grant of pensions by the Shelburne ministry,
convinced the country that his zeal for economy was hypocritical.
The introduction of the India Bill in November 1783 alarmed
many vested interests, and offended the king by the provision
which gave the patronage of India to a commission to be named
by the ministry and removable only by parliament. The
coalition, and Fox in particular, were assailed in a torrent of
most telling invective and caricature. Encouraged by the
growing unpopularity of his ministers, George III. gave it to
be understood that he would not look upon any member of the
House of Lords who voted for the India Bill as his friend. The
bill was thrown out in the upper House on the i7th of December,
and next day the king dismissed his ministers.
Fox now went into opposition again. The remainder of his
life may be divided into four portions his opposition to Pitt
during the session of 1784; his parliamentary activity till his
secession in 1797; his retirement till 1800; his return to
activity and his short tenure of office before his death in 1806.
During the first of these periods he deepened his unpopularity
by assailing the undoubted prerogatives of the crown, by claiming
for the House of Commons the right to override not only the
king and the Lords but the opinion of the country, and by
resisting a dissolution. This last pretension came very ill from
a statesman who in 1780 had advocated yearly elections. He
lost ground daily before the steady good judgment and un-
blemished character of Pitt. When parliament was dissolved
at the end of the session of 1784, the country showed its senti-
ments by unseating 180 of the followers of Fox and North.
Immense harm was done to both by the publication of a book
called The Beauties of Fox, North and Burke, a compilation of
their abuse of one another in recent years.
Fox himself was elected for Westminster with fewer votes
than Admiral Lord Hood, but with a majority over the ministerial
candidate, Sir Cecil Wray. The election was marked by an
amazing outflow of caricatures and squibs, by weeks of rioting
in which Lord Hood's sailors fought pitched battles in St James's
Street with Fox's hackney coachmen, and by the intrepid
canvassing of Whig ladies. The beautiful duchess of Devonshire
7 6 4
FOX, C. J.
(Georgiana Spencer) is said to have won at least one vote for
Fox by kissing a shoemaker who had a romantic idea of what
constituted a desirable bribe. The high bailiff refused to make
a return, and the confirmation of Fox's election was delayed
by the somewhat mean action of the ministry. He had, however,
been chosen for Kirkwall, and could fight his cause in the House.
In the end he recovered damages from the high bailiff. In his
place in parliament he sometimes supported Pitt and sometimes
opposed him with effect. His criticism on the ministers' bill
for the government of India was sound in principle, though the
evils he foresaw did not arise. Little excuse can be made for
his opposition to Pitt's commercial policy towards Ireland.
But as Fox on this occasion aided the vested interests of some
English manufacturers he secured a certain revival of popularity.
His support of Pitt's Reform Bill was qualified by a just dislike
of the ministers' proposal to treat the possession of the franchise
by a constituency as a property and not as a trust. His un-
successful opposition to the commercial treaty with France in
1787 was unwise and most injurious to himself. He committed
himself to the proposition that France was the natural enemy
of Great Britain, a saying often quoted against him in coming
years. It has been excused on the ground that when he said
France he meant the aggressive house of Bourbon. A statesman
whose words have to be interpreted by an esoteric meaning
cannot fairly complain if he is often misunderstood. In 1788
he travelled in Italy, but returned in haste on hearing of the
illness of the king. Fox supported the claim of the prince of
Wales to the regency as a right, a doctrine which provoked Pitt
into declaring that he would " unwhig the gentleman for the rest
of his life." The friendship between him and the prince of
Wales (see GEORGE IV.) was always injurious to Fox. In 1787
he was misled by the prince's ambiguous assurances into denying
the marriage with Mrs Fitzherbert. On discovering that he had
been deceived he broke off all relations with the prince for a
year, but their alliance was renewed. During these years he
was always in favour of whatever measures could be described
as favourable to emancipation and to humanity. He actively
promoted the impeachment of Warren Hastings, which had the
support of Pitt. He was always in favour of the abolition of
the slave trade (which he actually effected during his short
tenure of office in 1806), of the repeal of the Test Acts, and of
concessions to the Roman Catholics, both in Great Britain and
in Ireland.
The French Revolution affected Fox profoundly. Together
with almost all his countrymen he welcomed the meeting of the
states-general in 1789 as the downfall of a despotism hostile
to Great Britain. But when the development of the Revolution
caused a general reaction, he adhered stoutly to his opinion that
the Revolution was essentially just and ought not to be con-
demned for its errors or even for its crimes. As a natural
consequence he was the steady opponent of Pitt's foreign policy,
which he condemned as a species of crusade against freedom in
the interest of despotism. Between 1790 and 1800 his un-
popularity reached its height. He was left almost alone in
parliament, and was denounced as the enemy of his country.
On the 6th of May 1791 occurred the painful scene in the House
of Commons, in which Burke renounced his friendship. In 1792
there was some vague talk of a coalition between him and Pitt,
which came to nothing. It should be noted that the scene with
Burke took place in the course of the debate on the Quebec Bill,
in which Fox displayed real statesmanship by criticizing the
division of Upper from Lower Canada, and other provisions of
the bill, which in the end proved so injurious as to be unworkable.
In this year he carried the Libel Bill. In 1792 his ally, the duke
of Portland, and most of his party left him. In 1 797 he withdrew
from parliament, and only came forward in 1798 to reaffirm
the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people at a great Whig
dinner. On the gth of May he was dismissed from the privy
council.
The interval of secession was perhaps the happiest in his life.
In 1783 he formed a connexion with Elizabeth Bridget Cane,
commonly known as Mrs Armstead or Armistead, an amiable
and well-mannered woman to whom he was passionately
attached. In company with her he established himself at St
Anne's Hill near Chertsey in Surrey. In 1795 he married her
privately, but did not avow his marriage till 1802. In his letters
he spoke of her always as Mrs Armistead, and some of his friends
Mr Coke of Holkham, afterwards Lord Leicester, with whom he
stayed every year, being one of them would not invite her to
their houses. It is hard to explain this solitary instance of
shabby conduct in a thoroughly generous man towards a person
to whom he was unalterably attached and who fully deserved his
affection. Fox's time at St Anne's was largely spent in garden-
ing, in the enjoyment of the country, and in correspondence on
literary subjects with his nephew, the 3rd Lord Holland, and
with Gilbert Wakefield, the editor of Euripides. His letters
show that he had a very sincere love for, and an enlightened
appreciation of, good literature. Greek and Italian were his first
favourites, but he was well read in English literature and in
French, and acquired some knowledge of Spanish. His favourite
authors were Euripides, Virgil and Racine, whom he defends
against the stock criticisms of the admirers of Corneille with
equal zeal and insight.
Fox reappeared in parliament to take part in the vote of
censure on ministers for declining Napoleon's overtures for a
peace. The fall of Pitt's firs t ministry and the formation of the
Addington cabinet, the peace of Amiens, and the establishment
of Napoleon as first consul with all the powers of a military
despot, seemed to offer Fox a chance of resuming power in public
life. The struggle with Jacobinism was over, and he could have
no hesitation in supporting resistance to a successful general who
ruled by the sword, and who pursued a policy of perpetual
aggression. During 1802 he visited Paris in company with his
wife. An account of his journey was published in 1811 by his
secretary, Mr Trotter, in an otherwise poor book of reminiscence.
It gives an attractive picture of Fox's good-humour, and of his
enjoyment of the " species of minor comedy which is constantly
exhibited in common life." His main purpose in visiting Paris
was to superintend the transcription of the correspondence of
Barillon, which he needed for his proposed life of James II. The
book was never finished, but the fragment he completed was
published in 1808, and was translated into French by Armand
Carrel in 1846. Fox was not favourably impressed by Napoleon.
He saw a good deal of French society, and was himself much
admired for his hearty defence of his rival Pitt against a foolish
charge of encouraging plots for Napoleon's assassination. On
his return he resumed his regular attendance in the House of
Commons. The history of the renewal of the war, of the fall of
Addington's ministry, and of the formation of Pitt's second
administration is so fully dealt with in the article on Pitt (q.v.)
that it need not be repeated here.
The death of Pitt left Fox so manifestly the foremost man in
public life that the king could no longer hope to exclude him
from office. The formation of a ministry was entrusted by the
king to Lord Grenville, but when he named Fox as his proposed
secretary of state for foreign affairs George III. accepted him
without demur. Indeed his hostility seems to a large extent
to have died out. A long period of office might now have
appeared to lie before Fox, but his health was undermined. Had
he lived it may be considered as certain that the war with
Napoleon would have been conducted with a vigour which was
much wanting during the next few years. In domestic politics
Fox had no time to do more than insist on the abolition of the
slave trade. He, like Pitt, was compelled to bow to the king's
invincible determination not to allow the emancipation of the
Roman Catholics. When a French adventurer calling himself
Guillet de la Gevrilliere, whom Fox at first " did the honour to
take for a spy," came to him with a scheme for the murder of
Napoleon, he sent a warning on the 2oth of February to Talley-
rand. The incident gave him an opportunity for reopening
negotiations for peace. A correspondence ensued, and British
envoys were sent to Paris. But Fox was soon convinced that the
French ministers were playing a false game. He was resolved
not to treat apart from Russia, then the ally of Great Britain,
FOX, E. FOX, G.
765
nor to consent to the surrender of Sicily, which Napoleon insisted
upon, unless full compensation could be obtained for King
Ferdinand. The later stages of the negotiation were not
directed by Fox, but by colleagues who took over his work at
the foreign office when his health began to fail in the summer
of 1806. He showed symptoms of dropsy, and operations only
procured him temporary relief. After carrying his motion for
the abolition of the slave trade on the lothof June, he was forced
to give up attendance in parliament, and he died in the house of
the duke of Devonshire, at Chiswick, on the i3th of September
1806. His wife survived him till the 8th of July 1842. No
children were born of the marriage. Fox is buried in Westminster
Abbey by the side of Pitt.
The striking personal appearance of Fox has been rendered
very familiar by portraits and by innumerable caricatures. The
latter were no doubt deliberately exaggerated, and yet a com-
parison between the head of Fox in Sayer's plate " Carlo Khan's
triumphal entry into Leadenhall," and in Abbot's portrait, shows
that the caricaturist did not depart from the original. Fox was
twice painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, once when young in a
group with Lady Sarah Bunbury and Lady Susan Strangeways,
and once at full length. A half-length portrait by the German
painter, Karl Anton Hickel, is in the National Portrait Gallery,
where there is also a terra-cotta bust by Nollekens.
AUTHORITIES. The materials for a life of Fox were first collected
by his nephew, Lord Holland, and were then revised and rearranged
by Mr Allen and Lord John Russell. These materials appear as
Memoirs and Correspondence of C.J. Fox (London, 1853-1857). On
them Lord John Russell based his Life and Times of C. J. Fox
(London, 1859-1866); Sir G. O. Treyelyan's Early History of C. J.
Fox (London. 1880) brings new evidence; Charles James Fox, a
Political Study, by J. L. Le B. Hammond (London, 1903), is a series
of studies written by an extreme admirer. His Speeches were
collected and published in 1815. The newspaper articles (e.g. in
The Times) published on the occasion of the centenary of his death
contain interesting appreciations. See also Lloyd Sanders, The
Holland House Circle (1908). (D. H.)
FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538), bishop of Hereford, was born
about 1496 at Dursley in Gloucestershire; he is said on very
doubtful authority to have been related to Richard Fox (q.v.).
From Eton he proceeded to King's College, Cambridge, and after
graduating was made secretary to Wolsey. In 1528 he was sent
with Gardiner to Rome to obtain from Clement VII. a decretal
commission for the trial and decision of the case between Henry
VIII. and Catherine of Aragon. On his return he was elected
provost of King's College, and in August 1529 was the means of
conveying to the king Cranmer's historic advice that he should
apply to the universities of Europe rather than to the pope. This
introduction led eventually to Cranmer's promotion over Fox's
head to the archbishopric of Canterbury. After a brief mission
to Paris in October 1529, Fox in January 1530 befriended
Latimer at Cambridge and took an active part in persuading that
university and Oxford to decide in the king's favour. He was
sent to employ similar methods of persuasion at the French
universities in 1530-1531, and was also engaged in negotiating a
closer league between England and France. In April 1533 he
was prolocutor of convocation when it decided against the validity
of Henry's marriage with Catherine, and in 1534 published his
treatise De vera differentia regiae polestatis et ecclesiae (second
ed. 1538, English transl. 1548). Various ecclesiastical prefer-
ments were now granted him, including the archdeaconry of
Leicester (1531) and the bishopric of Hereford (1535). In 1535-
1536 he was sent to Germany to discuss the basis of a political
and theological understanding with the Lutheran princes and'
divines, and had several interviews with Luther, who could not
be persuaded of the justice of Henry VIII. 's divorce. The
principal result of the mission was the Wittenberg articles of
1536, which had no slight influence on the English Ten Articles
of the same year. Buccr dedicated to him in 1536 his Com-
mentaries on the Gospels, and Fox's Protestantism was also
illustrated by his patronage of Alexander Aless, whom he defended
before Convocation. Fox is credited with the authorship of
several proverbial sayings, such as " the surest way to peace is a
constant preparedness for war " and " time and I will challenge
any two in the world." The former at any rate is only a variation
of the Latin si vis pacem, para bellum, and probably the latter is
not more original in Fox than in Philip II., to whom it is usually
ascribed. Fox died on the 8th of May 1 538 and was buried in the
church of St Mary Mounthaw, London. His chief distinction is
perhaps that he was the most Lutheran of Henry VIII. 's bishops,
and was largely responsible for the Ten Articles of 1536.
See Letters and Papers of Henry VIII., vols. iv.-xiv.; Cooper's
Athenae Cantabrigienses ; Diet. Nat. Bipgr.; R. W. Dixon's Church
History; G. Mentz, Die Wittenberger Artikel von 1536 (1905). (A. F.P.)
FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691), the founder of the " Society of
Friends " or " Quakers," was born at Drayton, Leicestershire,
in July 1624. His father, Christopher Fox, called by the neigh-
bours " Righteous Christer," was a weaver by occupation;
and his mother, Mary Lago, " an upright woman and accom-
plished above most of her degree," was " of the stock of the
martyrs." George from his childhood " appeared of another
frame than the rest of his brethren, being more religious, inward,
still, solid and observing beyond his years " ; and he himself
declares: " When I came to eleven years of age I knew pureness
and righteousness; for while a child I was taught how to walk
to be kept pure." Some of his relations wished that he should
be educated for the ministry; but his father apprenticed him to
a shoemaker, who also dealt in wool and cattle. In this service
he remained till his nineteenth year. According to Penn, " he
took most delight in sheep," but he himself simply says: " A
good .deal went through my hands. . . . People had generally
a love to me for my innocency and honesty." In 1643, being
upon business at a fair, and having accompanied some friends
to the village public-house, he was troubled by a proposal to
" drink, healths," and withdrew in grief of spirit. " When I
had done what business I had to do I returned home, but did
not go to bed that night, nor could I sleep, but sometimes
walked up and down, and sometimes prayed and cried to the
Lord, who said unto me, 'Thou seest .how young people go
together into vanity and old people into the earth; thou must
forsake all, both young and old, and keep out of all, and be a
stranger unto all.' Then, at the command of God, on the ninth
day of the seventh month, 1643, I left m y relations and broke
off all familiarity or fellowship with old or young."
Thus briefly he describes what appears to have been the
greatest moral crisis in his life. The four years which followed
were a time of great perplexity and distress, though sometimes
" I had intermissions, and was sometimes brought into such a
heavenly joy that I thought I had been in Abraham's bosom."
He would go from town to town, "travelling up and down as a
stranger in the earth, which way the Lord inclined my heart;
taking a chamber to myself in the town where I came, and
tarrying sometimes a month, more or less, in a place "; and the
reason he gives for this migratory habit is that he was " afraid
both of professor and profane, lest, being a tender young man,
he should be hurt by conversing much with either." The same
fear often led him to shun all society for days at a time; but
frequently he would apply to " professors " for spiritual direction
and consolation. These applications, however, never proved
successful; he invariably found that his advisers " possessed
not what they professed." Some recommended marriage,
others enlistment as a soldier in the civil wars; one " ancient
priest " bade him take tobacco and sing psalms; another of
the same fraternity, " in high account," advised physic and
blood-letting.
About the beginning of 1646 his thoughts began to take more
definite shape. One day, approaching Coventry, " the Lord
opened to him " that none were true believers but such as were
born of God and had passed from death unto life; and this was
soon followed by other "openings" to the effect that " being
bred at Oxford or Cambridge was not enough to fit and qualify
men to be ministers of Christ," and that " God who made the
world did not dwell in temples made with hands." He also
experienced deeper manifestations of Christ within his own
soul. " When I myself was in the deep, shut up under all [the
burden of corruptions], I could not believe that I should ever
f.
7 66 FOX, R.
overcome; my troubles, my sorrows and my temptations
were so great that I thought many times I should have despaired,
I was so tempted. But when Christ opened to me how He was
tempted by the same devil, and overcame him and bruised his
head, and that through Him, and His power, light, grace and
spirit, I should overcome also, I had confidence in Him; so He
it was that opened to me, when I was shut up and had no hope
nor faith. Christ, who had enlightened me, gave me His light
to believe in} He gave me hope which He himself revealed in
me; and He gave me His spirit and grace, which I found
sufficient in the deeps and in weakness." In 1647 he records
that at a time when all outward help had failed " I heard a
voice which said, ' There is one, even Christ Jesus, that can
speak to thy condition.' And when I heard it my heart did
leap for joy." In the same year he first openly declared his
message in the neighbourhood of Dukinfield and Manchester
(see FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF).
In 1649, as he was walking towards Nottingham, he heard the
bell of the " steeple house " of the city, and was admonished
by an inward voice to go forward and cry against the great idol
and the worshippers in it. Entering the church he found the
preacher engaged in expounding the words, " We have also a
more sure word of prophecy," from which the ordinary Protestant
doctrine of the supreme authority of Scripture was being enforced
in a manner which appeared to Fox so defective or erroneous
as to call for his immediate and most energetic protest. Lifting
up his voice against the preacher's doctrine, he declared that it
is not by the Scripture alone, but by the divine light by which
the Scriptures were given, that doctrines ought to be judged.
He was carried off to prison, where he was detained for some
time, and from which he was released only by the favour of the
sheriff, whose sympathies he had succeeded in enlisting. In
1650 he was imprisoned for about a year at Derby on a charge
of blasphemy. On his release, overwrought and weakened
by six months spent " in the common gaol and dungeon," he
performed what was almost the only and certainly the most
pronounced act of his life which had the appearance of wild
fanaticism. Through the streets of Lichfield, on market day,
he walked barefoot, crying, " Woe to the bloody city of Lich-
field." His own explanation of the act, connecting it with the
martyrdom of a thousand Christians in the time of Diocletian,
is not convincing. His proceeding was probably due to a
horror of the city arising from a subconscious memory of what
he must have heard in childhood from his mother (" of the
stock of the martyrs ") concerning a martyr, a woman, burnt
in the reign of Mary at Lichfield, who had been taken thither
from Mancetter, a village two miles from his home in which
he had worked as a journeyman shoemaker (see The Martyrs
Glover and Lewis of Mancelter, by the Rev. B. Rich ings). He
must also have heard of the burning of Edward Wightman in
the same city in 1612. the last person burned for heresy in
England.
It would be here out of place to follow with any minuteness
the details of his subsequent imprisonments, such as that at
Carlisle in 1653; London 1654; Launceston 1656; Lancaster
1660, and again in 1663, whence he was taken to Scarborough
in 1665; and Worcester 1673. During these terms of imprison-
ment his pen was not idle, as is amply shown by the very
numerous letters, pastorals and exhortations which have been
preserved; while during his intervals of liberty he was unwearied
in the work of "declaring truth" in all parts of the country.
In 1669 he married Margaret, widow of Judge Fell, of Swarth-
moor, near Ulverston, who, with her family, had been among
his earliest converts. In 1671 he visited Barbados, Jamaica,
and the American continent, and shortly after his return in 1673
he was, as has been already noted, apprehended in Worcester-
shire for attending meetings that were forbidden by the law.
At Worcester he suffered a captivity of nearly fourteen months.
In 1677 he visited Holland along with Barclay, Penn and seven
others; and this visit he repeated (with five others) in 1684.
The later years of his life were spent mostly in London, where
he continued to speak in public, comparatively unmolested,
until within a few days of his death, which took place on the
I3th of January 1691 (1690 o.s.).
William Penn has left on record an account of Fox from
personal knowledge a Brief Account of the Rise and Progress
of the People called Quakers, written as a preface to Fox's Journal.
Although a man of large size and great bodily strength, he was
" very temperate, eating little and sleeping less." He was a
man of strong personality, of measured utterance, " civil "
(says Penn) " beyond all forms of breeding."' From his Journal
we gather that he had piercing eyes and a very loud voice, and
wore good clothes. Unlike the Roundheads, he wore his hair
long. Even before his marriage with Margaret Fell he seems
to have been fairly well off; he does not appear to have worked
for a living after he was nineteen, and yet he had a horse, and
speaks of having money to give to those who were in need. He
had much practical common-sense, and keen sympathy for all
who were in distress and for animals. The mere fact that he
was able to attract to himself so considerable a body of re-
spectable followers, including such men as Ellwood, Barclay,
Penington and Penn, is sufficient to prove that he possessed
in a very eminent degree the power of conviction, persuasion,
and moral ascendancy; while of his personal uprightness,
single-mindedness and sincerity there can be no question.
The writings of Fox are enumerated in Joseph Smith's Catalogue
Friends' Books. The Journal is especially interesting; of it Sir
_ames Mackintosh has said that " it is one of the most extraordinary
and instructive narratives in the world, which no reader of competent
judgment can peruse without revering the virtue of the writer."
The Journal was originally published in London in 1694; the
edition known as the Bicentenary Edition, with notes biographical
and historical (reprint of 1901 or later), will be found the most
useful in practice. An exact transcript of the Journal has been
issued by the Cambridge University Press. A Life of George Fox,
by Dr Thomas Hodgkin; The Fells of Swarthmoor Hall, by Maria
Webb ; and The Life and Character of George Fox, by John Stephenson
Rowntree, are valuable. For a mention of other works, and for
details of the principles and history of the Society of Friends, to-
gether with some further information about Fox, see the article
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF. (A. N. B.)
FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528), successively bishop of Exeter,
Bath and Wells, Durham, and Winchester, lord privy seal, and
founder of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, was born about 1448
at Ropesley near Grantham, Lincolnshire. His parents belonged
to the yeoman class, and there is some obscurity about Fox's
early career. It is not known at what school he was educated,
nor at what college, though the presumption is in favour of
Magdalen, Oxford, whence he drew so many members of his
subsequent foundation, Corpus Christi. He also appears to
have studied at Cambridge, but nothing definite is known of
the first thiry-five years of his career. In 1484 he was in Paris,
whether merely for the sake of learning or because he had
rendered himself obnoxious to Richard III. is a matter of specula-
tion. At any rate he was brought into contact with the earl of
Richmond, who was then beginning his quest for the English
throne, and was taken into his service. In January 1485 Richard
intervened to prevent Fox's appointment to the vicarage of
Stepney on the ground that he was keeping company with the
" great rebel, Henry ap Tuddor."
The important offices conferred on Fox immediately after
the battle of Bosworth imply that he had already seen more
extensive political service than can be traced in records. Doubt-
less Henry VII. had every reason to reward his companions in
exile, and to. rule like Ferdinand of Aragon by means of lawyers
and churchmen rather than trust nobles like those who had
made the Wars of the Roses. But without an intimate knowledge
of Fox's political experience and capacity he would hardly have
made him his principal secretary, and soon afterwards lord
privy seal and bishop of Exeter (1487). The ecclesiastical
preferment was merely intended to provide a salary not at
Henry's expense; for Fox never saw either Exeter or the diocese
of Bath and Wells to which he was translated in 1492. His
activity was confined to political and especially diplomatic
channels; so long as Morton lived, Fox was his subordinate,
but after the archbishop's death he was second to none in Henry's
confidence, and he had an important share in all the diplomatic
FOX, R. W.
767
work of the reign. In 1487 he negotiated a treaty with James
III. of Scotland, in 1491 he baptized the future Henry VIII.,
in 1492 he helped to conclude the treaty of Etaples, and in 1497
he was chief commissioner in the negotiations for the famous
commercial agreement with the Netherlands which Bacon seems
to have been the first to call the Magnus Inlercursus.
Meanwhile in 1494 Fox had been translated to Durham,
not merely because it was a richer see than Bath and Wells
but because of its political importance as a palatine earldom
and its position with regard to the Borders and relations with
Scotland. For these reasons rather than from any ecclesiastical
scruples Fox visited and resided in his new diocese; and he
occupied Norham Castle, which he fortified and defended against
a Scottish raid in Perkin Warbeck's interests (1497). But his
energies were principally devoted to pacific purposes. In that
same year he negotiated Perkin's retirement from the court of
James IV., and in 1498-1499 he completed the negotiations
for that treaty of marriage between the Scottish king and
Henry's daughter Margaret which led ultimately to the union
of the two crowns in 1603 and of the two kingdoms in 1707.
The marriage itself did not take place until 1503, just a century
before the accession of James I.
This consummated Fox's work in the north, and in 1501 Le
was once more translated to Winchester, then reputed the
richest bishopric in England. In that year he brought to a
conclusion marriage negotiations not less momentous in their
ultimate results, when Prince Arthur was betrothed to Catherine
of Aragon. His last diplomatic achievement in the reign of
Henry VII. was the betrothal of the king's younger daughter
Mary to the future emperor Charles V. In 1300 he was elected
chancellor of Cambridge University, an office not confined to
noble lords until a much more democratic age, and in 1507
master of Pembroke Hall in the same university. The Lady
Margaret Beaufort made him one of her executors, and in this
capacity as well as in that of chancellor, he had the chief share
with Fisher in regulating the foundation of St John's College
and the Lady Margaret professorships and readerships. His
financial work brought him a less enviable notoriety, though a
curious freak of history has deprived him of the credit which
is his due for " Morton's fork." The invention of that ingenious
dilemma for extorting contributions from poor and rich alike
is ascribed as a tradition to Morton by Bacon; but the story
is told in greater detail of Fox by Erasmus, who says he had it
from Sir Thomas More, a well-informed contemporary authority.
It is in keeping with the somewhat malicious saying about Fox
reported by Tyndale that he would sacrifice his father to save
his king, which after all is not so damning as Wolsey's dying
words.
The accession of Henry VIII. made no immediate difference
to Fox's position. If anything, the substitution of the careless
pleasure-loving youth for Henry VII. increased the power of
his ministry, the personnel of which remained unaltered. The
Venetian ambassador calls Fox " alter rex " and the Spanish
ambassador Carroz says that Henry VIII. trusted him more than
any other adviser, although he also reports Henry's warning
that the bishop of Winchester was, as his name implied, " a fox
indeed." He was the chief of the ecclesiastical statesmen who
belonged to the school of Morton, believed in frequent parlia-
ments, and opposed the spirited foreign policy which laymen
like Surrey are supposed to have advocated. His colleagues
were Warham and Ruthal, but Warham and Fox differed on
the question of Henry's marriage, Fox advising the completion
of the match with Catherine while Warham expressed doubts
as to its canonical validity. They also differed over the pre-
rogatives of Canterbury with regard to probate and other
questions of ecclesiastical jurisdiction.
Wolsey's rapid rise in 1511 put an end to Fox's influence.
The pacific policy of the first two years of Henry VIII. 's reign
was succeeded by an adventurous foreign policy directed mainly
against France; and Fox complained that no one durst do
anything in opposition to Wolsey's wishes. Gradually Warham
and Fox retired from the government; the occasion of Fox's
resignation of the privy seal was Wolsey's ill-advised attempt
to drive Francis I. out of Milan by financing an expedition led
by the emperor Maximilian in 1516. Tunstall protested, Wolsey
took Warham's place as chancellor, and Fox was succeeded by
Ruthal, who, said the Venetian ambassador, " sang treble to
Wolsey's bass." He bore Wolsey no ill-will, and warmly con-
gratulated him two years later when warlike adventures were
abandoned at the peace of London. But in 1522 when war was
again declared he emphatically refused to bear any part of the
responsibility, and in 1523 he opposed in convocation the
financial demands which met with a more strenuous resistance
in the House of Commons.
He now devoted himself assiduously to his long-neglected
episcopal duties. He expressed himself as being as anxious
for the reformation of the clergy as Simeon for the coming of
the Messiah; but while he welcomed Wolsey's never- realized
promises, he was too old to accomplish much himself in the way
of remedying the clerical and especially the monastic depravity,
licence and corruption he deplored. His sight failed during the
last ten years of his life, and there is no reason to doubt Matthew
Parker's story that Wolsey suggested his retirement from his
bishopric on a pension. Fox replied with some warmth, and
Wolsey had to wait until Fox's death before he could add
Winchester to his archbishopric of York and his abbey of St
Albans, and thus leave Durham vacant as he hoped for the
illegitimate son on whom (aged 18) he had already conferred
a deanery, four archdeaconries, five prebends and a chancellor-
ship.
The crown of Fox's career was his foundation of Corpus Christi
College, which he established in 1515-1516. Originally he in-
tended it as an Oxford house for the monks of St Swithin's,
Winchester; but he is said to have been dissuaded by Bishop
Oldham, who denounced the monks and foretold their fall. The
scheme adopted breathed the spirit of the Renaissance; provision
was made for the teaching of Greek, Erasmus lauded the institu-
tion and Pole was one of its earliest fellows. The humanist
Viveswas brought from Italy to teach Latin, and the reader
in theology was instructed to follow the Greek and Latin Fathers
rather than the scholastic commentaries. Fox also built and
endowed schools at Taunton and Grantham, and was a benefactor
to numerous other institutions. He died at Wolvesey on the
5th of October 1528; Corpus possesses several portraits and
other relics of its founder.
See Letters and Papers of Henry VII, and Henry VIII., vols. i.-iv. ;
Spanish and Venetian Calendars of State Papers; Gairdner's Lollardy
and the Reformation and Church History 1485-1558; Pollard's
Henry VIII. ; Longman's Political History, vol. v. ; other authorities
cited in the article by Dr T. Fowler (formerly president of Corpus) in
the Diet. Nat. Biog. (A. F. P.)
FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789-1877), English geologist and
natural philosopher, was born at Falmouth on the 26th of April
1789. He was a member of the Society of Friends, and was
descended from members who had long settled in Cornwall,
although he was not related to George Fox who had introduced
the community into the county. He was distinguished for his
researches on the internal temperature of the earth, being the
first to prove that the heat increased definitely with the depth;
his observations being conducted in Cornish mines from 1815
for a period of forty years. In 1829 he commenced a series of
experiments on the artificial production of miniature metalli-
ferous veins by means of the long-continued influence of electric
currents, and his main results were published in Observations
on Mineral Veins (Rep. Royal Cornwall Polytech. Soc., 1836).
He was one of the founders in 1833 of the Royal Cornwall Poly-
technic Society. He constructed in 1834 an improved form of
deflector dipping needle. In 1848 he was elected F.R.S. His
garden at Penjerrick near Falmouth became noted for the
number of exotic plants which he had naturalized. He died on
the 25th of July 1877. (See A Catalogs of the Works of Robert
Were Fox, F.R.S. , with a Sketch of his Life, by J. H. Collins,
1878.)
His daughter, CAROLINE Fox (1819-1871), born at Falmouth
on the 24th of May 1819, is well known as the authoress of a
7 68
FOX, SIR S. FOX
diary, recording memories of many distinguished people, such
as John Stuart Mill, John Sterling and Carlyle. Selections from
her diary and correspondence (1835-1871) were published under
the title of Memories of Old Friends (ed. by H. N. Pym, 1881;
2nd ed., 1882). She died on the i2th of January 1871.
FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627-1716), English statesman, born
on the 27th of March 1627, was the son of William Fox, of
Farley, in Wiltshire, a yeoman farmer. At the age of fifteen he
first obtained a situation in the household of the earl of North-
umberland; then he entered the service of Lord Percy, the earl's
brother, and was present with the royalist army at the battle
of Worcester as Lord Percy's deputy at the ordnance board.
Accompanying Charles II. in his flight to the continent, he was
appointed manager of the royal household, on Clarendon's
recommendation as "a young man bred under the severe
discipline of Lord Percy . . . very well qualified with languages,
and all other parts of clerkship, honesty and discretion." The
skill with which he managed the exiguous finances of the exiled
court earned him further confidence and promotion. He was
employed on several important missions, and acted eventually
as intermediary between the king and General Monk. Honours
and emolument were his reward after the Restoration; he was
appointed to the lucrative offices of first clerk of the board of
green cloth and paymaster-general of the forces. In November
1661 he became member of parliament for Salisbury. In 1665
he was knighted, was returned as M.P. for Westminster on the
27th of February 1679, and succeeded the earl of Rochester as
a commissioner of the treasury, filling that office for twenty-three
years and during three reigns. In 1680 he resigned the pay-
mastership and was made first commissioner of horse. In 1684
he became sole commissioner of horse. He was offered a peerage
by James II., on condition of turning Roman Catholic, but
refused, in spite of which he was allowed to retain his com-
missionerships. In 1685 he was again M. P. for Salisbury, and
opposed the bill for a standing army supported by the king.
During the Revolution he maintained an attitude of decent
reserve, but on James's .flight, submitted to William III., who
confirmed him in his offices. He was again elected for West-
minster in 1691 and 1695, for Cricklade in 1698, and finally in
1713 once more for Salisbury. He died on the 28th of October
1716. It is 'his distinction to have founded Chelsea hospital,
and to have contributed 13,000 in aid of this laudable public
work. Though his place as a statesman is in the second or even
the third rank, yet he was a useful man in his generation, and a
public servant who creditably discharged all the duties with
which he was entrusted. Unlike other statesmen of his day,
he grew rich in the service of the nation without being suspected
of corruption, and without forfeiting the esteem of his con-
temporaries.
He was twice married (1651 and 1703); by his first wife,
Elizabeth Whittle, he had seven sons, who predeceased him,
and three daughters; by his second, Christian Hopes, he had
two sons and two daughters. The elder son by the second
marriage, Stephen (1704-1776), was created Lord Ilchester and
Stavordale in 1747 and earl of Ilchester in 1756; in 1758 he
took the additional name of Strangways, and his descendants,
the family of Fox-Strangways, still hold the earldom of Ilchester.
The younger son, Henry, became the ist Lord Holland (?..).
FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893), New Zealand statesman,
third son of George Townshend Fox, deputy-lieutenant for
Durham county, was born in England on the gth of June 1812,
and educated at Wadham College, Oxford, where he took his
degree in 1832. Called to the bar in 1842, he emigrated im-
mediately thereafter to New Zealand, where, on the death of
Captain Arthur Wakefield, killed in 1843 in the Wairau massacre,
he became the New Zealand Company's agent for the South
Island. While holding this position he made a memorable
exploring march on foot from Nelson to Canterbury, through
Cannibal Gorge, in the course of which he discovered the fertile
pastoral country of Amuri. In 1848 Governor Grey made Fox
attorney-general, but he gave up the post almost at once in
order to join the agitation, then at its height, for a free constitu-
tion. As the political agent of the Wellington settlers he sailed
to London in 1850 to urge their demands in Downing Street.
The colonial office, however, refused to recognize him, and,
after publishing a sketch of the New Zealand settlements, The
Six Colonies of New Zealand, and travelling in the United States,
he returned to New Zealand and again threw himself with energy
into public affairs. When government by responsible ministers
was at last initiated, in 1856, Fox ousted the first ministry and
formed a cabinet, only to be himself beaten in turn after holding
office but thirteen days. In 1861 he regained office, and was
somewhat more fortunate, for he remained premier for nearly
thirteen months. Again, in the latter part of 1863 he took office:
this time with Sir Frederick Whitaker as premier, an arrangement
which endured for another thirteen months. Fox's third premier-
ship began in 1869 and lasted until 1872. His fourth, which was
a matter of temporary convenience to his party, lasted only
five weeks in March and April 1873. Soon afterwards he left
politics, and, though he reappeared after some years and led the
attack which overthrew Sir George Grey's ministry in 1879, he
lost his seat in the dissolution which followed in that year and
did not again enter parliament. 'He was made K.C.M.G. in 1880.
For the thirty years between 1850 and 1880 Sir William Fox
was one of the half-dozen most notable public men in the colony.
Impulsive and controversial, a fluent and rousing speaker, and
a ready writer, his warm and sympathetic nature made him a
good friend and a troublesome foe. He was considered for many
years to be the most dangerous leader of the Opposition in the
colony's parliament, though as premier he was at a disadvantage
when measured against more patient and more astute party
managers. His activities were first devoted to secure self-
government for the New Zealand colonists. Afterwards his
sympathies made him prominent among the champions of the
Maori race, and he laboured indefatigably for their rights and to
secure permanent peace with the tribes and a just settlement
of their claims. It was during his third premiership that this
peace, so long deferred, was at last gained, mainly through the
influence and skill of Sir Donald M'Lean, native minister in the
Fox cabinet. Finally; after Fox had left parliament he devoted
himself, as joint-commissioner with Sir Francis Dillon Bell,
to the adjustment of the native land-claims on the west coast
of the North Island. The able reports of the commissioners
were his last public service, and the carrying out of their recom-
mendations gradually removed the last serious native trouble
in New Zealand. When, however, in the course of the native
wars from 1860 to 1870 the colonists of New Zealand were
exposed to cruel and unjust imputations in England, Fox
zealously defended them in a book, The War in New Zealand
(1866), which was not only a spirited vindication of his fellow-
settlers, but a scathing criticism of the generalship of the officers
commanding the imperial troops in New Zealand. Throughout
his life Fox was a consistent advocate of total abstinence. It
was he who founded the New Zealand Alliance, and he un-
doubtedly aided the growth of the prohibition movement after-
wards so strong in the colony. He died on the 23rd of June
1893, exactly twelve months after his wife, Sarah, daughter of
William Halcombe. (W. P. R.)
FOX, a name (female, "vixen" 1 ) properly applicable to the
single wild British representative of the family Canidae (see
CARNIVORA) , but in a wider sense used to denote fox-like species
from all parts of the world, inclusive of many from South America
which do not really belong to the same group. The fox was
included by Linnaeus in the same genus with the dog and the
wolf, under the name of Canis vulpes, but at the present day is
regarded by most naturalists as the type of a separate genus, and
should then be known as Vulpes alopex or Vulpes vulpes. From
1 The word is common to the Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vos,
Ger. Fuchs; the ultimate origin is unknown, but a connexion
has been suggested with Sanskrit puccha, tail. The feminine
" vixen " represents the O. Eng. fyxen, due to the change from o to y,
and addition of the feminine termination -en, cf . O. Eng. gyden, goddess,
and Ger. Fiichsin, vixen. The y, for /, is common in southern
English pronunciation; vox, for fox, is found in the Ancren Riwle,
c. 1230.
FOX
769
dogs, wolves, jackals, &c., which constitute the genus Canis in
its more restricted sense, foxes are best distinguished by the
circumstance that in the skull the (postorbital) projection
immediately behind the socket for the eye has its upper surface
concave, with a raised ridge in front, in place of regularly convex.
Another character is the absence of a hollow chamber, or sinus,
within the frontal bone of the forehead. Foxes are likewise
distinguished by their slighter build, longer and bushy tail,
which always exceeds half the length of the head and body,
sharper muzzle, and relatively longer body and shorter limbs.
Then again, the ears are large in proportion to the head, the pupil
of the eye is elliptical and vertical when in a strong light, and
the female has six pairs of teats, in place of the three to five pairs
found in dogs, wolves and jackals. From the North American
grey foxes, constituting the genus or subgenus Urocyon, the true
foxes are distinguished by the absence of a crest of erectile long
hairs along the middle line of the upper surface of the tail, and
also of a projection (subangular process) to the postero-inferior
angle of the lower jaw. With the exception of certain South
African species, foxes differ from wolves and jackals in that they
do not associate in packs, but go about in pairs or are solitary.
From the Scandinavian peninsula and the British Islands
the range of the fox extends eastwards across Europe and
central and northern Asia to Japan, while to the south it embraces
northern Africa and Arabia, Persia, Baluchistan, and the north-
western districts of India and the Himalaya. On the North
American side of the Atlantic the fox reappears. With such an
enormous geographical range the species must of necessity
present itself under a considerable number of local phases, differ-
ing from one another to a greater or less degree in the matters
of size and colouring. By some naturalists many of these local
forms are regarded as specifically distinct, but it seems better
and simpler to class them all as local phases or races of a single
species primarily characterized by the white tip to the tail and
the black or dark-brown hind surface of the ear. The " foxy
red " colouring of the typical race of north-western Europe is
too well known to require description. From this there is a more
or less nearly complete gradation on the one hand to pale-
coloured forms like the white-footed fox ( V. alopex leucopus) of
Persia, N.W. India and Arabia, and on the other to the silver
or black fox (V. a. argentatus) of North America which yields
the valuable silver-tipped black fur. Silver foxes apparently
also occur in northern Asia.
To mention all the other local races would be superfluous, and
it will suffice to note that the North African fox is known as
V. a. niloticus, the Himalayan as V. a. montanus, the Tibetan as
V. a. wadelli, the North American red or cross fox as V. a.
pennsylvanicus, and the Alaskan as V. a. harrimani; the last
named, like several other animals from Alaska, being the largest
of its kind.
The cunning and stratagem of the fox have been proverbial for
many ages, and he has figured as a central character in fables
from the earliest times, as in Aesop, down to " Uncle Remus,"
most notably as Reynard (Raginohardus, strong in counsel) in
the great medieval beast-epic " Reynard the Fox " (<?..). It
is not unlikely that, owing to the conditions under which
it now lives, these traits are even more developed in England
than elsewhere. In habits the fox is to a great extent solitary,
and its home is usually a burrow, which may be excavated by
its own labour, but is more often the usurped or deserted tene-
ment of a badger or a rabbit. Foxes will, however, often take
up their residence in woods, or even in water-meadows with
large tussocks of grass, remaining concealed during the day and
issuing forth on marauding expeditions at night. Rabbits,
hares, domesticated poultry, game-birds, and, when these run
short, rats, mice and even insects, form the chief diet of the fox.
When living near the coast foxes will, however, visit the shore
at low water in search of crabs and whelks; and the old story
of the fox and the grapes seems to be founded upon a partiality
on the part of the creature for that fruit. Flesh that has become
tainted appears to be specially acceptable; but it is a curious
fact that on no account will a fox eat any kind of bird of prey,
x. 25
After a gestation of from 60 to 65 days, the vixen during the
month of April gives birth to cubs, of which from five to eight
usually go to form a litter. When first born these are clothed
with a uniform slaty-grey fur, which in due course gives place
to a coat of more tawny hue than the adult livery. In a year and
a half the cubs attain their full development; and from observa-
tions on captive specimens it appears that the duration of life
ought to extend to some thirteen or fourteen years. In the care
and defence of her young the vixen displays extraordinary
solicitude and boldness, altogether losing on such occasions her
accustomed timidity and caution. Like most other young
animals, fox-cubs are exceedingly playful, and may be seen
chasing one another in front of the mouth of the burrow, or even
running after their own tails.
Young foxes can be tamed to a certain extent, and d"o not then
emit the well-known odour to any great degree unless excited.
The species cannot, however, be completely domesticated, and
never displays the affectionate traits of the dog. It was long
believed that foxes and dogs would never interbreed; but
several instances of such unions have been recorded, although
they are undoubtedly rare. When suddenly confronted in a
situation where immediate escape is impossible, the fox, like the
wolf, will not hesitate to resort to the death-feigning instinct.
Smartness in avoiding traps is one of the most distinctive traits
in the character of the species; but when a trap has once claimed
its victim, and is consequently no longer dangerous, the fox is
always ready to take advantage of the gratuitous meal.
Red fox-skins are largely imported into Europe for various
purposes, the American imports alone formerly reaching as many
as 60,000 skins annually. Silver fox is one of the most valuable
of all furs, as much as 480 having been given for an unusually
fine pair of skins in 1902.
Of foxes certainly distinct specifically from the typical repre-
sentative of the group, one of the best known is the Indian
Vulpes bengalensis, a species much inferior in point of size to its
European relative, and lacking the strong odour of the latter,
from which it is also distinguished by the black tip to the tail
and the pale-coloured backs of the ears. The corsac fox (V.
cor sac), ranging from southern Russia and the Caspian provinces
across Asia to Amurland, may be regarded as a northern repre-
sentative of the Indian species; while the pale fox (V. pallidus),
of the Suakin and Dongola deserts, may be regarded as the
African representative of the group. Possibly the kit-fox ( V.
velox), which has likewise a black tail- tip and pale ears, may
be the North American form of the same group. The northern
fennec (V. famelicus), whose range extends apparently from
Egypt and Somaliland through Palestine and Persia into Afghan-
istan, seems to form a connecting link between the more typical
foxes and the small African species properly known as fennecs.
The long and bushy tail in the northern species has a white tip
and a dark gland-patch near the root, but the backs of the ears
are fawn-coloured. The enormous length of the ears and the
small bodily size (inferior to that of any other member of the
family) suffice to distinguish the true fennec ( V. zerda) of Algeria
and Egypt, in which the general colour is pale and the tip of
the relatively short tail black. South of the Zambezi the group
reappears in the shape of the asse-fox or fennec. (V. cama), a
dark-coloured species, with a black tip to the long, bushy tail
and reddish-brown ears.
Passing from South Africa to the north polar regions of both
the Old and the New World, inclusive of Iceland, we enter the
domain of the Arctic fox (V. lagopus), a very distinct species
characterized by the hairy soles of its feet, the short, blunt ears,
the long, bushy tail, and the great length of the fur in winter.
The upper parts in summer are usually brownish and the under
parts white; but in winter the whole coat, in this phase of the
species, turns white. In a second phase of the species, the
colour, which often displays a slaty hue (whence the name of blue
fox), remains more or less the same throughout the year, the
winter coat being, however, recognizable by the great length
of the fur. Many at least of the " blue fox " skins of the fur-
trade are white skins dyed. About 2000 blue fox-skins were
770 FOXE, J.
annually imported into London from Alaska some five-and-
twenty years ago. Arctic foxes feed largely on sea-birds and
lemmings, laying up hidden stores of the last-named rodents for
winter use.
The American grey fox, or Virginian fox, is now generally
ranged as a distinct genus (or a subgenus of Canis) under the
name of Urocyon cinereo-argenlatus, on account of being dis-
tinguished, as already mentioned, by the presence of a ridge of
long erectile hairs along the upper surface of the tail and of a
projection to the postero-inferior angle of the lower jaw. The
prevailing colour of the fur of the upper parts is iron-grey.
The so-called foxes of South America, such as the crab-eating
fox (C. Ihous), Azara's fox (C. azarae), and the colpeo (C. magel-
lanicus), are aberrant members of the typical genus Canis. On
the other hand, the long-eared fox or Delalande'S fox (Otocyon
megalotis) of south and east Africa represents a totally distinct
genus.
See St George Mivart, Dogs, Jackals, Wolves and Foxes (London,
1890); R. I. Pocock, "Ancestors and Relatives of the Dog," in
The Kennel Encyclopaedia (London, 1907). For fox-hunting, see
HUNTING. (R. L.*)
FOXE, JOHN (1516-1587), the author of the famous Book of
Martyrs, was born at Boston, in Lincolnshire, in 1516. At the
age of sixteen he is said to have entered Brasenose College,
Oxford, where he was the pupil of John Harding or Hawarden,
and had for room-mate Alexander Nowell, afterwards dean of
St. Paul's. His authenticated connexion at the university is,
however, with Magdalen College. He took his B.A. degree in
1537 and his M.A. in 1543. He was lecturer on logic in 1540-
1541. He wrote several Latin plays on Scriptural subjects, of
which the best, De Christo triumphante, was repeatedly printed,
(London, 1551; Basel, 1556, &c.), and was translated into English
by Richard Day, son of the printer. He became a fellow of
Magdalen College in 1539, resigning in 1545. It is said that he
refused to conform to the rules for regular attendance at chapel,
and that he protested both against the enforced celibacy of
fellows and the obligation to take holy orders within seven
years of their election. The customary statement that he was
expelled from his fellowship is based on the untrustworthy
biography attributed to his son Samuel Foxe, but the college
records state that he resigned of his own accord and ex honesta
causa. The letter in which he protests to President Oglethorpe
against the charges of irreverence, &c., brought against him is
printed in Pratt's edition (vol. i. Appendix, pp. 58-61).
On leaving Oxford he acted as tutor for a short time in the
house of the Lucys of Charlecote, near Stratford-on-Avon, where
he married Agnes Randall. Late in 1547 or early in the next
year he went to London. He found a patron in Mary Fitzroy,
duchess of Richmond, and having been ordained ' deacon by
Ridley in 1550, he settled at Reigate Castle, where he acted
as tutor to the duchess's nephews, the orphan children of Henry
Howard, earl of Surrey. On the accession cf Queen Mary, Foxe
was deprived of his tutorship by the boys' grandfather, the duke
of Norfolk, who was now released from prison. He retired to
Strassburg, and occupied himself with a Latin history of the
Christian persecutions which he had begun at the suggestion of
Lady Jane Grey. He had assistance from two clerics of widely
differing opinions from Edmund Grindal, who was later, as
archbishop of Canterbury, to maintain his Puritan convictions
in opposition to Elizabeth; and from John Aylmer, afterwards
one of the bitterest opponents of the Puritan party. This book,
dealing chiefly with Wycliffe and Huss, and coming down to
1500, formed the first outline of the Acles and Monuments. It
was printed by Wendelin Richelius with the title of Commentarii
rerum in ecclesia geslarum (Strasburg, 1554). In the year of its
publication Foxe removed to Frankfort, where he found the
English colony of Protestant refugees divided into two camps.
He made a vain attempt to frame a compromise which should
be accepted by the extreme Calvinists and by the partisans of
the Anglican doctrine. He removed (1555) to Basel, where
he worked as printer's reader to Johann Herbst or Oporinus.
He made steady progress with his great book as he received
reports from England of the religious persecutions there, and he
issued from the press of Oporinus his pamphlet Ad indytos ac
praepolentes Angliae proceres . . . supplicatio (1557), a plea for
toleration addressed to the English nobility. In 1559 he com-
pleted the Latin edition 1 of his martyrology and returned to
England. He lived for some time at Aldgate, London, in the
house of his former pupil, Thomas Howard, now duke of Norfolk,
who retained a sincere regard for his tutor and left him a small
pension in his will. He became associated with John Day the
printer, himself once a Protestant exile. Foxe was ordained
priest by Edmund Grindal, bishop of London, in 1560, and
besides much literary work he occasionally preached at Paul's
Cross and other places. His work had rendered great service
to the government, and he might have had high preferment in
the Church but for the Puritan views which he consistently
maintained. He held, however, the prebend of Shipton in
Salisbury cathedral, and is said to have been for a short time
rector of Cripplegate.
In 1563 was issued from the press of John Day the first English
edition of the Actes and Monuments of these latter and perillous
Dayes, touching matters of the Church, wherein are comprehended
and described the great Persecution and horrible Troubles that
have been wrought and practised by the Romishe Prelates, speciallye
in this Realme of England and Scotland, from the yeare of our
Lorde a thousands to the time now present. Gathered and collected
according to the true Copies and Wrylinges certificatorie as well of
the Parlies themselves that Suffered, as also out of the Bishop's
Registers, which were the Doers thereof, by John Foxe, commonly
known as the Book of Martyrs. Several gross errors which had
appeared in the Latin version, and had been since exposed, were
corrected in this edition. Its popularity was immense and signal.
The Marian persecution was still fresh in men's minds, and the
graphic narrative intensified in its numerous readers the fierce
hatred of Spain and of the Inquisition which was one of the
master passions of the reign. Nor was its influence transient.
For generations the popular conception of Roman Catholicism
was derived from its bitter pages. Its accuracy was immediately
attacked by Catholic writers, notably in the Dialogi sex (1566),
nominally from the pen of Alan Cope, but in reality by Nicholas
Harpsfield and by Robert Parsons in Three Conversions of
England (1570). These criticisms induced Foxe to produce a
second corrected edition, Ecclesiastical History, contayning the
Actes and Monuments of things passed in every kynges lyme . . .
in 1570, a copy of which was ordered by Convocation to be
placed in every collegiate church. Foxe based his accounts of
the martyrs partly on authentic documents and reports of the
trials, and on statements received direct from the friends of
the sufferers, but he was too hasty a worker and too violent a
partisan to produce anything like a correct or impartial account
of the mass of facts with which he had to deal. Anthony a
Wood says that Foxe " believed and reported all that was told
him, and there is every reason to suppose that he was purposely
misled, and continually deceived by those whose interest it was
to bring discredit on his work," but he admits that the book is
a monument of his industry, his laborious research and his
sincere piety. The gross blunders due to carelessness have
often been exposed, and there is no doubt that Foxe was only
too ready to believe evil of the Catholics, and he cannot always
be exonerated from the charge of wilful falsification of evidence.
It should, however, be remembered in his honour that his
advocacy of religious toleration was far in advance of his day.
He pleaded for the despised Dutch Anabaptists, and remon-
strated with John Knox on the rancour of his First Blast of the
Trumpet. Foxe was one of the earliest students of Anglo-
Saxon, and he and Day published an edition of the Saxon
gospels under the patronage of Archbishop Parker. He died
on the i8th of April 1587 and was buried at St Giles's,
Cripplegate.
1 Printed by Oporinus and Nicolaus Brylinger. The title is
Rerum in ecclesia geslarum . . . pars prima, in qua primum de
rebus per A ngliam et Scotiam gestis atque in primis de horrenda sub
Maria nuper regina persecutione narratio continetur.
FOXGLOVE FOY
771
A list of his Latin tracts and sermons is given by Wood, and others,
some of which were never printed, appear in Bale. Four editions
of the Actes and Monuments appeared in Foxe's lifetime. The
eighth edition (1641) contains a memoir of Foxe purporting to be
by his son Samuel, the MS. of which is in the British Museum (Lans-
downe MS. 388). Samuel Foxe's authorship is disputed, with much
show of reason, by Dr S. R. Maitland in On the Memoirs of Foxe
ascribed to his Son (1841). The best-known modern edition of the
Martyrology is that (1837-1841) by the Rev. Stephen R. Cattley,
with an introductory life by Canon George Townsend. The numer-
ous inaccuracies of this life and the frequent errors of Foxe's narra-
tive were exposed by Dr Maitland in a series of tracts (1837-1842),
collected (1841-1842) as Notes on the Contributions of the Rev. George
Townsend, M.A. . . . to the New Edition of Fox's Martyrology.
The criticism lavished on Cattley and Townsend's edition led to a
new one (18461849) under the same editorship. A new text
prepared by the Rev. Josiah Pratt was issued (1870) in the " Refor-
mation Series " of the Church Historians of England, with a revised
version of Townsend's Life and appendices giving copies of original
documents. Later edition by W. Grinton Berry (1907).
Foxe's papers are preserved in the Harleian and Lansdowne
collections in the British Museum. Extracts from these were
edited by J. G. Nichols for the Camden Society (1859). See also
W. Winters, Biographical Notes on John Foxe (1876); James
Gairdner, History of the English Church in the Sixteenth Century.
FOXGLOVE, a genus of biennial and perennial plants of the
natural order Scrophulariaceae. The common or purple foxglove,
Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), one-third nat. size.
1. Corolla cut open showing the
four stamens; rather more
than half nat. size.
2. Unripe fruit cut lengthwise,
showing the thick axial pla-
centa bearing numerous small
seeds.
Ripe capsule split open.
D. purpurea, is common in dry hilly pastures and rocky places
and by road-sides in various parts of Europe ; it ranges in Great
Britain from Cornwall and Kent to Orkney, but it does not
occur in Shetland or in some of the eastern counties of England. I
It flourishes best in siliceous soils, and is not found in the Jura
and Swiss Alps. The characters of the plant are as follows:
stem erect, roundish, downy, leafy below, and from 18 in. to
5 ft. or more in height; leaves alternate, crenate, rugose, ovate
or elliptic oblong, and of a dull green, with the under surface
downy and paler than the upper; radical leaves together with
their stalks often a foot in length; root of numerous, slender,
whitish fibres; flowers if-2j in. long, pendulous, on one side of
the stem, purplish crimson, and hairy and marked with eye-like
spots within; segments of calyx ovate, acute, cleft to the base;
corolla bell-shaped with a broadly two-lipped obtuse mouth, the
upper lip entire or obscurely divided; stamens four, two longer
than the other two (didynamous) ; anthers yellow and bilobed ;
capsule bivalved, ovate and pointed; and seeds numerous,
small, oblong, pitted and of a pale brown. As Parkinson re-
marks of the plant, " It flowreth seldome before July, and the
seed is ripe in August "; but it may occasionally be found in
blossom as late as September. Many varieties of the common
foxglove have been raised by cultivation, with flowers varying
in colour from white to deep rose and purple; in the variety
gloxinioides the flowers are almost regular, suggesting those of
the cultivated gloxinia. Other species of foxglove with variously
coloured flowers have been introduced into Britain from the
continent of Europe. The plants may be propagated by un-
flowered off-sets from the roots, but being biennials are best
raised from seed.
The foxglove, probably from folks'-glove, that is fairies' glove,
is known by a great variety of popular names in Britain. In
the south of Scotland it is called bloody fingers; farther north,
dead-men's-bells; and on the eastern borders, ladies' thimbles,
wild mercury and Scotch mercury. In Ireland it is generally
known under the name of fairy thimble. Among its Welsh
synonyms are menyg-cllyllon (elves' gloves), menyg y llwynog
(fox's gloves), bysedd cochion (redfingers) and bysedd y cwn
(dog's fingers). In France its designations are gants de noire
dame and doigts de la Vierge. The German name Fingerhut
(thimble) suggested to Fuchs, in 1542, the employment of the
Latin adjective digitalis as a designation for the plant. Other
species of foxglove or Digitalis although found in botanical
collections are not generally grown. For medicinal uses see
DIGITALIS.
FOX INDIANS, the name, from one of their clans, of an Algon-
quian tribe, whose former range was central Wisconsin. They
call themselves Muskwakiuk, " red earth people." Owing to
heavy losses in their wars with the Ojibways and the French,
they allied themselves with the Sauk tribe about 1780, the two
tribes being now practically one.
FOX MORCILLO, SEBASTIAN (is 2 6?-iS59?), Spanish scholar
and philosopher, was born at Seville between 1526 and 1528.
About 1548 he studied at Louvain, and, following the example
of the Spanish Jew, Judas Abarbanel, published commentaries
on Plato and Aristotle in which he endeavoured to reconcile
their teaching. In 1559 he was appointed tutor to Don Carlos,
son of Philip II., but did not live to take up the duties of the post,
as he was lost at sea on his way to Spain. His most original
work is the De imilalione, seu de informandi styli ratione librill.
(1554), a dialogue in which the author and his brother take part
under the pseudonyms of Caspar and Francisco Enuesia. Among
Fox Morcillo's other publications are : (i) In Topica Ciceronis
paraphrasis et scholia (1550); (2) In Platonis Timaeum com-
menlarii (1554); (3) Compendium ethices philosophiae ex Platone,
Aristotele, aliisque philosophis colleclum; (4) De historiae in-
slitutione dialogus (1557), and (5) De naturae philosophic,.
He is the subject of an excellent monograph by Urbano Gonzalez
de Calle, Sebastian Fox Morcillo: estudio historico-critico de sus
doctrinas (Madrid, 1903).
FOY, MAXIMILIEN S^BASTIEN (1775-1825), French general
and statesman, was born at Ham in Picardy on the 3rd
of February 1775. He was the son of an old soldier who had
fought at Fontenoy and had become post-master of the town
in which he lived. His father died in 1780, and his early instruc-
tion was given by his mother, a woman of English origin and of
772
FRAAS FRAGONARD
superior ability. He continued his education at the college of
Soissons, and thence passed at the 'age of fifteen to the artillery
school of La Fere. After eighteen months' successful study he
entered the army, served his first campaign in Flanders (1791-92),
and was present at the battle of Jemmapes. He soon attained
the rank of captain, and served successively under Dampierre,
Jourdan, Pichegru and Houchard. In 1794, in consequence of
having spoken freely against the violence of the extreme party
it Paris, he was imprisoned by order of the commissioner of the
Convention, Joseph Lebon, at Cambray, but regained his liberty
soon after the fall of Robespierre. He served under Moreau
in the campaigns of 1796 and 1797, distinguishing himself in
many engagements. The leisure which the treaty of Campo
Formio gave him he devoted to the study of public law and
modern history, attending the lectures of Christoph Wilhelm von
Koch (1737-1813), the famous professor of public law at Strass-
burg. He was recommended by Desaix to the notice of General
Bonaparte, but declined to serve on the staff of the Egyptian
expedition. In the campaign of Switzerland (1798) he dis-
tinguished himself afresh, though he served only with the greatest
reluctance against a people which possessed republican institu-
tions. In Mass6na's brilliant campaign of 1799 Foy won the
rank of chef de brigade. In the following year he served under
Moncey in the Marengo campaign and afterwards in Tirol.
Foy's republican principles caused him to oppose the gradual
rise of Napoleon to the supreme power and at the time of Moreau's
trial he escaped arrest only by joining the army in Holland.
Foy voted against the establishment of the empire, but the only
penalty for his independence was a long delay before attaining
the rank of general. In 1806 he married a daughter of General
Baraguay d'Hilliers. In the following year he was sent to
Constantinople, and there took part in the defence of the Darda-
nelles against the English fleet. He was next sent to Portugal,
and thenceforward he served in the Peninsular War from first
to last. Under Junot he won at last his rank of general of
brigade, under Soult he held a command in the pursuit of Sir
John Moore's army, and under Massena he fought in the third
invasion of Portugal (1810). Mass6na reposed the greatest
confidence in Foy, and employed him after Busaco in a mission
to the emperor. Napoleon now made Foy's acquaintance for the
first time, and was so far impressed with his merits as to make
him a general of division at once. The part played by General
Foy at the battle of Salamanca won him new laurels, but above
all he distinguished himself when the disaster of Vittoria had
broken the spirit of the army. Foy rose to the occasion; his
resistance in the Pyrenees was steady and successful, and only
a wound (at first thought mortal) which he received at Orthez
prevented him from keeping the field to the last. At the first
restoration of the Bourbons he received the grand cross of the
Legion of Honour and a command, and on the return of Napoleon
from Elba he declined to join him until the king had fled from the
country. He held a divisional command in the Waterloo
campaign, and at Waterloo was again severely wounded at the
head of his division (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). After the second
restoration he returned to civil life, devoting his energies for a
time to his projected history of the Peninsular War, and in 1819
was elected to the chamber of deputies. For this position his
experience and his studies had especially fitted him, and by his
first speech he gained a commanding place in the chamber,
which he never lost, his clear, manly eloquence being always
employed on the side of the liberal principles of 1789. In 1823
he made a powerful protest against French intervention in Spain,
and after the dissolution of 1824 he was re-elected for three
constituencies. He died at Paris on the 28th of November 1825,
and his funeral was attended, it is said, by 100,000 persons.
His early death was regarded by all as a national calamity. His
family was provided for by a general subscription.
The Hisloire de la guerre de la Peninsula sous Napoleon was pub-
lished from his notes in 1827, and a collection of his speeches (with
memoir by Tisspt) appeared in 1826 soon after his death. See
Cuisin, Vie militaire, poliiique, fife., du general Foy; Vidal, Vie
mililaire el poliiique du general Foy.
FRAAS, KARL NIKOLAS (1810-1875), German botanist and
agriculturist, was born at Rattelsdorf, near Bamberg, on the 8th
of September 1810. After receiving his preliminary education at
the gymnasium of Bamberg, he in 1830 entered the university of
Munich, where he took his doctor's degree in 1834. Having
devoted great attention to the study of botany, he went to
Athens in 1835 as inspector of the court garden; and in April
1836 he became professor of botany at the university. In 1842
he returned to Germany and became teacher at the central
agricultural school at Schleissheim. In 1847 he was appointed
professor of agriculture at Munich, and in 1851 director of the
central veterinary college. For many years he was secretary
of the Agricultural Society of Bavaria, but resigned in 1861. He
died at his estate of Neufreimann, near Munich, on the gth of
November 1875.
His principal works are : STOIXO TTJJ Boraiairijs (Athens, 1 835) ;
Synopsis florae classicae (Munich, 1845); Klima und Pflanzenwell in
der Zeil (Landsh., 1847); Hislor.-encyklopad. Grundriss der Land-
wirlhschaftslehre (Stuttgart, 1848); Geschichle der Landwirthschaft
Prague, 1851); Die Schule des Landbaues (Munich, 1852); Baierns
^inderrassen (Munich, 1853); Die kunsttiche Fischerzeugung
(Munich, 1854); Die Nalur der Landwirihschaft (Munich, 1857);
Buch der Nalur fur Landwirlhe (Munich, 1860); Die Ackerbaukrisen
und ihre Heilmillel (Munich, 1866); Das Wurzelleben der Cullur-
pflanzen (Berlin, 1872) ; and Geschichle der Landbau und Forstwissen-
schafl seil dent i6' cn Jahrh. (Munich, 1865). He also founded and
edited a weekly agricultural paper, the Schranne.
FRACASTORO [FRACASTORIUS], GIROLAMO [HIERONYMUS]
(1483-1553), Italian physician and poet, was born at Verona in
1483. It is related of him that at his birth his lips adhered so
closely that a surgeon was obliged to divide them with his in-
cision knife, and that during his infancy his mother was killed by
lightning, while he, though in her arms at the moment, escaped
unhurt. Fracastoro became eminently skilled, not only in
medicine and belles-lettres, but in most arts and sciences. He
studied at Padua, and became professor of philosophy there in
1502, afterwards practising as a physician in Verona. It was by
his advice that Pope Paul III., on account of the prevalence of a
contagious distemper, removed the council of Trent to Bologna.
He was the author of many works, both poetical and medical,
and was intimately acquainted with Cardinal Bembo, Julius
Scaliger, Gianbattista Ramusio (q.v.), and most of the great men
of his time. In 1517, when the builders of the citadel of San
Felice (Verona) found fossil mussels in the rocks, Fracastoro was
consulted about the marvel, and he took the same view follow-
ing Leonardo da Vinci, but very advanced for those days that
they were the remains of animals once capable of living in the
locality. He died of apoplexy at Casi, near Verona, on the 8th
of August 1553; and in 1559 the town of Verona erected a statue
in his honour.
The principal work of Fracastoro is a kind of medical poem
entitled Syphilidis, sive Morbi Gallici, libri Ires (Verona, 1530),
which has been often reprinted and also translated into French
and Italian. Among his other works (all published at Venice) are
De vini lemperalura (1534); Homocentricorum (1535); De sym-
palha el anhpalhia rerum (1546); and De contagionibus (1546).
His complete works were published at Venice in 1555, and his
poetical productions were collected and printed at Padua in 1728.
FRAGONARD, JEAN-HONOR^ (1732-1806), French painter,
was born at Grasse, the son of a glover. He was articled to a
Paris notary when his father's circumstances became straitened
through unsuccessful speculations, but he showed such talent
and inclination for art that he was taken at the age of eighteen to
Boucher, who, recognizing the youth's rare gifts but disinclined
to waste his time with one so inexperienced, sent him to Chardin's
atelier. Fragonard studied for six months under the great
luminist, and then returned more fully equipped to Boucher,
whose style he soon acquired so completely that the master
entrusted him with the execution of replicas of his paintings.
Though not a pupil of the Academy, Fragonard gained the Prix
de Rome in 1752 with a painting of " Jeroboam sacrificing to the
Idols," but before proceeding to Rome he continued to study for
three years under Van Loo. In the year preceding his departure
he painted the " Christ washing the Feet of the Apostles " now
at Grasse cathedral. In 1755 he took up his abode at the French
Academy in Rome, then presided over by Natoire. There he
FRAHN FRAMINGHAM
773
benefited from the study of the old masters whom he was set to
copy always remembering Boucher's parting advice not to
take Raphael and Michelangelo too seriously. He successively
passed through the studios of masters as widely different in their
aims and technique as Chardin, Boucher, Van Loo and Natoire,
and a summer sojourn at the Villa d'Este in the company of the
abbe de Saint-Non, who engraved many of Fragonard's studies of
these entrancing gardens, did more towards forming his personal
style than all the training at the various schools. It was in these
romantic gardens, with their fountains, grottos, temples and
terraces, that he conceived the dreams which he was subsequently
to embody in his art. Added to this influence was the deep
impression made upon his mind by the florid sumptuousness of
Tiepolo, whose works he had an opportunity of studying in
Venice before he returned to Paris in 1761. In 1765 his " Coresus
et Callirhoe " secured his admission to the Academy. It was made
the subject of a pompous eulogy by Diderot, and was bought by
the king, who had it reproduced at the Gobelins factory. Hither-
to Fragonard had hesitated between religious, classic and other
subjects; but now the demand of the wealthy art patrons of
Louis XV. 's pleasure-loving and licentious court turned him
definitely towards those scenes of love and voluptuousness with
which his name will ever be associated, and which are only made
acceptable by the tender beauty of his colour and the virtuosity
of his facile brushwork such works as the " Serment d'amour "
(Love Vow), "Le Verrou " (The Bolt), "La Culbute " (The
Tumble), " La Chemise tnlevee " (The Shift Withdrawn), and
" The Swing " (Wallace collection), and his decorations for the
apartments of Mme du Barry and the dancer Marie Guimard.
The Revolution made an end to the ancien regime, and Fra-
gonard, who was so closely allied to its representatives, left Paris
in 1793 and found shelter in the house of his friend Maubert at
Grasse, which he decorated with the series of decorative panels
known as the " Roman d'amour de la jeunesse," originally
painted for Mme du Barry's pavilion at Louvreciennes. The
panels in recent years came into the possession of Mr Pierpont
Morgan. Fragonard returned to Paris early in the igth cen-
tury, where he died in 1806, neglected and almost forgotten.
For half a century or more he was so completely ignored that
Liibke, in his history of art (1873), omits the very mention of his
name. But within the last thirty years he has regained the posi-
tion among the masters of painting to which he is entitled by his
genius. If the appreciation of his art by the modern collector
can be expressed in figures, it is significant that the small and
sketchy " Billet Doux," which appeared at the Cronier sale in
Paris in 1905 and was subsequently exhibited by Messrs Duveen
in London (1906), realized close on 19,000 at the Hotel Drouot.
Besides the works already mentioned, there are four important
pictures by Fragonard in the Wallace collection: " The Foun-
tain of Love," " The Schoolmistress," " A Lady carving her
Name on a Tree " (usually known as " Le Chiffre d'amour ")
and " The Fair-haired Child." The Louvre contains thirteen
examples of his art, among them the " Coresus," " The Sleeping
Bacchante," " The Shift Withdrawn," " The Bathers," " The
Shepherd's Hour" ("L'Heure du berger"), and "Inspiration."
Other works are in the museums of Lille, Besangon, Rouen,
Tours, Nantes, Avignon, Amiens, Grenoble, Nancy, Orleans,
Marseilles, &c., as well as at Chantilly. Some of Fragonard's
finest work is in the private collections of the Rothschild family
in London and Paris.
See R. Portalis, Fragonard (Paris, 1899), fully illustrated; Felix
Naquet, Fragonard (Paris, 1890); Virgile Josz, Fragonard mieurs
du XVIII' siecle (Paris, 1901); E. and J. de Goncourt, L'Art du
dix-huitieme siecle Fragonard (Paris, 1883). (P. G. K.)
FRAHN, CHRISTIAN MARTIN (1782-1851), German numis-
matist and historian, was born at Rostock. He began his
Oriental studies under Tychsen at the university of Rostock, and
afterwards prosecuted them at Gottingen and Tubingen. He
became a Latin master in Pestalozzi's famous institute in 1804,
returned home in 1806, and in the following year was chosen to
fill the chair of Oriental languages in the Russian university of
Kazan. Though in 1815 he was invited to succeed Tychsen at
Rostock, he preferred to go to St Petersburg, where he became
director of the Asiatic museum and councillor of state. He died
at St Petersburg.
Frahn wrote over 150 works. Among the more important are:
Numophylacium orientate Pototianum (1813) ; De numorum Bulghari-
corum fonte antiquissimo (1816); Das muhammedanische Miinz-
kabinet des asiatischen Museum der kaiserl. Akademie der Wissen-
schaften zu St Petersburg (1821); Numi cufici ex variis museis selecti
(1823); Notice d'une centaine d'ouvrages arabes, &c., qui manquent
en grande partie aux bioliotheques de I' Europe (1834); and Nova
supplementa ad recensionem Num. Muham. Acad. Imp. Sci. Petro-
politanae (1855). His description of some medals struck by the
Samanid and Bouid princes (1804) was composed in Arabic because
he had no Latin types.
FRAME, a word employed in many different senses, signifying
something joined together or shaped. It is derived ultimately
from O.E. from, from, in its primary meaning " forward."
In constructional work it connotes the union of pieces of wood,
metal or other material for purposes of enclosure as in the case
of a picture or mirror frame. Frames intended for these uses
are of great artistic interest but comparatively modern origin.
There is no record of their existence earlier than the i6th century,
but the decorative opportunities which they afforded caused
speedy popularity in an artistic age, and the Renaissance found
in the picture frame a rich and attractive means of expression.
The impulses which made frames beautiful have long been ex-
tinct or dormant, but fine work was produced in such profusion
that great numbers of examples are still extant. Frames for
pictures or mirrors are usually square, oblong, round or oval,
and, although they have usually been made of wood or com-
position overlaid upon wood, the richest and most costly
materials have often been used. Ebony, ivory and tortoiseshell;
crystal, amber and mother-of-pearl; lacquer, gold and silver,
and almost every other metal have been employed for this
purpose. The domestic frame has in fact varied from the
simplest and cheapest form of a plain wooden moulding to the
most richly carved examples. The introduction in the i7th
century of larger sheets of glass gave the art of frame-making
a great essor, and in the i8th century the increased demand
for frames, caused chiefly by the introduction of cheaper forms
of mirrors, led to the invention of a composition which could
be readily moulded into stereotyped patterns and gilded. This
was eventually the deathblow of the artistic frame, and since
the use of composition moulding became normal, no important
school of wood-carving has turned its attention to frames. The
carvers of the Renaissance, and down to the middle of the
i8th century, produced work which was often of the greatest
beauty and elegance. In England nothing comparable to that
of Grinling Gibbons and his school has since been produced.
Chippendale was a great frame maker, but he not only had
recourse to composition, but his designs were often extravagantly
rococo. Even in France there has been no return of the great
days when Oeben enclosed the looking-glasses which mirrored
the Pompadour in frames that were among the choicest work
of a gorgeous and artificial age. In the decoration of frames
as in so many other respects France largely followed the fashions
of Italy, which throughout the i6th and i7th centuries produced
the most elaborate and grandiose, the richest and most palatial,
of the mirror frames that have come down to us. English art
in this respect was less exotic and more restrained, and many
of the mirrors of the i8th century received frames the grace
and simplicity of which have ensured their constant reproduction
even to our own day.
FRAMINGHAM, a township of Middlesex county, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A., having an area of 27 sq. m. of hilly surface,
dotted with lakes and ponds. Pop. (1890) 9239; (1900) 11,302,
of whom 2391 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,948.
It is served by the Boston & Albany, and the New York, New
Haven & Hartford railways. Included within the township
are three villages, Framingham Center, Saxonville and South
Framingham, the last being much the most important. Framing-
ham Academy was established in 1792, and in 1851 became a part
of the public school system. A state normal school (the first
normal school in the United States, established at Lexington
774
FRAMLINGHAM FRANCATELLI
in 1839, removed to Newton in 1844 and to Framingham in 1853)
is situated here; and near South Framingham, in the township
of Sherborn, is the state reformatory prison for women. South
Framingham has large manufactories of paper tags, shoes,
boilers, carriage wheels and leather board; formerly straw
braid and bonnets were the principal manufactures. Saxonville
manufactures worsted cloth. The value of the township's fac-
tory products increased from $3,007,301 in 1900 to $4,173,579 in
1905, or 38-8%. Framingham was first settled about 1640, and
was named in honour of the English home (Framlingham) of
Governor Thomas Danforth (1622-1699), to whom the land once
belonged. In 1700 it was incorporated as a township. The " old
Connecticut path," the Boston-to-Worcester turnpike, was im-
portant to the early fortunes of Framingham Center, while the
Boston & Worcester railway (1834) made the greater fortune of
South Framingham.
See J. H. Temple, History of Framingham . . . 1640-1880
(Framingham, 1887).
FRAMLINGHAM, a market town in the Eye parliamentary
division of Suffolk, 91 m. N.E. from London by a branch of
the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2526. The church of
St Michael is a fine Perpendicular and Decorated building of
black flint, surmounted by a tower 96 ft. high. In the interior
there are a number of interesting monuments, among which the
most noticeable are those of Thomas Howard, 3rd duke of
Norfolk, and of Henry Howard, the famous earl of Surrey,
who was beheaded by Henry VIII. The castle forms a picturesque
ruin, consisting of the outer walls 44 ft. high and 8 ft. thick,
13 towers about 58 ft. high, a gateway and some outworks.
About half a mile from the town is the A'bert Memorial Middle
Class College, opened in 1865, and capable of accommodating
300 boys. A bronze statue of the Prince Consort by Joseph
Durham adorns the front terrace.
Framlingham (Frendlingham, Framalingaham) in early Saxon
times was probably the site of a fortified earthwork to which
St Edmund the Martyr is said to have fled from the Danes in
870. The Danes captured the stronghold after the escape of
the king, but it was won back in 921, and remained in the hands
of the crown, passing to William I. at the Conquest. Henry I.
in i too granted it to Roger Bigod, who in all probability raised
the first masonry castle. Hugh, son of Roger, created earl of
Norfolk in 1141, succeeded his father, and the manor and castle
remained in the Bigod family until 1306, when in default of
heirs it reverted to the crown, and was granted by Edward II.
to his half-brother Thomas de Brotherton, created earl of
Norfolk in 1312. On an account roll of Framlingham Castle
of 1324 there is an entry of " rent received from the borough,"
also of " rent from those living outside the borough," and in
all probability burghal rights had existed at a much earlier
date, when the town had grown into some importance under the
shelter of the castle. Town and castle followed the vicissitudes
of the dukedom of Norfolk, passing to the crown in 1405, and
being alternately restored and forfeited by Henry V., Richard
III., Henry VII., Edward VI., Mary, Elizabeth and James I.,
and finally sold in 1635 to Sir Robert Hitcham, who left it in
1636 to the master and fellows of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge.
In the account roll above mentioned reference is made to a fair
and a market, but no early grant of either is to be found. In
1792 two annual fairs were held, one on Whit Monday, the
other on the loth of October; and a market was held every
Saturday. The market day is still Saturday, but the fairs
are discontinued.
See Robert Hawes, History of Framlingham in the County of
Suffolk, edited by R. Loder (Woodbridge, 1798).
FRANC, a French coin current at different periods and of
varying values. The first coin so called was one struck in gold
by John II. of France in 1360. On it was the legend Johannes
Dei gracia Francorum rex; hence, it is said, the name. It
also bore an effigy of King John on horseback, from which
it was called a franc d cheval, to distinguish it from another
coin of the same value, issued by Charles V., on which the king
was represented standing upright under a Gothic dais; this
coin was termed a. franc a pied. As a coin it disappeared after the
reign of Charles VI., but the name continued to be used as an
equivalent for the livre tournois, which was worth twenty sols.
French writers would speak without distinction of so many
livres or so many francs, so long as the sum mentioned was an
even sum; otherwise livre was the correct term, thus "trois
livres " or " trois francs," but " trois livres cinq sols." In 1795
the livre was legally converted into the franc, at the rate of 81
livres to 80 francs, the silver franc being made to weigh exactly
five grammes. The franc is. now the unit of the monetary system
and also the money of account in France, as well as in Belgium
and Switzerland. In Italy the equivalent is the lira, and in
Greece the drachma. The franc is divided into 100 centimes,
the lira into 100 centesimi and the drachma into 100 lepta.
Gold is now the standard, the coins in common use being ten
and twenty franc pieces. The twenty franc gold piece weighs
6-4516 grammes, -900 fine. The silver coins are five, two,
one, and half franc pieces. The five franc silver piece weighs
25 grammes, -900 fine, while the franc piece weighs 5 grammes,
835 fine. See also MONEY.
FRANC.AIS, ANTOINE, COUNT (1756-1836), better known as
FRANCAIS OF NANTES, French politician and author, was born
at Beaurepaire, in the department of Isere. In 1791 he was
elected to the legislative assembly by the department of Loire
Inferieure, and was noted for his violent attacks upon the farmers
general, the pope and the priests; but he was not re-elected to
the Convention. During the Terror, as he had belonged to the
Girondin party, he was obliged to seek safety in the mountains.
In 1798 he was elected to the council of Five Hundred by the
department of Isere, and became one of its secretaries; and in
the following year he voted against the Directory. He took office
under the consulate as prefect of Charente Inferieure, rose to
be a member of the council of state, and in 1804 obtained the
important post of director-general of the indirect taxes (droits
reunis) . The value of his services was recognized by the titles of
count of the empire and grand officer of the Legion of Honour.
On the second restoration he retired into private life; but from
1819 to 1822 he was representative of the department of Isere,
and after the July revolution he was made a peer of France. He
died at Paris on the 7th of March 1836.
Frangais wrote a number of works, but his name is more likely
to be preserved by the eulogies of the literary men to whom he
afforded protection and assistance. It is sufficient to mention
Le Manuscrit de feu M. Jerome (1825); Recueil de fadaises compose
sur la montagne a I'usage des habitants de la plaine (1826); Voyage
dans la vallee des originaux (1828); Tableau de la vie rurale, ou
V agriculture enseignee d'une maniere dramatique (1829).
FRANCAIS, FRANCOIS LOUIS (1814-1897), French painter,
was born at Plombieres (Vosges), and, on attaining the age of
fifteen, was placed as office-boy with a bookseller. After a few
years of hard struggle, during which he made a precarious living
by drawing on stone and designing woodcut vignettes for book
illustration, he studied painting under Gigoux, and subsequently
under Corot, whose influence remained decisive upon Francais's
style of landscape painting. He generally found his subjects in
the neighbourhood of Paris, and though he never rivalled his
master in lightness of touch and in the lyric poetry which is the
principal charm of Corot's work, he is still counted among the
leading landscape painters of his country and period. He ex-
hibited first at the Salon in 1837 and was elected to the Academic
des Beaux- Arts in 1890. Comparatively few of his pictures are
to be found in public galleries, but his painting of " An Italian
Sunset " is at the Luxembourg Museum in Paris. Other works
of importance are "Daphnis et Chlo6 " (1872), " Bas Meudon"
(1861), "Orpheus" (1863), "Le Bois sacre" (1864), "Le Lac
de Nemi"'(i868).
FRANCATELLI, CHARLES ELMfc (1805-1876), Anglo-
Italian cook, was born in London, of Italian extraction, in 1805,
and was educated in France, where he studied the art of cookery.
Coming to England, he was employed successively by various
noblemen, subsequently becoming manager of Crockford's club.
He left Crockford's to become chief cook to Queen Victoria,
and afterwards he was chef at the Reform Club. He was the
FRANCA VILLA FONTANA FRANCE
775
author of The Modern Cook (1845), which has since been fre-
quently republished; of a Plain Cookery Book for the Working
Classes (1861), and of The Royal English and Foreign Con-
fectionery Book (1862). Francatelli died at Eastbourne on the
loth of August 1876.
FRANCAVILLA FONTANA, a town and episcopal see of
Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 22 m. by rail E. by N.
of Taranto, 460 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 17,759 (town);
20,510 (commune). It is in a fine situation, and has a massive
square castle of the Umperiali family, to whom, with Oria, it
was sold by S. Carlo Borromeo in the i6th century for 40,000
ounces of gold, which he distributed in one day to the poor.
FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844- ), French critic, essayist and
novelist (whose real name was Jacques Anatole Thibault), was
born in Paris on the i6th of April 1844. His father was a book-
seller, one of the last of the booksellers, if we are to believe the
Goncourts, into whose establishment men came, not merely to
order and buy, but to dip, and turn over pages and discuss. As
a child he used to listen to the nightly talks on literary subjects
which took place in his father's shop. Nurtured in an atmosphere
so essentially bookish, he turned naturally to literature. In 1868
his first work appeared, a study of Alfred de Vigny, followed
in 1873 by a volume of verse, Les Poemes dores, dedicated to
Leconte de Lisle, and, as such a dedication suggests, an outcome
of the "Parnassian" movement; and yet another volume of
verse appeared in 1876, Les Noces corinthiennes. But the poems
in these volumes, though unmistakably the work of a man of
great literary skill and cultured taste, are scarcely the poems
of a man with whom verse is the highest form of expression.
He was to find his richest vein in prose. He himself, avowing
his preference for a simple, or seemingly simple, style as compared
with the artistic style, vaunted by the Goncourts a style com-
pounded of neologisms and " rare " epithets, and startling
forms of expression observes: " A simple style is like white
light. It is complex, but not to outward seeming. In language,
a beautiful and desirable simplicity is but an appearance, and
results only from the good order and sovereign economy of the
various parts of speech." And thus one may say of his own style
that its beautiful translucency is the result of many qualities
felicity, grace, the harmonious grouping of words, a perfect
measure. Anatole France is a sceptic. The essence of his
philosophy, if a spirit so light, evanescent, elusive, can be said
to have a philosophy, is doubt. He is a doubter in religion,
metaphysics, morals, politics, aesthetics, science a most genial
and kindly doubter, and not at all without doubts even as to his
own negative conclusions. Sometimes his doubts are expressed
in his own person as in the Jardin d'epicure (1894) from which
the above extracts are taken, or Le Livre de man ami (1885),
which may be accepted, perhaps, as partly autobiographical;
sometimes, as in La Rolisserie de la reine Pedauque (1893) and
Les Opinions de M. Jerome Coignard (1893), or L'Orme du mail
(i&97),LeMannequind'osicr (1897), L'Anneaud'amethyste (1899),
and M. Bergcrel a Paris (1901), he entrusts the expression of
his opinions, dramatically, to some fictitious character the
abbe Coignard, for instance, projecting, as it were, from the
i8th century some very effective criticisms on the popular
political theories of contemporary France or the M. Bergeret
of the four last-named novels, which were published with the
collective title of Histoire contemporaine. This series deals
with some modern problems, and particularly, in L'Anncau
d'amethysle and M . Bergeret a Paris, with the humours and follies
of the anti-Drey fusards. All this makes a piquant combination.
Neither should reference be omitted to his Crime de Sylvestre
Bonnard (1881), crowned by the Institute, nor to works more
distinctly of fancy, such as Balthasar (1889), the story of one of
the Magi or Thais (1890), the story of an actress and courtesan
of Alexandria, whom a hermit converts, but with the loss oi
his own soul. His ironic ccmedy, Crainquebille (Renaissance
theatre, 1903), was founded on his novel (1902) of the same year.
His more recent work includes his anti-clerical Vie de Jeanne
d'Arc (1908); his pungent satire the lie des penguins (1908)
and a volume of stories, Les Sept Femmes de la Barbe-Bleue (1909)
,ightly as he bears his erudition, it is very real and extensive,
and is notably shown in his utilization of modern archaeological
and historical research in his fiction (as in the stories in Sur une
pierre blanche). As a critic see the Vie litleraire (1888-1892),
reprinted mainly from Le Temps he is graceful and appreciative.
Academic in the best sense, he found a place in the French
Academy, taking the seat vacated by Lesseps, and was received
nto that body on the 24th of December 1896. In the affaire
Dreyfus he sided with M. Zola.
For studies of M. Anatole France's talent see Maurice Barres,
Anatole France (1885); Jules Lemaitrc, Les Contemporains (2nd
series, 1886); and G. Brandcs, Anatole France (1908). In 1908
Frederic Chapman began an edition of The works of Anatole France
in an English translation (John Lane).
FRANCE, a country of western Europe, situated between
51 5' and 42 20' N., and 4 42' W. and 7 39' E. It is hexagonal
in form, being bounded N.W. by the North Sea, the Strait of
Dover (Pas de Calais) and the English Channel (La Manche),
W. by the Atlantic Ocean, S.W. by Spain, S.E. by the Mediter-
ranean Sea, E. by Italy, Switzerland and Germany, N.E. by
Germany, Luxemburg and Belgium. From north to south its
length is about 600 m., measured from Dunkirk to the Col de
Falgueres; its breadth from east to west is 528 m., from the
Vosges to Cape Saint Mathieu at the extremity of Brittany.
The total area is estimated 1 at 207,170 sq. m., including the
island of Corsica, which comprises 3367 sq. m. The coast-line
of France extends for 384 m. on the Mediterranean, 700 on the
North Sea, the Strait of Dover and the Channel, and 865 on the
Atlantic. The country has the advantage of being separated
from its neighbours over the greater part of its frontier by
natural barriers of great strength, the Pyrenees forming a'
powerful bulwark on the south-west, the Alps on the south-east,
and the Jura and the greater portion of the Vosges Mountains
on the east. The frontier generally follows the crest line of these
ranges. Germany possesses both slopes of the Vosges north
of Mont Donon, from which point the north-east boundary is
conventional and unprotected by nature.
France is geographically remarkable for its possession of great
natural and historical highways between the Mediterranean
and the Atlantic Ocean. The one, following the depression
between the central plateau and the eastern mountains by way
of the valleys of the Rhone and Saone, traverses the Cote d'Or
hills and so gains the valley of the Seine; the other, skirting
the southern base of the Cevennes, reaches the ocean by way of
the Garonne valley. Another natural highway, traversing the
lowlands to the west of the central plateau, unites the Seine
basin with that of the Garonne.
Physiography. A line drawn from Bayonne through Agen,
Poitiers, Troyes, Reims and Valenciennes divides the country
roughly into two dissimilar physical regions to the west and
north-west a country of plains and low plateaus; in the centre,
east and south-east a country of mountains and high plateaus
with a minimum elevation of 650 ft. To the west of this line the
only highlands of importance are the granitic plateaus of Brittany
and the hills of Normandy and Perche, which, uniting with the
plateau of Beauce, separate the basins of the Seine and Loire. The
highest elevations of these ranges do not exceed 1400 ft. The
configuration of the region east of the dividing line is widely different.
Its most striking feature is the mountainous and eruptive area
known as the Massif Central, which covers south-central France.
The central point of this huge tract is for'med by the mountains
of Auvergne comprising the group of Cantal, where the Plomb du
Cantal attains 6096 ft., and that of Mont Dore, containing the
Puy de Sancy (6188 ft.), the culminating point of the Massif, and to
the north the lesser elevations of the Monts Dome. On the west
the downward slope is gradual by way of lofty plateaus to the heights
of Limousin and Marche and the table-land of Quercy, thence, to
the plains of Poitou, Angoumois and Guienne. On the east only
river valleys divide the Auvergne mountains from those of Forez
and Margeride, western spurs of the Cevennes. On the south the
Aubrac mountains and the barren plateaus known as the Gausses
intervene between them and the Cevennes. The main range of the
Cevennes (highest point Mont Lozere, 5584 ft.) sweeps in a wide
curve from the granitic table-land of Morvan in the north along the
right banks of the Saone and RhSne to the Montagne Noire in the
south, where it is separated from the Pyrenean system by the river
Aude. On the south-western border of France the Pyrenees include
1 By the Service geographique de I'armte.
FRANCE
[GEOGRAPHY
FRANCE
(Physical Divisions)
Scale. 1:5,700,000
English Miles
Land between 600 A 1500 feet.
Land between 1500 4 3000 feet
Land above 3000 feet
\ Channel Island!,
UEOITfRKA NEA
,* p Longitude East 6" of Greenwich Q
several peaks over 10,090 ft. within French territory; the highest
elevation therein, the Vignemale, in the centre of the range, reaches
10,820 ft. On the north their most noteworthy offshoots are, in the
centre, the plateau of Lannemezan from which rivers radiate fanwise
to join the Adour and Garonne; and in the east the Corbiere.
On the south-eastern frontier the French Alps, which include Mont
Blanc (15,800 ft.), and, more to the south, other summits over
1 1 ,000 ft. in height, cover Savoy and most of Dauphine and Provence,
that is to say, nearly the whole of France to the south and east of the
Rh6ne. North of that river the parallel chains of the Jura form an
arc of a circle with its convexity towards the north-west. In the
southern and most elevated portion of the range there are several
summits exceeding 5500 ft. Separated from the Jura by the defile
of Belfort (Trouee de Belfort) the Vosges extend northward parallel
to the course of the Rhine. Their culminating points in French
territory, the Ballon d'Alsace and the Hohneck in the southern
portion of the chain, reach 4100 ft. and 4480 ft. The Vosges are
buttressed on the west by the Faucilles, which curve southwards
to meet the plateau of Langres, and by the plateaus of Haute-
Marne, united to the Ardennes on the north-eastern frontier by the
wooded highlands of Argonne.
Seaboard. The shore of the Mediterranean encircling the Gulf of
the Lion (Golfe du Lion) ' from Cape Cerbera to Martigues is low-
lying and unbroken, and characterized chiefly by lagoons separated
from the sea by sand-dunes. The coast, constantly encroaching on
the sea by reason of the alluvium washed down by the rivers of the
Pyrenees and Cevennes, is without important harbours saving that
of Cette, itself continually invaded by the sand. East of Martigues
the coast is rocky and of greater altitude, and is broken by projecting
capes (Couronne, Croisette, Sicie, the peninsula of ,Giens and Cape
Antibes), and by deep gulfs forming secure roadsteads such as those
of Marseilles, \vhich has the chief port in France, Toulon, with its
reat naval harbour, and Hyeres, to which may be added the Gulf of
t Tropez.
Along the Atlantic coast from the mouth of the Adour to the
1 The etymology of this name (sometimes wrongly written Golfe
de Lyon) is unknown.
GEOGRAPHY]
FRANCE
777
estuary of the Gironde there stretches a monotonous line of sand-
dunes bordered by lagoons on the land side, but towards the sea
harbourless and unbroken save for the Bay of Arcachon. To the
north as far as the rocky point of St Gildas, sheltering the mouth
of the Loire, the shore, often occupied by salt marshes (marshes of
Poitou and Brittany), is low-lying and hollowed by deep bays
sheltered by large islands, those of Oleron and Re lying opposite
the ports of Rochefort and La Rochelle, while Noirmoutier closes the
Bay of Bourgneuf.
Beyond the Loire estuary, on the north shore of which is the port
of St Nazaire, the peninsula of Brittany projects into the ocean and
here begins the most rugged, wild and broken portion of the French
seaboard; the chief of innumerable indentations are, on the south
the Gulf of Morbihan, which opens into a bay protected to the west
by the narrow peninsula of Quiberon, the Bay of Lorient with the
port of Lorient, and the Bay of Concarneau; on the west the
dangerous Bay of Audierne and the Bay of Douarnenez separated
from the spacious roadstead of Brest, with its important naval port,
by the peninsula of Crozon, and forming with it a great indentation
sheltered by Cape St Mathieu on the north and by Cape Raz on the
south ; on the north, opening into the English Channel, the Morlaix
roads, the Bay of St Brieuc, the estuary of the Ranee, with the port
of St Malo and the Bay of St Michel. Numerous small archipelagoes
and islands, of which the chief are Belle Tie, Groix and Ushant,
fringe the Breton coast. North of the Bay of St Michel the peninsula
of Cotentin, terminating in the promontories .of Hague and Barfleur,
juts north into the English Channel and closes the bay of the Seine
on the west. Cherbourg, its chief harbour, lies on the northern
shore between the two promontories. The great port of Le Havre
stands at the mouth of the Seine estuary, which opens into the bay
of the Seine on the east. North of that point a line of high cliffs,
in which occur the ports of Fecamp and Dieppe, stretches nearly to
the sandy estuary of the Somme. North of that river the coast is
low-lying and bordered by sand-dunes, to which succeed on the
Strait of Dover the cliffs in the neighbourhood of the port of
Boulogne and the marshes and sand-dunes of Flanders, with the
ports of Calais and Dunkirk, the latter the principal French port on
the North Sea.
To the maritime ports mentioned above must be added the river
ports of Bayonne (on the Adour), Bordeaux (on the Garonne), Nantes
(on the Loire), Rouen (on the Seine). On the whole, however,
France is inadequately provided with natural harbours; her long
tract of coast washed by the Atlantic and the Bay of Biscay has
scarcely three or four good seaports, and those on the southern shore
of the Channel form a striking contrast to the spacious maritime
inlets on the English side.
Rivers. The greater part of the surface of France is divided
between four principal and several secondary basins.
The basin of the Rh&ne, with an area (in France) of about 35,000
sq. m., covers eastern France from the Mediterranean to the Vosges,
from the Cevennes and the Plateau de Langres to the crests of the
Jura and the Alps. Alone among French rivers, the Rh6ne, itself
Alpine in character in its upper course, is partly fed by Alpine
rivers (the Arve, the Isere and the Durance) which have their floods in
spring at the melting of the snow, and are maintained by glacier-
water in summer. The Rh6ne, the source of which is in Mont St
Gothard, in Switzerland, enters France by the narrow defile of
L'Ecluse, and has a somewhat meandering course, first flowing
south, then north-west, and then west as far as Lyons, whence it
runs straight south till it reaches the Mediterranean, into which it
discharges itself by two principal branches, which form the delta
or island of the Camargue. The Ain, the Saflne (which rises in the
Paucities and in the lower part of its course skirting the regions of
Bresse and Dombes, receives the Doubs and joins the Rhone at
Lyons), the Ardeche and the Gard are the affluents on the right;
on the left it is joined by the Arve, the Isere, the Drome and the
Durance. The small independent river, the Var, drains that portion
of the Alps which fringes the Mediterranean.
The basin of the Garonne occupies south-western France with the
exception of the tracts covered by the secondary basins of the Adour,
the Aude, the Herault, the Orb and other smaller rivers, and the low-
lying plain of the Landes, which is watered by numerous coast rivers,
notably by the Leyre. Its area is nearly 33,000 sq. m., and extends
from the Pyrenees to the uplands of Saintonge, Perigord and Limousin.
The Garonne rises in the valley of Aran (Spanish Pyrenees), enters
France near Bagneres-de-Luchon, has first a north-west course,
then bends to the north-east, and soon resumes its first direction.
Joining the Atlantic between Royan and the Pointe de Grave,
opposite the tower of Cordouan. In the lower part of its course,
from the Bec-d'Ambez, where it receives the Dordogne, it becomes
considerably wider, and takes the name of Gironde. The principal
affluents are the Ariege, the Tarn with the Aveyron and the Agout,
the Lot and the Dordogne, which descends from Mont Dore-les-
Bains, and joins the Garonne at Bec-d'Ambez, to form the Gironde.
All these affluents are on the right, and with the exception of the
Ariege, which descends from the eastern Pyrenees, rise in the moun-
tains of Auvergne and the southern Cevennes, their sources often
lying close to those of the rivers of the Loire and Rhone basins.
The Neste, a Pyrenean torrent, and the Save, the Gers and the Ba'ise,
rising on the plateau of Lannemezan, are the principal left-hand
tributaries of the Garonne. North of the basin of the Garonne an
area of over 3800 sq. m. is watered by the secondary system of the
Charente, which descends from Cheronnac (Haute-Vienne), traverses
Angouleme and falls into the Atlantic near Rochefort. Farther to
the north a number of small rivers, the chief of which is the Sevre
Niortaise, drain the coast region to the south of the plateau of
Gatine.
The basin of the Loire, with an area of about 47,000 sq. m.,
includes a great part of central and western France or nearly a
quarter of the whole country. The Loire rises in Mont Gerbier de
lone, in the range of the Vivarais mountains, flows due north to
Nevers, then turns to the north-west as far as Orleans, in the neigh-
bourhood of which it separates the marshy region of the Sologne
(j.-) on the south from the wheat-growing region of Beauce and the
Gatinais on the north. Below Orleans it takes its course towards
the south-west, and lastly from Saumur runs west, till it reaches
the Atlantic between Paimbceuf and St Nazaire. On the right the
Loire receives the waters of the Furens, the Arroux, the Nievre, the
Maine (formed by the Mayenne and the Sarthe with its affluent the
Loir), and the Erdre, which joins the Loire at Nantes; on the left,
the Allier (which receives the Dore and the Sioule), the Loiret, the
Cher, the Indre, the yienne with its affluent the Creuse, the Thouet,
and the Sevre-Nantaise. The peninsula of Brittany and the coasts
of Normandy on both sides of the Seine estuary are watered by
numerous independent streams. Amongst these the Vilaine, which
passes Rennes and Redon, waters, with its tributaries, an area of
4200 sq. m. The Orne, which rises in the hills of Normandy and
falls into the Channel below Caen, is of considerably less importance.
The basin of the Seine, though its area of a little over 30,000 sq. m.
is smaller than that of any of the other main systems, comprises the
finest network of navigable rivers in the country. It is by far the
most important basin of northern France, those of the Somme and
Scheldt m the north-west together covering less than 5000 sq. m.,
those of the Meuse and the Rhine in the north-east less than 7000
sq. m. The Seine descends from the Langres plateau, flows north-
west down to Mery, turns to the west, resumes its north-westerly
direction at Montereau, passes through Paris and Rouen and dis-
charges itself into the Channel between Le Havre and Honfleur.
Its affluents are, on the right, the Aube; the Marne, which joins the
Seine at Charenton near Paris; the Oise, which has its source in
Belgium and is enlarged by the Aisne; and the Epte; on the left
the Yonne, the Loing, the Essonne, the Eure and the Rille.
Lakes. France has very few lakes. The Lake of Geneva, which
forms 32 m. of the frontier, belongs to Switzerland. The most
important French lake is that of Grand-Lieu, between Nantes and
Paimbceuf (Loire-Inferieure), which presents a surface of 17,300
acres. There may also be mentioned the lakes of Bourget and
Annecy (both in Savoy), St Point (Jura), Paladru (Isere) and
Nantua (Ain). The marshy districts of Sologne, Brenne, Landes
and Dombes still contain large undrained tracts. The coasts present
a number of maritime inlets, forming inland bays, which communicate
with the sea by channels of greater or less width. Some of these
are on the south-west coast, in the Landes, as Carcaiis, Lacanau,
Biscarosse, Cazau, Sanguinet; but more are to be found in the south
and south-east, in Languedoc and Provence, as Leucate, Sigean,
Thau, Vaccares, Berre, &c. Their want of depth prevents them
from serving as roadsteads for shipping, and they are useful chiefly
for fishing or for the manufacture of bay-salt.
Climate. The north and north-west of France bear a great resem-
blance, both in temperature and produce, to the south of England,
rain occurring frequently, and the country being consequently
suited for pasture. In the interior the rains are less frequent, but
when they occur are far more heavy, so that there is much less
difference in the annual rainfall there as compared with the rest of
the country than in the number of rainy days. The annual rainfall
for the whole of France averages about 32 in. The precipitation is
greatest on the Atlantic seaboard and in the elevated regions of the
interior. It attains over 60 in. in the basin of the Adour (71 in.
at the western extremity of the Pyrenees), and nearly as much in
the Vosges, Morvan, Cevennes and parts of the central plateau.
The zone of level country extending from Reims and Troyes to
Angers and Poitiers, with the exception of the Loire valley and the
Brie, receives less than 24 in. of rain annually (Paris about 23 in.),
as also does the Mediterranean coast west of Marseilles. The pre-
vailing winds, mild and humid, are west winds from the Atlantic;
continental climatic influence makes itself felt in the east wind,
which is frequent in winter and in the east of France, while the
mistral, a violent wind from the north-west, is characteristic of the
Mediterranean region. The local climates of France may be grouped
under the following seven designations: (i) Sequan climate, char-
acterizing the Seine basin and northern France, with a mean
temperature of 50 F., the winters being cold, the summers mild ;
(2) Breton climate, with a mean temperature of 51-8" F., the winters
being mild, the summers temperate, it is characterized by west
and south-west winds and frequent fine rains; (3) Girondin climate
(characterizing Bordeaux, Agen, Pau, &c.), having a mean of
53-6 F., with mild winters and hot summers, the prevailing wind
is from the north-west, the average rainfall about 28 in.; (4)
Auvergne climate, comprising the Cevennes, central plateau, Cler-
mont, Limoges and Rodez, mean temperature 51-8 F., with cold
FRANCE
[GEOLOGY
winters and hot summers; (5) Vosges climate (comprehending
Epinal, Mezieres and Nancy), having a mean of 48-2 F ; , with long
and severe winters and hot and rainy summers; (6) Rh&ne climate
(experienced by Lyons, Chalon, Macon, Grenoble) mean tempera-
ture' Sl-8 F., with cold and wet winters and hot summers, the
prevailing winds are north and south; (7) Mediterranean climate,
ruling at Valence, Nimes, Nice and Marseilles, mean temperature,
57.5 F., with mild winters and hot and almost rainless summers.
Flora and Fauna. The flora of southern France and the Medi-
terranean is distinct from that of the rest of the country, which does
not differ in vegetation from western Europe generally. Evergreens
predominate in the south, where grow subtropical plants such as
the myrtle, arbutus, laurel, holm-oak, olive and fig; varieties of
the same kind are also found on the Atlantic coast (as far north as
the Cotentin), where the humidity and mildness of the climate
favour their growth. The orange, date-palm and eucalyptus have
been acclimatized on the coast of Provence and the Riviera. Other
trees of southern France are the cork-oak and the Aleppo and mari-
time pines. In north and central France the chief trees are the oak,
the beech, rare south of the Loire, and the hornbeam ; less important
varieties are the birch, poplar, ash, elm and walnut. The chestnut
covers considerable areas in Perigord, Limousin and Beam; resinous
trees (firs, pines, larches, &c.) form fine forests in the Vosges and
Jura.
The indigenous fauna include the bear, now very rare but still
found in the Alps and Pyrenees, the wolf, harbouring chiefly in the
Cdvennes and Vosges, but in continually decreasing areas; the fox,
marten, badger, weasel, otter, the beaver in the extreme south of the
Rhone valley, and in the Alps the marmot; the red deer and roe
deer are preserved in many of the forests, and the wild boar is found
in several districts ; the chamois and wild goat survive in the Pyre-
nees and Alps. Hares, rabbits and squirrels are common. Among
birds of prey may be mentioned the eagle and various species of hawk,
and among game-birds the partridge and pheasant. The reptiles
include the ringed-snake, slow-worm, viper and lizard. (R, TR.)
Geology. Many years ago it was pointed out by Elie de Beaumont
and Dufr6noy that the Jurassic rocks of France form upon the map
an incomplete figure of 8. Within the northern circle of the 8 lie
the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of the Paris basin, dipping inwards;
within the southern circle lie the ancient rocks of the Central Plateau,
from which the later beds dip outwards. Outside the northern circle
lie on the west the folded Palaeozoic rocks of Brittany, and on the
north the Palaeozoic massif of the Ardennes. Outside the southern
circle lie on the west the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of the basin
of the Garonne, with the Pyrenees beyond, and on the east the
Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of the valley of the Rh6ne, with the
Alps beyond.
In the geological history of France there have been two great
periods of folding since Archean times. The first of these occurred
towards the close of the Palaeozoic era, when a great mountain
system was raised in the north running approximately from E. to W.,
and another chain arose in the south, running from S.W. to N.E.
Of the former the remnants are now seen in Brittany and the
Ardennes; of the latter the CeVennes and the Montagne Noire are
the last traces visible on the surface. The second great folding took
place in Tertiary times, and to it was due the final elevation of the
Jura and the Western Alps and of the Pyrenees. No great mountain
chain was ever raised by a single effort, and folding went on to some
extent in other periods besides those mentioned. There were,
moreover, other and broader oscillations which raised or lowered
extensive areas without much crumpling of the strata, and to these
are due some of the most important breaks in the geological series.
The oldest rocks, the gneisses and schists of the Archean period,
form nearly the whole of the Central Plateau, and are also exposed
in the axes of the folds in Brittany. The Central Plateau has
probably been a land mass ever since this period, but the rest of the
country was flooded by the Palaeozoic sea. The earlier deposits
of that sea now rise to the surface in Brittany, the Ardennes, the
Montagne Noire and the Cvennes, and in all these regions they are
intensely folded. Towards the close of the Palaeozoic era France had
become a part of a great continent; in the north the Coal Measures
of the Boulonnais and the Nord were laid down in direct connexion
with those of Belgium and England, while in the Central Plateau
the Coal Measures were deposited in isolated and scattered basins.
The Permian and Triassic deposits were also, for the most part, of
continental origin; but with the formation of the Rhaetic beds the
sea again began to spread, and throughout the greater part of the
Jurassic period it covered nearly the whole of the country except
the Central Plateau, Brittany and the Ardennes. Towards the end
of the period, however, during the deposition of the Portlandian
beds, the sea again retreated, and in the early part of the Cretaceous
period was limited (in France) to the catchment basins of the Sa6ne
and Rh6ne -in the Paris basin the contemporaneous deposits were
chiefly estuarine and were confined to the northern and eastern rim.
Beginning with the Aptian and Albian the sea again gradually
spread over the country and attained its maximum in the early part
of the Senonian epoch, when once more the ancient massifs of the
Central Plateau, Brittany and the Ardennes, alone rose above the
waves. There was still, however, a well-marked difference between
the deposits of the northern and the southern parts of France, the
former consisting of chalk.as in England, and the latter of sandstones
and limestones with Hippurites. During the later part of the
Cretaceous period the sea gradually retreated and left the whole
country dry.
During the Tertiary period arms of the sea spread into France
in the Paris basin from the north, in the basins of the Loire and the
Garonne from the west, and in the Rhone area from the south. The
changes, however, were too numerous and complex to be dealt
with here.
In France, as in Great Britain, volcanic eruptions occurred during
several of the Palaeozoic periods, but during the Mesozoic era the
1 I Quaternary
Tertiary
Cretacecus
Jurassic
I Triassic
I Permian
I Carboniferous
J Devonian
Emery V il
Siluro-Carribrian
Archaean A Metamorphio
! **! Plutonic Rocks
^^B Volcanic Rocks
country was free from outbursts, except in the regions of the Alps
and Pyrenees. In Tertiary times the Central Plateau was the theatre
of great volcanic activity from the Miocene to the Pleistocene
periods, and many of the volcanoes remain as nearly perfect cones
to the present day. The rocks are mainly basalts and andesites,
together with trachytes and phonolites, and some of the basaltic
flows are of enormous extent.
On the geology of France see the classic Explication de la carte
geolopique de la France (Paris, vol. i. 1841, vol. ii. 1848), by Dufr6noy
and Elie de Beaumont ; a more modern account, with full references,
is given by A. de Lapparent, Traite de geologic (Paris, 1906).
(J. A. H.)
Population.
The French nation is formed of many different elements.
Iberian influence in the south-west, Ligurian on the shores of
the Mediterranean, Germanic immigrations from east of the
Rhine and Scandinavian immigrations in the north-west have
tended to produce ethnographical diversities which ease of
intercommunication and other modern conditions have failed to
obliterate. The so-called Celtic type, exemplified by individuals
of rather less than average height, brown-haired and brachy-
cephalic, is the fundamental element in the nation and peoples
the region between the Seine and the Garonne; in southern
France a different type, dolichocephalic, short and with black
hair and eyes, predominates. The tall, fair and blue-eyed
individuals who are found to the north-east of the Seine and in
Normandy appear to be nearer in race to the Scandinavian and
Germanic invaders; a tall and darker type with long faces
and aquiline noses occurs in some parts of Franche-Comt6 and
Champagne, the Vosges and the Perche. From the Celts has
been derived the gay, brilliant and adventurous temperament
easily moved to extremes of enthusiasm and depression, which
3
FRANCE
Scale, 1:3,000,000
English Milus
lo 20 30 40 50 60
Capitals of Countries
Capitals of Departments
Railways
Canals
Glaciers
Fortifications
48
hannel 'islands ""fi*"
(British) lisle***
Environs of
PARIS'
Scale. i:3"o.coo
English Miles
4*
Longitude West 6 of Grcenwicl
kkdfSttf
,^flV
M
* ". -" 4n*3<Ss
EDITERRANEAN
L!fesu,M,,F 4
85^; ^
% W.,
/'les
5 f >?
'** " /: '"nu (
':-. (i I*'
G Longitude E.ist 6' of Greenwich H
Emery Walker sc.
POPULATION]
FRANCE
779
combined with logical and organizing faculties of a high order,
the heritage from the Latin domination, and with the industry,
frugality and love of the soil natural in an agricultural people
go to make up the national character. The Bretons, who most
nearly represent the Celts, and the Basques, who inhabit
parts of- the western versant of the Pyrenees, have preserved
their distinctive languages and customs, and are ethnically the
most interesting sections of the nation; the Flemings of French
Flanders where Flemish is still spoken are also racially distinct.
The immigration of Belgians into the no'rthern departments and
of Italians into those of the south-east exercise a constant
modifying influence on the local populations.
During the igth century the population of France
increased to a less extent than that of any other
country (except Ireland) for which definite data exist,
and during the last twenty years of that period it
was little more than stationary. The following table
exhibits the rate of increase as indicated by the
censuses from 1876 to 1906. Population.
1876 .... 36,905,788
1881 .... 37,672,048
1886 . . . .38,218,903
1891 38,342,948
1896 .... 38,517,975
1901 .... 38,961,945
1906 .... 39,252,245
Thus the rate of increase during the decade 1891-
1901 was -16%, whereas during the same period the
population of England increased 1-08%. The birth-
rate markedly decreased during the igth century;
despite an increase of population between 1801 and
1901 amounting to 40%, the number of births in
the former was 904,000, as against 857,000 in the
latter year, the diminution being accompanied by
a decrease in the annual number of deaths. 1 In
the following table the decrease in births and deaths
for the decennial periods during the thirty years
ending 1900 are compared.
Births.
935. or 25-4 per 1000
. 909,000 ,, 23-9
. . 853,000 22-2
Deaths.
. 870,900 or 23-7 per 1000
. 841,700 ,, 22-1
. 829,OOO 21-5
About two-thirds of the French departments, com-
prising a large proportion of those situated in
mountainous districts and in the basin of the Garonne,
where the birth-rate is especially feeble, show a
decrease in population. Those which show an in-
crease usually possess large centres of industry and are
already thickly populated, e.g. Seine and Pas-de-Calais.
In most departments the principal cause of decrease
of population is the attraction of great centres. The
average density of population in France is about 190
to the square mile, the tendency being for the large
towns to increase at the expense of the small towns
as well as the rural communities. In 1901 37 % of the
population lived in centres containing more than 2000
inhabitants, whereas in 1861 the proportion was 28%.
Besides the industrial districts the most thickly
populated regions include the coast of the depart-
ment of Seine-Inferieure and Brittany, the wjne-grow-
ing region of the Bordelais and the Riviera. 2
1 In 1907 deaths were superior in number to births by
nearly 20,000.
2 The following list comprises the three most densely-
populated and the three most sparsely populated depart-
ments in France:
In the quinquennial period 1901-1905, out of the total
number of births the number of illegitimate births to every
1000 inhabitants was 2-0, as compared with 2-1 in the four
preceding periods of like duration.
In 1906 the number of foreigners in France was 1,009,415
as compared with 1,027,491 in 1896 and 1,115,214 in 1886.
The departments with the largest population of foreigners
were Nord (191,678), in which there is a large proportion
of Belgians; Bouches-du-Rhone (123,497), Alpes-Maritimes
(93,554), Var (47,475), Italians being numerous in these three
departments; Seine (153,647), Meurthe-et-Moselle(44, 595), Pas-
de-Calais (21,436) and Ardennes (21,401).
The following table gives the area in square miles of each of the eighty-seven
departments with its population according to the census returns of 1886, 1896
and 1906:
1871-1880
1881-1890
1891-1900
1871-1880
1881-1890
1891-1900
Seine
Nord
Rhone
Inhabitants to the Square Mile.
. 20,803
850
778
Basses- Alpes
Hautes-Alpes
Lozere .
42
49
64
Departments.
Area,
sq. m.
Population.
1886.
1896.
1906.
Ain
2,249
364,408
351,569
345,856
Aisne
2,867
555,925
541,613
534,495
Allier . ...
2,849
424,582
424,378
417,961
Alpes-Maritimes
1,442
238,057
265,155
334,007
Ardeche . . .
2,H5
375,472
363,501
347,140
Ardennes ....
2,028
332,759
318,865
317,505
Ariege ....
1,893
237,619
219,641
205,684
Aube
2,326
257,374
251,435
243,670
Aude
2,448
332,080
310,513
308,327
Aveyron ....
3,386
415,826
389,464
377,299
Basses-Alpes . . .
2,698
129,494
118,142
113,126
Basses-Pyrenees . .
2,977
432,999
423,572
426,817
Belfort, Tcrritoire de
235
79,758
88,047
95,421
Bouches-du-Rh6ne .
2,026
604,857
673,820
765,918
Calvados ....
2,197
437,267
4'7,i76
403,431
Cantal ....
2,231
241,742
234,382
228,690
Charente ....
2,305
366,408
356,236
351,733
Charente-Inferieure
2,79i
462,803
453,455
453,793
Cher^ .....
2,819
355,349
347,725
343,484
Correze . . .
2,273
326,494
322,393
317,430
Corse (Corsica)
3-367
278,501
290,168
291,160
C6te-d'Or . . . .
3,392
38i,574
368,168
357,959
C6tes-du-Nord
2,786
628,256
616,074
611,506
Creuse ....
2,164
284,942
279,366
274,094
Deux-Sevres
2,337
353,766
346,694
339466
Dordogne ....
3,56i
492,205
464,822
447,052
Doubs . . ...
2,030
310,963
302,046
298,438
Dr6me . . . .
2,533
3H,6i5
303,491
297,270
Eure
2,33
358,829
340,652
330,140
Eure-et-Loir . ( .
2,293
283,719
280,469
273,823
Finistere ....
2,713
707,820
739,648
795,103
Card
2,270
417,099
416,036
421,166
Gers
2,428
274,391
250,472
231,088
Gironde ....
4,140
775,845
809,902
823,925
Haute-Garonne
2,458
481,169
459,377
442,065
Haute-Loire . . .
i,93i
320,063
316,699
314,770
Haute-Marne .
2,415
247,78i
232,057
221,724
Hautes-Alpes .
2,178
122,924
113,229
107,498
Haute-Sa6ne
2,075
290,954
272,891
263,890
Haute-Savoie .
1,775
275,018
265,872
260,617
Hautes-Pyrenees
i,75o
234,825
218,973
209,397
Haute-Vienne .
2,144
363,182
375,724
385,732
Herault ....
2,403
439,044
469,684
482,799
Ille-et-Vilaine .
2,699
621,384
622,039
611,805
Indre
2,666
296,147
289,206
290,216
Indre-et-Loire .
2,377
340,921
337,064
337,9i6
Isere
3,179
581,680
568,933
562,315
Jura
i,95i
281,292
266,143
257,725
Landes ....
3,6i5
302,266
292,884
293,397
Loir-et-Cher
2,479
279,214
278,153
276,019
Loire
Loire-Inferieure
1,853
2,694
603,384
643,884
625,336
646,172
643,943
666,748
Loiret ....
2,629
374,875
371,019
364,999
Lot
2,017
271,514
240,403
216,611
Lot-et-Garonne
2,079
307,437
286,377
274,610
Lozere ....
1,999
141,264
132,151
128,016
Maine-et-Loire
2,706
527,680
514,870
513,490
Manche ....
2,475
520,865
500,052
487,443
Marne ....
3,i67
429,494
439,577
434,157
Mayenne ....
Meurthe-et-Moselle .
2,012
2,038
340,063
431,693
321,187
466,417
305,457
517,508
Meuse ....
2,409
291,971
290,384
280,220
Morbihan ....
2,738
535,256
552,028
573,152
Nievre ....
2,659
347,645
333,899
313,972
Nord
2,229
1,670,184
1,811,868
1,895,861
780
FRANCE
Area,
1
Copulation.
Departments.
sq. m.
1886.
1896.
1906.
Oise .
2,272
403,146
404,511
410,049
Orne .
2,372
367,248
339, 162
315,993
Pas-de-Calais .
2,606
853,526
906,249
1,012,466
Puy-de-D6me .
Pyrenees-Orientales
3.94
1.599
570,964
211,187
555,078
208,387
535419
213,171
Rh6ne
1,104
772,912
839,329
858,907
Sa6ne-et-Loire .
3.33
625,885
621,237
613,377
Sarthe
2,410
436,111
425,077
421,470
Savoie
2,389
267,428
259,790
253,297
Seine .
185
2,961,089
3,340,514
3,848,618
Seine-Inferieure
2,448
833,386
837,824
863,879
Seine-et-Marne
2,289
355.136
359.044
36i,939
Seine-et-Oise
2,184
618,089
669,098
749,753
Somme
2,423
548,982
543,279
532,567
Tarn .
2,231
358,757
339,827
330,533
Tarn-et-Garonne
1,440
214,046
200,390
188,553
Var .
2,325
283,689
39.'9i
324,638
Vaucluse
1,381
241,787
236,313
239,178
Vendee
2,708
434,808
441-735
442,777
Vienne
2,719
34 2 .785
338,"4
333,621
Vosges
2,279
413.707
421,412
429,812
Yonne
2,880
355.364
332,656
315,199
Total .
207,076
38,218,903
38,517,975
39,252,245
[RELIGION
Of the population in 1901, 18,016,889 were males and
19,533,899 females, an excess of females over males of
617,010, i.e. 1-6% or about 508 females to every 492
males. In 1881 the proportion was 501 females to every
499 males, since when the disparity has been slightly
more marked at every census. Below is a list of the
departments in which the number of women to every
thousand men was (l) greatest and (2) least.
1131
1117
1103
IIOO
1098
1084
1080
(2)
Belfort. .
Basses- Alpes
Var. . .
Meuse .
Hautes- Alpes
Meurthe-et-M
Haute-Savoie .
oselle
886
893
894
905
908
918
947
The French census uses the commune as the basis of its returns,
and employs the following classifications in respect to communal
population: (i) Total communal population. (2) Population
compile A part, which includes soldiers and sailors, inmates of
prisons, asylums, schools, members of religious communities,
and workmen temporarily engaged in public works. (3) Total
municipal population, i.e. communal population minus the
population comptee a part. (4) Population municipale agglomeree
au chef-lieu de la commune, which embraces the urban population
as opposed to the rural population. The following tables,
showing the growth of the largest towns in France, are drawn
up on the basis of the fourth classification, which is used through-
out this work in the articles on French towns, except where
otherwise stated.
In 1906 there were in France twelve towns with a population of
over 100,000 inhabitants. Their growth or decrease from 1886 to
1906 is shown in the following table :
1886.
1896.
1906.
Paris
2,294,108
2,481,223
2,711,931
Lyons .
Marseilles
344,124
249,938
398,867
332,515
430,186
421,116
Bordeaux
225,281
239,806
237,707
Lille
143-135
160,723
196,624
St Etienne
103,229
120,300
130,940
Le Havre
109,199
117,009
129,403
Toulouse
123,040
124,187
125,856
Roubaix
89,781
"3,899
"9,955
Nantes .
110,638
107,137
118,244
Rouen .
100,043
106,825
111,402
Reims .
91,130
99,001
102,800
In the same years the following eighteen towns, now numbering
from 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants, each had:
1886.
1896.
1906.
Nice
61,464
69,140
99,556
Nancy .
69,463
83,668
98,302
Toulon .
53.941
70,843
87,997
Amiens
,,68,177
74,808
78,407
Limoges
56,699
64,718
75,906
Angers .
65.152
69,484
73-585
Brest .
59.352
64,144
71,163
Nimes .
62,198
66,905
70,708
Montpellier
45,930
62,717
65,983
Dijon
50,684
58,355
65,516
Tourcoing
41-183
55,705
62,694
Rennes .
52,614
57,249
62,024
Tours
51,467
56,706
61,507
Calais .
52,839
50,818
59,623
Grenoble
43,26o
50,084
58,641
Orleans
51,208
56,915
57,544
Le Mans
46,991
49,665
54,907
Troyes .
44,864
50,676
51,228
Departments from which the adult males emigrate
regularly either to sea or to seek employment in towns
tend to fall under the first head, those in which large
bodies of troops are stationed under the second.
The annual number of emigrants from France is small.
The Basques of Basses-Pyrenees go in considerable
numbers to the Argentine Republic, the inhabitants of
Basses Alpes to Mexico and the United States, and
there are important French colonies in Algeria and
Tunisia.
The following table shows thedistributionof theactive
population of France according to their occupations in
1901.
Occupation.
Males.
Females.
Total.
Forestry and agriculture.
Manufacturing industries
Trade
5,5i7,6i7
3,695,213
1,132,621
2,658,952
2,124,642
68o,99Q
8,176,569
5,819,855
1,822,620
Domestic service .
Transport .
Public service .
Liberal professions
Mining, quarries .
Fishing.
223,861
617,849
1,157,835
226,561
261,320
6^.^72
791,176
212,794
139,734
173,278
5,031
4,400
1,015,037
830,643
1,297,569
399,839
266,351
67,772
; T . , v
Urclassed
14,316
4,504
0, . 18,820
Grand Total .
12,910,565
6,804,510
19,715,075
Religion.
Great alterations were made with regard to religious matters
in France by a law of December 1905, supplemented by a law
of January 1907 (see below, Law and Institutions). Before that
time three religions (cultes) were recognized and supported by
the state the Roman Catholic, the Protestant (subdivided into
the Reformed and Lutheran) and the Hebrew. In Algeria
the Mahommedan religion received similar recognition. By
the law of 1905 all the churches ceased to be recognized or
supported by the state and became entirely separated therefrom,
while the adherents of all creeds were permitted to form associa-
tions for public worship (associations cultuelles), upon which the
expenses of maintenance were from that time to devolve. The
state, the departments, and the communes were thus relieved
from the payment of salaries and grants to religious bodies,
an item of expenditure which amounted in the last year of the
old system to 1,101,000 paid by the state and 302,200 contri-
buted by the departments and communes. Before these altera-
tions the relations between the state and the Roman Catholic
communion, by far the largest and most important in France,
were chiefly regulated by the provisions of the Concordat of 1801,
concluded between the first consul, Bonaparte, and Pope Pius
VII. and by other measures passed in 1802.
France is divided into provinces and dioceses as follows:
Archbishoprics. . Bishoprics.
PARIS . . . Chartres, Meaux, Orleans, Blois, Versailles.
AlX . . . Marseilles, Frejus, Digne, Gap, Nice, Ajaccio.
ALBI . . . Rodez, Cahors, Mende, Perpignan.
AUCH . . . Aire, Tarbes, Bayonne.
AVIGNON . . Nimes, Valence, Viviers, Montpellier.
BESANCON. . Verdun, Bellay, St Die, Nancy.
BORDEAUX . Agen, Angouleme, Poitiers, Perigueux, La Rochelle,
Lucon.
BOURGES . . Clermont, Limoges, Le Puy, Tulle, St Flour. .
CAMBRAI . . Arras.
CHAMBERY . Annecy, Tarentaise, St Jean-de-Maurienne.
LYONS . . . Autun, Langres, Dijon, St Claude, Grenoble.
AGRICULTURE]
Archbishoprics. Bishoprics.
REIMS . . . Soissons, Chalons-sur-Marne, Beauvais, Amiens.
RENNES . . Quimper, Vannes, St Brieuc.
ROUEN . . . Bayeux, Evreux, Sees, Coutances.
SENS . . . Troyes, Nevers, Moulins.
TOULOUSE . . Montauban, Pamiers, Carcassonne.
TOURS . Le Mans, Angers, Nantes, Laval.
The dioceses are divided into parishes each under a parish priest
known as a cure or desservant (incumbent). The bishops and arch-
bishops, formerly nominated by the government and canonically
confirmed by the pope, are now chosen by the latter. The appoint-
ment of cures rested with the bishops and had to be confirmed by
the government, but this confirmation is now dispensed with.
The archbishops used to receive an annual salary of 600 each and
the bishops 400.
The archbishops and bishops are assisted by vicars-general (at
salaries previously ranging from 100 to 180), and to each cathedral
is attached a chapter of canons. A cure, in addition to his regular
salary, received fees for baptisms, marriages, funerals and special
masses, and had the benefit of a free house called a presbytere. The
total personnel of state-paid Roman Catholic clergy amounted in
1903 to 36,169. The Roman priests are drawn from the seminaries,
established by the church for the education of young men intending
to join its ranks, and divided into lower and higher seminaries
(grands et petits seminaires), the latter giving the same class of
instruction as the lycees.
The number of Protestants may be estimated at about 600,000
and the Jews at about 70,000. The greatest number of Jews is to
be found at Paris, Lyons and Bordeaux, while the departments of
the centre and of the south along the range of the Cevennes, where
Calvinism flourishes, are the principal Protestant localities, Nimes
being the most important centre. Considerable sprinklings of
Protestants are also to be found in the two Charentes, in Dauphine,
in Paris and in Franche-Comte. The two Protestant bodies used
to cost the state about 60,000 a year and the Jewish Church about
6000.
Both Protestant churches have a parochial organization and a
presbyterian form of church government. In the Reformed Church
(far the more numerous of the two bodies) each parish has a
council of presbyters, consisting of the pastor and lay-members
elected by the congregation. Several
parishes form a consistorial circum-
scription, which has a consistorial
council consisting of the council of
presbyters of the chief town of the
circumscription, the pastor and one
delegate of the council of presbyters
from each parish and other elected
members. There are 103 circum-
scriptions (including Algeria), which
are grouped into 21 provincial synods
composed of a pastor and lay dele-
gate from each consistory. All the
more important questions of church
FRANCE
781
sizes of holdings, but in general terms it may be said that about
3 million persons are proprietors of holdings under 25 acres in
extent amounting to between 15 and 20% of the cultivated
area, the rest being owned by some 750,000 proprietors, of whom
150,000 possess half the area in holdings averaging 400 acres in
extent. About 80% of holdings (amounting to about 60%
of the cultivated area) are cultivated by the proprietor; of the
rest approximately 13 % are let on lease and 7 % are worked on
the system known as metayage (q.v.).
The capital value of land, which greatly decreased during
the last twenty years of the igth century, is estimated at
3,120,000,000, and that of stock, buildings, implements, &c.,
at 340,000,000. The value per acre of land, which exceeds
48 in the departments of Seine, Rhone and those fringing the
north-west coast from Nord to Manche inclusive, is on the
average about 29, though it drops to 16 and less in Morbihan,
Landes, Basses-Pyrenees, and parts of the Alps and the central
plateau.
While wheat and wine constitute the staples of French agricul-
ture, its distinguishing characteristic is the variety of its products.
Cereals occupy about one-third of the cultivated area. For the
production of wheat, in respect of which France is self-supporting,
French Flanders, the Seine basin, notably the Beauce and the Brie,
and the regions bordering on the lower course of the Loire and the
upper course of the Garonne, are the chief areas. Rye, on the
other hand, one of the least valuable of the cereals, is grown chiefly
in the poor agricultural territories of the central plateau and western
Brittany. Buckwheat is cultivated mainly in Brittany. Oats and
barley are generally cultivated, the former more especially in the
Parisian region, the latter in Mayenne and one or two of the neigh-
bouring departments. Meslin, a mixture of wheat and rye, is
produced in the great majority of French departments, but to a
marked extent in the basin of the Sarthe. Maize covers considerable
areas in Landes, Basses-Pyrenees and other south-western de-
partments.
Average Acreage
(Thousands of Acres).
Average Production
(Thousands of Bushels).
Average Yield
per Acre (Bushels).
1886-1895.
1896-1905.
1886-1895.
1896-1905.
1886-1895.
1896-1905.
Wheat . .
Meslin .
Rye . ' .
Barley . .
Oats . .
Buckwheat
Maize .
17,004
720
3,888 '
2,303
9,507
1,484
i,39i
16,580
491
3-439
1,887
9,601
1,392
1,330
294,564
12,193
64,651
47,197
240,082
26,345
25,723
317,707
8,826
56,612
41,066
253,799
23,136
24,459
17-3
16-9
16-6
20-4
25-2
17-7
18-4
19-1
17-0
16-4
21-0
26-4
16-6
18-4
discipline and all decisions regulating the doctrine and practice of
the church are dealt with by the synods. At the head of the whole
organization is a General Synod, sitting at Paris. The organization
of the Lutheran Church (Eglise de la. confession d' Augsburg) is
broadly similar. Its consistories are grouped into two special
synods, one at Paris and one at Montbeliard (for the department
of Doubs and Haute-Sa6ne and the territory of Belfort, where
the churches of this denomination are principally situated). It
also has a general synod composed of 2 inspectors, 1 5 pastors
elected by the synod of Paris, and 6 by that of Montbeliard,
22 laymen and a delegate of the theological faculty at Paris ^which
holds periodical meetings and is represented in its relations with the
government by a permanent executive commission.
The Jewish parishes, called synagogues, are grouped into depart-
mental consistories (Paris, Bordeaux, Nancy, Marseilles, Bayonne,
Lille, Vesoul, Besancon and three in Algeria). Each synagogue is
served by a rabbi assisted by an officiating minister, and in each
consistory is a grand rabbi. At Paris is the central consistory,
controlled by the government and presided over by the supreme
grand rabbi.
Agriculture.
Of the population of France some 17,000,000 depend upon
agriculture for their livelihood, though only about 6,500,000
are engaged in work on the land. The cultivable land of the
country occupies some 195,000 sq. m. or about 94% of the total
area; of this 171,000 sq. m. are cultivated. There are besides
12,300 sq. m. of uncultivable area covered by lakes, rivers,
towns, &c. Only the roughest estimate is possible as to the
1 Inspectors are placed at the head of the synodal circumscriptions ;
their functions are to consecrate candidates for the ministry, install
the pastors, &c.
Forage Crops. The mangold-wurzel, occupying four times the
acreage of swedes and turnips, is by far the chief root-crop in France.
It is grown largely in the departments of Nord and Pas-de-Calais
and in those of the Seine basin, the southern limit of its cultivation
being roughly a line drawn from Bordeaux to Lyons. The average
area occupied by it in the years from 1896 to 1905 was 1,043,000
acres, the total average production being 262,364,000 cwt. and the
average production per acre roj tons. Clover, lucerne and sainfoin
make up the bulk of artificial pasturage, while vetches, crimson
clover and cabbage are the other chief forage crops.
Vegetables. Potatoes are not a special product of any region,
though grown in great quantities in the Bresse and the Vosges.
Early potatoes and other vegetables (primeurs) are largely cultivated
in the districts bordering trie English Channel. Market-gardening
is an important industry in the regions round Paris, Amiens ana
Angers, as it is round Toulouse, Montauban, Avignon and in southern
France generally. The market-gardeners of Paris and its vicinity
have a high reputation for skill in the forcing of early vegetables
under glass.
Potatoes! Decennial Averages.
*/
I
,. ' Acreage.
1
Total Yield
(Tons).
Average Yield
per Acre
(Tons).
1886-1895 fc(
^ 1896-1905
3,690,000
3,735,000
11,150,000
1 1 ,594,000
3-02
3'i
Industrial Plants? The manufacture of sugar from beetroot,
owing to the increased use of sugar, became highly important during
2 Cultures induslrielles Under this head the French group
beetroot, hemp, flax and other plants, the products of which pass
through some process of manufacture before they reach the con-
sumer.
782
FRANCE
[AGRICULTURE
the latter half of the igth century, the industry both of cultivation
and manufacture being concentrated in the northern departments
of Aisne, Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Somme and Oise, the first named
supplying nearly a quarter of the whole amount produced in France.
Flax and hemp showed a decreasing acreage from 1881 onwards.
Flax is cultivated chiefly in the northern departments of Nord,
Seine-Inferieure, Pas-de-Calais, C&tes-du-Nord, hemp in Sarthe,
Morbihan and Maine-et-Loire.
Colza, grown chiefly in the lower basin of the Seine (Seine-
InfeVieure and Eure), is the most important of the oil-producing
plants, all of which show a diminishing acreage. The three principal
regions for the production of tobacco are the basin of the Garonne
(Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot and Gironde), the basin of the Isere
(Isere and Savoie) and the department of Pas-de-Calais. The state
controls its cultivation, which is allowed only in a limited number of
departments. Hops cover only about 7000 acres, being almost
confined to the departments of Nord, C&te d'Or and Meurthe-et-
Moselle.
Decennial Averages 1896-1905.
Acreage.
Production
(Tons).
Average Yield
per Acre
(Tons).
Sugar beet .
Hemp .
Flax . . .
Colza . . .
Tobacco
672,000
64,856
57-893
102,454
41,564
6,868,000
18,451 '
17,857 '
47,697
22,453
IO-2
28
30 '
46
54
Vineyards (see WINE). The vine grows generally in France,
except in the extreme north and in Normandy and Brittany. The
great wine-producing regions are :
1. The country fringing the Mediterranean coast and including
Herault (240,822,000 gals, in 1905), and Aude (117,483,000 gals, in
1905), the most productive departments in France in this respect.
2. The department of Gironde (95,559,000 gals, in 1905), whence
come Medoc and the other wines for which Bordeaux is the market.
3. The lower valley of the Loire, including Touraine and Anjou,
and the district of Saumur.
4. The valley of the Rh6ne.
5. The Burgundian region, including C6te d'Or and the valley of
the Sa6ne (Beaujolais, Maconnais).
6. The Champagne.
7. The Charente region, the grapes of which furnish brandy, as do
those of Armagnac (department of Gers).
The decennial averages for the years 1896-1905 were as follows:
Acreage of productive vines . . 4,056,725
Total production in gallons . . 1,072,622,000
Average production in gallons per acre . . 260
Fruit. Fruit-growing is general all over France, which, apart
from bananas and pine-apples, produces in the open air all the
ordinary species of fruit which its inhabitants consume. Some of
these may be specially mentioned. The cider apple, which ranks
first in importance, is produced in those districts where cider is the
habitual drink, that is to say,
chiefly in the region north-west of
a line drawn from Paris to the
mouth of the Loire. The average
annual production of cider dur-
ing the years 1896 to 1905 was
304,884,000 gallons. Dessert apples
and pears are grown there and in
the country on both banks of the
lower Loire, the valley of which
abounds in orchards wherein many
varieties of fruit flourish and in nursery-gardens. The hilly regions
of Limousin, Perigord and the Cevennes are the home of the chestnut,
which in some places is still a staple food ; walnuts grow on the lower
levels of the central plateau and in lower Dauphin*; and Provence,
figs and almonds in Provence, oranges and citrons on the Mediter-
ranean coast, apricots in central France, the olive in Provence and
the lower valleys of the Rh&neand Durance. Truffles are found under
along the coast of the Mediterranean. Silk-worm rearing, which is
encouraged by state grants, is carried on in the valleys mentioned
and on the Mediterranean coast east of Marseilles. The numbers of
growers decreased from 139,000 in 1891 to 124,000 in 1905. The
decrease in the annual average production of cocoons is shown in the
preceding table.
Snails are reared in some parts of the country as an article of
food, those of Burgundy being specially esteemed.
Stock-raising. From this point of view the soil of France may be
divided into four categories:
1. The rich pastoral regions where dairy-farming and the fattening
of cattle are carried on with most success, viz. (a) Normandy, Perche,
Cotentin and maritime Flanders, where horses are bred in great
numbers; (b) the strip of coast between the Gironde and the mouth
of the Loire; (c) the Morvan including the Nivernais and the
Charolais, from which the famous Charolais breed of oxen takes its
name; (d) the central region of the central plateau including the
districts of Cantal and Aubrac, the home of the famous beef-breeds
of Salers and Aubrac. 2 The famous pre-sale sheep are also reared
in the Vendee and Cotentin.
2. The poorer grazing lands on the upper levels of the Alps,
Pyrenees, Jura and Vosges, the Landes, the more outlying regions
of the central plateau, southern Brittany , Sologne, Berry , Champagne-
Pouilleuse, the Crau and the Camargue, these districts being given
over for the most part to sheep-raising.
3. The plain of Toulouse, which with the rest of south-western
France produces good draught oxen, the Parisian basin, the plains
of the north to the east of the maritime region, the lower valley of
the Rh6ne and the Bresse, where there is little or no natural pastur-
age, and forage is grown from seed.
4. West, west-central and eastern France outside these areas,
where meadows are predominant and both dairying and fattening
are general. Included therein are the dairying and horse-raising
district of northern Brittany and the dairying regions of Jura and
Savoy.
In the industrial regions of northern France cattle are stall-fed
with the waste products of the beet-sugar factories, oil-works and
distilleries. Swine, bred all over France, are more numerous in
Brittany, Anjou (whence comes the well-known breed of Craon),
Poitou, Burgundy, the west and north of the central plateau and
Beam. Upper Poitou and the zone of south-western France to the
north of the Pyrenees are the chief regions for the breeding of mules.
Asses are reared in Beam, Corsica, Upper Poitou, the Limousin,
Berry and other central regions. Goats are kept in the mountainous
regions (Auvergne, Provence, Corsica). The best poultry come
from the Bresse, the district of Houdan (Seine-et-Oise) , the district
of Le Mans and Crevecceur (Calvados).
The pres naturels (meadows) and herbages (unmown pastures) of
France, i.e. the grass-land of superior quality as distinguished from
paturages el pacages, which signifies pasture of poorer quality, in-
creased in area between 1895 and 1905 as is shown below:
1895 (Acres). 1905 (Acres).
Pres naturels . . 10,852,000 11,715,000
Herbages . . . 2,822,000 3,022,000
The following table shows the number of live stock in the country
at intervals of ten years since 1885.
Cattle.
Sheep and
Lambs.
Pigs.
Horses.
Mules.
Asses.
Cows.
Other
Kinds.
Total.
1885
1895
1905
6,414,487
6,359,795
7,515,564
6,690,483
6,874,033
6,799,988
13,104,970
13,233,828
14-315,552
22,616,547
21,163,767
17,783,209
5,881,088
6,306,019
7,558,779
2,911,392
2,812,447
3,169,224
238,620
2ii,479
198,865
387,227
357,778
365,181
Silk Cocoons.
1891-1895.
1896-1900.
1901-1905.
Annual average pro-")
duction over quin- 1
quennial periods [
in Ib. J
19,587,000
17,696,000
16,566,000
the oaks of PeVigord, Comtat-Venaissin and lower Dauphin^. The
mulberry grows in the valleys of the Rh6ne and its tributaries, the
Isere, the Dr6me, the Ardeche, the Card and the Durance, and also
1 Fibre only. In the years 1896-1905, 8130 tons of hemp-seed
and 12,137 tons of flax-seed was the average annual production in
addition to fibre.
Agricultural Organization. In France the interests of agriculture
are entrusted to a special ministry, comprising the following divi-
sions: (l) forests, (2) breeding-studs (haras) ; (3) agriculture, a
department which supervises agricultural instruction and the dis-
tribution of grants and premiums; (4) agricultural improvements,
draining, irrigation, &c. ; (5) an intelligence department which
prepares statistics, issues information as to prices and markets, &c.
The minister is assisted by a superior council of agriculture, the
members of which, numbering a hundred, include senators, deputies
and prominent agriculturists. The ministry employs inspectors,
whose duty it is to visit the different parts of the country and to
report on their respective position and wants. The reports which
they furnish help to determine the distribution of the moneys
dispensed by the state in the form of subventions to agricultural
1 The chief breeds of horses are the Boulonnais (heavy draught),
the Percheron (light and heavy draught), the Anglo-Norman (light
draught and heavy cavalry )and the Tarbais of the western Pyrenees
(saddle horses and light cavalry). Of cattle besides the breeds named
the Norman (beef and milk), the Limousin (beef), the Montbeliard,
the Bazadais, the Flamand, the Breton and the Parthenais breeds
may be mentioned.
INDUSTRIES]
FRANCE
783
societies and in many other ways. The chief type of agricultural
society is the cornice agricole, an association for the discussion of
agricultural problems and the organization of provincial shows.
There are besides several thousands of local syndicates, engaged in
the purchase of materials and sale of produce on the most advan-
tageous terms for their members, credit banks and mutual insurance
societies (see CO-OPERATION). Three societies demand special
mention: the Union centrale des agriculteurs de France, to which
the above syndicates are affiliated; the Societe nationale d 'agricul-
ture, whose mission is to further agricultural progress and to supply
the government with information on everything appertaining
thereto and the Societe des agriculteurs de France.
Among a variety of premiums awarded by the state are those for
the best cultivated estates and for irrigation works, and to the
owners of the best stallions and brood-mares. Haras or stallion
stables containing in all over 3000 horses are established in twenty-
two central towns, and annually send stallions, which are at the
disposal of private individuals in return for a small fee, to various
stations throughout the country. Other institutions belonging to
the state are the national sheep-fold of Rambouillet (Seine-et-Oise)
and the cow-house of Vieux-Pin (Orne) for the breeding of Durham
cows. Four different grades of institution for agricultural instruction
are under state direction: (l) farm-schools and schools of apprentice-
ship in dairying, &c., to which the age of admission is from 14 to
16 years; (2) practical schools, to which boys of from 13 to 18
years of age are admitted. These number forty-eight, and are
intended for sons of farmers of good position ; (3) national schools,
which are established at Grignon (Seine-et-Oise), Rennes and
Montpellier, candidates for which must be 17 years of age; (4) the
National Agronomic Institute at Paris, which is intended for the train-
ing of estate agents, professors, &c. There are also depart-
mental chairs of agriculture, the holders of which give instruc-
tion in training-colleges and elsewhere and advise farmers.
Forests. In relation to its total extent, France presents
but a very limited area of forest land, amounting to only
36,700 sq. m. or about 18% of the entire surface of the
country. Included under the denomination of " forest "
are lands surfaces boisees which are bush rather than
forest. The most wooded parts of France are the mountains
and plateaus of the east and of the north-east, comprising
the pine-forests of the Vosges and Jura (including the beau-
tiful Forest of Chaux), the Forest of Haye, the Forest of
Ardennes, the Forest of Argonne, &c. ; the Landes, where
replanting with maritime pines has transformed large areas
of marsh into forest; and the departments of Var and
Ariege. The Central Mountains and the Morvan also have
considerable belts of wood. In the Parisian region there
are the Forests of Fontainebleau (66 sq. m.), of Compiegne
(56 sq. m.), of Rambouillet, of Villers-Cotterets, &c. The
Forest of Orleans, the largest in France, covers about 145 sq. m.
The Alps and Pyrenees are in large part deforested, but reafforesta-
tion with a view to minimizing the effects of avalanches and sudden
floods is continually in progress.
Of the forests of the country approximately one-third belongs to
the state, communes and public institutions. The rest belongs to
private owners who are, however, subject to certain restrictions.
The Department of Waters 1 and
Forests (Administration des Eaux et
Forfits) forms a branch of the min-
istry of agriculture. It is adminis-
tered by a director-general, who has
his headquarters at Paris, assisted by
three administrators who are charged
with the working of the forests,
questions of rights and law, finance
and plantation works. The estab-
lishment consists of 32 cpnservators,
each at the head of a district com-
prising one or more departments, 200
inspectors, 215 sub-inspectors and
about 300 gardes generaux. These
officials form the higher grade of the
service (agents}. There are besides
several thousand forest-rangers and
other employes (preposes). The de-
partment is supplied with officials of
the higher class from the National
School of Waters and Forests at
Nancy, founded in 1824.
whether run by steam, water-power or other motive forces,
has played a great part in the promotion of industry; the increase
in the amount of steam horse-power employed in industrial
establishments is, to a certain degree, an index to the activity
of the country as regards manufactures.
The appended table shows the progress made since 1850 with
regard to steam power. Railway and marine locomotives are
not included.
Years.
No. of
Establishments.
No. of
Steam-Engines.
Total
Horse- Power.
1852
1861
1871
1881
1891
1901
1905
6,543
14,153
22,192
35,712
46,828
58,151
61,112
6,080
15,805
26,146
44,010
58,967
75,866
79,203
76,000
191,000
316,000
576,000
916,000
1,907,730
2,232,263
With the exception of Loire, Bouches-du-Rhone and Rhone,
the chief industrial departments of France are to be found in the
north and north-east of the country. In 1901 and 1896 those in
which the working inhabitants of both sexes were engaged in
industry as opposed to agriculture to the extent of 50% (approxi-
mately) or over, numbered eleven, viz.:
Percentage engaged
Total Working
Industrial
in Industry.
Departments.
Population
Population
(1901).
(1901).
1901.
1896.
Nord ....
848,306
544,177
64-15
63-45
Territoire de Belfort
40,703
24,470
60- 10
58-77
Loire . . . | .
292,808
167,693
57-27
54-73
Seine ....
2,071,344
1,143,809
55-22
53-54
Bouches-du-Rh6ne .
341,823
187,801
54-94
51-00
Rh6ne
449,121
243,571
54-23
54-78
Meurthe-et-Moselle
215,501
115,214
53-46
50-19
Ardennes .
139,270
73-250
52-60
52-42
Vosges
208,142
107,547
51-67
51-05
Pas-de-Calais .
404,153
200,402
49-58
46-55
Seine-Inferieure
428,591
206,612
48-21
49-85
The department of Seine, comprising Paris and its suburbs,
which has the largest manufacturing population, is largely
occupied with the manufacture of dress, millinery and articles
of luxury (perfumery, &c.), but it plays the leading part in
almost every great branch of industry with the exception of
Industries.
In France, as in other countries,
the development of machinery,
1 The department is also entrusted
with surveillance over river-fishing,
pisciculture and the amelioration of
pasture.
Groups.
Basins.
Departments.
Average Production
(Thousands of
Metric Tons)
1901-1905.
Nord and Pas-de- (
Calais . . . j
Valenciennes
Le Boulonnais
Nord, Pas-de-Calais
Pas-de-Calais
\ 20,965
Loire ....-<
St Etienne and Rive-de-Gier
Communay
Ste Foy 1'Argentiere
Roannais
Loire
Isere
Rhone
Loire
3,6oi
Card .... 1
Alais
Aubenas
Le Vigan
Gard, Ardeche
Ardeche
Gard
f 1,954
Bourgogne and I
Nivernais . . j
Decize
La Chapelle-sous-Dun
Bert
Sincey '
Nievre
Sa&ne-et-Loire
Allier
Cote-d'Or
1,881
Tarn and Aveyron -I
Aubin
Carmaux and Albi
Rodez
St Perdoux
Aveyron
Tarn
Aveyron
Lot
1,770
Bourbonnais . . !
Commentry and Doyet
St Eloi
L'Aumance
La Queune
Allier
Puy-de-D&me
Allier
Allier
994
7 8 4
FRANCE
[INDUSTRIES
spinning and weaving. The typically industrial region of France
is the department of Nord, the seat of the woollen industry,
but also prominently concerned in other textile industries,
in metal working, and in a variety of other manufactures, fuel
for which is supplied by its coal-fields. The following sketch
of the manufacturing industry of France takes account chiefly
of those of its branches which are capable in some degree of
localization. Many of the great industries of the country, e.g.
tanning, brick-making, the manufacture of garments, &c., are
evenly distributed throughout it, and are to be found in or near
all larger centres of population.
Coal. The principal mines of France are coal and iron mines.
The production of coal and lignite averaging 33,465,000 metric tons '
in the years 1901-1905 represents about 73% of the total consump-
tion of the country; the surplus is supplied from Great Britain,
Belgium and Germany. The preceding table shows the average out-
put of the chief coal-groups for the years 1901-1905 inclusive. The
Flemish coal-basin, employing over 100,000 hands, produces 60%
of the coal mined in France.
French lignite comes for the most part from the department of
Bouches-du-Rh6ne (near Fuveau).
The development of French coal and lignite mining in the igth
century, together with records of prices, which rose considerably at
the end of the period, is set forth in the table below:
Years.
Average Yearly
Production
(Thousands of
Metric Tons).
Average Price
per Ton at
Pit Mouth
(Francs).
1821-1830
1831-1840
1841-1850
1851-1860
1861-1870
1871-1880
1881-1890
1891-1900
1901-1905
1-495
2-571
4,078-5
6,857
11,831
16,774
2i,54 2
29,190
33,465
10-23
9-83
9-69
n-45
11-61
14-34
11-55
11-96
14-18
Iron. The iron-mines of France are more numerous than its coal-
mines, but they do not yield a sufficient quantity of ore for the
needs of the metallurgical industries of the country ; as will be seen
in the table below the production of iron in France gradually in-
creased during the 1 9th century; on the other hand, a decline in
prices operated against a correspondingly marked increase in its
annual value.
Years.
Average Annual
Production
(Thousands of
Metric Tons).
Price per
Metric Ton
(Francs).
1841-1850
1851-1860
1861-1870
1871-1880
1881-1890
1891-1900
1901-1905
1247
24I4-5
3035
25H
2934
4206
6072
6-76
5-51
4-87
5-39
3-99
3-37
3-72
The department of Meurthe-et-Moselle (basins of Nancy and
Longwy-Briey) furnished 84 % of the total output during the quin-
quennial period 1901-1905, may be reckoned as one of the principal
iron-producing regions of the world. The other chief producers
were Pyrenees-Orientales, Calvados, Haute-Marne (Vassy) and Sa6ne-
et-Loire (Mazenay and Change).
Other Ores. The mining of zinc, the chief deposits of which are at
Malines (Card), Les Bormettes (Var) and Planioles (Lot), and of
lead, produced especially at Chaliac (Ardeche), ranks next in im-
portance to that of iron. Iron-pyrites come almost entirely from
Sain- Bel (Rh6ne), manganese chiefly from Ariege and Sa6ne-et-
Loire, antimony from the departments of Mayenne, Haute-Loire
and Cantal. Copper and mispickel are mined only in small quantities.
The table below gives the average production of zinc, argentiferous
lead, iron-pyrites and other ores during the quinquennial period
1901-1905.
Production
(Thousands of
Metric Tons).
Value
Zinc
Lead . . .
Iron-pyrites .
Other ores
60-3
18-5
297-2
36-0
206,912
100,424
170,312
68,376
Salt, &c. Rock-salt is worked chiefly in the department of
Meurthe-et-Moselle,which produces more than half the average annual
product of salt. For the years 1896-1905 this was 1,010,000 tons,
including both rock- and sea-salt. The salt-marshes of the Medi-
terranean coast, especially the Etang de Berre and those of Loire-
Inferieure, are the principal sources of sea-salt. Sulphur is obtained
near Apt (Vaucluse) and in a few other localities of south-eastern
France; bituminous schist near Autun (Sa6ne-et-Loire) and
Buxieres (Allier). The most extensive peat-workings are in the
valleys of the Somme ; asphalt comes from Seyssel (Ain) and Puy-
de-D6me.
The mineral springs of France are numerous, of varied character
and much frequented. Leading resorts are: in the Pyrenean
region, Amelie-les-Bains, Bagneres-de-Luchon, Bagneres-de-Bigorre,
Bareges, Cauterets, Eaux-Bonnes, Eaux-Chaudes and Dax; in
the Central Plateau, Mont-Dore, La Bourboule, Bourbon 1'Archam-
bault, Vichy, Royat, Chaudes-Aigues, Vals, Lamalon; in the Alps,
Aix-les- Bains and Evian ; in the Vosges and Faucilles, P'ombieres,
Luxeuil, Contrexeville, Vittel, Martigny and Bourbonne-les-Bains.
Outside these main groups St Amand-les-Eaux and Foyes-les-Eaux
may be mentioned.
Quarry- Products. Quarries of various descriptions are numerous
all over France. Slate is obtained in large quantities from the
departments of Maine-et-Loire (Angers), Ardennes (Fumay) and
Mayenne (Renaze). Stone-quarrying is specially active in the
departments round Paris, Seine-et-Oise employing more personsinthis
occupation than any other department. The environs of Creil (Oise)
and Chateau-Landon (Seine-et-Marne) are noted for their freestone
(pierre de tattle), which is also abundant at Euville and Lerouville
in Meuse ; the production of plaster is particularly important in the
environs of Pans, of kaolin of fine quality at Yrieix (Haute- Vienne),
of hydraulic lime in Ardeche (Le Teil), of lime phosphates in the
department of Somme, of marble in the departments of Haute-
Garonne (St Beat), Hautes- Pyrenees (Campan, Sarrancolin), Isere
and Pas-de-Calais, and of cement in Pas-de-Calais (vicinity of
Boulogne) and Isere (Grenoble). Paying-stone is supplied in large
quantities by Seine-et-Oise, and brick-clay is worked chiefly in
Nord, Seine and Pas-de-Calais. The products of the quarries of
France for the five years 1901-1905 averaged 9,311,000 per annum
in value, of which building material brought in over two-thirds.
Metallurgy. The average production and value of iron and steel
manufactured in France in the last four decades of the igth century
is shown below:
Years.
Cast Iron.
Wrought Iron and Steel.
Product
(Thousands
of Metric
Tons).
Value
(Thousands
of).
Product
(Thousands
of Metric
Tons).
Value
(Thousands
of).
1861-1870
1871-1880
1881-1890
1891-1900
1903
II9I-5
1391
1796
2267
2841
5012
5783
5"9
5762
7334
844
I058-5
1376
1686
1896
8,654
11,776
11,488
14,540
15,389
Taking the number of hands engaged in the industry as a basis of
comparison, the most important departments as regards iron and
steel working in 1901 were :
Hands engaged in
Department.
Chief Centres.
Hands engaged in
Production of
Production of
Engineering
Pig-iron and Steel.
Manufactured
Goods.
Seine
600
102,500
Nord
Loire
Meurthe-et-Moselle
Ardennes
Lille, Anzin, Denain, Douai, Hautmont, Maubeuge
Rive-de-Gier, Firminy, St Etienne, St Chamond
Pont-a-Mousson, Frouard, Longwy, Nancy
Charleville, Nouzon
14,000
9,5oo
16,500
800
45,000
17,500
6,500
23,000
1 The metric ton = 1000 kilogrammes or 2204 Ib.
INDUSTRIES]
FRANCE
785
Rh6ne (Lyons), Sa&ne-et-Loire (Le Creusot, Chalon-sur-Sa6ne)
and Loire-Inferieure (Basse-Indre, Indret, Coueron, Trignac) also
play a considerable part in this industry.
The chief centres for the manufacture of cutlery are Chattelerault
(Vienne), Langres (Haute-Marne) and Thiers (Puy-de-D6me) ;
for that of arms St Etienne, Tulle and Chattelerault; for that of
watches and clocks, Besancon (Doubs) and Montbeliard (Doubs) ;
for that of optical and mathematical instruments Paris, Morez
(Jura) and St Claude (Jura) ; for that of locksmiths' ware the region
of Vimeu (Pas-de-Calais).
There are important zinc works at Auby and St Amand (Nord)
and Viviez (Aveyron) and Noyelles-Godault (Pas-de-Calais) ; there
are lead works at the latter place, and others of greater importance
at Coueron (Loire-Inferieure). Copper is smelted in Ardennes and
Pas-de-Calais. The production of these metals, which are by far
the most important after iron and steel, increased steadily during
the period 1890-1905, and reached its highest point in 1905, details
for which year are given below :
Zinc.
Lead.
Copper.
Production (in metric tons)
Value
43,200
1,083,000
24,100
386,000
7,600
526,000
Wool. In 1901, 161,000 persons were engaged in the spinning
and other preparatory processes and in the weaving of wool. The
woollen industry is carried on most extensively in the department of
Nord (Roubaix, Tourcoing, Fourmies). Of second rank are Reims
and Sedan in the Champagne group; Elbeuf, Louviers and Rouen
in Normandy; and Mazamet (Tarn).
Cotton. In IQOI, 166,000 persons were employed in the spinning
and weaving of cotton, French cotton goods being distinguished
chiefly for the originality of their design. The cotton industry is
distributed in three principal groups. The longest established is that
of Normandy, having its centres at Rouen, Havre, Evreux, Falaise
and Flers. Another group in the north of France has its centres at
Lille, Tourcoing, Roubaix, St Quentin and Amiens. That of the
Vosges, which has experienced a great extension since the loss of
Alsace-Lorraine, comprises Epinal, St Die, Remiremont and Belfort.
Other groups of less importance are situated in the Lyonnais (Roanne
and Tarare) and Mayenne (Laval and Mayenne).
Silk. The silk industry occupied 134,000 hands in 1901. The
silk fabrics of France hold the first place, particularly the more
expensive kinds. The industry is concentrated in the departments
bordering the river Rhdne, the chief centres being Lyons (Rh&ne),
Voiron (Isere), St Etienne and St Chamond (Loire) (the two latter
being especially noted for their ribbons and trimmings) and Annonay
(Ardeche) and other places in the departments of Ain, Gard and
Dr6me.
Flax, Hemp, Jute, &c. The preparation and spinning of these
materials and the manufacture of nets and rope, together with the
weaving of linen and other fabrics, give occupation to 112,000
persons chiefly in the departments of Nord (Lille, Armentieres,
Dunkirk), Somme (Amiens) and Maine-et-Loire (Angers, Cholet).
Hosiery, the manufacture of which employs 55,000 hands, has its
chief centre in Aube (Troyes). The production of lace and guipure,
occupying 112,000 persons, is carried on mainly in the towns and
villages of Haute-Loire and in Vosges (Mirecourt), Rh6ne (Lyons),
Pas-de-Calais (Calais) and Paris.
Leather. Tanning and leather-dressing are widely spread in-
dustries, and the same may be said of the manufacture of boots and
shoes, though these trades employ more hands in the department
of Seine than elsewhere; in the manufacture of gloves Isere (Gren-
oble) and Aveyron (Millau) hold the first place amongst French
departments.
Sugar. The manufacture of sugar is carried on in the depart-
ments of the north, in which the cultivation of beetroot is general
Aisne, Nord, Somme, Pas-de-Calais, Oise and Seine-et-Marne, the
three first being by far the largest producers. The increase in
production in the last twenty years of the igth century is indicated
in the following table :
Years.
Annual Average of
Men employed.
Average Annual
Production in
Metric Tons.
1881-1891
1891-1901
1901-1906
43,108
42,841
43,o6i
415,786
696,038
820,553
Alcohol. The distillation of alcohol is in the hands of three classes
of persons, (i) Professional distillers (bouilleurs et distillateurs de
profession); (2) private distillers (bouilleurs de cru) under state
control; (3) small private distillers, not under state control, but
giving notice to the state that they distil. The two last classes
number over 400,000 (1903), but the quantity of alcohol distilled
by them is small. Beetroot, molasses and grain are the chief
sources of spirit. The department of Nord produces by far the
greatest quantity, its average annual output in the decade 1895-1904
being 13,117,000 gallons, or about 26% of the average annual
production of France during the same period (49,945,000 gallons).
Aisne, Pas-de-Calais and Somme rank next to Nord.
Glass is manufactured in the departments of Nord (Aniche, &c.),
Seine, Loire (Rive-de-Gier) and Meurthe-et-Moselle, Baccarat in
the latter department being famous for its table-glass. Limoges is
the chief centre for the manufacture of porcelain, and the artistic
products of the national porcelain factory of Sevres have a world-
wide reputation.
The manufacture of paper and cardboard is largely carried on
in Isere (Voiron), Seine-et-Oise (Essonnes), Vosges (Epinal) and of
the finer sorts of paper in Charente (AngoulSme). That of oil,
candles and soap has its chief centre at Marseilles. Brewing and
malting are localized chiefly in Nord. There are well-known chemical
works at Dombasle (close to Nancy) and Chauny (Aisne) and in
Rh6ne.
Occupations. The following table, which shows the approximate
numbers of persons engaged in the various manufacturing industries
of France, who number in all about 5,820,000, indicates their relative
importance from the point of view of employment:
Occupation.
1901.
1866.
Baking
Milling
Charcuterie
Other alimentary industries .
163,500
99,400
39,600
161,500
Alimentary industries: total
464,000
308,000
Gas-works
Tobacco factories
Oil- works
Other " chemical " l industries
26,000
16,000
10,000
58,000
Chemical industries: total .
110,000
49,000
Rubber factories
Paper factories . . . ' .
9,000
61,000
| 25,000
Typographic and lithographic printing
Other branches of book production
76,000
23,000
Book production: total
99,000
38,000
Spinning and weaving ....
892,000
i ,072,000
Clothing, millinery and making up of
fabrics generally
1,484,000
( 761,000
Basket work, straw goods, feathers .
39,000
Leather and skin
338,000
286,000
Joinery
Builder's carpentering ....
Wheelwright's work ....
Cooperage
Wooden shoes
Other wood industries ....
153.000
94,900
82,700
46,600
52,400
280,400
Wood industries: total
710,000
671,000
Metallurgy and metal working
783,000
345,000
Goldsmiths' and jewellers' work .
35.000
55,ooo
Stone-working ....';.
56,000
12,000
Construction, building, decorating
572,000
443,000
Glass manufacture
Tiles
Porcelain and faience ....
Bricks .
Other kiln industries ....
43,000
29,000
27,000
17,000
45,000
Kiln industries: total
161.000
110,000
Some 9000 individuals were engaged in unclassified industries.
Fisheries. The fishing population of France is most numerous in
the Breton departments of Finistere, C6tes-du-Nord and Morbihan
and in Pas-de-Calais. Dunkirk, Gravelines, Boulogne and Paimpol
send considerable fleets to the Icelandic cod-fisheries, and St Malo,
F6camp, Granville and Cancale to those of Newfoundland. The
Dogger Bank is frequented by numbers of French fishing-boats.
1 Includes manufactories of glue, tallow, soap, perfumery, ferti-
lizers, soda, &c.
786
FRANCE
[COMMUNICATIONS
Besides the above, Boulogne, the most important fishing port in
the country, Calais, Dieppe, Concarneau, Douarnenez, Les Sables
d'Olonne, La Rochelle, Marennes and Arcachon are leading ports
for the herring, sardine, mackerel and other coast-fisheries of the
ocean, while Cette, Agde and other Mediterranean ports are engaged
in the tunny and anchovy fisheries. Sardine preserving is an
important industry at Nantes and other places on the west coast.
Oysters are reared chiefly at Marennes, which is the chief French
market for them, and at Arcachon, Vannes, Oleron, Auray, Cancale
and Courseulles. The total value of the produceof fisheries increased
from 4,537,000 in 1892 to 5,259,000 in 1902. In 1902 the number
of men employed in the home fisheries was 144,000 and the number
of vessels 25,481 (tonnage 127,000); in the deep-sea fisheries 10,500
men and 450 vessels (tonnage 51,000) were employed.
Communications.
Roads. Admirable highways known as routes nationales and
kept up at the expense of the state radiate from Paris to the
great towns of France. Averaging 525 ft. in breadth, they
covered in 1905 a distance of nearly 24,000 m. The ficole des
Fonts et Chaussees at Paris is maintained by the government
for the training of the engineers for the construction and upkeep
of roads and bridges. Each department controls and maintains
the routes departementales, usually good macadamized roads
connecting the chief places within its limits and extending in
1903 over 9700 m. The routes nationales and the routes departe-
mentales come under the category of la grande voirie and are
under the supervision of the Ministry of Public Works. The
urban and rural district roads, covering a much greater mileage
and classed as la petite voirie, are maintained chiefly by the
communes under the supervision of the Minister of the Interior.
Waterways. 1 The waterways of France, 7543 m. in length,
of which canals cover 3031 m., are also classed under la grande
voirie; they are the property of the state, and for the most
part are free of tolls. They are divided into two classes. Those
of the first class, which comprise rather less than half the entire
system, have a minimum depth of 6| ft., with locks 126 ft. long
and 17 ft. wide; those of the second class are of smaller dimen-
sions. Water traffic, which is chiefly in heavy merchandise,
as coal, building materials, and agriculture and food produce,
more than doubled in volume between 1881 and 1905. The canal
and river system attains its greatest utility in the north, north-
east and north-centre of the country; traffic is thickest along
the Seine below Paris; along the rivers and small canals of the
rich departments of Nord and Pas-de-Calais and along the Oise
and the canal of St Quentin whereby they communicate with
Paris; along the canal from the Marne to the Rhine and the
succession of waterways which unite it with the Oise; along
the Canal de 1'Est (departments of Meuse and Ardennes);
and along the waterways uniting Paris with the Sa&ne at Chalon
(Seine, Canal du Loing, Canal de Briare, Lateral canal of the
Loire and Canal du Centre) and along the Saone between Chalon
and Lyons.
In point of length the following aretM principal canals:
Est (uniting Meuse with Moselle and Saone)
From Nantes to Brest
Berry (uniting Montlucon with the canalized Cher
and the Loire canal)
Midi (Toulouse to Mediterranean via Beziers) ; see
CANAL
Burgundy (uniting the Yonne and Sa6ne) .
Lateral canal of Loire
From Marne to Rhine (on French territory)
Lateral canal of Garonne
Rhone to Rhine (on French territory)
Nivernais (uniting Loire and Yonne) ....
Canal de la Somme
Centre (uniting Sa6ne and Loire) ....
Canal de 1'Ourcq
Ardennes (uniting Aisne and Canal de 1'Est) .
From Rh6ne to Cette
Canal de la Haute Marne
St Quentin (uniting Scheldt with Somme and Oise)
Miles.
270
225
163
175
I5i
137
131
133
119
in
97
81
67
62
77
60
58
* See the Guide officiel de la navigation interieure issued by the
ministry of public works (Paris, 1903).
The chief navigable rivers are :
Total
navigated
Length.
First Class
Navigability.
Miles.
Miles.
Seine .
339
293
Aisne
37
37
Marne
114
114
Oise .
99
65
Yonne
67
53
Rh6ne
309
30
Sa6ne
234
234
Adour
72
21
Garonne
289
9 6
Dordogne
167
26
Loire .
452
35
Charente
1 06
16
Vilaine
9i
31
Escaut (in
Frat
ce)
39
39
Scarpe
4i
41
Lys
45
45
Aa .
18
18
Railways. The first important line in France, from Paris to
Rouen, was constructed through the instrumentality of Sir
Edward Blount (1800-1905), an English banker in Paris, who
was afterwards for thirty years chairman of the Quest railway.
After the rejection in 1838 of the government's proposals for the
construction of seven trunk lines to be worked by the state, he
obtained a concession for that piece of line on the terms that
the French treasury would advance one-third of the capital at
3 % if he would raise the remaining two-thirds, half in France
and half in England. The contract for building the railway was
put in the hands of Thomas Brassey ; English navvies were largely
employed on the work, and a number of English engine-drivers
were employed when traffic was begun in 1843. A law passed
in 1842 laid the foundation of the plan under which the railways
have since been developed, and mapped out nine main lines,
running from Paris to the frontiers and from the Mediterranean
to the Rhine and to the Atlantic coast. Under it the cost of the
necessary land was to be found as to one-third by the state and
as to the residue locally, but this arrangement proved unworkable
and was abandoned in 1845, when it was settled that the state
should provide the land and construct the earthworks and
stations, the various companies which obtained concessions being
left to make the permanent way, provide rolling stock and work
the lines for certain periods. Construction proceeded under this
law, but not with very satisfactory results, and new arrange-
ments had to be made between 1852 and 1857, when the railways
were concentrated in the hands of six great companies, the
Nord, the Est, the Quest, the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee, the
Orleans and the Midi. Each of these companies was allotted a
definite sphere of influence, and was granted a concession for
ninety-nine years from its date of formation, the concessions
thus terminating at various dates between 1950 and 1960. In
return for the privileges granted them the companies undertook
the construction out of their own unaided resources of 1500 m.
of subsidiary lines, but the railway expenditure of the country at
this period was so large that in a few years|they found it impossible
to raise the capital they required. In these circumstances the
state agreed to guarantee the interest on the capital, the sums it
paid in this way being regarded as advances to be reimbursed
in the future with interest at 4 %. This measure proved success-
ful and the projected lines were completed. But demands for
more lines were constantly arising, and the existing companies,
in view of their financial position, were disinclined to undertake
their construction. The government therefore found itself
obliged to inaugurate a system of direct subventions, not only to
the old large companies, but also to new small ones, to encourage
the development of branch and local lines, and local authorities
were also empowered to contribute a portion of the required
capital. The result came to be that many small lines were begun
by companies that had not the means to complete them, and
again the state had to come to the rescue. In 1878 it agreed to
spend 26,000,000 in purchasing and completing a number of
COMMERCE]
FRANCE
787
these lines, some of which were handed over to the great
companies, while others were retained in the hands of the govern-
ment, forming the system known as the Chemins de Fer de 1'Etat.
Next year a large programme of railway expansion was adopted,
at an estimated cost to the state of 140,000,000, and from 1880
to 1882 nearly 40,000,000 was expended and some 1800 m.
of line constructed. Then there was a change in the financial
situation, and it became difficult to find the money required.
In these circumstances the conventions of 1883 were concluded,
and the great companies partially relieved the government of
its obligations by agreeing to contribute a certain proportion of
the cost of the new lines and to provide the rolling stock for
working them. In former cases when the railways had had
recourse to state aid, it was the state whose contributions were
fixed, while the railways were left to find the residue; but on
this occasion the position was reversed. The state further
guaranteed a minimum rate of interest on the capital invested,
and this guarantee, which by the convention of 1859 had applied
to " new " lines only, was now extended to cover both " old "
and " new " lines, the receipts and expenditure from both kinds
being lumped together. As before, the sums paid out in respect
of guaranteed dividend were to be regarded as advances which
were to be paid back to the state out of the profits made, when
these permitted, and when the advances were wiped out, the
profits, after payment of a certain dividend, were to be divided
between the state and the railway, two-thirds going to the former
and one-third to the latter. All the companies, except the Nord,
have at one time or another had to take advantage of the
guarantee, and the fact that the Quest had been one of the most
persistent and heavy borrowers in this respect was one of the
reasons that induced the government to take it over as from the
ist of January 1909. By the 1859 conventions the state railway
system obtained an entry into Paris by means of running powers
over the Quest from Chartres, and its position was furcher im-
proved by the exchange of certain lines with the Orleans company.
The great railway systems of France a re as follows:
1. The Nord, which serves the rich mining, industrial and farming
districts of Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Aisne and Somme, connecting with
the Belgian railways at several points. Its main lines run from
Paris -to Calais, via Creil, Amiens and Boulogne from Paris to Lille,
via Creil and Arras, and from Paris to Maubeuge via Creil, Tergnier
and St Quentin.
2. The Ouest-Etat, a combination of the West and state systems.
The former traversed Normandy inevery directionand connected Paris
with the towns of Brittany. Its chief lines ran from Paris to Le Havre
via Mantes and Rouen, to Dieppe via Rouen, to Cherbourg, to Gran-
villeand to Brest. The state railways served a large portion of western
France, their chief lines being from Nantes via La Rochelle to Bor-
deaux, and from Bordeaux via Saintes, Niort and Saumur to Chartres.
3. The Est, running from Paris via Chalons and Nancy to Avri-
court (for Strassburg), via Troyes and Langres to Belfort and on via
Basel to the Saint Gotthard, and via Reims and Mezieres to Longwy.
4. The Orleans, running from Paris to Orleans, and thence serving
Bordeaux via Tours, Poitiers and Angoulfime, Nantes via Tours and
Angers, and Montauban and Toulouse via Vierzon and Limoges.
5. The Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee, connecting Paris with Marseilles
via Moret, Laroche, Dijon, Macon and Lyons, and with Nimes via
Moret, Nevers and Clermont-Ferrand. It establishes communi-
cation between France and Switzerland and Italy via Macon and
Culoz (for the Mt. Cenis Tunnel) and via Dijon and Pontarlier (for
the Simplon) , and also has a direct line along the Mediterranean coast
from Marseilles to Genoa via Toulon and Nice.
6. The Midi (Southern) has lines radiating from Toulouse to
Bordeaux via Agen, to Bayonne via Tarbes and Pau, and to Cette via
Carcassonne, Narbonne and Beziers. From Bordeaux there is also a
direct line to Bayonne and Irun (for Madrid), and at the other end of
the Pyrenees a line leads from Narbonne to Perpignan and Barcelona.
The following table, referring to lines " of general interest," indi-
cates the development of railways after 1885:
Year.
Mileage.
Receipts in
Thousands
of .
Expenses in
Thousands
of
Passengers
carried
(IOOQ'S).
Goods carried
( 1000 Metric
Tons).
1885
1890
1895
1900
1904
18,650
2O,8OO
22,650
23,818
24,755
42,324
46,145
50,542
60,674
60,589
23-508
24.239
27,363
32,966
31,477
214,451
241,119
348,852
453,193
433,913
75.192
92,506
100,834
126,830
130,144
Narrow gauge aim uu
covered 3905 m. in 1904.
Commerce.
After entering on a regime of free trade in 1860 France gradu-
ally reverted towards protection; this system triumphed in the
Customs Law of 1892, which imposed more or less considerable
duties on imports a law associated with the name of M. Meline.
While raising the taxes both on agricultural products and manu-
factured goods, this law introduced, between France and all the
powers trading with her, relations different from those in the past.
It left the government free either to apply to foreign countries
the general tariff or to enter into negotiations with them for the
application, under certain conditions, of a minimum tariff.
The policy of protection was further accentuated by raising the
impost on corn from 5 to 7 francs per hectolitre (2j bushels).
This system, however, which is opposed by a powerful party,
has at various times undergone modifications. On the one hand
it became necessary, in face of an inadequate harvest, to suspend
in 1898 the application of the law on the import of corn. On
the other hand, in order to check the decline of exports and
neutralize the harmful effects of a prolonged customs war, a
commercial treaty was in 1896 concluded with Switzerland,
carrying with it a reduction, in respect of certain articles, of
the imposts which had been fixed by the law of 1892. An accord
was likewise in 1898 effected with Italy, which since 1886 had
been in a state of economic rupture with France, and in July
1899 an accord was concluded with the United States of America.
Almost all other countries, moreover, share in the benefit of the
minimum tariff, and profit by the modifications it may suc-
cessively undergo.
Being in the main a self-supporting country France carries
on most of her trade within her own borders, and ranks below
Commerce, in Millions of Pounds Sterling.
General
Special
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
1876-1880
1881-1885
1886-1890
1891-1895
1896-1900
1901-1905
2IO-I
224-I
208-2
205-9
237-8
233-3
175-3
177-8
179-4
I78-6
2OI-O
227-5
385-4
401-9
387-6
384-5
438-8-
460-8
I7I-7
183-4
168-8
163-0
I7I-9
182-8
I35-I
135-3
137-6
133-8
150-8
174-7
306-8
318-7
306-4
296-8
322-7
357-5
Great Britain, Germany and the United States in volume of
exterior trade. The latter is subdivided into general commerce,
which includes all goods entering or leaving the country, and
special commerce which includes imports for home use and
exports of home produce. The above table shows the develop-
ments of French trade during the years from 1876 to 1905 by
means of quinquennial averages. A permanent body (the com-
mission permanente des valeurs) fixes the average prices of the
Imports.
Exports.
Value
(Thousands
of,Q.
Per cent
of Total
Value.
Value
(Thousands
of).
Per cent
of Total
Value.
Articles of Food
1886-1890
1891-1895
1896-1900
1901-1905
Raw Materials *
1886-1890
1891-1895
1896-1900
1901-1905
Manufactured
Articles *
1886-1890
1891-1895
1896-1900
1901-1905
58,856
50-774
42,488
33,631
34-9
30-9
24-9
18-4
30,830
28,287
27,838
28,716
22-4
2I-I
18-6
16-5
85,778
88,211
101,727
116,580
50-8
54-3
59-2
63-8
33-848
32,557
40,060
47-385
24-6
24-4
26-6
27-1
24,125
24. 54
27,330
32,554
H-3
14-8
15-9
17-8
72,917
72,906
82,270
98,582
53-o
54-5
54-8
56-4
1 Includes horses, mules and asses.
* Except certain manufactures which come under the category
of articles of food.
788
FRANCE
[COMMERCE
articles in the customs list; this value is estimated at the end of
the year in accordance with the variations that have taken place
and is applied provisionally to the following year.
Amongst imports raw materials (wool, cotton and silk, coal, oil-
seeds, timber, &c.) hold the first place, articles of food (cereals, wine,
coffee, &c.) and manufactured goods (especially machinery) ranking
next. Amongst exports manufactured goods (silk, cotton and
woollen goods, fancy wares, apparel, &c.) come before raw materials
and articles of food (wine and dairy products bought chiefly by
England).
Divided into these classes the imports and exports (special trade)
for quinquennial periods from 1886 to 1905 averaged as shown in the
preceding table.
The decline both in imports and in exports of articles ot food,
which is the most noteworthy fact exhibited in the preceding table,
was due to the almost prohibitive tax in the Customs Law of 1892,
upon agricultural products.
The average value of the principal articles of import and export
(special trade) over quinquennial periods following 1890 is shown
in the two tables below.
i ne loiiowmg were tne countries sending the largest quantities ot
goods (special trade) to France (during the same periods as in previous
table).
Trade with Principal Countries. Imports (Thousands of ).
1891-1895.
1896-1900.
1901-1905.
Germany
- I 3.'78
I -a QOd.
17 "*6^
Belgium
IS.J.^8
T-5 T I 7
T-l 0^7
United Kingdom <.
Spain ....
20,697
IO 2Q4.
22,132
10 560
22,725
6 525*
United States ....
Argentine Republic
15,577
7.H9
18,491
10,009
19,334
10,094
Trade with Principal Countries. Exports (Thousands of ).
1891-1895.
1896-1900.
1901-1905.
Germany
Belgium
United Kingdom .
United States ....
Algeria
13,712
19,857
39-310
9,337
7,872
16,285
22,135
45-203
9.497
9,434
21,021
24-542
49-156
10,411
1 1 ,652
The other chief customers of France were Switzerland and Italy,
whose imports from France averaged in 1901-1905 nearly 10,000,000
and over 7,200,000 respectively in value. In the same period Spain
received exports from France averaging 4,700,000.
The trade of France was divided between foreign countries and
her colonies in the following proportions (imports and exports
combined).
Principal Imports (Thousands of ).
1891-1895.
1896-1900.
1901-1905.
Coal, coke, &c
7,018
' 9,883
10,539
Coffee
6,106
4,553
3,717
Cotton, raw ....
7,446
7,722
11,987
Flax
2,346
2,435
3, 1 73
Fruit and seeds (oleaginous)
7,175
6,207
8,464
Hides and skins, raw .
6,141
5,261
6,369
2,181
3,632
4,614
9,488
10,391
11.765
Timber
6,054
6,284
6,760
Wheat . . f . . . .
10,352
5,276
1,995
Wine
9,972
10,454
5,i67
Wool, raw
13,372
16,750
16,395
Principal Exports (Thousands of ).
1891-1895.
1896-1900.
1901-1905.
Apparel
4,726
4-513
5,079
Brandy and other spirits .
2,402
1,931
1,678
Butter
2,789
2,783
2,618
Cotton manufactures .
4.233
; 5,874
7-965
Haberdashery * .
5-830
6,039
6,599
Hides, raw
. 2,839
3.494
4.813
Hides, tanned or curried .
4.037
,4.321
4-753
Iron and steel, manufac-
tures of
~* 2,849
4,201
Millinery
1.957
3,308
4,951
Motor cars and vehicles .
160
2,147
Paper and manufactures of
2,095
2,145
2,55i
Silk, raw, thrown, waste
and cocoons ....
4,738
4,807
6,090
Silk and waste silk, manu-
factures of ....
9,769
io,443
11,463
Wine
8,824
9,050
9.139
Wool, raw
5.003
7,8i3
9-!59
Wool, manufactures of
11,998
10,190
8,459
_, , ..
General Trade.
Special Trade.
Foreign
Countries.
Colonies.
Foreign
Countries.
Colonies.
1891-1895
1896-1900
1901-1905
92-00
91-18
90-41
8-00
8-82
9-59
90-89
89-86
88-78
9-n
10-14
11-22
Other countries importing largely into France are Russia, Algeria
and British India, whose imports in each caseaveraged over 9,000,000
in value in the period 1901-1905 ; China (average value 7,000,000) ;
and Italy (average value 6,000,000).
The following are the principal countries receiving the exports of
France (special trade) , with values for the same periods.
1 Includes small fancy wares, toys, also wooden wares and furni-
ture, brushes, &c.
8 Decrease largely due to Spanish-American War (1898).
The respective shares of the leading customs in the trade of the
country is approximately shown in the following table, which gives
the value of their exports and imports (general trade) in 1905 in
millions sterling.
Marseilles .... 88-8 Boulogne .... 17-5
Le Havre .... 79-5 Calais 14-1
Paris 42-8 Dieppe .... 13-5
Dunkirk .... 34-8 Rouen 11-3
Bordeaux .... 27-4 Belfort-Petit-Croix . 10-7
In the same year the other chief customs in order of importance
were Tourcoing, Jeumont, Cette, St Nazaire and Avricourt.
The chief local bodies concerned with commerce and industry are
the chambres de commerce and the chambres consultative! d'arts et
manufactures, the members of which are elected from their own
number by the traders and industrialists of a certain standing.
They are established in the chief towns, and their principal function
js to advice the government on measures for improving and facilitat-
ing commerce and industry within their circumscription. See also
BANKS AND BANKING; SAVINGS BANKS; POST AND POSTAL SERVICE.
Shipping. The following table shows the increase in tonnage of
sailing and steam shipping engaged in foreign trade entered and
cleared at the ports of France over quinquennial periods from 1890.
Entered.
Cleared.
French.
Foreign.
French.
Foreign.
1891-1895
1896-1900
1901-1905
4-277,967
4,665,268
4,782,101
9-947,893
12,037,571
14,744,626
4,521,928
5-005,563
5-503,463
10,091,000
12,103,358
14,823,217
The increase of the French mercantile marine (which is fifth in
importance in the world) over the same period is traced in the
following table. Vessels of 2 net tons and upwards are enumerated.
Sailing.
Steam.
Total.
Number
of
Vessels.
Tonnage.
Number
of
Vessels.
Tonnage.
Number
of
Vessels.
Tonnage.
1891-1895
1896-1900
1901-1905
I4,l83
14,327
14,867
402,982
437.468
642,562
Il82
1231
L 1388
502,363
504,674
^17,536
15,365
15,558
16,255
905,345
942,142
1,260,098
At the beginning of 1908 the total was 17,193 (tonnage, 1,402,647) ;
of these 13,601 (tonnage, 81,833) were vessels of less than 20 tons,
while 502 (tonnage, 1,014,506) were over 800 tons.
The increase in the tonnage of sailing vessels, which in other
countries tends to decline, was due to the bounties voted by parlia-
ment to its merchant sailing fleet with the view of increasing the
number of skilled seamen. The prosperity of the French shipping
trade is hampered by the costliness of shipbuilding and by the
scarcity of outward-bound cargo. Shipping has been fostered by
paying bounties for vessels constructed in France and sailing under
the French flag, and by reserving the coasting trade, traffic between
France and Algeria, &c., to French vessels. Despite these mono-
polies, three-fourths of the shipping in French ports is foreign, and
France is without shipping companies comparable in importance
to those of other great maritime nations. The three chief companies
are the Messageries Maritimes (Marseilles and Bordeaux), the
Compagnie Generate Transatlantique (Le Havre, St Nazaire and
Marseilles) and the Chargeurs Reunis (Le Havre).
GOVERNMENT]
FRANCE
789
Government and Administration.
Central Government. The principles upon which the French
constitution is based are representative government (by two
chambers), manhood suffrage, responsibility of ministers and
irresponsibility of the head of the state. Alterations or modifica-
tions of the constitution can only be effected by the National
Assembly, consisting of both chambers sitting together ad hoc.
The legislative power resides in these two chambers the Senate
and the Chamber of Deputies; the executive is vested in the
president of the republic and the ministers. The members of
both chambers owe their election to universal suffrage; but the
Senate is not elected directly by the people and the Chamber of
Deputies is.
The Chamber of Deputies, consisting of 584 members, is
elected by the scrulin d' arrondissement (each elector voting for
one deputy) for a term of four years, the conditions of election
being as follows: Each arrondissement sends one deputy if its
population does not exceed 100,000, and an additional deputy
for every additional 100,000 inhabitants or fraction of that
number. Every citizen of twenty-one years of age, unless subject
to some legal disability, such as actual engagement in military
service, bankruptcy or condemnation to certain punishments,
has a vote, provided that he can prove a residence of six months'
duration in any one town or commune. A deputy must be a
French citizen, not under twenty-five years old. Each candidate
must make, at least five days before the elections, a declaration
setting forth in what constituency he intends to stand. He may
only stand for one, and all votes given for him in any other than
that specified in the declaration are void. To secure election a
candidate must at the first voting poll an absolute majority
and a number of votes equal to one-fourth of the number of
electors. If a second poll is necessary a relative majority is
sufficient.
The Senate (see below, Law and Institutions) is composed of
300 members who must be French citizens at least forty years
of age. They are elected by the " scrutin de lisle " for a period of
nine years, and one-third of the body retires every three years.
The department which is to elect a senator when a vacancy
occurs is settled by lot.
Both senators and deputies receive a salary of 600 per annum.
No member of a family that has reigned in France is eligible for
either chamber.
Bills may be proposed either by ministers (in the name of the
president of the republic), or by private members, and may be
initiated in either chamber, but money-bills must be submitted
in the first place to the Chamber of Deputies. Every bill is first
examined by a committee, a member of which is chosen to
" report " on it to the chamber, after which it must go through
two readings (deliberations), before it is presented to the other
chamber. Either house may pass a vote of no confidence in the
government, and in practice the government resigns in face of
the passing of such a vote by the deputies, but not if it is passed
by the Senate only. The chambers usually assemble in January
each year, and the ordinary session lasts not less than five
months; usually it continues till July. There is an extraordinary
session from October till Christmas.
The president (see below, Law and Institutions) is elected for
seven years, by a majority of votes, by the Senate and Chamber
of Deputies sitting together as the National Assembly. Any
French citizen may be chosen president, no fixed age being
required. The only exception to this rule is that no member of
a royal family which has once reigned in France can be elected.
The president receives 1,200,000 francs (48,000) a year, half as
salary, half for travelling expenses and the charges incumbent
upon the official representative of the country. Both the
chambers are summoned by the president, who has the power of
dissolving the Chamber of Deputies with the assent of the Senate.
When a change of Government occurs the president chooses a
prominent parliamentarian as premier and president of the
council. This personage, who himself holds a portfolio, nominates
the other ministers, his choice being subject to the ratification of
the chief of the state. The ministerial council (conseil des
ministres) is- presided over by the president of the republic;
less formal meetings (conseils de cabinet) under the presidency of
the premier, or even of some other minister, are also held.
The ministers, whether members of parliament or not, have
the right to sit in both chambers and can address the house
whenever they choose, though a minister may only vote in the
chamber of which he happens to be a member. There are twelve
ministries 1 comprising those of justice; finance; war; the
interior; marine; colonies; public instruction and fine arts;
foreign affairs; commerce and industry; agriculture; public
works; and labour and public thrift. Individual ministers
are responsible for all acts done in connexion with their own
departments, and the body of ministers collectively is responsible
for the general policy of the government.
The council of state (conseil d'etat) is the principal council
of the head of the state and his ministers, who consult it on
various legislative problems, more particularly on questions
of administration. It is divided for despatch of business into
four sections, each of which corresponds to a group of two or three
ministerial departments, and is composed of (i) 32 councillors
"en service ordinaire" (comprising a vice-president and sectional
presidents), and 19 councillors " en service extraordinaire," i.e.
government officials who are deputed to watch the interests of
the ministerial departments to which they belong, and in matters
not concerned with those departments have a merely con-
sultative position; (2) 32 matlres des requites; (3) 40 auditors.
The presidency of the council of state belongs ex officio to the
minister of justice.
The theory of "droit administratif" lays down the principle that
an agent of the government cannot be prosecuted or sued for
acts relating to his administrative functions before the ordinary
tribunals. Consequently there is a special system of administra-
tive jurisdiction for the trial of " le contentieux adminislralif " or
disputes in which the administration is concerned. The council
of state is the highest administrative tribunal, and includes a
special " Section du contentieux " to deal with judicial work of
this nature.
Local Government. France is divided into 86 administrative
departments (including Corsica) or 87 if the Territory of Belfort,
a remnant of the Haul Rhin department, be included. These
departments are subdivided into 362 arrondissements, 2911
cantons and 36,222 communes.
Departments.
Capital Towns.
Ancient Provinces. 2
AIN . . C'A
AISNE
ALLIER
, ALPES-MARITI
ARDECHE .
ARDENNES
ARIEGE . '
AUBE
AUDE .
AVEYRON .
VIES
1
/
Bourg
Laon . .
Bourgogne (Bresse, Bugey, Valromey, Dombes).
Ile-de-France; Picardie.
Bourbonnais.
\\
Languedoc (Vivarais).
Champagne.
Foix; Gascogne (Couserans).
Champagne; Bourgogne.
Languedoc.
Guienne (Rouergue).
Nice
Privas
Mezi^res .
Foix .
Troyes
Carcassonne
Rodez
I
'. . .
1 The administration of posts, telegraphs and telephones is assigned to the ministry of commerce and industry or to that of public
works.
1 The province or provinces named are those out of which the department was chiefly formed.
79
FRANCE
[GOVERNMENT
Departments.
Capital Towns.
Ancient Provinces.
BASSES-ALPES
Digne ......
Provence.
BASSES-PYRENEES ....
Pau
Beam; Gascogne (Basse- Navarre, Soule, Labourd).
BELFORT, TERRITOIRE DE
Belfort
Alsace.
BOUCHES-DU-RHONE
Marseilles
Provence.
CALVADOS
Caen
Normandie (Bessin, Bocage).
CANTAL
Aurillac
Auvergne.
CHARENTE
AngoulSme
Angoumois; Saintonge.
CHARENTE-INFERIEURE .
La Rochelle
Aunis ; Saintonge.
CHER
Bourges
Berry ; Bourbonnais.
CORREZE
Tulle
Limousin.
COTE-D'OR
Dijon
Bourgogne (Dijonnais, Auxois).
COTES-DU-NORD ....
St Brieuc
Bretagne.
CREUSE
Gueret
Marche.
DEUX-SEVRES
Niort
Poitou.
DORDOGNE ......
Perigueux .....
Guienne (Perigord).
DOUBS
Besancon
Franche-Comte; Montbeliard.
DROME
Valence
Dauphine.
EURE
Evreux
Normandie; Perche.
EURE-ET-LOIR ....
Chartres ......
Orleanais ; Normandie.
FlNISTERE
Quimper
Bretagne.
CARD
Nlmes
Languedoc.
Auch
Gascogne (Astarac, Armagnac).
GlRONDE
Bordeaux
Guienne (Bordelais, Bazadais).
HAUTE-GARONNE ....
Toulouse
Languedoc; Gascogne (Comminges).
HAUTE-LOIRE . . . . .
Le Puy . . ....
Languedoc (Velay) ; Auvergne ; Lyonnais.
HAUTE-MARNE
Chaumont
Champagne (Bassigny, Vallage).
HAUTES-ALPES
Gap
Dauphine.
HAUTE-SA6NE
Vesoul
Franche-Comte.
HAUTE-SAVOIE ....
Annecy
HAUTES-PYRENEES , . . .
Tarbes
Gascogne.
HAUTE- VIENNE ,
Limoges
Limousin; Marche.
HERAULT
Montpellier . . .
Languedoc.
iLLE-ET-VlLAINE ....
Rennes
Bretagne.
INDRE
Chateauroux
Berry.
INDRE-ET-LOIRE ....
Tours
Touraine.
ISERE
Grenoble
Dauphine.
JURA
Lons-le-Saunier ....
Franche-Comte.
LANDES
Mont-de-Marsan ....
GascogYie (Landes, Chalosse).
LOIRE
St-Etienne
Lyonnais.
LOIRE-INFERIEURE ....
Nantes
Bretagne.
LOIRET
Orleans
Orleanais (Orleanais proper, Gatinais, Dunois).
LOIR-ET-CHER
Blois
Orleanais.
LOT
Cahors
Guienne (Quercy).
LOT-ET-GARONNE ....
Agen
Guienne ; Gascogne.
LOZERE
Mende
Languedoc (Gevaudan).
MAINE-ET-LOIRE ....
Angers ....
Anjou.
MANCHE
St-L6
Normandie (Cotentin).
MARNE
Chalons-sur-Marne
Champagne.
MAYENNE .
L ava i
iC _ . A n irn
MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE .
Nancy
Lorraine; Trois-Eve'ches.
MEUSE
Bar-le-Duc
Lorraine (Barrois, Verdunois).
MORBIHAN
Vannes .
Bretagne.
NlEVRE
Nevers
Nivernais; Orleanais.
NORD
Lille
Flandre; Hainaut.
OlSE
Beauvais
lle-de-France.
ORNE
Alencon
Normandie; Perche.
PAS-DE-CALAIS ....
Arras
Artois ; Picardie.
PUY-DE-D6ME . . .
Clermont-Ferrand ....
Auvergne.
PYRENEES-ORIENTALES .
RHONE
SAdNE-ET-LoiRE ....
Perpignan
Lyon
Macon
Roussillon; Languedoc.
Lyonnais; Beaujolais.
Bourgogne.
SARTHE
Le Mans
Maine; Anjou.
SAVOIE
Chambery
SEINE . . .
Paris
Ile-de-France.
SEINE-ET-MARNE ....
SEINE-ET-OISE ....
Melun
Versailles
tie-de-France; Champagne.
Tie-de-France.
SEINE-INFERIEURE ....
Rouen
Normandie.
SOMME
Amiens
Picardie.
TARN . . .
TARN-ET-GARONNE .
VAR
Albi
Montauban
Draguignan
Languedoc (Albigeois).
Guienne; Gascogne; Languedoc. '
Provence.
VAUCLUSE
VENDEE
Avignon
La Roche-sur- Yon
Comtat; Venaissin; Provence; Principautd d 'Orange.
VIENNE
Poitiers
JrOltOU.
VOSGES ....
Epinal
1 oitou | 1 ouro.in6.
Lorraine.
YONNE
CORSE (CORSICA) ....
Auxerre
Ajaccio
Bourgogne; Champagne.
Corse.
Before 1790 France was divided into thirty-three great and seven
small military governments, often called provinces, which are,
however, to be distinguished from the provinces formed under the
feudal system. The great governments were: Alsace, Saintonge
and Angoumois, Anjou, Artois, Aunis, Auvergne, Beam and Navarre,
Berry, Bourbonnais, Bourgogne (Burgundy), Bretagne (Brittany),
Champagne, Dauphine, Flandre, Foix, Franche-Comte, Guienne and
Gascogne (Gascony), Ile-de-France, Languedoc, Limousin, Lorraine,
Lyonnais, Maine, Marche, Nivernais, Normandie, Orleanais, Picardie,
Poitou, Provence, Roussillon, Touraine and Corse. The eight small
governments were: Paris, Boulogne and Boulonnais, Le Havre,
Sedan, Toulois, Pays Messin and Verdunois and Saumurois.
At the head of each department is a prefect, a political official
nominated by the minister of the interior and appointed by the
president, who acts as general agent of the government and
representative of the central authority. To aid him the prefect
GOVERNMENT]
FRANCE
791
has a general secretary and an advisory body (conseil de pre-
fecture), the members of which are appointed by the president,
which has jurisdiction in certain classes of disputes arising out
of administration and must, in certain cases, be consulted,
though the prefect is not compelled to follow its advice. The
prefect supervises the execution of the laws; has wide authority
in regard to policing, public hygiene and relief of pauper children;
has the nomination of various subordinate officials; and is in
correspondence with the subordinate functionaries in his depart-
ment, to whom he transmits the orders and instructions of the
government. Although the management of local affairs is in the
hands of the prefect his power with regard to these is checked
by a deliberative body known as the general council (conseil
general). This council, which consists for the most part of
business and professional men, is elected by universal suffrage,
each canton in the department contributing one member. The
general council controls the departmental administration of
the prefect, and its decisions on points of local government are
usually final. It assigns its quota of taxes (contingent) to each
arrondissement, authorizes the sale, purchase or exchange of
departmental property, superintends the management thereof,
authorizes the construction of new roads, railways or canals,
and advises on matters of local interest. Political questions
are rigorously excluded from its deliberations. The general
council, when not sitting, is represented by a permanent delega-
tion (commission departementale).
As the prefect in the department, so the sub-prefect in the
arrondissement, though with a more limited power, is the
representative of the central authority. He is assisted, and in
some degree controlled, in his work by the district council
(conseil d' arrondissement), to which each canton sends a member,
chosen by universal suffrage. As the arrondissement has neither
property nor budget, the principal business of the council is
to allot to each commune its share of the direct taxes imposed
on the arrondissement by the general council.
The canton is purely an administrative division, containing,
on an average, about twelve communes, though some exceptional
communes are big enough to contain more than one canton.
It is the seat of a justice of the peace, and is the electoral unit for
the general council and the district council.
The communes, varying greatly in area and population, are the
administrative units in France. The chief magistrate of the
commune is the mayor (maire), who is (i) the agent of the
central government and charged as such with the local promulga-
tion and execution of the general laws and decrees of the country;
(2) the executive head of the municipality, in tyhich capacity
he supervises the police, the revenue and public works of the
commune, and acts as the representative of the corporation in
general. He also acts as registrar of births, deaths and marriages,
and officiates at civil marriages. Mayors are usually assisted
by deputies (adjoints). In a commune of 2500 inhabitants or
less there is one deputy; in more populous communes there
may be more, but in no case must the number exceed twelve,
except at Lyons, where as many as seventeen are allowed. Both
mayors and deputy mayors are elected by and from among
members of the municipal council for four years. This body
consists, according to the population of the commune, of from
10 to 36 members, elected for four years on the principle of the
scrutin de lisle by Frenchmen who have reached the age of
twenty-one years and have a six months' residence qualification.
The local affairs of the commune are decided by the municipal
council, and its decisions become operative after the expiration
of a month, save in matters which involve interests transcending
those of the commune. In such cases the prefect must approve
them, and in some cases the sanction of the general council
or even ratification by the president is necessary. The council
also chooses communal delegates to elect senators; and draws
up the list of repartiteurs, whose function is to settle how the
commune's share of direct taxes shall be allotted among the
taxpayers. The sub-prefect then selects from this list ten of
whom he approves for the post. The meetings of the council
are open to the public.
Justice.
The ordinary judicial system of France comprises two classes
of courts: (i) civil and criminal, (2) special, including courts
dealing only with purely commercial cases; in addition there
are the administrative courts, including bodies, the Conseil
d'fitat and the Conseils de Prefecture, which deal, in their
judicial capacity, with cases coming under the droit administratij.
Mention may also be made of the Tribunal des Conflits, a special
court whose function it is to decide which is the competent
tribunal when an administration and a judicial court both
claim or refuse to deal with a given case.
Taking the first class of courts, which have both civil and
criminal jurisdiction, the lowest tribunal in the system is that of
the juge de paix.
In each canton is a. juge de paix, who in his capacity as a civil
judge takes cognizance, without appeal, of disputes where the
amount sought to be recovered does not exceed 12 in value.
Where the amount exceeds 12 but not 24 an appeal lies from
his decision to the court of first instance. In some particular
cases where special promptitude or local knowledge is necessary,
as disputes between hotelkeepers and travellers, and the like,
he has jurisdiction (subject to appeal to the court of first instance)
up to 60. He has also a criminal jurisdiction in contraventions,
i.e. breaches of law punishable by a fine not exceeding 125.
or by imprisonment not exceeding five days. If the sentence
be one of imprisonment or the fine exceeds 45., appeal lies to the
court of first instance. It is an important function of the juge
de paix to endeavour to reconcile disputants who come before
him, and no suit can be brought before the court of first instance
until he has endeavoured without success to bring the parties to
an agreement.
Tribunaux de premiere instance, also" called tribunaux
d' arrondissement, of which there is one in every arrondissement
(with few exceptions), besides serving as courts of appeal from
the juges de paix have an original jurisdiction in matters civil
and criminal. The court consists of a president, one or more
vice-presidents and a variable number of judges. A procureur,
or public prosecutor, is also attached to each court. In civil
matters the tribunal takes cognizance of actions relating to
personal property to the value of 60, and actions relating to
land to the value of 60 fr. (2 : 8s.) per annum. When it deals
with matters involving larger sums an appeal lies to the courts
of appeal. In penal cases its jurisdiction .extends to all offences
of the class known as delits offences punishable by a more
serious penalty than the " contraventions " dealt with by the
juge de paix, but not entailing such heavy penalties as the code
applies to crimes, with which the assize courts (see below)
deal. When sitting in its capacity as a criminal court it is
known as the tribunal correctionnel. Its judgments are in-
variably subject in these matters to appeal before the court
of appeal.
There are twenty-six courts of appeal (cours d'appel), to each
of which are attached from one to five departments.
Cours d'Appel. Departments depending on them.
PARIS . . . Seine, Aube, Eure-et-Loir, Marne, Seine-et-Marne,
Seine-et-Oise, Yonne.
AGEN . . . Gers, Lot, Lot-et-Garonne.
Aix . . . Basses-Alpes, Alpes-Maritimes, Bouches-du-Rhone,
Var.
AMIENS . . Aisne, Oise, Somme.
ANGERS . . Maine-et-Loire, Mayenne, Sarthe.
BASTIA . . Corse.
BESANJON . Doubs, Jura, Haute-Sa6ne, Territoire de Belfort.
BORDEAUX . Charente, Dordogne, Gironde.
BOURGES . . Cher, Indre, Nivre.
CAEN . . . Calvados, Manche, Orne.
CHAMBERY . Savoie, Haute-Savoie.
DIJON . . . Cdte-d'Or, Haute-Marne, Sa&ne-et-Loire.
DOUAI. . . Nord, Pas-de-Calais.
GRENOBLE . Hautes-Alpes, Dr&me, Isre.
LIMOGES . . Cprreze, Creuse, Haute- Vienna.
LYONS . . . Ain, Loire, Rh&ne.
MONTPELHER Aude, Aveyron, Herault, Pyrenees-Orientates.
NANCY . . Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Vosges, Ardennes.
NIMES . . . Ardeche, Card, Lozere, Vaucluse.
792
Cours d'Appel.
ORLEANS
PAU .
POITIERS
RENNES
FRANCE
[JUSTICE
Departments depending on them.
Indre-et-Loire, Loir-et-Cher, Loiret.
Landes, Basses-Pyrenees, Hautes-Pyrenees.
Charente-Inferieure, Deux- Sevres, Vendee, Vienne.
C6tes-du-Nord, Finistere, Ule-et-Vilaine, Loire-
Inferieure, Morbihan.
Allier, Cantal, Haute-Loire, Puy-de-D&me.
Eure, Seine-Inferieure.
Ariege, Haute-Garonne, Tarn, Tarn-et.-Garonne.
RIOM .
ROUEN . ,
TOULOUSE
At the head of each court, which is divided into sections
(chambres), is a premier president. Each section (chambre) con-
sists of a president de chambre and four judges (consettlers).
Procureurs-genZraux and avocals-genSraux are also attached to
the parquet, or permanent official staff, of the courts of appeal.
The principal function of these courts is the hearing of appeals
both civil and criminal from the courts of first instance; only in
some few cases (e.g. discharge of bankrupts) do they exercise an
original jurisdiction. One of the sections is termed the chambre
des mises en accusation. Its function is to examine criminal
cases and to decide whether they shall be referred for trial to the
lower courts or the cours d'assises. It may also dismiss a case on
grounds of insufficient evidence.
The cours d'assises are not separate and permanent tribunals.
Every three months an assize is held in each department, usually
at the chief town, by a conseiller, appointed ad hoc, of the court
of appeal upon which the department depends. The cour
d'assises occupies itself entirely with offences of the most serious
type, classified under the penal code as crimes, in accordance
with the severity of the penalties attached. The president is
assisted in his duties by two other magistrates, who may be
chosen either from among the conseillers of the court of appeal
or the presidents or judges of the local court of first instance.
In this court and in this court alone there is always a jury of
twelve. They decide, as in England, on facts only, leaving the
application of the law to the judges. The verdict is given by a
simple majority.
In all criminal prosecutions, other than those coming before
the juge de paix, a secret preliminary investigation is made by
an official called a juge d' instruction. He may either dismiss
the case at once by an order of " non-lieu," or order it to be
tried, when the prosecution is undertaken by the procureur
or procureur-general. This process in some degree corre-
sponds to the manner in which English magistrates dismiss a
case or commit the prisoner to quarter sessions or assizes, but
the powers of the juge ^'instruction are more arbitrary and
absolute.
The highest tribunal in France is the cour de cassation, sitting
at Paris, and consisting of a first president, three sectional
presidents and forty-five conseillers, with a ministerial staff
(parquet) consisting of a procureur-general and six advocates-
general. It is divided into three sections: the Chambre des
Requetes, or court of petitions, the civil court and the criminal
court. The cour de cassation can review the decision of any
other tribunal, except administrative courts. Criminal appeals
usually go straight to the criminal section, while civil appeals are
generally taken before the Chambre des Requetes, where they
undergo a preliminary examination. If the demand for re-
hearing is refused such refusal is final; but if it is granted the
case is then heard by the civil chamber, and after argument
cassation (annulment) is granted or refused. The Court of
Cassation does not give the ultimate decision on a case; it
pronounces, not on the question of fact, but on the legal principle
at issue, or the competence of the court giving the original
decision. Any decision, even one of a cour d'assises, may be
brought before it in the last resort, and may be casse annulled.
If it pronounces cassation it remits the case to the hearing of a
court of the same order.
Commercial courts (tribunaux de commerce) are established in
all the more important commercial towns to decide as expediti-
ously as possible disputed points arising out of business trans-
actions. They consist of judges, chosen, from among the leading
merchants, and elected by commerc.ants patentes depuis cinq ans,
i.e. persons who have held the licence to trade (see FINANCE) for
five years and upwards. In the absence of a tribunal de commerce
commercial cases come before the ordinary tribunal d' arrondisse-
ment.
In important industrial towns tribunals called conseils de
prud'hommes are instituted to deal with disputes between
employers and employees, actions arising out of contracts of
apprenticeship and the like. They are composed of employers
and workmen in equal numbers and are established by decree of
the council of state, advised by the minister of justice. The
minister of justice is notified of the necessity for a conseil de
prud'hommes by the prefect, acting on the advice of the
municipal council and the Chamber of Commerce or the
Chamber of Arts and Manufactures. The judges are elected
by employers and workmen of a certain standing. When the
amount claimed exceeds 12 appeal lies to the tribunaux
d'arrondissement.
Police. Broadly, the police of France may be divided into
two great branches administrative police (la police admini-
strative) and judicial police (la police judiciaire) , the former having
for its object the maintenance of order, and the latter charged
with tracing out offenders, collecting the proofs, and delivering
the presumed offenders to the tribunals charged by law with
their trial and punishment. Subdivisions may be, and often are,
named according to the particular duties to which they are
assigned, as la police politique, police des moiurs, police sanitaire,
&c. The officers of the judicial police comprise the juge de paix
(equivalent to the English police magistrate), the maire, the
commissaire de police, the gendarmerie and, in rural districts, the
gardes champttres and the gardes forestiers. Gardiens de la paix
(sometimes called sergents de wile, gardes de mile or agents de
police) are not to be confounded with the gendarmerie, being a
branch of the administrative police and corresponding more or
less nearly with the English equivalent " police constables,"
which the gendarmerie do not, although both perform police
duty. The gendarmerie, however, differ from the agents pr
gardes both in uniform and in the fact that they are for the
most part country patrols. The organization of the Paris police,
which is typical of that in other large towns, may be outlined
briefly. The central administration (administration centrale)
comprises three classes of functions which together constitute
la police. First there is the office or cabinet of the prefect for the
general police (la police generate), with bureaus for various
objects, such as the safety of the president of the republic, the
regulation and order of public ceremonies, theatres, amusements
and entertainments, &c.; secondly, the judicial police (la police
judiciaire), with numerous bureaus also, in constant communica-
tion with the courts of judicature; thirdly, the administrative
police (la police administrative) including bureaus, which super-
intend navigation, public carriages, animals, public health, &c.
Concurrently with these divisions there is the municipal police,
which comprises all the agents in enforcing police regulations in
the streets or public thoroughfares, acting under the orders of a
chief (chef de la police municipale) with a central bureau. The
municipal police is divided into two principal branches the
service in uniform of the agents de police and the service out of
uniform of inspecteurs de police. In Paris the municipal police
are divided among the twenty arrondissements, which the
uniform police patrol (see further PARIS and POLICE).
Prisons. The prisons of France, some of them attached to the
ministry of the interior, are complex in their classification. It
is only from the middle of the ipth century that close attention
has been given to the principle of individual separation. Cellular
imprisonment was, however, partially adopted for persons
awaiting trial. Central prisons, in which prisoners lived and
worked in association, had been in existence from the commence-
ment of the i pth century. These prisons received >all sentenced
to short terms of imprisonment, the long-term convicts going to
the bagnes (the great convict prisons at the arsenals of Rochefort,
Brest and Toulon), while in 1851 transportation to penal colonies
was adopted. In 1869 and 1871 commissions were appointed to
inquire into prison discipline, and as a consequence of the report
of the last commission, issued in 1874, the principle of cellular
FINANCE]
FRANCE
793
confinement was put in operation the following year. There
were, however, but few prisons in France adapted for the cellular
system, and the process of reconstruction has been slow. In
1898 the old Paris prisons of Grande-Roquette, Saint-Pelagic
and Mazas were demolished, and to replace them a large prison
with 1500 cells was erected at Fresnes-les-Rungis. There are
(i) the maison d'arret, temporary places of durance in every
arrondissement for persons charged with offences, and those
sentenced to more than a year's imprisonment who are awaiting
transfer to a maison cenlrale; (2) the maison de justice, often part
and parcel of the former, but only existing in the assize court
towns for the safe custody of those tried or condemned at the
assizes; (3) departmental prisons, or maisons de correction, for
summary convictions, or those sentenced to less than a year, or,
if provided with sufficient cells, those amenable to separate con-
finement; (4) maisons cenlrales and penitenciers agricoles, for all
sentenced to imprisonment for more than a year, or to hard
labour, or to those condemned to travaux forces for offences com-
mitted in prison. There are eleven maisons centrales, nine for
men (Loos, Clairvaux, Beaulieu, Poissy, Melun, Fontevrault,
Thouars, Riom and Nimes); two for women (Rennes and
Montpellier). The penitenciers agricoles only differ from the
maisons cenlrales in the matter of regime; there are two at
Castelluccio and at Chiavari (Corsica). There are also re-
formatory establishments for juvenile offenders, and depots de
surete for prisoners who are travelling, at places where there are
no other prisons. For the penal settlements at a distance from
France see DEPORTATION.
Finance.
At the head of the financial organization of France, and
exercising a general jurisdiction, is the minister of finance,
who co-ordinates in one general budget the separate budgets
prepared by his colleagues and assigns to each ministerial
department the sums necessary for its expenses.
The financial year in France begins on the ist of January,
and the budget of each financial year must be laid on the table
of the Chamber of Deputies in the course of the ordinary
session of the preceding year in time for the discussion
upon it to begin in October and be concluded before the 3ist of
December. It is then submitted to a special commission of the
Chamber of Deputies, elected for one year, who appoint a general
reporter and one or more special reporters for each of the minis-
tries. When the Chamber of Deputies has voted the budget it
is submitted to a similar course of procedure in the Senate.
When the budget has passed both chambers it is promulgated by
the president under the title of Loi des finances. In the event of
its not being voted before the 3ist of December, recourse is had
to the system of " provisional twelfths " (douziemes provisoires),
whereby the government is authorized by parliament to incur
expenses for one, two or three months on the scale of the previous
year. The expenditure of the government has several times
been regulated for as long as six months upon this system.
In each department an official collector (Tresorier payeur general)
receives the taxes and public revenue collected therein and accounts
for them to the central authority in Paris. In view of his
Taxation. respons ibiHties he has, before appointment, to pay a large
deposit to the treasury. Besides receiving taxes, they pay the
creditors of the state in their departments, conduct all operations
affecting departmental loans, buy and sell government stock (rentes)
on behalf of individuals, and conduct certain banking operations.
The tresorier nearly always lives at the chief town of the department,
and is assisted by a receveur particulier des finances in each arrondisse-
ment (except that in which the tresorier himself resides). From the
receveur is demanded a security equal to five times his total income.
The direct taxes are actually collected by percepteufs. In the
commune an official known as the receveur municipal receives all
moneys due to it, and, subject to the authorization of the mayor,
makes all payments due from it. In communes with a revenue
of less than 2400 the percepteur fulfils the functions of receveur
municipal, but a special official may be appointed in communes
with large incomes.
The direct taxes fall into two classes. (l) Impels de repartition
(apportionment), the amount to be raised being fixed in advance
annually and then apportioned among the departments. They
Budget
include the land tax, 1 the personal and habitation tax (contribution
personnelle-mobiliere) , and door and window tax. (2) Impels de
quotite, which are levied directly on the individual, who pays his
quota according to a fixed tariff. These comprise the tax on
buildings 1 and the trade-licence tax (impot des patentes). Besides
these, certain other taxes (taxes assimilees aux contributions directes)
are included under the heading of direct taxation, e.g. the tax on
property in mortmain, dues for the verification of weights and
measures, the tax on royalties from mines, on horses, mules and
carriages, on cycles, &c.
The land tax falls upon land not built upon in proportion to its net
yearly revenue. It is collected in accordance with a register of
property (cadastre) drawn up for the most part in the first half of the
igth century, dealing with every piece of property in France, and
giving its extent and value and the name of the owner. The re-
sponsibility of keeping this register accurate and up to date is divided
between the state, the departments and the communes, and involves
a special service and staff of experts. The building tax consists of a
levy of 3-20% of the rental value of the property, and is charged
upon the owner.
The personal and habitation tax consists in fact of two different
taxes, one imposing a fixed capitation charge on all citizens alike
of every department, the charge, however, varying according to the
department from I fc. 50 c. (is. 3d.) to 4 fcs. 50 c. (33. gd.), the other
levied on every occupier of a furnished house or of apartments in
proportion to its rental value.
The tax on doors and windows is levied in each case according to the
number of apertures, and is fixed with reference to population, the
inhabitants of the more populous paying more than those of the less
populous communes.
The trade-licence tax (impot des patentes) is imposed on every person
carrying on any business whatever; it affects professional men,
bankers and manufacturers, as well as wholesale and retail traders,
and consists of (l) a fixed duty levied not on actual profits but with
reference to the extent of a business or calling as indicated by number
of employes, population of the locality and other considerations.
(2) An assessment on the letting value of the premises in which a
business or profession is carried on.
The administrative staff includes, for the purpose of computing the
individual quotas of the direct taxes, a director assisted by contrdleurs
in each department and subordinate to a central authority in Paris,
the direction generate des contributions directes.
The indirect taxes comprise the charges on registration; stamps;
customs; and a group of taxes specially described as "indirect
taxes."
Registration (enregistrement) duties are charged on the transfer of
property in the way of business (a litre onereux) ; on changes in
ownership effected in the way of donation or succession (a litre
gratuit), and on a variety of other transactions which must be
registered according to law. The revenue from stamps includes
as its chief items the returns from stamped paper, stamps on
goods traffic, securities and share certificates and receipts and
cheques.
The Direction generate de I' enregistrement, des domaines et du timbre,
comprising a central department and a director and staff of agents
in each department, combines the administration of state property
(not including forests) with the exaction of registration and stamp
duties.
The C\istoms(douane), at one time only a branch of the administra-
tion of the contributions indirectes, were organized in 1869 as a special
service. The central office at Paris consists of a directeur general
and two administraleurs, nominated by the president of the republic.
These officials form a council of administration presided over by the
minister of finance. The service in the departments comprises
brigades, which are actually engaged in guarding the frontiers, and a
clerical staff (service de bureau) entrusted with the collection of the
duties. There are twenty-four districts, each under the control of a
directeur, assisted by inspectors, sub-inspectors and other officials.
The chief towns of these districts are Algiers, Bayonne, Besangon,
Bordeaux, Boulogne, Brest, Chambery, Chaneville, Dunkirk,
Epinal, La Rochelle, Le Havre, Lille, Lyons, Marseilles, Montpellier,
Nancy, Nantes, Nice, Paris, Perpignan, Rouen, St-Malo,Valenciennes.
There is also an official performing the functions of a director at
Bastia, in Corsica.
The group specially described as indirect taxes includes those on
alcohol, wine, beer, cider and other alcoholic drinks, on passenger
and goods traffic by railway, on licences to distillers, spirit-sellers,
&c., on salt and on sugar of home manufacture. The collection of
these excise duties as well as the sale of matches, tobacco and gun-
powder to retailers, is assigned to a special service in each department
subordinated to a central administration. To the above taxes
must be added the tax on Stock Exchange transactions and the tax of
4 % on dividends from stocks and shares (other than stale loans).
Other main sources of revenue are: the domains and forests
managed by the state; government monopolies, comprising tobacco,
matches, gunpowder; posts, telegraphs, telephones; and state
1 The tax on land (proprietes non b&ties) and that on buildings
(proprietes baties) are included under the head of contribution fonciere.
794
FRANCE
[ARMY
railways. An administrative tribunal called the cour des comptes
subjects the accounts of the state's financial agents (tresoriers-
payeurs, receveurs of registration fees, of customs, of indirect taxes,
&c.) and of the communes 1 to a close investigation, and a vote of
definitive settlement is finally passed by parliament. The Cour des
Comptes, an ancient tribunal, was abolished in 1791, and reorganized
by Napoleon I. in 1807. It consists of a president and no other
officials, assisted by 25 auditors. All these are nominated for life
by the president of the republic. Besides the accounts of the state
and of the communes, those of charitable institutions 1 and training
colleges 1 and a great variety of other public establishments are
scrutinized by the Cour des Comptes.
The following table shows the rapid growth of the state revenue of
France during the period 1875-1905, the figures for the specified years
representing millions of pounds.
1875-
1 08
1880.
118
1885.
1890. 1895.
129
137
Average
1896-1900.
144
Average
1901-1905.
Of the revenue in 1905 (1505 million pounds) the four direct taxes
produced approximately 20 millions. Other principal items of
revenue were : Registration 25 millions, stamps 7 J millions, customs
18 millions, inland revenue on liquors 16^ millions, receipts from the
tobacco monopoly 18 millions, receipts from post office ioj millions.
Since 1875 the expenditure of the state has passed through con-
siderable fluctuations. It reached its maximum in 1883, descended
Exoendl- ' n l ^^ anc ^ I 889 and since then has continuously in-
tu f creased. It was formerly the custom to divide the credits
voted for the discharge of the public services into two
heads the ordinary and extraordinary budget. The ordinary
budget of expenditure was that met entirely by the produce of the
taxes, while the extraordinary budget of expenditure was that which
had to be incurred either in the way of an immediate loan or in aid
of the funds of the floating debt. The policy adopted after 1890
of incorporating in the ordinary budget the expenditure on war,
marine and public works, each under its own head, rendered the
" extraordinary budget " obsolete, but there are still, besides the
ordinary budget, budgets annexes, comprising the credits voted to
certain establishments under state supervision, e.g. the National
Savings Bank, state railways, &c. The growth of the expenditure
of France is shown in the following summary figures, which represent
millions of pounds.
1875.
1880.
1885.
1890.
1895-
Average
1896-1900.
Average
1901-1905.
"7
135
139
132
137
H3
H7
The chief item of expenditure (which totalled 148 million pounds
in 1905) is the service of the public debt, which in 1905 cost 48}
million pounds sterling. Of the rest of the sum assigned to the
ministry of finance (59! millions in all) 8 millions went in the ex-
pense of collection of revenue. The other ministries with the largest
outgoings were ths ministry of war (the expenditure of which rose
from 25 j millions in 1895 to over 30 millions in 1905), the ministry
of marine (lof millions in 1895, over \2\ millions in 1905), the ministry
of public works (with an expenditure in 1905 of over 20 millions,
10 millions of which was assigned to posts, telegraphs and telephones)
and the ministry of public instruction, fine arts and public worship,
the expenditure on education having risen from 7J millions in 1895
to 9! millions in 1905.
Public Debt. The national debt of France is the heaviest of any
country in the world. Its foundation was laid early in the 15th
century, and the continuous wars of succeeding centuries, combined
with the extravagance of the monarchs, as well as deliberate dis-
regard of financial and economic conditions, increased it at an alarm-
ing rate. The duke of Sully carried out a revision in 1604, and other
attempts were made by Mazarin and Colbert, but the extravagances
of Louis XV. swelled it again heavily. In 1764 the national debt
amounted to 2,360,000,000 livres, and the annual change to 93,000,000
hvres. A consolidation was effected in 1793, but the lavish issue of
assignats fg.ii.) destroyed whatever advantage might have accrued,
and the debt was again dealt with by a law of the 9th of Vendemiaire
year VI. (27th of September 1797), the annual interest paid yearly
to creditors then amounting to 40,216,000 francs (1,600,000)
During the Directory a sum of 250,000 was added to the interest
charge, and by 1814 this annual charge had risen to 2, -510,000
1 his large increase is to be accounted for by the fact that during the
Napoleonic regime the government steadily refused to issue in-
convertible paper currency or to meet war expenditure by borrowing.
Ihe following table shows the increase of the funded debt since
1014.
1 With revenues of over 1200.
1 For a history of the French debt, see C. F. Bastable, Public
Finance (1903).
Date.
Nominal Capital
(Millions of ).
Interest
(Millions of ).
April j,
April I,
March I,
January I,
1814 . . .
1830 . . .
1848 . . .
1852 . . .
1871 . . .
1876 . . .
1887 . . .
1895
1905 . . .
50J
I77 i
22Oj
796}
986^
iQ37i
8
Ji
3 !
34i
32 1
The French debt as constituted in 1905 was made up of funded
debt and floating debt as follows:
Funded Debt.
Perpetual 3 % rentes 888,870,400
Terminable 3 % renter 148,490,400
Total of funded debt 1,037,360,800
Guarantees to railway companies, &c. (in
capital). . 89,724,080
Other debt m capital 46,800,840
Floating Debt.
Exchequer bills 9.923,480
Liabilities on behalf of communes and public
establishments, including departmental
services 17,366,520
Deposit and current accounts of Caisse des
depdts, &c., including savings banks . . 15,328,840
Caution money of Tresoriers payeurs-generaux 1 ,43 1 ,680
Other liabilities 6,456,200
Total of floating debt .... 50,506,720
Departmental Finances. Every department has a budget of its
own, which is prepared and presented by the prefect, voted by the
departmental council and approved by decree of the president of the
republic. The ordinary receipts include the revenues from the
property of the department, the produce of additional centimes,
which are levied in conjunction with the direct taxes for the main-
tenance of both departmental and communal finances, state sub-
ventions and contributions of the communes towards certain branches
of poor relief and to maintenance of roads. The chief expenses of the
departments are the care of pauper children and lunatics, the
maintenance of high-roads and the service of the departmental debt.
Communal Finances. The budget of the commune is prepared
by the mayor, voted by the municipal council and approved by the
prefect. But in communes the revenues of which exceed 120,000,
the budget is always submitted to the president of the republic.
The ordinary revenues include the produce of " additional centimes "
allocated to communal purposes, the rents and profits of communal
property, sums produced by municipal taxes and dues, concessions
to gas, water and other companies, and by the octroi (q.v.) or duty
on a variety of articles imported into the commune for local con-
sumption. The repairing of highways, the upkeep of public build-
ings, the support of public education, the remuneration of numerous
officials connected with the collection of state taxes, the keeping
of the cadastre, &c., constitute the principal objects of communal
expenditure.
Both the departments and the communes have considerable
public debts. The departmental debt in 1904 stood at 24 million
pounds, and the communal debt at 153 million pounds. (R. TR.)
Army.
Recruiting and Strength. Universal compulsory service was
adopted after the disasters of 1870-1871, though in principle
it had been established by Marshal Niel's reforms a few years
before that date. The most important of the recruiting laws
passed since 1870 are those of 1872, 1889 and 1905, the last
the " loi de deux ans " which embodies the last efforts of the
French war department to keep pace with the ever-growing
numbers of the German empire. Compulsory service with the
colours is in Germany no longer universal, as there are twice
as many able-bodied men presented by the recruiting com-
missions as the active army can absorb. France, with a greatly
inferior population, now trains every man who is physically
capable. This law naturally made a deep impression on military
Europe, not merely because the period of colour service was
reduced Germany had taken this step years before but
because of the almost entire absence of the usual exemptions.
3 In 1894 the rentes then standing at 4!% were reduced to 3$%,
ARMY]
FRANCE
795
Even bread-winners are required to serve, the state pensioning
their dependants (75 centimes per diem, up to 10% of the
strength) during their period of service. Dispensations, and also
the one-year voluntariat, which had become a short cut for the
so-called " intellectual class " to employment in the civil service
rather than a means of training reserve officers, were abolished.
Every Frenchman therefore is a member of the army practically
or potentially from the age of twenty to the age of forty-five.
Each year there is drawn up in every commune a list of the
young men who attained the age of twenty during the previous
year. These young men are then examined by a revising body
(Conseil de revision cantonal) composed of civil and military
officials. Men physically unfit are wholly exempted, and men
who have not, at the time of the examination, attained the
required physical standard are put back for re-examination
after an interval. Men who, otherwise suitable, have some
slight infirmity are drafted into the non-combatant branches.
The minimum height for the infantry soldier is 1-54 m., or
5 ft. | in., but men of special physique are taken below this
height. In 1904, under the old system of three-years' service
with numerous total and partial exemptions, 324,253 men
became liable to incorporation, of whom 25,432 were rejected
as unfit, 55,265 were admitted as one-year volunteers, 62,160
were put back, 27,825 had already enlisted with a view to making
the army a career, 5257 were taken for the navy, and thus, with
a few extra details and casualties, the contingent for full service
dwindled to 147,549 recruits. In 1906, 326,793 men had to
present themselves, 25,348 had already enlisted, 4923 went to
the navy, 68,526 were put back, 33,777 found unfit, which,
deducting 3128 details, gives an actual incorporated contingent
of 191,091 young men of twenty-one to serve for two full years (in
each case, for the sake of comparison, men put back from former
years who were enrolled are omitted). In theory a two-years'
contingent of course should be half as large again as a three-years'
one, but in practice, France has not men enough for so great
an increase. Still the law of 1905 provides a system whereby
there is room with the colours for every available man, and
moreover ensures his services. The net gain in the 1906 class
is not far short of 50,000, and the proportion of the new contingent
to the old is practically 5 : 4. The loi des cadres of 1907 introduced
many important changes of detail supplementary to the loi de
deux ans. Important changes were also made in the provisions
and administration of military law. The active army, then,
at a given moment, say November i, 1908, is composed of all
the young men, not legally exempted, who have reached the age
of twenty in the years 1906 and 1907. It is at the disposal
of the minister of war, who can decree the recall of all men dis-
charged to the reserve the previous year and all those whose
time of service has for any reason been shortened. The reserves
of the active army are composed of those who have served
the legal period in the active army. These are recalled twice,
in the eleven years during which they are members of the reserve,
for refresher courses. The active army and its reserve are not
localized, but drawn from and distributed over the whole of
France. The advantages of a purely territorial system have
tempted various War Ministers to apply it, but the results were
not good, owing to the want of uniformity in the military
qualities and the political subordination of the different districts.
One result of this is that mobilization and concentration are
much slower processes than they are in Germany.
The Territorial Army and its reserve (members of which
undergo two short periods of training) are, however, allocated
to local service. The soldier spends six years in the Territorial
Army, and six in the reserve of the Territorial Army. The
reserves of the active army and the Territorial Army and its
reserve can only be recalled to active service in case of emergency
and by decree of the head of the state.
The total service rendered by the individual soldier is thus
twenty-five years. He is registered at the age of twenty, is
called to the colours on the ist of October of the next year,
discharged to the active army reserve on the 3oth of September
of the second year thereafter, to the Territorial Army at the
same date thirteen complete years after his incorporation, and
finally discharged from the reserve of the Territorial Army
on the twenty-fifth anniversary of his entry into the active army.
On November i, 1908, then the active army was composed of
the classes registered 1906 and 1907, the reserve of the classes
1895-1905, the Territorial Army of those of 1889-1894 and the
Territorial Army reserve of those of 1883-1888.
In 1906 the peace strength of the army in France was estimated
at 53 2 >593 officers and men; in Algeria 54,580; in Tunis 20,320;
total 607,493. Deducting vacancies, sick and absent, the
effective strength of the active army in 1906 was 540,563; of
the gendarmerie and Garde Republicaine 24,512; of colonial
troops in the colonies 58,568. The full number of persons liable
to be called upon for military service and engaged in such service
is calculated (1908) as 4,800,000, of whom 1,350,000 of the active
army and the younger classes of army reserve would constitute
the field armies set on foot at the outbreak of war. 150,000
horses and mules are maintained on a peace footing and 600,000
on a war footing.
Organization. The general organization of the French army
at home is based on the system of permanent army corps, the
headquarters of which are as follows: I. Lille, II. Amiens,
III. Rouen, IV. Le Mans, V. Orleans, VI. Chalons-sur-Marne,
VII. Besangon, VIII. Bourges, IX. Tours, X. Rennes, XI.
Nantes, XII. Limoges, XIII. Clermont-Ferrand, XIV. Lyons,
XV. Marseilles, XVI. Montpellier, XVII. Toulouse, XVIII.
Bordeaux, XIX. Algiers and XX. Nancy. Each army corps
consists in principle of two infantry divisions, one cavalry
brigade, one brigade of horse and field artillery, one engineer
battalion and one squadron of train. But certain army corps
have a special organization. The VI. corps (Chalons) and the
VII. (Besancon) consist of three divisions each, and the XIX.
(Algiers) has three divisions of its own as well as the division
occupying Tunis. In addition to these corps there are eight
permanent cavalry divisions with headquarters at Paris, Lune-
ville, Meaux, Sedan, Reims, Lyons, Melun and Dole. The
military government of Paris is independent of the army corps
system and comprises, besides a division of the colonial army
corps (see below), 3! others detached from the II., III., IV. and
V. corps, as well as the ist and 3rd 'cavalry divisions and many
smaller bodies of troops. The military government of Lyons
is another independent and special command; it comprises
practically the XIV. army corps and the 6th cavalry division.
The infantry division consists of 2 brigades, each of 2 regiments
of 3 or 4 battalions (the 4 battalion regiments have recently
been reduced for the most part to 3), with i squadron cavalry
and 12 batteries, attached from the corps troops, in war a pro-
portion of the artillery would, however, be taken back to form
the corps artillery (see ARTILLERY and TACTICS). The cavalry
division consists of 2 or 3 brigades, each of 2 regiments or 8
squadrons, with 2 horse artillery batteries attached. The army
corps consists of headquarters, 2 (or 3) infantry divisions, i
cavalry brigade, i artillery brigade (2 regiments, comprising 21
field and 2 horse batteries), i engineer battalion, &c. In war
a group of " Rimailho " heavy howitzers (see ORDNANCE:
Heavy Field and Light Siege Units) would be attached. It is
proposed, and accepted in principle, to increase the number of
guns in the army corps by converting the horse batteries in 18
army corps to field batteries, which, with other measures, enables
the number of the latter to be increased to 36 (144 guns).
The organization of the " metropolitan troops " by regiments
is (a) 163 regiments of line infantry, some of which are affected
to " regional " duties and do not enter into the composition of
their army corps for war, 31 battalions of chasseurs a pied,
mostly stationed in the Alps and the Vosges, 4 regiments of
Zouaves, 4 regiments of Algerian tirailleurs (natives, often
called Turcos 1 ), 2 foreign legion regiments, 5 battalions of
African light infantry (disciplinary regiments), &c.; (6) 12
1 Algerian native troops are recruited by voluntary enlistment.
But in 1908, owing to the prevailing want of trained soldiers in
France, it was proposed to set free the white troops in Algeria by
applying the principles of universal service to the natives, as in Tunis.
796
regiments of cuirassiers, 32 of dragoons, 21 of chasseurs a cheval,
14 of hussars, 6 of chasseurs d'Afrique and 4 of Spahis (Algerian
natives); (c) 40 regiments of artillery, comprising 445 field
batteries, 14 mountain batteries and 52 horse batteries (see,
however, above), 18 battalions of garrison artillery, with in
addition 13 companies of artificers, &c.; (d) 6 regiments of
engineers forming 22 battalions, and i railway regiment; (e)
20 squadrons of train, 27 legions of gendarmerie and the Paris
Garde Republicaine, administrative and medical units.
Colonial Troops. These form an expeditionary army corps
in France to which are attached the actual corps of occupation
to the various colonies, part white, part natives. The colonial
army corps, headquarters at Paris, has three divisions, at Paris,
Toulon and Brest.
The French colonial (formerly marine) infantry, recruited by
voluntary enlistment, comprises 18 regiments and 5 independent
battalions (of which 12 regiments are at home), 74 batteries of
field, fortress and mountain artillery (of which 32 are at home),
with a few cavalry and engineers, &c., and other services in
proportion. The native troops include 13 regiments and 8
independent battalions. The strength of this army corps is
28,700 in France and 61,300 in the colonies.
Command. The commander-in-chief of all the armed forces
is the president of the Republic, but the practical direction of
affairs lies in the hand of the minister of war, who is assisted
by the Conseil supSrieur de la guerre, a body of senior generals
who have been selected to be appointed to the higher commands
in war. The vice-president is the destined commander-in-chief
of the field armies and is styled the generalissimo. The chief of
staff of the army is also a member of the council. In war
the latter would probably remain at the ministry of war in Paris,
and the generalissimo would have his own chief of staff. The
ministry of war is divided into branches for infantry, cavalry,
&c. and services for special subjects such as military law,
explosives, health, &c. The general staff (elat major de I'armee)
has its functions classed as follows: personnel; material and
finance; ist bureau (organization and mobilization), 2nd
(intelligence), 3rd (military operations and training) and 4th
(communications and transport); and the famous historical
section. The president of the Republic has a military household,
and the minister a cabinet, both of which are occupied chiefly
with questions of promotion, patronage and decorations.
The general staff and also the staff of the corps and divisions
are composed of certificated (brevets) officers who have passed
all through the Ecole de Guerre. In time of peace an officer is
attached to the staff for not more than four years. He must
then return to regimental duty for at least two years.
The officers of the army are obtained partly from the old-
established military schools, partly from the ranks of the non-
commissioned officers, the proportion of the latter being about
one-third of the total number of officers. Artillery and engineer
officers come from the Ecole Polytechnique, infantry and cavalry
from the Ecole speciale militaire de St-Cyr. Other important
training institutions are the staff college (Ecole superieure de
Guerre) which trains annually 70 to 90 selected captains and
lieutenants; the musketry school of Chalons, the gymnastic
school at Joinville-le-Pont and the schools of St Maixent, Saumur
and Versailles for the preparation of non-commissioned officers
for commissions in the infantry, cavalry, artillery and en-
gineers respectively. The non-commissioned officers are, as
usual in universal service armies, drawn partly from men who
voluntarily enlist at a relatively early age, and partly from men
who at the end of their compulsory period of service are re-engaged.
Voluntary enlistments in the French army are permissible,
within certain limits, at the age of eighteen, and the engages
serve for at least three years. The law further provides for the
re-engagement of men of all ranks, under conditions varying
according to their rank. Such re-engagements are for one to three
years' effective service but may be extended to fifteen. They
date from the time of the legal expiry of each man's com-
pulsory active service. Rengages receive a bounty, a higher
rate of pay and a pension at the conclusion of their service.
FRANCE
[ARMY
The total number of men who had re-enlisted stood in 1903 at
8594.
Armament. The field artillery is armed with the 75 mm. gun,
a shielded quick-firer (see ORDNANCE: Field Equipments,
for illustration and details); this weapon was the forerunner
of all modern models of field gun, and is handled on tactical
principles specially adapted for it, which gives the French field
artillery a unique position amongst the military nations. The
infantry, which was the first in Europe to be armed with the
magazine rifle, still carries this, the Lebel, rifle which dates from
1886. It is believed, however, that a satisfactory type of auto-
matic rifle (see RIFLE) has been evolved and is now (1908) in
process of manufacture. Details are kept strictly secret. The
cavalry weapons are a straight sword (that of the heavy cavalry
is illustrated in the article SWORD), a bamboo lance and the
Lebel carbine.
It is convenient to mention in this place certain institutions
attached to the war department and completing the French
military organization. The Hotel des Invalides founded by
Louis XIV. and Louvois is a house of refuge for old and infirm
soldiers of all grades. The number of the inmates is decreasing;
but the institution is an expensive one. In 1875 the " Invalides "
numbered 642, and the hdtel cost the state 1,123,053 francs.
The order of the Legion of Honour is treated under KNIGHTHOOD
AND CHIVALRY. The medaille militaire is awarded to private
soldiers and non-commissioned officers who have distinguished
themselves or rendered long and meritorious services. This
was introduced in 1852, carries a yearly pension of 100 frs. and
has been granted occasionally to officers.
Fortifications. After 1870 France embarked upon a policy
of elaborate frontier and inner defences, with the object of
ensuring, as against an unexpected German invasion, the time
necessary for the effective development of her military forces,
which were then in process of reorganization. Some information
as to the types of fortification adopted in 1870-1875 will be
found in FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT. The general lines
of the scheme adopted were as follows: On the Meuse, which
forms the principal natural barrier on the side of Lorraine,
Verdun (q.v.) was fortified as a large entrenched camp, and
along the river above this were constructed a series of forts
d'arret (see MEUSE LINE) ending in another entrenched camp
at Toul (q.v.). From this point a gap (the troupe d'pinal) was
left, so as " in some sort to canalize the flow of invasion " (General
Bonnal), until the upper Moselle was reached at Epinal (q.v.).
Here another entrenched camp was made and from it the "Moselle
line " (q.v.) of forts, d'arret continues the barrier to Belfort (q.v.),
another large entrenched camp, beyond which a series of fortifica-
tions at Montbeliard and the Lomont range carries the line of
defence to the Swiss border, which in turn is protected by
works at Pontarlier and elsewhere. In rear of these lines Verdun-
Toul and Epinal-Belfort, respectively, lie two large defended
areas in which under certain circumstances the main armies
would assemble preparatory to offensive movements. One of
these areas is defined by the three fortresses, La Fere, Laon
and Reims, the other by the triangle, Langres Dijon Besancon.
On the side of Belgium the danger of irruption through neutral
territory, which has for many years been foreseen, is provided
against by the fortresses of Lille, Valenciennes and Maubeuge,
but (with a view to tempting the Germans to attack through
Luxemburg, as is stated by German authorities) the frontier
between Maubeuge and Verdun is left practically undefended.
The real defence of this region lies in the field army which would,
if the case arose, assemble in the area La Fere-Reims-Laon.
On the Italian frontier the numerous/orts d'arret in the mountains
are strongly supported by the entrenched camps of Besancon,
Grenoble and Nice. Behind all this huge development of fixed
defences lie the central fortresses of Paris and Lyons. The
defences of the Spanish frontier consist of the entrenched camps
of Bayonne and Perpignan and the various small forts d'arret
of the Pyrenees. Of the coast defences the principal are Toulon,
Antibes, Rochefort, Lorient, Brest, Oleron, La Rochelle, Belle-
Isle, Cherbourg, St-Malo, Havre, Calais, Gravelines and Dunkirk.
NAVY]
FRANCE
797
A number of the older fortresses, dating for the most part from
Louis XIV.'s time, are still in existence, but are no longer of
military importance. Such are Arras, Longwy, Mezieres and
Montmedy.
Navy.
Central Administration. The head of the French navy is
the Minister of Marine, who like the other ministers is appointed
by decree of the head of the state, and is usually a civilian.
He selects for himself a staff of civilians (the cabinet du minislre),
which is divided into bureaux for the despatch of business.
The head of the cabinet prepares for the consideration of the
minister all the business of the navy, especially questions of
general importance. His chief professional assistant is the
chefd'etat-major general (chief of the general staff), a vice-admiral,
who is responsible for the organization of the naval forces, the
mobilization and movements of the fleet, &c.
The central organization also comprises a number of depart-
ments (services) entrusted with the various branches of naval
administration, such as administration of the active fleet, con-
struction of ships, arsenals, recruiting, finance, &c. The minister
has the assistance of the Conseil superieur de la Marine, over
which he presides, consisting of three vice-admirals, the chief
of staff and some other members. The Conseil superieur
devotes its attention to all questions touching the fighting
efficiency of the fleet, naval bases and arsenals and coast defence.
Besides the Conseil superieur the minister is advised on a very
wide range of naval topics (including pay, quarters and recruiting)
by the Comite consultatif de la Marine. Advisory committees are
also appointed to deal with special subjects, e.g. the commissions
de classement which attend to questions of promotion in the
various branches of the navy, the naval works council and others.
The French coast is divided into five naval arrondissements,
which have their headquarters at the five naval ports, of which
Cherbourg, Brest, and Toulon are the most important, Lorient
and Rochefort being of lesser degree. All are building and
fitting-out yards. Each arrondissement is divided into sous-
arrondissements, having their centres in the great commercial
ports, but this arrangement is purely for the embodiment of the
men of the Inscription Maritime, and has nothing to do with
the dockyards as naval arsenals. In each arrondissement
the vice-admiral, who is naval prefect, is the immediate repre-
sentative of the minister of marine, and has full direction and
command of the arsenal, which is his headquarters. He is thus
commander-in-chief, as also governor-designate for time of war,
but his authority does not extend to ships belonging to organized
squadrons or divisions. The naval prefect is assisted by a rear-
admiral as chief of the staff (except at Lorient and Rochefort,
where the office is filled by a captain), and a certain number of
other officers, the special functions of the chief of the staff
having relation principally to the efficiency and personnel of the
fleet, while the " major-general," who is usually a rear-admiral,
is concerned chiefly with the materiel. There are also directors
of stores, of naval construction, of the medical service, and of the
submarine defences (which are concerned with torpedoes, mines
and torpedo-boats), as well as of naval ordnance and works,
The prefect directs the operations of the arsenal, and is responsible
for its efficiency and for that of the ships which are there in
reserve. In regard to the constitution and maintenance of the
naval forces, the administration of the arsenals is divided into
three principal departments, the first concerned with naval
construction, the second with ordnance, including gun-mountings
and small-arms, and the third with the so-called submarine
defences, dealing with all torpedo materiel.
The French navy is manned partly by voluntary enlistment,
partly by the transference to the navy of a certain proportion
of each year's recruits for the army, but mainly by a system
known as inscription maritime. This system, devised and
introduced by Colbert in 1681, has continued, with various
modifications, ever since. All French sailors between the ages
of eighteen and fifty must be enrolled as members of the armee
de mer. The term sailor is used in a very wide sense and includes
all persons earning their living by navigation on the sea, or in
the harbours or roadsteads, or on salt lakes or canals within
the maritime domain of the state, or on rivers and canals as far
as the tide goes up or sea-going ships can pass. The inscript
usually begins his service at the age of twenty and passes through
a period of obligatory service lasting seven years, and generally
comprising five years of active service and two years furlough.
Besides the important harbours already referred to, the
French fleet has naval bases at Oran in Algeria, Bizerta in
Tunisia, Saigon in Cochin China and Hongaj in Tongking, Diego-
Suarez in Madagascar, Dakar in Senegal, Fort de France in
Martinique, Noumea in New Caledonia.
The ordnance department of the navy is carried on by a large
detachment of artillery officers and artificers provided by the
war office for this special duty.
The fleet is divided into the Mediterranean squadron, the
Northern squadron, the Atlantic division, the Far Eastern
division, the Pacific division, the Indian Ocean division, the
Cochin China division.
The chief naval school is the cole nawle at Brest, which is
devoted to the training of officers; the age of admission is from
fifteen to eighteen years, and pupils after completing their course
pass a year on a frigate school. At Paris there is a more advanced
school (cole superieure de la Marine) for the supplementary
training of officers. Other schools are the school of naval
medicine at Bordeaux with annexes at Toulon, Brest and Roche-
fort; schools of torpedoes and mines and of gunnery at Toulon,
&c., &c. The ecoles d'hydrographie established at various ports
are for theoretical training for the higher grades of the merchant
service. (See also NAVY.)
The total personnel of the armee de mer in 1909 is given as
56,800 officers and men. As to the number of vessels, which
fluctuates from month to month, little can be said that is whojly
accurate at any given moment, but, very roughly, the French
navy in 1909 included 25 battleships, 7 coast defence ironclads,
19 armoured cruisers, 36 protected cruisers, 22 sloops, gunboats,
&c., 45 destroyers, 319 torpedo boats, 71 submersibles and
submarines and 8 auxiliary cruisers. It was stated that, according
to proposed arrangements, the principal fighting elements of
the fleet would be, in 1919, 34 battleships, 36 armoured cruisers,
6 smaller cruisers of modern type, 109 destroyers, 170 torpedo
boats and 171 submersibles and submarines. The budgetary
cost of the navy in 1908 was stated as 312,000,000 fr.
(12,480,000). (C. F. A.)
Education.
The burden of public instruction in France is shared by the
communes, departments and state, while side by side with the
public schools of all grades are private schools subjected to
a state supervision and certain restrictions. At the head of the
whole organization is the minister of public instruction. He
is assisted and advised by the superior council of public instruc-
tion, over which he presides.
France is divided into sixteen academies or educational districts,
having their centres at the seats of the universities. The capitals
of these academies, together with the departments included in
them, are tabulated below:
Academies. Departments included in them.
PARIS .... Seine, Cher, Eure-et-Loir, Loir-et-Cher,Loiret,
Marne, Oise, Seine-et-Marne, Seine-et-Oise.
Aix Bouches-du-Rh6ne, Basses-AIpes,Alpes-Mari-
times, Corse, Var, Vaucluse.
BESANCON . . . Doubs, Jura, Haute-Sa6ne, Territoire de
Belfort.
BORDEAUX . . . Gironde, Dordogne, Landes, Lot-et-Garonne,
Basses- Pyrenees.
CAEN .... Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne, Sarthe, Seine-
Inferieure.
CHAMBERY . . . Savoie, Haute-Savoie.
CLERMONT-FERRAND Puy-de-D6me, Allier, Cantal, Correze, Creuse,
Haute-Loire.
DIJON C6te-d'Or,Aube, Haute-Marne,Nievre,Yonne.
GRENOBLE . . . Isere, Hautes-Alpes, Ardeche, Dr6me.
LILLE .... Nord.Aisne, Ardennes, Pas-de-Calais, Somme.
LYONS .... Rh6ne, Ain, Loire, Sa6ne-et-Loire.
FRANCE
[EDUCATION
Academies. Departments included in them.
MONTPELLIER . . Herault, Aude, Card, Lozere, Pyrenees-
Orientales.
NANCY .... Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Vosges.
POITIERS . . . Vienne, Charente, Charente-Inferieure, Indre,
Indre-et-Loire, Deux-Sevres, Vendee, Haute-
Vienne.
RENNES .... Ille-et-Vilaine.Cotes-du-Nprd, Finistere,Loire-
Inferieure, Maine-et-Loire, Mayenne, Mor-
bihan.
TOULOUSE . . . Haute-Garonne, Ariege, Aveyron, Gers, Lot,
Hautes-Pyrenees, Tarn, Tarn-et-Garonne.
There is also an academic comprising Algeria.
For the administrative organization of education in France
see EDUCATION.
Any person fulfilling certain legal requirements with regard
to capacity, age and character may set up privately an educational
establishment of any grade, but by the law of 1904 all religious
congregations are prohibited from keeping schools of any kind
whatever.
Primary Instruction. All primary public instruction is free and
compulsory for children of both sexes between the ages of six and
thirteen, but if a child can gain a certificate of primary studies at the
age of eleven or after, he may be excused the rest of the period
demanded by law. A child may receive instruction in a public or
private school or at home. But if the parents wish him to be
taught in a private school they must give notice to the mayor of
the commune of their intention and the school chosen. If educated
at home, the child (after two years of the compulsory period has
expired) must undergo a yearly examination, and if it is unsatis-
factory the parents will be compelled to send him to a public or
private school.
Each commune is in theory obliged to maintain at least one
public primary school, but with the approval of the minister, the
departmental council may authorize a commune to combine with
other communes in the upkeep of a school. If the number of in-
habitants exceed 500, the commune must also provide a special
school for girls, unless the Departmental Council authorizes it to
substitute a mixed school. Each department is bound to maintain
two primary training colleges, one for masters, the other for mistresses
of primary schools. There are two higher training colleges of
primary instruction at Fontenay-aux-Roses and St Cloud for the
training of mistresses and masters of training colleges and higher
primary schools.
The Laws of 1882 and 1886 " laicized " the schools of this class,
the former suppressing religious instruction, the latter providing
that only laymen should be eligible for masterships. There were
also a great many schools in the control of various religious congre-
gations, but a law of 1904 required that they should all be suppressed
within ten years from the date of its enactment.
Public primary schools include (l) ecoles maternelles infant
schools for children from two to six years old; (2) elementary
primary schools these are the ordinary schools for children from
six to thirteen; (3) higher primary schools (ecoles primaires
superieures') and "supplementary courses"; these admit pupils
who have gained the certificate of primary elementary studies
(certificat d' etudes primaires), offer a more advanced course and
prepare for technical instruction; (4) primary technical schools
(ecoles manuelles d'apprentissage, ecoles primaires superieures^ pro-
fessionnelles) kept by the communes or departments. Primary
courses for adults are instituted by the prefect on the recommenda-
tion of the municipal council and academy inspector.
Persons keeping private primary schools are free with regard to
their methods, programmes and books employed, except that they
may not use books expressly prohibited by the superior council of
public instruction. Before opening a private school the person
proposing to do so must give notice to the mayor, prefect and academy
inspector, and forward his diplomas and other particulars to the
latter official.
Secondary Education.- Secondary education is given by the state
in lycees, by the communes in colleges and by private individuals
and associations in private secondary schools. It is not compulsory,
nor is it entirely gratuitous, but the fees are small and the state
offers a great many scholarships, by means of which a clever child
can pay for its own instruction. Cost of tuition (simply) ranges
from 2 to 16 a year. The lycees also take boarders the cost of
boarding ranging from 22 to 52 a year. A lycee is founded in a
town by decree of the president of the republic, with the advice of
the superior council of public instruction. The municipality has to
pay the cost of building, furnishing and upkeep. At the head of
the lycee is the principal (proviseur), an official nominated by the
minister, and assisted by a teaching staff of professors and charges
de cours or teachers of somewhat lower standing. To become pro-
fessor in a lycee it is necessary to pass an examination known as the
" agregation," candidates for which must be licentiates of a faculty
(or have passed through the &ole normale superieure).
The system of studies reorganized in 1902 embraces a full
curriculum of seven years, which is divided into two periods. The
first lasts four years, and at the end of this the pupil may obtain
(after examination) the " certificate of secondary studies." During
the second period the pupil has a choice of four courses: (l) Latin
and Greek; (2) Latin and sciences; (3) Latin and modern languages;
(4) sciences and modern languages. At the end of this period he
presents himself for a degree called the Baccalaureat de I' enseignement
secondaire. This is granted (after two examinations) by the faculties
of letters and sciences jointly (see below), and in most cases it is
necessary for a student to hold this general degree before he may be
enrolled in a particular faculty of a university and proceed to a
Baccalaureat in a particular subject, such as law, theology or
medicine.
The colleges, though of a lower grade, are in most respects similar
to the lycees, but they are financed by the communes: the professors
may have certain less important qualifications in lieu of the " agre-
gation." Private secondary schools are subjected to state inspection.
The teachers must not belong to any congregation, and must have a
diploma of aptitude for teaching and the degree of " licencie." The
establishment of lycees for girls was first attempted in 1880. They
give an education similar to that offered in the lycees for boys
with certain modifications in a curriculum of five or six years.
There is a training-college for teachers in secondary schools for girls
at Sevres.
Higher education is given by the state in the universities, and in
special higher schools; and, since the law of 1875 established the
freedom of higher education, by private individuals and bodies in
private schools and " faculties " (facultes libres). The law of 1880
reserved to the state " faculties " the right to confer degrees, and
the law of 1896 established various universities each containing one
or more faculties. There are five kinds of faculties: medicine,
letters, science, law and Protestant theology. The faculties of
letters and sciences, besides granting the Baccalaureat de I' enseigne-
ment secondaire, confer the degrees of licentiate and doctor (la
Licence, le Doctoral}. The faculties of medicine confer the degree
of doctor of medicine. The faculties of theology confer the degrees
of bachelor, licentiate and doctor of theology. The faculties of law
confer the same degrees in law and also grant " certificates of
capacity," which enable the holder to practise as an avoue; a
licence is necessary for the profession of barrister. Students of the
private faculties have to be examined by and take their degrees
from the state faculties. There are 2 faculties of Protestant theology
(Paris and Montauban) ; 12 faculties of law (Paris, Aix, Bordeaux,
Caen, Grenoble, Lille, Lyons, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes,
Toulouse); 3 faculties of medicine (Paris, Montpellier and Nancy),
and 4 joint faculties of medicine and pharmacy (Bordeaux, Lille,
Lyons, Toulouse); 15 faculties of sciences (Paris, Besancon, Bor-
deaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyons, Marseilles,
Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse) ; 15 faculties of
letters (at the same towns, substituting Aix for Marseilles). The
private faculties are at Paris (the Catholic Institute with a faculty
of law) ; Angers (law, science and letters) ; Lille (law, medicine
and pharmacy, science, letters) ; Lyons (law, science, letters) ;
Marseilles (law) ; Toulouse (Catholic Institute with faculties of
theology and letters). The work of the faculties of medicine and
pharmacy is in some measure shared by the ecoles superieures de
pharmacie (Paris, Montpellier, Nancy), which grant the highest
degrees in pharmacy, and by the ecoles de plein exercice de medecine
et de pharmacie (Marseilles, Rennes and Nantes) and the more
numerous ecoles preparatoires de medecine et de pharmacie; there
are also ecoles preparatoires a I' enseignement superieur des sciences et
des lettres at Chambery, Rouen and Nantes.
Besides the faculties there are a number of institutions, both
state-supported and private, giving higher instruction of various
special kinds. In the first class must be mentioned the College de
France, founded 1530, giving courses of highest study of all sorts,
the Museum of Natural History, the Ecole des Chartes (palaeography
and archives), the School of Modern Oriental Languages, the Ecole
Pratique des Hautes Etudes (scientific research), &c. All these
institutions are in Paris. The most important free institution in
this class is the Ecole des Sciences Politiques, which prepares pupils
for the civil services and teaches a great number of political subjects,
connected with France and foreign countries, not included in the
state programmes.
Commercial and technical instruction is given in various in-
stitutions comprising national establishments such as the ecoles
nationales professionnelles of Armentieres, Vierzon, Voiron and
Nantes for the education of working men ; the more advanced ecoles
d' arts et metiers of Chalons, Angers, Aix, Lille and Cluny ; and the
Central School of Arts and Manufactures at Paris ; schools depending
on the communes and state in combination, e.g. the ecoles pratiques
de commerce et d' Industrie for the training of clerks and workmen;
private schools controlled by the state, such as the ecoles superieures
de commerce; certain municipal schools, such as the Industrial
Institute of Lille; and private establishments, e.g. the school of
watch-making at Paris. At Paris the Ecole Superieure des Mines
and the Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees are controlled by the minister
of public works, the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, the Ecole des Arts
Decoratifs and the Conservatoire National de Musique et de De-
clamation by the under-secretary for fine arts, and other schools
COLONIES]
FRANCE
799
mentioned elsewhere are attached to several of the ministries. In
the provinces there are national schools of fine art and of music and
other establishments and free subventioned schools.
In addition to the educational work done by the state, communes
and private individuals, there exist in France a good many societies
which disseminate instruction by giving courses of lectures and
holding classes both for children and adults. Examples of such
bodies are the Society for Elementary Instruction, the Polytechnic
Association, the Philotechnic Association and the French Union of
the Young at Paris; the Philomathic Society of Bordeaux; the
Popular Education Society at Havre; the Rhone Society of Pro-
fessional Instruction at Lyons; the Industrial Society of Amiens
and others.
The highest institution of learning is the Institut de France,
founded and kept up by the French govern-
ment on behalf of science and literature,
and composed of five academies: the
Academie fran^aise, the Academic des In-
scriptions et Belles-Lettres, the Academie des
Sciences, the Academie des Beaux- Arts
and the Academie des Sciences Morales
et Politigues (see ACADEMIES). The
Academie de Medecine is a separate body.
Poor Relief (Assistance publique). In
France the pauper, as such, has no legal
claim to help from the community, which
however, is bound to providefordestitute
children (see FOUNDLING HOSPITALS)
and pauper lunatics (both these being
under the care of the department), aged
and infirm people without resources and
victims of incurable illness, and to furnish
medical assistance gratuitously to those
without resources who are afflicted with
curable illness. The funds for these
purposes are provided by thedepartment,
the commune and the central authority.
There are four main types of public
benevolent institutions, all of which are
communal in character: (l) The hopital,
for maternity cases and cases of curable
illness; (2) the hospice, where the aged
poor, cases of incurable malady, orphans,
foundlings and other children without
means of support, and in some cases
lunatics, are received; (3) the bureau de
bien-faisance, charged with the provision of
out-door relief (secours a domicile) in money
or in kind, to the aged poor or those who,
though capable of working, are prevented
from doing so by illness or strikes; (4)
the bureau d'assistance, which dispenses
free medical treatment to the destitute.
These institutions are under the super-
vision of a branch of the ministry of the
interior. The hospices and hopitaux and
the bureaux de bienfaisance, the founda-
tion of which is optional for the commune,
are managed by committees consisting of
the mayor of the municipality and six
members, two elected by the municipal
council and four nominated by the prefect.
The members of these committees are un-
paid, and have no concern with ways and
means which are in the hands of a paid
treasurer (receveur). The bureaux de bien-
faisance in the larger centres are aided by
unpaid workers (commissaires or dames
de charile), and in the big towns by paid
inquiry officers. Bureaux d'assistance exist in every commune,
Colonies.
In the extent and importance of her colonial dominion France
is second only to Great Britain. The following table gives
the name, area and population of each colony and protectorate
as well as the date of acquisition or establishment of a pro-
tectorate. It should be noted that the figures for area and
population are, as a rule, only estimates, but in most instances
they probably approximate closely to accuracy. Detailed
notices of the separate countries will be found under their
several heads:
Colony.
Date of
Acquisition.
Area in sq. m.
Population.
In Asia
Establishments in India. . . .
1683-1750
200
273,000
In Indo-China
188-1
60,000
6,000,000
Cambodia
T**w
1863
65,000
1 ,500,000
Cochin-China
1862
22,000
3,000,000
Tongking <
1883
46,000
6,000,000
Laos . . ... . . . .
1893
100,000
600,000
Kwang-Chow-Wan
1898
325
189,000
Total in Asia
..
293-525
17,562,000
In Africa and the Indian Ocean
Algeria ' .
1830-1847
185,000
5,231,850
Algerian Sahara
1872-1890
760,000
Tunisia
1881
51,000
2,000,000
West Africa
Senegal
1626
74,000
1 ,800,000
Upper Senegal and Niger (including part of
Sahara)
1880
1,580,000
4,000,000
Guinea .
1848
107,000
2,500,000
Ivory Coast
1842
129,000
2,000,000
Dahomey ... ....
Congo (French Equatorial Africa)
1863-1894
40,000
1,000,000
Gabun
1839 )
376,000
Mid. Congo
1882 [
700,000
259,000
Ubangi-Chad
1885-1899 }
3,015,000
Madagascar -,
Nossi-be Island
1885-1896)
1840 [
228,000
2,664,000
Ste Marie Island
1750 )
Comoro Islands
1843-1886
760
82,000
Somali Coast
1862-1884
12,000
50,000
Reunion
1643
965 N
173-315
St Paul )
Amsterdam $
1892
3)
19 (
uninhabited
Kerguelen 1
1893
1,400 )
Total in Africa and Indian Ocean.
3-869,147
25,151,165
In America
Guiana
1626
51,000
30,000
Guadeloupe
1634
619
182,112
Martinique
1635
380
182,024
St Pierre and Miquelon ....
1635
92
6,500
Total in America ....
52,092
400,636
In Oceania
New Caledonia and Dependencies
1854-1887
7,500
72,000
Establishments in Oceania ....
1841-1881
1,641
34,300
Total in Oceania ....
9,Hi
106,300
Grand Total
4,223,905
43,220,101
and
are managed by the combined committees of the hospices and the
bureaux de bienfaisance or by one of these in municipalities, where
only one of those institutions exists.
No poor-rate is levied in France. Funds for h6pitals, hospices
and bureaux de bienfaisance comprise :
1. A 10% surtax on the fees of admission to places of public
amusement.
2. A proportion of the sums payable in return for concessions of
land in municipal cemeteries.
3. Profits of the communal Monts de Piete (pawn-shops).
4. Donations, bequests and the product of collections in
churches.
5. The product of certain fines.
6. Subventions from the departments and communes.
7. Income from endowments. (R. TR.)
It will be seen that nearly all the colonies and protectorates lie
within the tropics. The only countries in which there is a con-
siderable white population are Algeria, Tunisia and New Caledonia.
The " year of acquisition " in the table, when one date only is given,
indicates the period when the country or some part of it first fell under
French influence, and does not imply continuous possession since.
Government. The principle underlying the administration
of the French possessions overseas, from the earliest days until
the close of the igth century, was that of " domination " and
" assimilation," notwithstanding that after the loss of Canada
and the sale of Louisiana France ceased to hold any considerable
colony in which Europeans could settle in large numbers. With
1 Kerguelen lies in the Great Southern Ocean, but is included here
for the sake of convenience.
8oo
FRANCE
[COLONIES
the vast extension of the colonial empire in tropical countries
in the last quarter of the igth century the evils of the system
of assimilation, involving also intense centralization, became
obvious. This, coupled with the realization of the fact that
the value to France of her colonies was mainly commercial,
led at length to the abandonment of the attempt to impose
on a great number of diverse peoples, some possessing (as in
Indo-China and parts of West Africa) ancient and highly complex
civilizations, French laws, habits of mind, tastes and manners.
For the policy of assimilation there was substituted the policy
of " association," which had for aim the development of the
colonies and protectorates upon natural, i.e. national, lines.
Existing civilizations were respected, a considerable degree of
autonomy was granted, and every effort made to raise the moral
and economic status of the natives. The first step taken in
this direction was in 1900 when a law was passed which laid
down that the colonies were to provide for their own civil ex-
penditure. This law was followed by further measures tending
to decentralization and the protection of the native races.
The system of administration bears nevertheless many marks
of the " assimilation " era. None of the French possessions
is self-governing in the manner of the chief British colonies.
Several colonies, however, elect members of the French legisla-
ture, in which body is the power of fixing the form of govern-
ment and the laws of each colony or protectorate. In default
of legislation the necessary measures are taken by decree of the
head of the state; these decrees having the force of law. A
partial exception to this rule is found in Algeria, where all laws
in force in France before the conquest of the country are also
(in theory, not in practice) in force in Algeria. In all colonies
Europeans preserve the political rights they held in France,
and these rights have been extended, in whole or in part, to
various classes of natives. Where these rights have not been
conferred, native races are subjects and not citizens. To this
rule Tunisia presents an exception, Tunisians retaining their
nationality and laws.
In addition to Algeria, which sends three senators and six
deputies to Paris and is treated in many respects not as a colony
but as part of France, the colonies represented in the legislature
are: Martinique, Guadeloupe and Reunion (each electing one
senator and two deputies), French India (one senator and one
deputy), Guiana, Senegal and Cochin-China (one deputy each).
The franchise in the three first-named colonies is enjoyed by all
classes of inhabitants, white, negro and mulatto, who are all
French citizens. In India the franchise is exercised without
distinction of colour or nationality; in Senegal the electors
are the inhabitants (black and white) of the communes which
have been given full powers. In Guiana and Cochin-China
the franchise is restricted to citizens, in which category the
natives (in those colonies) are not included. 1 The inhabitants
of Tahiti though accorded French citizenship have not been
allotted a representative in parliament. The colonial repre-
sentatives enjoy equal rights with those elected for constituencies
in France.
The oversight of all the colonies and protectorates save
Algeria and Tunisia is confided to a minister of the colonies
(law of March 20, i894) 2 whose powers correspond to those
exercised in France by the minister of the interior. The colonial
army is nevertheless attached (law of 1900) to the ministry of war.
The colonial minister is assisted by a number of organizations
of which the most important is the superior council of the colonies
(created by decree in 1883), an advisory body which includes
the senators and deputies elected by the colonies, and delegates
elected by the universal suffrage of all citizens in the colonies
and protectorates which do not return members to parliament.
To the ministry appertains the duty of fixing the duties on foreign
produce in those colonies which have not been, by law, subjected
to the same tariff as in France. (Nearly all the colonies save those
1 In 1906 the number of registered electors in these colonies was
199,055, of whom 106,695 exercised their suffrage.
2 In the case of Madagascar by decree of the nth of December
1895-
of West Africa and the Congo have been, with certain modifica-
tions, placed under the French tariff.) The budget of all colonies
not possessing a council general (see below) must also be approved
by the minister. Each colony and protectorate, including
Algeria, has a separate budget. As provided by the law of 1900
all local charges are borne by the colonies supplemented at
need by grants in aid but the military expenses are borne by
the state. In all the colonies the judicature has been rendered
independent of the executive.
The colonies are divisible into two classes, (i) those possessing
considerable powers of local self-government, (2) those in which
the local government is autocratic. To this second class may
be added the protectorates (and some colonies) where the native
form of government is maintained under the supervision of
French officials.
Class (i) includes the American colonies, Reunion, French
India, Senegal, Cochin-China and New Caledonia. In these
colonies the system of assimilation was carried to great lengths.
At the head of the administration is a governor under whom is
a secretary-general, who replaces him at need. The governor is
aided by a privy council, an advisory body to which the governor
nominates a minority of unofficial members, and a council general,
to which is confided the control of local affairs, including the
voting of the budget. The councils general are elected by
universal suffrage of all citizens and those who, though not
citizens, have been granted the political franchise. In Cochin-
China. in place of a council general, there is a colonial council
which fulfils the functions of a council general.
In the second class of colonies the governor, sometimes
assisted by a privy council, on which non-official members find
seats, sometimes simply by a council of administration, is re-
sponsible only to the minister of the colonies. In Indo-China,
West Africa, French Congo and Madagascar, the colonies and
protectorates are grouped under governors-general, and to these
high officials extensive powers have been granted by presidential
decree. The colonies under the governor-general of West
Africa are ruled by lieutenant-governors with restricted powers,
the budget of each colony being fixed by the governor-general,
who is assisted fey an advisory government council comprising
representatives of all the colonies under his control. In Indo-
China the governor-general has under his authority thelieutenant-
governor of the colony of Cochin-China, and the residents
superior at the courts of the kings of Cambodia and Annam
and in Tongking (nominally a viceroyalty of Annam). There
is a superior council for the whole of Indo-China on which the
natives and the European commercial community are repre-
sented, while in Cochin-China a privy council, and in the pro-
tectorates a council of the protectorate, assists in the work of
administration. In each of the governments general there is
a financial controller with extensive powers who corresponds
directly with the metropolitan authorities (decree of March 22,
1907). Details and local differences in form of government will
be found under the headings of the various colonies and pro-
tectorates.
Colonial Finance. The cost of the extra-European possessions,
other than Algeria and Tunisia, to the state is shown in the expenses
of the colonial ministry. In the budget of 1885 these expenses
were put at 1,380,000; in 1895 they had increased to 3,200,000
and in 1900 to 5,100,000. In 1905 they were placed at 4,431,000.
Fully three-fourths of the state contributions is expenditure on
military necessities; in addition there are subventions to various
colonies and to colonial railways and cables, and the expenditure on
the penitentiary establishments ; an item not properly chargeable
to the colonies. In return the state receives the produce of convict
labour in Guiana and New Caledonia. Save for the small item of
military expenditure Tunisia is no charge to the French exchequer.
The similar expenses of Algeria borne by the state are not separately
shown, but are estimated at 2,000,000.
The colonial budgets totalled in 1907 some 16,760,000, being
divisible into six categories: Algeria 4,120,000; Tunisia 3,640,000;
Indo-China 3 about 5,000,000; West Africa 1,600,000; Madagascar
960,000; all other colonies combined 1,440,000.
3 The Indo-China budget is reckoned in piastres, a silver coin of
fluctuating value (is. lod. to 2s.). The budget of 1907 balanced at
50,000,000 piastres.
HISTORY]
FRANCE
801
The authorized colonial loans, omitting Algeria and Tunisia,
during the period 18841904 amounted to 19,200,000, the sums
paid for interest and sinking funds on loans varying from 600,000
to 800,000 a year. The amount of French capital invested in
French colonies and protectorates, including Algeria and Tunisia,
was estimated in 1905 at 120,000,000, French capital invested in
foreign countries at the same date being estimated at ten times that
amount (see Ques, Dip. el Col., February 16, 1905).
Commerce. The value of the external trade of the French posses-
sions, exclusive of Algeria and Tunisia, increased in the ten years
1896-1905 from 18,784,060 to 34,957,479. In the last-named
year the commerce of Algeria amounted to 24,506,020 and that of
Tunisia to 5,969,248, making a grand total for French colonial
trade in 1905 of 65,432,746. The figures were made up as follows :
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
Algeria
Tunisia
Indo-China
West Africa
Madagascar
AH other colonies
i5-355-5oo
3,638.185
10,182,411
3,874,698
1,247,936
4,258,134
9, 150,520
2,33 i. 063
6,750,306
2,248,317
914,024
5,481,652
24,506,020
5,969,248
16,932,717
6,123,015
2,161,960
9,739,786
Total
38,556,864
26,875,882
65,432,746
Over three-fourths of the trade of Algeria and Tunisia is with
France and other French possessions. In the other colonies and
protectorates more than half the trade is with foreign countries.
The foreign countries trading most largely with the French colonies
are, in the order named, British colonies and Great Britain, China
and Japan, the United States and Germany. The value of the
trade with British colonies and Great Britain in 1905 was over
7,200,000. (F. R. C.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. P. Joanne, Diciionnaire geographique et adminis-
trative de la France (8 vols., Paris, 1890-1905); C. Brossard, La
France et ses colonies (6 vols., Paris, 1900-1906); O. Reclus, Le Plus
Beau Royaume sous le del (Paris, 1899); Vidal de La Blache, La
France. Tableau geographique (Paris, 1908); V. E. Ardouin-
Dumazet, Voyage en France (Paris, 1894); H. Havard, La France
artistique et monumentale (6 vols., Paris, 1892-1895); A. Lebon and
P. Pelet, France as it is, tr. Mrs W. Arnold (London, 1888); articles
on " Local Government in France " in the Stock Exchange Official
Intelligence Annuals (London, 1908 and 1909); M. Block, Diction-
naire de I' administration franc.aise, the articles in which contain full
bibliographies (2 vols., Paris, 1905); E. Levasseur, La France et ses
colonies (3 vols., Paris, 1890) ; M. Fallex and A. Mairey, La France
et sss colonies au debut du XX' siecle, which has numerous biblio-
graphies (Paris, 1909); J. du Plessis de Grenedan, Geographie
agricole de la France et du monde (Paris, 1903); F. de St Genis, La
Propriete rurale en France (Paris, 1902) ; H. Baudrillart, Les Popu-
lations agricoles de la France (3 vols., Paris, 1885-1893); J. E. C.
Bodley, France (London, 1899) ; A. Girault, Principes de colonisation
et de legislation colonicle (3 vols., Paris, 1907-1908) ; Les Colonies
franfaises, an encyclopaedia edited by M. Petit (2 vols., Paris,
1902). Official statistical works: Annuaire statistique de la France
(a summary of the statistical publications of the government),
Statistique agricole annuelle, Statistique de V Industrie minerale et des
appareils de vapeur, Tableau general du commerce et de la navigation,
Reports on the various colonies issued annually by the British Foreign
Office, &c. Guide Books: Karl Baedeker, Northern France,
Southern France; P. Joanne, Nord, Champagne et Ardenne; Nor-
mandie ; and other volumes dealing with every region of the country.
HISTORY
The identity of the earliest inhabitants of Gaul is veiled in
obscurity, though philologists, anthropologists and archaeologists
are using the glimmer of traditions collected by ancient
historians to shed a faint twilight upon that remote
past. The subjugation of those primitive tribes did
not mean their annihilation: their blood still flows in
the veins of Frenchmen; and they survive also on those megalithic
monuments (see STONE MONUMENTS) with which the soil cf
France is dotted, in the drawings and sculptures of caves hollowed
out along the sides of the valleys, and in the arms and ornaments
yielded by sepulchral tumuli, while the names of the rivers and
mountains of France probably perpetuate the first utterances of
those nameless generations.
The first peoples of whom we have actual knowledge are the
Iberians and Ligurians. The Basques who now inhabit both
sides of the Pyrenean range are probably the last representatives
of the Iberians, who came from Spain to settle between the
Mediterranean and the Bay of Biscay. The Ligurians, who
exhibited the hard cunning characteristic of the Genoese Riviera,
x. 26
Pre ~
must have been descendants of that Indo-European vanguard
who occupied all northern Italy and the centre and south-east
of France, who in the 7th century B.C. received the
Phocaean immigrants at Marseilles, and who at a much
later period were encountered by Hannibal during his
march to Rome, on the banks of the Rhone, the
frontier of the Iberian and Ligurian territories. Upon these
peoples it was that the conquering minority of Celts or Gauls
imposed themselves, to be succeeded at a later date by the
Roman aristocracy.
When Gaul first enters the field of history, Rome has already
laid the foundation of her freedom, Athens dazzles the eastern
Mediterranean with her literature and her art, while
in the west Carthage and Marseilles are lining opposite tlle ^^
shores with their great houses of commerce. Coming
from the valley of the Danube in the 6th century, the Celts or
Gauls had little by little occupied central and southern Europe
long before they penetrated into the plains of the Sa6ne, the
Seine, and the Loire as far as the Spanish border, driving out
the former inhabitants of the country. A century later their
political hegemony, extending from the Black Sea to the Strait of
Gibraltar, began to disintegrate, and the Gauls then embarked
on more distant migrations, from the Columns of Hercules to
the plateaux of Asia Minor, taking Rome on their way. Their
empire in Gaul, encroached upon in the north by the Belgae,
a kindred race, and in the south by the Iberians, gradually
contracted in area and eventually crumbled to pieces. This
process served the turn of the Romans, who little by little had
subjugated first the Cisalpine Gauls and afterwards those in-
habiting the south-east of France, which was turned
into a Roman province in the 2nd century. Up to !T* e
this time Hellenism and the mercantile spirit of the conquest,
Jews had almost exclusively dominated the Mediter-
ranean littoral, and at first the Latin spirit only won foothold
for itself in various spots on the western coast as at Aix in
Provence (123 B.C.) and at Narbonne (118 B.C.). A refuge of
Italian pauperism in the time of the Gracchi, after the triumph
of the oligarchy the Narbonnaise became a field for shameless
exploitation, besides providing, under the proconsulate of
Caesar, an excellent point of observation whence to watch the
intestine quarrels between the different nations of Gaul.
These are divided by Caesar in his Commentaries into three
groups: the Aquitanians to the south of the Garonne; the Celts,
properly so called, from the Garonne to the Seine
and the Marne; and the Belgae, from the Seine to the
Rhine. But these ethnological names cover a very
great variety of half-savage tribes, differing in speech
and in institutions, each surrounded by frontiers of dense forests
abounding in game. On the edges of these forests stood isolated
dwellings like sentinel outposts; while the inhabitants of the
scattered hamlets, caves hollowed in the ground,, rude circular
huts or lake-dwellings, were less occupied with domestic life
than with war and the chase. On the heights, as at Bibracte,
or on islands in the rivers, as at Lutetia, or protected by marshes,
as at Avaricum, oppida at once fortresses and places of refuge,
like the Greek Acropolis kept watch and ward over the beaten
tracks and the rivers of Gaul.
These primitive societies of tall, fair-skinned warriors, blue-
eyed and red-haired, were gradually organized into political
bodies of various kinds kingdoms, republics and political
federations and divided into districts or pagi (pays)
to which divisions the minds of the country folk have
remained faithfully attached ever since. The victorious
aristocracy of the kingdom dominated the other classes,
strengthened by the prestige of birth, the ownership of the soil
and the practice of arms. Side by side with this martial nobility
the Druids constituted a priesthood unique in ancient times;
neither hereditary as in India, nor composed of isolated priests
as in Greece, nor of independent colleges as at Rome, it was a
true corporation, which at first possessed great moral authority,
though by Caesar's time it had lost both strength and prestige.
Beneath these were the common people attached to the soil,
divisions
Institu-
tions ot
daul.
802
FRANCE
[HISTORY
who did not count for much, but who reacted against the in-
sufficient protection of the regular institutions by a voluntary
subordination to certain powerful chiefs.
This impotence of the state was a permanent cause of those
discords and revolts, which in the ist century B.C. were so
singularly favourable to Caesar's ambition. Thus
after e 'S ht vears of incoherent struggles, of scattered
revolts, and then of more and more energetic efforts,
Gaul, at last aroused by Vercingetorix, for once concentrated
her strength, only to perish at Alesia, vanquished by Roman
discipline and struck at from the rear by the conquest of Britain
(58-50 B.C.).
This defeat completely altered the destiny of Gaul, and she
became one of the principal centres of Roman civilization.
Of the vast Celtic empire which had dominated
Gau/f" Europe nothing now remained but scattered remnants
in the farthest corners of the land, refuges for all
the vanquished Gaels, Picts or Gauls; and of its civilization
there lingered only idioms and dialects Gaelic, Pict and Gallic
which gradually dropped out of use. During five centuries
Gaul was unfalteringly loyal to her conquerors; for to conquer
is nothing if the conquered be not assimilated by the conqueror,
and Rome was a past-mistress of this art. The personal charm
of Caesar and the prestige of Rome are not of themselves sufficient
to explain this double conquest. The generous and enlightened
policy of the imperial administration asked nothing of the people
of Gaul but military service and the payment of the tax; in
return it freed individuals from patronal domination, the people
from oligarchic greed or Druidic excommunication, and every one
in general from material anxiety. Petty tyrannies gave place
to the great Pax Romana. The Julio-Claudian dynasty did
much to attach the Gauls to the empire; they always occupied
the first place in the mind of Augustus, and the revolt of the
Aeduan Julius Sacrovir, provoked by the census of A.D. 21, was
easily repressed by Tiberius. Caligula visited Gaul and founded
literary competitions at Lyons, which had become the political
and intellectual capital of the country. Claudius, who was
a native of Lyons, extended the right of Roman citizenship
to many of his fellow-townsmen, gave them access to the magis-
tracy and to the senate, and supplemented the annexation of
Gaul by that of Britain. The speech which he pronounced
on this occasion was engraved on tables of bronze at Lyons,
and is the first authentic record of Gaul's admission to the
citizenship of Rome. Though the crimes of Nero and the
catastrophes which resulted from his downfall, provoked the
troubles of the year A.D. 70, the revolt of Sabinus was in the
main an attempt by the Germans to pillage Gaul and the prelude
to military insurrections. The government of the Flavians
and the Antonines completed a definite reconciliation. After
the extinction of the family of Augustus in the ist century
Gaul had made many emperors Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Ves-
pasian and Domitian; and in the 2nd century she provided
Gauls to rule the empire Antoninus (138-161) came from
Nimes and Claudius from Lyons, as did also Caracalla later on
(211-217).
The romanization of the Gauls, like that of the other subject
nations, was effected by slow stages and by very diverse means,
Material ^ Urn ' snm 8 an example of the constant adaptability
aadpoiiti- f Roman policy. It was begun by establishing a
cai trans- network of roads with Lyons as the central point,
'"tKom"" and by tlle devel P ment f a prosperous urban life
aaui" ' m tne increasingly wealthy Roman colonies; and it
was continued by the disintegration into independent
cities of nearly all the Gaulish states of the Narbonnaise, together
with the substitution of the Roman collegial magistracy for the
isolated magistracy of the Gauls. This alteration came about
more quickly in the north-east in the Rhine-land than in the
west and the centre, owing to the near neighbourhood of the
legions on the frontiers. Rome was too tolerant to impose
her own institutions by force; it was the conquered peoples
who collectively and individually solicited as a favour the right
of adopting the municipal system, the magistracy, the sacerdotal
and aristocratic social system of their conquerors. The edict
of Caracalla, at the beginning of the 3rd century, by conferring
the right of citizenship on all the inhabitants of the empire,
completed an assimilation for which commercial relations,
schools, a taste for officialism, and the adaptability and quick in-
telligence of the race had already made preparation. The Gauls
now called themselves Romans and their language Romance.
There was neither oppression on the one hand nor servility on
the other to explain this abandonment of their traditions.
Thanks to the political and religious unity which a common
worship of the emperor and of Rome gave them, thanks to
administrative centralization tempered by a certain amount
of municipal autonomy, Gaul prospered throughout three
centuries.
But this stability of the Roman peace had barely been realized
when events began to threaten it both from within and without.
The Pax Romana having rendered any armed force D
unnecessary amid a formerly very bellicose people, only of the
eight legions mounted guard over the Rhine to protect Imperial
it from the barbarians who surrounded the empire, authority
The raids made by the Germansontheeasternf rentiers,
the incessant competitions for the imperial power, and the
repeated revolts of the Pretorian guard, gradually undermined
the internal cohesion of Gaul; while the insurrections of the
Bagaudae aggravated the destruction wrought by a grasping
treasury and by barbarian incursions; so that the anarchy of
the 3rd century soon aroused separatist ideas. Under Postumus
Gaul had already attempted to restore an independent though
short-lived empire (258-267); and twenty-eight years later
the tetrarchy of Diocletian proved that the blood now circulated
with difficulty from the heart to the extremities of an empire
on the eve of disintegration. Rome was to see her universal
dominion gradually menaced from all sides. It was in Gaul
that the decisive revolutions of the time were first prepared;
Constantine's crusades to overthrow the altars of paganism,
and Julian's campaigns to set them up again. After Constantine
the emperors of the East in the 4th century merely put in an
occasional appearance at Rome; they resided at Milan or in
the prefectorial capitals of Gaul at Aries, at Treves (Trier),
at Reims or in Paris. The ancient territorial divisions
Belgium, Gallia Lugdunensis (Lyonnaise), Gallia Narbonensis
(Narbonnaise) were split up into seventeen little provinces,
which in their turn were divided into two dioceses. Thus the
great historic division was made between southern and northern
France. Roman nationality persisted, but the administrative
system was tottering.
Upon ground that had been so well levelled by Roman legis-
lation aristocratic institutions naturally flourished. From the
4th century onward the balance of classes was dis- social dis-
turbed by the development of a landed aristocracy organiza-
that grew more powerful day by day, and by the
corresponding ruin of the small proprietors and in-
dustrial and commercial corporations. The members of the
curia who assisted the magistrates in the cities, crushed by the
burden of taxes, now evaded as far as possible public office or
senatorial honours. The vacancies left in this middle class by
this continual desertion were not compensated for by the pro-
gressive advance of a lower class destitute of personal property
and constantly unsettled in their work. The peasants, no less
than the industrial labourers, suffered from the absence of any
capital laid by, which alone could have enabled them to improve
their land or to face a time of bad harvests. Having no credit
they found themselves at the mercy of their neighbours, the
great landholders, and by degrees fell into the position of tenants,
or into servitude. The curia was thus emptied both from above
and from below. It was in vain that the emperors tried to
rivet the chains of the curia in this hereditary bondage, by
attaching the small proprietor to his glebe, like the artisan
to his gild and the soldier to his legion. To such a miserable
pretence of freedom they all preferred servitude, which at least
ensured them a livelihood; and the middle class of freemen
thus became gradually extinct.
" '
FRANCE
in the
I3th. Century
FRANCE
at the end of the
loth. Century
English Miles
50 100
c M. =M, NER e E
/ / /^^^*& / RAS.= RASEZ
^ / /G/ ? O N FEN.=FENOUILLEOES
-< CAVlPHAT, E 0j(/ <
FRANCE
in the
Century
Frontier after the
Treaty of Vervins, 1598
Acquisitions under Henry IV. 1598-1610..
Acquisitions under Louis Xllf, 1610-43
Acquisitions by the Peace of
t/jc Pyrenees, 1659
Acquisitions by the Peace
ofNijmwegen 1678-1679
Various Acquisitions (Reunions)
till 1697
Acquisitions 1697-1715
Acquisitions under Louis XV 1715-74
Dates of Acquisition or occupation
Dates of Losses .,
The 10 Imperial cities in Alsace
incooorated in 1672 underlined blue
Royal Domain in 1328
cauisitmns under Phi/lip VI I 1
nd John II, 1328-64 !.
FRANCE
taglM King's Land,
after the Treaties of
Bretignfj & Calais, 1360-.. 11
The Eastern Frontier, 1598-1789
English Miles
o 50 100 150
Emery Walker sc.
HISTORY]
FRANCE
803
The aristocracy, on the contrary, went on increasing in power,
and eventually became masters of the situation. It was through
them that the emperor, theoretically absolute, practi-
Absorp- C ally carried on his administration; but he was no
tloa of * ....
land and longer either strong or a divinity, and possessed
power by nothing but the semblance of omnipotence. His
thearis- omc j a i despotism was opposed by the passive but
invincible competition of an aristocracy, more powerful
than himself because it derived its support from the
revived relation of patron and dependants. But though the
aristocracy administered, yet they did not govern. They
suffered, as did the Empire, from a general state of lassitude.
Like their private life, their public life, no longer stimulated
by struggles and difficulties, had become sluggish; their power
of initiative was enfeebled. Feeling their incapacity they no
longer embarked on great political schemes; and the army, the
instrument by which such schemes were carried on, was only
held together by the force of habit. In this society, where there
was no traffic in anything but wealth and ideas, the soldier was
nothing more than an agitator or a parasite. The egoism cf the
upper classes held military duty in contempt, while their avarice
depopulated the countryside, whence the legions had drawn their
recruits. And now come the barbarians! A prey to perpetual
alarm, the people entrenched themselves behind those high walls
of the oppida which Roman security had razed to the ground,
but imperial impotence had restored, and where life in the
middle ages was destined to vegetate in unrestful isolation.
Amidst this general apathy, intellectual activity alone persisted.
In the 4th century there was a veritable renaissance in Gaul, the
Intel- l ast outburst of a dying flame, which yet bore witness
lectuai also to the general decadence. The agreeable versi-
decadeace fication of an amateur like Ausonius, the refined
oftjaui. panegyrics of a Eumenius, disguising nullity of thought
beneath elegance of form, already foretold the perilous sterility
of scholasticism. Art, so widespread in the wealthy villas of
Gaul, contented itself with imitation, produced nothing original
and remained mediocre. Human curiosity, no longer concerned
with philosophy and science, seemed as though stifled, religious
polemics alone continuing to hold public attention. Disinclina-
tion for the self-sacrifice of active life and weariness of the things
of the earth lead naturally to absorption in the things of heaven.
After bringing about the success of the Asiatic cults of Mithra
and Cybele, these same factors now assured the triumph over
exhausted paganism of yet another oriental religion Christianity
after a duel which had lasted two centuries.
This new faith had appeared to Constantine likely to infuse
young and healthy blood into the Empire. In reality Christianity,
which had contributed not a little to stimulate the
Christian- political unity of continental Gaul, now tended to
Qaul. dissolve it by destroying that religious unity which
had heretofore been its complement. Before this
there had been complete harmony between Church and State;
but afterwards came indifference and then disagreement between
political and religious institutions, between the City of God and
that of Caesar. Christianity, introduced into Gaul during the
ist century of the Christian era by those foreign merchants who
traded along the coasts of the Mediterranean, had by the middle
of the 2nd century founded communities at Vienne, at Autun
and at Lyons. Their propagandizing zeal soon exposed them to
the wrath of an ignorant populace and the contempt of the
educated; and thus it was that in A.D. 177, under Marcus
Aurelius, the Church of Lyons, founded by St Pothinus, suffered
those persecutions which were the effective cause of her ultimate
victory. These Christian communities, disguised under the
legally authorized name of burial societies, gradually formed a
vast secret cosmopolitan association, superimposed upon Roman
society but incompatible with the Empire. Christianity had
to be either destroyed or absorbed. The persecutions under
Aurelian and Diocletian almost succeeded in accomplishing the
former; the Christian churches were saved by the instability of
the existing authorities, by military anarchy and by the incursions
of the barbarians. Despite tortures and martyrdoms, and thanks
to the seven apostles sent from Rome in 250, during the 3rd
century their branches extended all over Gaul.
The emperors had now to make terms with these churches,
which served to group together all sorts of malcontents,
and this was the object of the edict of Milan (313), Triumph
by which the Church, at the outset simply a Jewish ofChris-
institution, was naturalized as Roman; while in 325 tianity In
the Council of Nicaea endowed her with unity. But Oaul -
for the security and the power thus attained she had to pay with
her independence. On the other hand, pagan and Christian
elements in society existed side by side without intermingling,
and even openly antagonistic to each other one aristocratic
and the other democratic. In order to induce the masses of the
people once more to become loyal to the imperial form of govern-
ment the emperor Julian tried by founding a new religion to
give its functionaries a religious prestige which should impress
the popular mind. His plan failed ; and the emperor Theodosius,
aided by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, preferred to make the
Christian clergy into a body of imperial and conservative officials ;
while in return for their adhesion he abolished the Arian heresy
and paganism itself, which could not survive without his support.
Thenceforward it was in the name of Christ that persecutions
took place in an Empire now entirely won over to Christianity.
In Gaul the most famous leader of this first merciless, if still
perilous crusade, was a soldier-monk, Saint Martin of Tours.
Thanks to him and his disciples in the middle of the
4th century and the beginning of the $th many of the ?, rgaal f zi L'
towns possessed well-established churches; but the church.
militant ardour of monks and centuries of labour
were needed to conquer the country districts, and in the mean-
time both dogma and internal organization were subjected to
important modifications. As regards the former the Church
adopted a course midway between metaphysical explanations
and historical traditions, and reconciled the more extreme
theories; while with the admission of pagans a great deal of
paganism itself was introduced. On the other hand, the need for
political and social order involved the necessity for a disciplined
and homogeneous religious body; the exercise of power, more-
over, soon transformed the democratic Christianity of the earlier
churches into a federation of little conservative monarchies.
The increasing number of her adherents, and her inexperience of
government on such a vast and complicated scale, obliged her to
comply with political necessity and to adopt the system of the
state and its social customs. The Church was no longer a
fraternity, on a footing of equality, with freedom of belief and
tentative as to dogma, but an authoritative aristocratic hier-
archy. The episcopate was now recruited from the great families
in the same way as the imperial and the municipal public services.
The Church called on the emperor to convoke and preside over
her councils and to combat heresy; and in order more effectually
to crush the latter she replaced primitive independence and local
diversity by uniformity of doctrine and worship, and by the
hierarchy of dioceses and ecclesiastical provinces. The heads of
the Church, her bishops, her metropolitans, took the titles
of their pagan predecessors as well as their places, and their
jurisdiction was enforced by the laws of the state. Rich and
powerful chiefs, they were administrators as much as priests:
Germanus (Germain), bishop of Auxerre (d. 448), St Eucherius
of Lyons (d. 430), Apollinaris Sidonius of Clermont (d. c. 490)
assumed the leadership of society, fed the poor, levied tithes,
administered justice, and in the towns where they resided,
surrounded by priests and deacons, ruled both in temporal and
spiritual matters.
But the humiliation of Theodosius before St Ambrose proved
that the emperor could never claim to be a pontiff, and that the
dogma of the Church remained independent of the Thg
sovereign as well as of the people; if she sacrificed church's
her liberty it was but to claim it again and maintain ladepead-
it more effectively amid the general languor. The e >> ce ftl ">
Church thus escaped the unpopularity of this decadent mp "
empire, and during the 5th century she provided a refuge for
all those who, wishing to preserve the Roman unity, were terrified
8 04
FRANCE
[HISTORY
by the blackness of the horizon. In fact, whilst in the Eastern
Church the metaphysical ardour of the Greeks was spending
itself in terrible combats in the oecumenical councils over the
interpretation of the Nicene Creed, the clergy of Gaul, more
simple and strict in their faith, abjured these theological logo-
machies; from the first they had preferred action to criticism
and had taken no part in the great controversy on free-will
raised by Pelagius. Another kind of warfare was about to absorb
their whole attention; the barbarians were attacking the frontiers
of the Empire on every side, and their advent once again modified
Gallo-Roman civilization.
For centuries they had been silently massing themselves
around ancient Europe, whether Iberian, Celtic or Roman.
Many times already during that evening of a decadent
The bar- c i v iii za tion, their threatening presence had seemed
invasion. l ike a dark cloud veiling the radiant sky of the peoples
established on the Mediterranean seaboard. The cruel
lightning of the sword of Brennus had illumined the night,
setting Rome or Delphi on fire. Sometimes the storm had burst
over Gaul, and there had been need of a Marius to stem the torrent
of Cimbri and Teutons, or of a Caesar to drive back the Helvetians
into their mountains. On the morrow the western horizon would
clear again, until some such disaster as that which befell Varus
would come to mortify cruelly the pride of an Augustus. The
Romans had soon abandoned hope of conquering Germany,
with its fluctuating frontiers and nomadic inhabitants. For
more than two centuries they had remained prudently entrenched
behind the earthworks that extended from Cologne to Ratisbon
(Regensburg) ; but the intestine feuds which prevailed among
the barbarians and were fostered by Rome, the organization
under bold and turbulent chiefs of the bands greedy for booty,
the pressing forward on populations already settled of tribes in
their rear; all this caused the Germanic invasion to filter by
degrees across the frontier. It was the work of several genera-
tions and took various forms, by turns and simultaneously
colonization and aggression; but from this time forward the
pax romana was at an end. The emperors Probus, Constantine,
Julian and Valentinian, themselves foreigners, were worn out
with repulsing these repeated assaults, and the general enervation
of society did the rest. The barbarians gradually became part
of the Roman population; they permeated the army, until after
Theodosius they recruited it exclusively; they permeated
civilian society as colonists and agriculturists, till the command
of the army and of important public duties was given over to a
Stilicho or a Crocus. Thus Rome allowed the wolves to mingle
with the dogs in watching over the flock, just at a time when the
civil wars of the 4th century had denuded the Rhenish frontier
of troops, whose numbers had already been diminished by Con-
stantine. Then at the beginning of the sth century, during a
furious irruption of Germans fleeing before Huns, the limes was
carried away (406-407) ; and for more than a hundred years the
torrent of fugitives swept through the Empire, which retreated
behind the Alps, there to breathe its last.
Whilst for ten years Alaric's Goths and Stilicho's Vandals
were drenching Italy with blood, the Vandals and the Alani from
the steppes of the Black Sea, dragging in their wake the
Germans reluctant German tribes who had been allies of Rome
in OauL and who had already settled down to the cultivation of
their lands, invaded the now abandoned Gaul, and
having come as far as the Pyrenees, crossed over them. After the
passing of this torrent the Visigoths, under their kings Ataulphus,
Wallia and Theodoric, still dazzled by the splendours of this
immense empire, established themselves like submissive vassals
in Aquitaine, with Toulouse as their capital. About the same
time the Burgundians settled even more peaceably in Rhenish
Gaul, and, after 456, to the west of the Jura in the valleys of
rhe the Saone and the Rhone. The original Franks of
Franks Germany, already established in the Empire, and
pressed upon by the same Huns who had already forced
the Goths across the Danube, passed beyond the
Rhine and occupied north-eastern Gaul; Ripuarians of the Rhine
establishing themselves on the Sambre and the Meuse, and
before
Clovis.
Salians in Belgium, as far as the great fortified highroad from
Bavai to Cologne. Accepted as allies, and supported by Roman
prestige and by the active authority of the general Aetius, all
these barbarians rallied round him and the Romans of Gaul, and
in 451 defeated the hordes of Attila, who had advanced as far
as Orleans, at the great battle of the Catalaunian plains.
Thus at the end of the 5th century the Roman empire was
nothing but a heap of ruins, and fidelity to the empire was now
only maintained by the Catholic Church; she alone The clergy
survived, as rich, as much honoured as ever, and more and the
powerful, owing to the disappearance of the imperial barbar-
officials for whom she had found substitutes, and the lans '
decadence of the municipal bodies into whose inheritance she
had entered. Owing to her the City of God gradually replaced the
Roman imperial polity and preserved its civilization; while the
Church allied herself more closely with the new kingdoms than
she had ever done with the Empire. In the Gothic or Burgundian
states of the period the bishops, after having for a time opposed
the barbarian invaders, sought and obtained from their chief
the support formerly received from the emperor. Apollinaris
Sidonius paid court to Euric, since 476 the independent king of
the Visigoths, against whom he had defended Auvergne; and
Avitus, bishop of Vienne, was graciously received by Gundibald,
king of the Burgundians. But these princes were Arians, i.e.
foreigners among the Catholic population; the alliance sought
for by the Church could not reach her from that source, and it
was from the rude and pagan Franks that she gained the material
support which she still lacked. The conversion of Clovis was a
master-stroke; it was fortunate both for himself and for the
Franks. Unity in faith brought about unity in law.
Clovis was king of the Sicambrians, one of the tribes of the
Salian Franks. Having established themselves in the plains
of Northern Gaul, but driven by the necessity of finding
new land to cultivate, in the days of their king Childeric
they had descended into the fertile valleys of the C hM.
Somme and the Oise. Clevis's victory at Soissons
over the last troops left in the service of Rome (486) extended
their settlements as far as the Loire. By his conversion, which
was due to his wife Clotilda and to Remigius, bishop of Reims,
more than to the victory of Tolbiac over the Alamanni,
Clovis made definitely sure of the Roman inhabitants and gave
the Church an army (496). Thenceforward he devoted himself
to the foundation of the Prankish monarchy by driving the ex-
hausted and demoralized heretics out of Gaul, and by putting
himself in the place of the now enfeebled emperor. In 500 he
conquered Gundibald, king of the Burgundians, reduced him
to a kind of vassalage, and forced him into reiterated promises
of conversion to orthodoxy. In 507 he conquered and killed
Alaric II., king of the Arian Visigoths, and drove the latter into
Spain. Legend adorned his campaign in Aquitaine with miracles;
the bishops were the declared allies of both him and his son
Theuderich (Thierry) after his conquest of Auvergne. At Tours
he received from the distant emperor at Constantinople the
diploma and insignia of patricius and Roman consul, which
legalized his military conquests by putting him in possession
of civil powers. From this time forward a great historic trans-
formation was effected in the eyes of the bishops and
of the Gallo-Romans; the Frankish chief took the f 7 ^'^
place of the ancient emperors. Instead of blaming officer.
him for the murder of the lesser kings of the Franks,
his relatives, by which he had accomplished the union of the
Frankish tribes, they saw in this the hand of God rewarding a
faithful soldier and a converted pagan. He became their king,
their new David, as the Christian emperors had formerly been;
he built churches, endowed monasteries, protected St Vaast
(Vedastus, d. 540), first bishop of Arras and Cambrai, who
restored Christianity in northern Gaul. Like the emperors
before him Clovis, too, reigned over the Church. Of his own
authority he called together a council at Orleans in 511, the year
of his death. He was already the grand distributor of ecclesi-
astical benefices, pending the time when his successors were to
confirm the episcopal elections, and his power began to take
HISTORY]
FRANCE
805
on a more and more absolute character. But though he felt the
ascendant influence of Christian teaching, he was not really
penetrated by its spirit; a professing Christian, and a friend to
the episcopate, Clovis remained a barbarian, crafty and ruthless.
The bloody tragedies which disfigured the end of his reign bear
sad witness to this; they were a fit prelude to that period during
the course of which, as Gregory of Tours said, " barbarism was
let loose."
The conquest of Gaul, begun by Clovis, was finished by his
sons: Theuderich, Chlodomer, Childebert and Clotaire. In
three successive campaigns, from 523 to 532, they
annihilated the Burgundian kingdom, which had
maintained its independence, and had endured for
nearly a century. Favoured by the war between Justinian,
the East Roman emperor, and Theodoric's Ostrogoths, the
Frankish kings divided Provence among them as they had done
in the case of Burgundy. Thus the whole of Gaul was subjected
to the sons of Clovis, except Septimania in the south-east, where
the Visigoths still maintained their power. The Frankish armies
then overflowed into the neighbouring countries and began to
pillage them. Their disorderly cohorts made an attack upon
Italy, which was repulsed by the Lombards, and another on
Spain with the same want of success; but beyond the Rhine
they embarked upon the conquest of Germany, where Clovis
had already reduced to submission the country on the banks of
the Maine, later known as Franconia. In 531 the Thuringians in
the centre of Germany were brought into subjection by his eldest
son, King Theuderich, and about the same time the Bavarians
were united to the Franks, though preserving a certain autonomy.
The Merovingian monarchy thus attained the utmost limits of
its territorial expansion, bounded as it was by the Pyrenees,
the Alps and the Rhine; it exercised influence over the whole of
Germany, which it threw open to the Christian missionaries, and
its conquests formed the first beginnings of German history.
But to these wars of aggrandizement and pillage succeeded
those fratricidal struggles which disgraced the whole of the sixth
century and arrested the expansion of the Merovingian
power. When Clotaire, the last surviving son of
Clovis, died in 561, the kingdom was divided between
his four sons like some piece of private property, as in 511, and
according to the German method. The capitals of these four
kings Charibert, who died in 567, Guntram, Sigebert and
Chilperic were Paris, Orleans, Reims and Soissons all near one
another and north of the Loire, where the Germanic inhabitants
predominated ; but their respective boundaries were so confused
that disputes were inevitable. There was no trace of a political
idea in these disputes; the mutual hatred of two women aggra-
vated jealousy to the point of causing terrible civil wars from
561 to 613, and these finally created a national conflict which
resulted in the dismemberment of the Frankish empire. Recog-
nized, in fact, already as separate provinces were Austrasia, or
the eastern kingdom, Neustria, or north-west Gaul and Burgundy;
Aquitaine alone was as yet undifferentiated.
Sigebert had married Brunhilda, the daughter of a Visigoth
king; she was beautiful and well educated, having been brought
up in Spain, where Roman civilization still flourished.
chil P eric had married Galswintha, one of Brunhilda's
sisters, for the sake of her wealth; but despite this
marriage he had continued his amours with a waiting-
woman named Fredegond, who pushed ambition to the point of
crime, and she induced him to get rid of Galswintha. In order to
avenge her sister, Brunhilda incited Sigebert to begin a war
which terminated in 575 with the assassination of Sigebert by
Fredegond at the very moment when, thanks to the help of the
Germans, he had gained the victory, and with the imprisonment
of Brunhilda at Rouen. Fredegond subsequently caused the
death of Merovech (Merovee), the son of Chilperic, who had been
secretly married to Brunhilda, and that of Bishop Praetextatus,
who had solemnized their union. After this, Fredegond en-
deavoured to restore imperial finance to a state of solvency, and
to set up a more regular form of government in her Neustria,
which was less romanized and less wealthy than Burgundy,
Civil
wars.
where Guntram was reigning, and less turbulent than the eastern
kingdom, where most of the great warlike chiefs with their large
landed estates were somewhat impatient of royal authority.
But the accidental death of two of her children, the assassination
of her husband in 584, and the advice of the Church, induced
her to make overtures to her brother-in-law Guntram. A lover
of peace through sheer cowardice, and as depraved in his morals
as Chilperic, Guntram had played a vacillating and purely
self-interested part in the family tragedy. He declared himself
the protector of Fredegond, but his death in 593 delivered up
Burgundy and Neustria to Brunhilda's son Childebert, king of
Austrasia, in consequence of the treaty of Andelot, made in 587.
An ephemeral triumph, however; for Childebert died in 596,
followed a year later by Fredegond.
The whole of Gaul was now handed over to three children:
Childebert's two sons, Theudebert and Theuderich (Thierry),
and the son of Fredegond, Clotaire II. The latter,
having vanquished the two former at Latofao in
596, was in turn beaten by them at Dormelles in
600, and a year later a fresh fratricidal struggle broke out
between the two grandsons of the aged Brunhilda. Theuderich
joined with Clotaire against Theodobert, and invaded his brother's
kingdom, conquering first an army of Austrasians and then one
composed of Saxons and Thuringians. Strife began again in 613
in consequence of Theuderich's desire to join Austrasia to
Neustria, but his death delivered the kingdoms into the hands
of Clotaire II. This weak king leant for support upon the nobles
of Burgundy and Austrasia, impatient as they were of obedience
to a woman and the representative of Rome. The ecclesiastical
party also abandoned Brunhilda because of her persecution of
their saints, after which Clotaire, having now got the upper hand,
thanks to the defection of the Austrasian nobles, of Arnulf,
bishop of Metz, with his brother Pippin, and of Warnachaire,
mayor of the palace, made a terrible end of Brunhilda in 613.
Her long reign had not lacked intelligence and even greatness;
she alone, amid all these princes, warped by self-indulgence or
weakened by discord, had behaved like a statesman, and she
alone understood the obligations of the government she had
inherited. She wished to abolish the fatal tradition of dividing
up the kingdom, which so constantly prevented any possible
unity; in opposition to the nobles she used her royal authority
to maintain the Roman principles of order and regular administra-
tion. Towards the Church she held a courteous but firm policy,
renewing relations between the Frankish kingdom and the
pope; and she so far maintained the greatness of the Empire
that tradition associated her name with the Roman roads in
the north of France, entitling them " les chaussees de Brunehaut."
Like his grandfather, Clotaire II. reigned over a once more
united Gaul of Franks and Gallo-Romans, and like Clovis he
was not too well obeyed by the nobles; moreover,
his had been a victory more for the aristocracy than < ^ tain
for the crown, since it limited the power of the latter.
Not that the permanent constitution of the i8th of October 614
was of the nature of an anti-monarchic revolution, for the
royal power still remained very great, decking itself with the
pompous titles of the Empire, and continuing to be the dominant
institution; but the reservations which Clotaire II. had to make
in conceding the demands of the bishops and great laymen show
the extent and importance of the concessions these latter were
already aiming at. The bishops, the real inheritors of the
imperial idea of government, had become great landowners
through enormous donations made to the Church, and allied as
they were to the aristocracy, whence their ranks were continually
recruited, they had gradually identified themselves with the
interests of their class and had adopted its customs; while thanks
to long minorities and civil wars the aristocracy of the high
officials had taken an equally important social position. The
treaty of Andelot in 587 had already decided that the benefices
or lands granted to them by the kings should be held for life.
In the 7th century the Merovingian kings adopted the custom
of summoning them all, and not merely the officials of their
Palatium, to discuss political affairs; they began, moreover,
8o6
FRANCE
[HISTORY
to choose their counts or administrators from among the great
landholders. This necessity for approval and support points
to yet another alteration in the nature of the royal power,
absolute as it was in theory.
The Mayoralty of the Palace aimed a third and more serious
blow at the royal authority. By degrees, the high officials
of the Palatium, whether secular or ecclesiastical,
The and also the provincial counts, had rallied round
"'. the ma y ors of the palace as their real leaders. As
under the Empire, the Palatium was both royal court
and centre of government, with the same bureaucratic hierarchy
and the same forms of administration; and the mayor of the
palace was premier official of this itinerant court and ambulatory
government. Moreover, since the palace controlled the whole
of each kingdom, the mayors gradually extended their official
authority so as to include functionaries and agents of every
kind, instead of merely those attached immediately to the
king's person. They suggested candidates for office for the
royal selection, often appointed office-holders, and, by royal
warrant, supported or condemned them. Mere subordinates
while the royal power was strong, they had become, owing
to the frequent minorities, and to civil wars which broke the
tradition of obedience, the all-powerful ministers of kings
nominally absolute but without any real authority. Before long
they ceased to claim an even greater degree of independence
than that of Warnachaire, who forced Clotaire II. to swear
that he should never be deprived of his mayoralty of Burgundy;
they wished to take the first place in the kingdoms they governed,
and to be able to attack neighbouring kingdoms on their own
account. A struggle, motived by self-interest, no doubt; but
a struggle, too, of opposing principles. Since the Prankish
monarchy was now in their power some of them tried to re-
establish the unity of that monarchy in all its integrity, together
with the superiority of the State over the Church; others,
faithless to the idea of unity, saw in the disintegration of the
state and the supremacy of the nobles a warrant for their own
independence. These two tendencies were destined to strive
against one another during an entire century (613-714), and to
occasion two periods of violent conflict, which, divided by a kind of
renascence of royalty, were to end at last in the triumphant substi-
tution of the Austrasian mayors for royalty and aristocracy alike.
The first struggle began on the accession of Clotaire II.,
when Austrasia, having had a king of her own ever since 561,
demanded one now. In 623 Clotaire was obliged
struggle to ser >d her his son Dagobert and even to extend his
between territory. But in Dagobert's name two men ruled,
monarchy representing the union of the official aristocracy and
"mayoralty t ' le Church. One, Pippin of Landen, derived his
' power from his position as mayor of the palace, from
great estates in Aquitaine and between the Meuse and the Rhine,
and from the immense number of his supporters; the other,
Arnulf, bishop of Metz, sprang from a great family, probably
of Roman descent, and was besides immensely wealthy in
worldly possessions. By the union of their forces Pippin and
Arnulf were destined to shape the future. They had already,
in 613, treated with Clotaire and betrayed the hopes of Brunhilda,
being consequently rewarded with the guardianship of young
Dagobert. Burgundy followed the example of Austrasia,
demanded the abolition of the mayoralty, and in 627 succeeded
in obtaining her independence of Neustria and Austrasia and
direct relations with the king.
The death of Clotaire (629) was the signal for a revival of
the royal power. Dagobert deprived Pippin of Landen of
Renas n ' s autnor ity an d forced him to fly to Aquitaine;
cence of ^ u ' st 'N he had to give the Austrasians his son Sigebert
monarchy III. for their king (634). He made administrative
under progresses through Neustria and Burgundy to recall
tne n bl e s to their allegiance, but again he was forced
to designate his second son Clovis as king of Neustria.
He did subdue Aquitaine completely, thanks to his brother
Charibert, with whom he had avoided dividing the kingdom,
and he tried to restore his own demesne, which had been despoiled
by the granting of benefices or by the pious frauds of the Church.
In short, this reign was one of great conquests, impossible
except under a strong government. Dagobert's victories over
Samo, king of the Slavs along the Elbe, and his subjugation
of the Bretons and the Basques, maintained the prestige of the
Prankish empire; while the luxury of his court, his taste for
the fine arts (ministered to by his treasurer Eloi J ), his numerous
achievements in architecture especially the. abbey of St Denis,
burial-place of the kings of France the brilliance and the power
of the churchmen who surrounded him and his revision of the
Salic law, ensured for his reign, in spite of the failure of his plans
for unity, a fame celebrated in folksong and ballad.
But for barbarous nations old-age comes early, and after
Dagobert's death (639), the monarchy went swiftly to its doom.
The mayors of the palace again became supreme, The 4. Rols
and the kings not only ceased to appoint them, but faineants"
might not even remove them from office. Such mayors (do-
were Aega and Erchinoald, in Neustria, Pippin and
Otto in Austrasia, and Flaochat in Burgundy. One
of them, Grimoald, son of Pippin, actually dared to take
the title of king in Austrasia (640). This was a premature
attempt and barren of result, yet it was significant; and not
less so is the fact that the palace in which these mayors
bore rule was a huge association of great personages, laymen
and ecclesiastics who seem to have had much more independence
than in the 6th century. We find the dukes actually raising
troops without the royal sanction, and even against the king.
In 641 the mayor Flaochat was forced to swear that they should
hold their offices for life; and though these offices were not yet
hereditary, official dynasties, as it were, began to be established
permanently within the palace. The crown lands, the governor-
ships, the different offices, were looked upon as common property
to be shared between themselves. Organized into a compact
body they surrounded the king and were far more powerful than
he. In the general assembly of its members this body of officials
decided the selection of the mayor; it presented Flaochat
to the choice of Queen Nanthilda, Dagobert's widow; after
long discussion it appointed Ebroin as mayor; it submitted
requests that were in reality commands to the Assembly of Bon-
neuil in 616 and later to Childeric in 670. Moreover, the countries
formerly subdued by the Franks availed themselves of this
opportunity to loosen the yoke; Thuringia was lost by Sigebert
in 641, and the revolt of Alamannia in 643 set back the frontier
of the kingdom from the Elbe to Austrasia. Aquitaine, hitherto
the common prey of all the Prankish kings, having in vain tried
to profit by the struggles between Fredegond and Brunhilda,
and set up an independent king, Gondibald, now finally burst
her bonds in 670. Then came a time when the kings were mere
children, honoured with but the semblance of respect, under the
tutelage of a single mayor, Erbroiin of Neustria.
This representative of royalty, chief minister for four-and-
twenty years (656-681), attempted the impossible, endeavouring
to re-establish unity in the midst of general dissolution s^^
and to maintain intact a royal authority usurped between
everywhere by the hereditary power of the great Bbroin and
palatine families. He soon stirred up against himself L *z er -
all the dissatisfied nobles, led by Leger (Leodegarius), bishop of
Autun and his brother Gerinus. Clotaire III.'s death gave
the signal for war. Ebroin's enemies set up Childeric II. in
opposition to Theuderich, the king whom he had chosen without
summoning the great provincial officials. Despite a temporary
triumph, when Childeric was forced to recognize the principle
of hereditary succession in public offices, and when the mayor-
alties of Neustria and Burgundy were alternated to the profit of
both, Leger soon fell into disgrace and was exiled to that very
monastery ot Luxeuil to which Ebroin had been relegated.
Childeric having regained the mastery restored the mayor's
office, which was immediately disputed by the two rivals;
Ebroin was successful and established himself as mayor of the
palace in the room of Leudesius, a partisan of Leger (675),
1 St Eligius, bishop of Noyon, apostle of the Belgians and Frisians
(d. 659?).
HISTORY]
FRANCE
807
following this up by a distribution of offices and dignities right
and left among his adherents. Leger was put to death in 678,
and the Austrasians, commanded by the Carolingian Pippin II.,
with whom many of the chief Neustrians had taken refuge,
were dispersed near Laon (680). But Ebroin was assassinated
next year in the midst of his triumph, having like Fredegond
been unable to do more than postpone for a quarter of a century
the victory of the nobles and of Austrasia; for his successor,
Berthar, was unfitted to carry on his work, having neither
his gifts and energy nor the powerful personality of Pippin.
Berthar met his death at the battle of Tertry (687), which
gave the king into the hands of Pippin, as also the
ro y a l treasure and the mayoralty, and by thus enabling
him to reward his followers made him supreme over
the Merovingian dynasty. Thenceforward the degenerate
descendants of Clovis offered no further resistance to his
claims, though it was not until 752 that their line became
extinct.
In that year the Merovingian dynasty gave place to the rule
of Pippin II. of Heristal, who founded a- Carolingian empire
fated to be as ephemeral as that of the Merovingians. This
political victory of the aristocracy was merely the consummation
of a slow subterranean revolution which by innumerable reiterated
blows had sapped the structure of the body politic, and was about
to transfer the people of Gaul from the Roman monarchical
and administrative government to the sway of the feudal
system.
The Merovingian kings, mere war-chiefs before the advent of
Clovis, had after the conquest of Gaul become absolute hereditary
Causes of nionarchs, thanks to the disappearance of the popular
the fail of assemblies and to the perpetual state of warfare.
the Men>- They concentrated in their own hands all the powers
vingians. Q j ^g empire, judicial, fiscal and military; and even
the so-called " rois faineants " enjoyed this unlimited power,
in spite of the general disorder and the civil wars. To
make their authority felt in the provinces they had an army of
officials at their disposal a legacy, this, from imperial Rome
who represented them in the eyes of their various peoples. They
had therefore only to keep up this established government, but
they could not manage even this much; they allowed the idea
of the common interests of kings and their subjects gradually to
die out, and forgetting that national taxes are a necessary impost,
a charge for service rendered by the state, they had treated these
as though they were illicit and unjustifiable spoils. The tax-
payers, with the clergy at their head, adopted the same idea, and
every day contrived fresh methods of evasion. Merovingian
justice was on the same footing as Merovingian finance: it
was arbitrary, violent and self-seeking. The Church, too, never
failed to oppose it at first not so much on account of her own
ambitions as in a more Christian spirit and proceeded to weaken
the royal jurisdiction by repeated interventions on behalf of those
under sentence, afterwards depriving it of authority over the
clergy, and then setting up ecclesiastical tribunals in opposition
to those held by the dukes and counts. At last, just as the
kingdom had become the personal property of the king, so the
officials dukes, counts, royal vicars, tribunes, centenarii who
had for the most part bought their unpaid offices by means of
presents to the monarch, came to look upon the public service
rather as a mine of official wealth than as an administrative
organization for furthering the interests, material or moral, of
the whole nation. They became petty local tyrants, ail the more
despotic because they had nothing to fear save the distant
authority of the king's missi, and the more rapacious because
they had no salary save the fines they inflicted and the fees that
they contrived to multiply. Gregory of Tours tells us that they
were robbers, not protectors of the people, and that justice and
the whole administrative apparatus were merely engines of in-
satiable greed. It was the abuses thus committed by the kings
and their agents, who did not understand the art of gloving the
iron hand, aided by the absolutely unfettered licence of conduct
and the absence of any popular liberty, that occasioned the
gradual increase of charters of immunity.
Immunity was the direct and personal privilege which forbade
any royal official or his agents to decide cases, to levy taxes, or
to exercise any administrative control on the domains .
c ,. , c ., Immunity.
of a bishop, an abbot, or one of the great secular
nobles. On thousands of estates the royal government
gradually allowed the law of the land to be superseded by local
law, and public taxation to change into special contributions;
so that the duties of the lower classes towards the state were
transferred to the great landlords, who thus became loyal
adherents of the king but absolute masters on their own territory.
The Merovingians had no idea that they were abdicating the
least part of their authority, nevertheless the deprivations
acquiesced in by the feebler kings led of necessity to the diminu-
tion of their authority and their judicial powers, and to the
abandonment of public taxation. They thought that by granting
immunity they would strengthen their direct control; in reality
they established the local independence of the great landowners,
by allowing royal rights to pass into their hands. Then came
confusion between the rights of the sovereign and the rights of
property. The administrative machinery of the state still existed,
but it worked in empty air: its taxpayers disappeared, those
who were amenable to its legal jurisdiction slipped from its grasp,
and the number of those whose affairs it should have directed
dwindled away. Thus the Merovingians had shown themselves
incapable of rising above the barbarous notion that royalty is
a personal asset to the idea that royalty is of the state, a power
belonging to the nation and instituted for the benefit of all.
They represented in society nothing more than a force which
grew feebler and feebler as other forces grew strong; they never
stood for a national magistracy.
Society no less than the state was falling asunder by a gradual
process of decay. Under the Merovingians it was a hierarchy
wherein grades were marked by the varied scale of the
wergild, a man being worth anything from thirty to six O fthe
hundred gold pieces. The different degrees were those social
of slave, freedman, tenant-farmer and great landowner. tra --
As in every social scheme where the government is
without real power, the weakest sought protection of the
strongest; and the system of patron, client and journeyman,
which had existed among the Romans, the Gauls and the
Germans, spread rapidly in the 6th and 7th centuries, owing to
public disorder and the inadequate protection afforded by the
government. The Church's patronage provided some with a
refuge from violence; others ingratiated themselves with the
rich for the sake of shelter and security; others again sought
place and honour from men of power; while women, churchmen
and warriors alike claimed the king's direct and personal pro-
tection.
This hierarchy of persons, these private relations of man to
man, were recognized by custom in default of the law, and were
soon strengthened by another and territorial hierarchy.
The large estate, especially if it belonged to the Church,
very soon absorbed the few fields of the freeman.
In order to farm these, the Church and the rich landowners
granted back the holdings on the temporary and conditional
terms of tenancy-at-will or of the beneficium, thus multiplying
endlessly the land subject to their overlordship and the men who
were dependent upon them as tenants. The kings, like private
individuals and ecclesiastical establishments, made use of the
beneficium to reward their servants; till finally their demesne
was so reduced by these perpetual grants that they took to dis-
tributing among their champions land owning the overlordship
of the Church, or granted their own lands for single lives only.
These various " benefactions " were, as a rule, merely the indirect
methods which the great landowners employed in order to absorb
the small proprietor. And so well did they succeed, that in the
6th and 7th centuries the provincial hierarchy consisted of the
cultivator, the holder of the beneficium and the owner; while
this dependence of one man upon another affected the personal
liberty of a large section of the community, as well as the con-
dition of the land. The great landowner tended to become not
only lord over his tenants, but also himself a vassal of the king.
8o8
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[HISTORY
Thus by means of immunities, of the beneficium and of
patronage, society gradually organized itself independently
of the state, since it required further security. Such
Heftetai' extra security was first provided by the conqueror of
Tertry; for Pippin II. represented the two great
families of Pippin and of Arnulf, and consequently the two
interests then paramount, i.e. land and religion, while he
had at his back a great company of followers and vast landed
estates. For forty years (615-655) the office of mayor of Aus-
trasia had gone down in his family almost continuously in direct
descent from father to son. The death of Grimoald had caused
the loss of this post, yet Ansegisus (Ansegisel), Amulf's son and
Pippin's son-in-law, had continued to hold high office in the
Austrasian palace; and about 680 his son, Pippin II., became
master of Austrasia, although he had held no previous office in
the palace. His dynasty was destined to supplant that of the
Merovingian house.
Pippin of Heristal was a pioneer; he it was who began all
that his descendants were afterwards to carry through. Thus he
gathered the nobles about him not by virtue of his position, but
because of his own personal prowess, and because he could assure
them of justice and protection; instead of being merely the head
of the royal palace he was the absolute lord of his own followers.
Moreover, he no longer bore the title of mayor, but that of duke
or prince of the Franks; and the mayoralty, like the royal power
now reduced to a shadow, became an hereditary possession which
Pippin could bestow upon his sons. The reigns of Theuderich III.,
Clovis III. or Childebert III. are of no significance except as
serving to date charters and diplomas. Pippin it was who
administered justice in Austrasia, appointed officials and dis-
tributed dukedoms; and it was Pippin, the military leader,
who defended the frontiers threatened by Frisians, Alamanni
and Bavarians. Descended as he was from Arnulf, bishop of
Metz, he was before all things a churchman, and behind his
armies marched the missionaries to whom the Carolingian dynasty,
of which he was the founder, were to subject all Christendom.
Pippin it was, in short, who governed, who set in order
the social confusions of Neustria, who, after long wars, put
a stop to the malpractices of the dukes and counts, and
summoned councils of bishops to make good regulations.
But at his death in 714 the child-king Dagobert III. found
himself subordinated to Pippin's two grandsons, who, being
minors, were under the wardship of their grandmother
Plectrude.
Pippin's work was almost undone a party among the
Neustrians under Raginfrid, mayor of the palace, revolted
against Pippin II. 's adherents, and Radbod, duke of
^"rt"? l ^ e Frisians, joined them. But the Austrasians
(715-741). appealed to an illegitimate son of Pippin, Charles
Martel, who had escaped from the prison to which
Plectrude, alarmed at his prowess, had consigned him, and took
him for their leader. With Charles Martel begins the great period
of Austrasian history. Faithful to the traditions of the Austrasian
mayors, he chose kings for himself Clotaire I V.,then Chilperic II.
and lastly Theuderich IV. After Theuderich 's death (737) he
left the throne vacant until 742, but he himself was king in all
but name; he presided over the royal tribunals, appointed the
royal officers, issued edicts, disposed of the funds of the treasury
and the churches, conferred immunities upon adherents, who were
no longer the king's nobles but his own, and even appointed the
bishops, though there was nothing of the ecclesiastic about him-
self. He decided questions of war and peace, and re-established
unity in Gaul by defeating the Neustrians and the Aquitanian
followers of Duke Odo (Eudes) at Vincy in 717. When Odo,
brought to bay, appealed for help to the Arab troops of Abd-ar-
Rahman, who after conquering Spain had crossed the Pyrenees,
Charles, like a second Clovis, saved Catholic Christendom in its
peril by crushing the Arabs at Tours (732). The retreat of the
Arabs, who were further weakened by religious disputes, enabled
him to restore Prankish rule in Aquitaine in spite of Hunald,
son of Odo. But Charles's longest expeditions were made into
Germany, and in these he sought the support of the Church, then
the greatest of all powers since it was the depositary of the
Roman imperial tradition.
No less unconscious of his mission than Clovis had been, Charles
Martel also was a soldier of Christ. He protected the missionaries
who paved the way for his militant invasions. Without charks
him theapostleof Germany, theEnglish monk Boniface, Martel
would never have succeeded in preserving the purity and the
of the faith and keeping the bishops submissive to Cbunh.
the Holy See. The help given by Charles had two very far-
reaching results. Boniface was the instrument of the union of
Rome and Germany, of which union the Holy Roman Empire in
Germany was in the loth century to become the most perfect
expression, continuing up to the time of Luther. And Boniface
also helped on the alliance between the papacy and the Carolingian
dynasty, which, more momentous even than that between Clovis'"
and the bishops of Gaul, was to sanctify might by right.
This union was imperative for the bishops of Rome if they
wished to establish their supremacy, and their care for orthodoxy
by no means excluded all desire of domination. Mere tfiar/es
religious authority did not secure to them the obedience Martel and
of either the faithful or the clergy; moreover, they Gregory
had to consider the great secular powers, and in this tu '
respect their temporal position in Italy was growing unbear-
able. Their relations with the East Roman emperor (sole
lord of the world after the Roman Senate had sent the imperial
insignia to Constantinople in 476) were confined to receiving
insults from him or suspecting him of heresy. Even in northern
Italy there was no longer any opposition to the progress of the
Lombards, the last great nation to be established towards the
end of the 6th century within the ancient Roman empire their
king Liudprand clearly intended to seize Italy and even Rome
itself. Meanwhile from the south attacks were being made by
the rebel dukes of Spoleto and Beneventum. Pope Gregory III.
cherished dreams of an alliance with the powerful duke of the
Franks, as St Remigius before him had thought of uniting
with Clovis against the Goths. Charles Martel had protected
Boniface on his German missions: he would perhaps lend
Gregory the support of his armies. But the warrior, like Clovis
aforetime, hesitated to put himself at the disposal of the priest.
When it was a question of winning followers or keeping them,
he had not scrupled to lay hands on ecclesiastical property,
nor to fill the Church with his friends and kinsfolk, and this
alliance might embarrass him. So if he loaded the Roman
ambassadors with gifts in 739, he none the less remembered that
the Lombards had just helped him to drive the Saracens from
Provence. However, he died soon after this, on the 22nd of
October 74 1, and Gregory III. followed him almost immediately.
Feeling his end near, Charles, before an assembly of nobles,
had divided his power between his two sons, Carloman and
Pippin III. The royal line seemed to have been
forgotten for six years, but in 742 Pippin brought a Tl'eCaro-
son of Chilperic II. out of a monastery and made him ^fyaaffy.
king. This Childeric III. was but a shadow and
knew it. He made a phantom appearance once every spring
at the opening of the great annual national convention known as
the Campus Martius (Champ de Mars) : a dumb idol, his chariot
drawn in leisurely fashion by oxen, he disappeared again into
his palace or monastery. An unexpected event re-established
unity. in the Caroh'ngian family. Pippin's brother, the pious
Carloman, became a monk in 747, and Pippin, now sole ruler
of the kingdom, ordered Childeric also to cut off his royal locks;
after which, being king in all but name, he adopted that title
in 752. Thus ended the revolution which had been going on
for two centuries. The disappearance of Grippo, Pippin's
illegitimate brother, who, with the help of all the
enemies of the Franks Alamanni, Aquitanians' and ?''!?***
Bavarians had disputed his power, now completed the 752-768.
work of centralization, and Pippin had only to maintain
it. For this the support of the Church was indispensable, and
Pippin understood the advantages of such an alliance better
than Charles Martel. A son of the Church, a protector of bishops,
a president of councils, a collector of relics, devoted to Boniface
HISTORY]
FRANCE
809
(whom he invited, as papal legate, to reform the clergy of
Austrasia), he astutely accepted the new claims of the vicar
of St Peter to the headship of the Church, perceiving the value
of an alliance with this rising power.
Prudent enough to fear resistance if he usurped the Merovingian
crown, Pippin the Short made careful preparations for his
Sacred accession, and discussed the question of the dynasty
character with Pope Zacharias. Receiving a favourable opinion,
of the new he had himself anointed and crowned by Boniface
monarchy. j n ^e name of the bishops, and was then proclaimed
king in an assembly of nobles, counts and bishops at
Soissons in November 751. Still, certain disturbances made
him see that aristocratic approval of his kingship might be
strengthened if it could claim a divine sanction which no Mero-
vingian had ever received. Two years later, therefore, he de-
manded a consecration of his usurpation from the pope, and in
St Denis on the 28th of July 754 Stephen II. crowned and
anointed not only Pippin, but his wife and his two sons as well.
The political results of this custom of coronation were all-
important for the Carolingians, and later for the first of the
Capets. Pippin was hereby invested with new dignity,
a when Boniface's anointing had been confirmed
Papacy. by that of the pope, he became the head of the Prankish
Church, the equal of the pope. Moreover, he astutely
contrived to extend his priestly prestige to his whole family;
his royalty was no longer merely a military command or a civil
office, but became a Christian priesthood. This sacred character
was not, however, conferred gratuitously. On the very day
of his coronation Pippin allowed himself to be proclaimed
patrician of the Romans by the pope, just as Clovis had been
made consul. This title of theimperial court waspurely honorary,
but it attached him still more closely to Rome, though without
lessening his independence. He had besides given a written
promise to defend the Church of Rome, and that not against the
Lombards only. Qualified by letters of the papal chancery as
" liberator and defender of the Church," his armies twice (754-
756) crossed the Alps, despite the opposition of the Prankish
aristocracy, and forced Aistulf, king of the Lombards, to cede
to him the exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis. Pippin
gave them back to Pope Stephen II., and by this famousdonation
founded that temporal power of the popes which was to endure
until 1870. He also dragged the Western clergy into the pope's
quarrel with the emperor at Constantinople, by summoning
the council of Gentiily, at which the iconoclastic heresy was
condemned (767). Matters being thus settled with Rome,
Pippin again took up his wars against the Saxons, against the
Arabs (whom he drove from Narbonne in 758), and above all
against Waifer, duke of Aquitaine, and his ally, duke Tassilo
of Bavaria. This last war was carried on systematically from
760 to 768, and ended in the death of Waifer and the definite
establishment of the Prankish hold on Aquitaine. When*
Pippin died, aged fifty-four, on the 24th of September 768, the
whole of Gaul had submitted to his authority.
Pippin left two sons, and before he died he had, with the
consent of the dignitaries of the realm, divided his kingdom
between them, making theelder, Charles(Charlemagne) ,
king f Austrasia, and giving the younger, Carloman,
Burgundy, Provence, Septimania, Alsace and
Alamannia, and half of Aquitaine to each. On the gth of October
768 Charles was enthroned at Noyon in solemn assembly, and
Carloman at Soissons. The Carolingian sovereignty was thus
neither hereditary nor elective, but was handed down by the will
of the reigning king, and by a solemn acceptance of the future
king on the part of the nobles. In 771 Carloman, with whom
Charles had had disputes, died, leaving sons; but bishops, abbots
and counts all declared for Charles, save a few who took refuge
in Italy with Desiderius, king of the Lombards. Desiderius,
whose daughter Bertha or Desiderata Charles, despite the pope,
had married at the instance of his mother Bertrade, supported
the rights of Carloman's sons, and threatened Pope Adrian in
Rome itself after he had despoiled him of Pippin's territorial
gift. At the pope's appeal Charles crossed the Alps, took
Verona and Pavia after a long siege, assumed the iron crown of
the Lombard kings (June 774), and made a triumphal entry
into Rome, which had not formed part of the pope's desires.
Pippin's donation was restored, but the protectorate was no
longer so distant, respectful and intermittent as the pope liked.
After the departure of the imperious conqueror, a fresh revolt
of the Lombards of Beneventum under Arichis, Desiderius's
son-in-law, supported by a Greek fleet, obliged Pope Adrian to
write fresh entreaties to Charlemagne; and in two campaigns
(776-777) the latter conquered the whole Lombard kingdom.
But another of Desiderius's daughters, married to the powerful
duke Tassilo of Bavaria, urged her husband to avenge her
father, now imprisoned in the monastery of Corbie. After
endless intrigues, however, the duke, hemmed in by three
different armies, had in his turn to submit (788), and all Italy
was now subject to Charlemagne. These wars in Italy, even the
fall of the Lombard kingdom and the recapture of the duchy of
Bavaria, were merely episodes: Charlemagne's great war was
against the Saxons and lasted thirtyyears (772-804).
The work of organizing the three great Carolingian conquests
Aquitaine, Italy and Saxony had yet to be done. Charlemagne
approached it with a moderation equal to the vigour
which he had shown in the war. But by multiplying
its advance-posts, the Prankish kingdom came into conquests.
contact with new peoples, and each new neighbour
meant a new enemy. Aquitaine bordered upon Mussulman
Spain; the Avars of Hungary threatened Bavaria with their
tireless horsemen; beyond the Elbe and the Saal the Slavs
were perpetually at war with the Saxons, and to the north of
the Eider were the Danes. All were pagans; all enemies of
Charlemagne, defender of Christ's Church, and hence the
appointed conqueror of the world.
Various causes the weakening of the Arabs by the struggle
between the Omayyads and the Abbasids just after the battle
of Tours; the alliance of the petty Christian kings of Wars wlth
the Spanish peninsula; an appeal from the northern the Arabs,
amirs who had revolted against the new caliphate of S/avs and
Cordova (755) made Charlemagne resolve to cross Daaes -
the Pyrenees. He penetrated as far as the Ebro, but was
defeated before Saragossa; and in their retreat the Franks
were attacked by Vascons, losing many men as they came
through the passes. This defeat of the rear-guard, famous
for the death of the great Roland and the treachery of Ganelo,
induced the Arabs to take the offensive once more and to conquer
Septimania. Charlemagne had created the kingdom of Aquitaine
especially to defend Septimania, and William, duke of Toulouse,
from 790 to 806, succeeded in restoring Prankish authority
down to the Ebro, thus founding the Spanish March with Barce-
lona as its capital. For two centuries and a half the Avars,
a remnantof the Huns entrenched in the Hungarian Mesopotamia,
had made descents alternately upon the Germans and upon the
Greeks of the Eastern empire. They had overrun Bavaria in
the very year of its subjugation by Charlemagne (788), and it
took an eight-years' struggle to destroy the robber stronghold.
The empire thus pushed its frontier-line on from the Elbe to
the Oder, ever as it grew menaced by increasing dangers. The
sea came to the help of the depopulated land, and Danish pirates,
Widukind's old allies, came in their leathern boats to harry
the coasts of t' e North Sea and the Channel. Permanent armies
and walls across isthmuses were alike useless; Charlemagne had
to build fleets to repulse his elusive foes (808-810), and even
after forty years of war the danger was only postponed.
Meanwhile Pippin's Prankish kingdom, vast and powerful
as it had been, was doubled. All nations from the Oder to the
Elbe and from the Danube to the Atlantic were subject
or tributary, and Charlemagne's power even crossed
these frontiers. At his summons Christian princes
and Mussulman amirs flocked to his palaces. The
kings of Northumbria and Sussex, the kings of the Basques
and of Galicia, Arab amirs of Spain and Fez, and even the caliph
of Bagdad came to visit him in person or sent gifts by the hands
of ambassadors. A great warrior and an upright ruler, his
8io
FRANCE
[HISTORY
conquests recalled those of the great Christian emperors, and
the Church completed the parallel by training him in her lore.
This still barely civilized German literally went to school to the
English Alcuin and to Peter of Pisa, who, between two campaigns,
taught him history, writing, grammar and astronomy, satisfying
also his interest in sacred music, literature (religious literature
especially) , and the traditions of Rome and Constantinople. Why
should he not be the heir of their Caesars? And so, little by
little, this man of insatiable energy was possessed by the ambition
of restoring the Empire of the West in his own favour.
There were, however, two serious obstacles in the way: first,
the supremacy of the emperor of the East, which though nominal
Charie- rather than real was upheld by peoples, princes, and
magoe even by popes; secondly, the rivalry of the bishops
emperor o f Rome, who since the early years of Adrian's
(800). pontificate had claimed the famous " Donation of
Constantine " (q.v.) . According to that apocryphal document, the
emperor after his baptism had ceded to the sovereign pontiff
his imperial power and honours, the purple chlamys, the golden
crown, " the town of Rome, the districts and cities of Italy and
of all the West." But in 797 the empress of Constantinople
had just deposed her son Constantine VI. after putting out his
eyes, and the throne might be considered vacant; while on the
other hand, Pope Leo III., who had been driven from Rome
by a revolt in 799, and had only been restored by a Prankish
army, counted for little beside the Prankish monarch, and
could not but submit to the wishes of the Carolingian court.
So when next year the king of the Franks went to Rome in
person, on Christmas Eve of the year 800 and in the basilica
of St Peter the pope placed on his head the imperial crown and
did him reverence " after the established custom of the time
of the ancient emperors." The Roman ideal, handed down
in tradition through the centuries, was here first revived.
This event, of capital importance for the middle ages, was
fertile in results both beneficial and the reverse. It brought
about the rupture between the West and Constantinople. Then
Charlemagne raised the papacy on the ruins of Lombardy to
the position of first political power in Italy; and the universal
Church, headed by the pope, made common cause with the
Empire, which all the thinkers of that day regarded as the ideal
state. Confusion between these powers was inevitable, but at
this time neither Charles, the pope, nor the people had a suspicion
of the troubles latent in the ceremony that seemed so simple.
Thirdly, Charlemagne's title of emperor strengthened his other
title of king of the Franks, as is proved by the fact that at the
great assembly of Aix-la-Chapelle in 802 he demanded from all,
whether lay or spiritual, a new oath of allegiance to himself
as Caesar. His increased power came rather from moral value,
from the prestige attaching to one who had given proof of it,
than from actual authority over men or centralization; this
is shown by the division between the Empire and feudalism.
Universal sovereignty claimed as a heritage from Rome had a
profound influence upon popular imagination, but in no way
modified that tendency to separation of the various nations
which was already manifest. Charles himself in his government
preferred to restore the ancient Empire by vigorous personal
action, rather than to follow old imperial traditions; he intro-
duced cohesion into his "palace," and perfect centralization
into his official administration, inspiring his followers and
servants, clerical and lay, with a common and determined zeal.
The system was kept in full vigour by the missi dominici, who
regularly reported or reformed any abuses of administration,
and by the courts, military, judicial or political, which brought
to Charlemagne the strength of the wealth of his subjects, carry-
ing his commands and his ideas to the farthest limits of the
Empire. Under him there was in fact a kind of early renaissance
after centuries of barbarism and ignorance.
The Can- This emperor, who assumed so high a tone with his
lingian subjects, his bishops and his counts, who undertook
Kenals- t o uphold public order in civil life, held himself no
less responsible for the eternal salvation of men's souls
in the other world. Thanks to Charlemagne, and through the
restoration of order and of the schools, a common civilization
was prepared for the varied elements of the Empire. By
his means the Church was able to concentrate in the palatine
academy all the intellectual culture of the middle ages, having
preserved some of the ancient traditions of organization and
administration and guarded the imperial ideal. Charlemagne
apparently wished, like Theodoric, to use German blood and
Christian unity to bring back life to the great body of the Empire.
Not the equal of Caesar or Augustus in genius or in the lastingness
of his work, he yet recalls them in his capitularies, his periodic
courts, his official hierarchy, his royal emissaries, his ministers,
his sole right of coinage, his great public works, his campaigns
against barbarism and heathenry, his zeal for learning and
literature, and his divinity as emperor. Once more there existed
a great public entity such as had not been seen for many years;
but its duration was not to be a long one.
Charlemagne had for the moment succeeded in uniting western
Europe under his sway, but he had not been able to arrest its
evolution towards feudal dismemberment. He had, D/ SSO A,.
doubtless conscientiously, laboured for the recon- tionofthe
stitution of the Empire; but it often happens that Prankish
individual wills produce results other than those at Bmpln -
which they aimed, sometimes results even contrary to
their wishes, and this was what happened in Charlemagne's
case. He had restored the superstructure of the imperial
monarchy, but he had likewise strengthened and legalized
methods and institutions till then private and insecure, and these,
passing from custom into law, undermined the foundations of
the structure he had thought himself to be repairing. A quarter
of a century after his death his Empire was in ruins.
The practice of giving land as a beneficium to a grantee who
swore personal allegiance to the grantor had persisted, and by
his capitularies Charlemagne had made these personal engage-
ments, these contracts of immunity hitherto not transferable,
nor even for life, but quite conditional regular, legal, even
obligatory and almost indissoluble. The beneficium was to be
as practically irrevocable as the oath of fidelity. He submitted
to the yoke of the social system and feudal institutions at the
very moment when he was attempting to revive royal authority;
he was ruler of the state, but ruler of vassals also. The monar-
chical principle no longer sufficed to ensure social discipline; the
fear of forfeiting the grant became the only powerful guarantee
of obedience, and as this only applied to his personal vassals,
Charlemagne gave up his claim to direct obedience from the
rest of the people, accepting the mediation of the counts, lords
and bishops, who levied taxes, adjudicated and administered
in virtue of the privileges of patronage, not of the right of the
state. The very multiplication of offices, so noticeable at this
time, furthered this triumph of feudalism by multiplying the
Blinks of personal dependence, and neutralizing more and more
the direct action of the central authority. The frequent con-
vocations of military assemblies, far from testifying to political
liberty, was simply a means of communicating the emperor's
commands to the various feudal groups.
Thus Charlemagne, far from opposing, systematized feudalism,
in order that obedience and discipline might pass from one man
to another down to the lowest grades of society, and he succeeded
for his own lifetime. No authority was more weighty or more
respected than that of this feudal lord of Gaul, Italy and
Germany; none was more transient, because it was so purely
personal.
When the great emperor was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle in
814, his work was entombed with him. The fact was that his
successors were incapable of maintaining it. Twenty- Causes for
nine years after his death the Carolingian Empire had the dis-
been divided into three kingdoms; forty years 'later solution
one alone of these kingdoms had split into seven;
while when a century had passed France was a litter of
tiny states each practically independent. This disintegration
was caused neither by racial hate nor by linguistic patriotism.
It was the weakness of princes, the discouragement of freemen
and landholders confronted by an inexorable system of financial
HISTORY]
FRANCE
811
and military tyranny, and the incompatibility of a vast empire
with a too primitive governmental system, that wrecked the
work of Charlemagne.
The Empire fell to Louis the Pious, sole survivor of his three
sons. At the Aix assembly in 813 his father had crowned him
with his own hand, thus avoiding the papal sanction
P/OUS('SM- t ^ lat ^ a d ' Deen a l most forced upon himself in 800.
840). Louis was a gentle and well-trained prince, but weak
and prone to excessive devotion to the Church. He
had only reigned a few years when dissensions broke out on all
sides, as under the Merovingians. Charlemagne had assigned
their portions to his three sons in 781 and again in 806; like
Charles Martel and Pippin the Short before him, however,
what he had divided was not the imperial authority, nor yet
countries, but the whole system of fiefs, offices and adherents
which had been his own patrimony. The division that Louis the
Pious made at Aix in 817 among his three sons, Lothair, Pippin
and Louis, was of like character, since he reserved the supreme
authority for himself, only associating Lothair, the eldest, with
him in the government of the empire. Following the advice
of his ministers Walla and Agobard, supporters of the policy
of unity, Louis the Pious put Bernard of Italy, Charlemagne's
grandson, to death for refusing to acknowledge Lothair as co-
emperor; crushed a revolt in Brittany; and carried on among
the. Danes the work of evangelization begun among the Slavs.
A fourth son, Charles, was born to him by his second wife, Judith
of Bavaria. Jealousy arose between the children of the two
marriages. Louis tried in vain to satisfy his sons and their
followers by repeated divisions at Worms (829) and at Aix
(831) in which there was no longer question of either unity or
subordination. Yet his elder sons revolted against him in 831
and 832, and were supported by Walla and Agobard and by
their followers, weary of all the contradictory oaths demanded
of them. Louis was deposed at the assembly of Compiegne
(833), the bishops forcing him to assume the garb of a penitent;
but he was re-established on his throne in St Etienne at Metz,
the 28th of February 835, from which time until his death in
840 he fell more and more under the influence of his ambitious
wife, and thought only of securing an inheritance for Charles,
his favourite son.
Hardly was Louis buried in the basilica of Metz before his sons
flew to arms. , The first dynastic war broke out between Lothair,
who by the settlement of 817 claimed the whole
T f? so ?" monarchy with the imperial title, and his brothers
he Pious. Louis and Charles. Lothair wanted, with the Empire,
the sole right of patronage over the adherents of his
house, but each of these latter chose his own lord according to
individual interests, obeying his fears or his preferences. The
three brothers finished their discussion by fighting for a whole
day (June 2sth, 841) on the plain of Fontanet by Auxerre; but
the battle decided nothing, so Charles and Louis, in order to get
the better of Lothair, allied themselves and their vassals by an
oath taken in the plain of Strassburg (Feb. I4th, 842).
The This, the first document in the vulgar tongue in the
burg oath, history of France and Germany, was merely a mutual
contract of protection for the two armies, which never-
theless did not risk another battle. An amicable division of the
imperial succession was arranged, and after an assessment of
the empire which took almost a year, an agreement was signed
at Verdun in August 843.
This was one of the important events in history. Each
brother received an equal share of the dismembered empire.
Partition Louis ^ a( ^ t ^ le territory on the right bank of the Rhine,
of the with Spires, Worms and Mainz " because of the abund-
Bmpireat ance of wine." Lothair took Italy, the valleys of the
Rhone, the Sa6ne and the Meuse, with the two capitals
of the empire, Aix-la-Chapelle and Rome, and the
title of emperor. Charles had all the country watered by the
Scheldt, the Seine, the Loire and the Garonne, as far as the
Atlantic and the Ebro. The partition of Verdun separated once
more, and definitively, the lands of the eastern and western
Franks. The former became modern Germany, the latter
Verdun
(843).
France, and each from this time forward had its own national
existence. However, as the boundary between the possessions
of Charles the Bald and those of Louis was not strictly defined,
and as Lothair's kingdom, having no national basis, soon dis-
integrated into the kingdoms of Italy, Burgundy and Aries, in
Lotharingia, this great undefined territory was to serve as a
tilting-ground for France and Germany on the very morrow of
the treaty of Verdun and for ten centuries after.
Charles the Bald was the first king of western France. Anxious
as he was to preserve Charlemagne's traditions of government,
he was not always strong enough to do so, and warfare
within his own dominions was often forced on him.
The Norse pirates who had troubled Charlemagne (843-877).
showed a preference for western France, justified by
the easy access afforded by river estuaries with rich monasteries
on their shores. They began in 841 with the sack of Rouen;
and from then until 912, when they made a settlement in one
part of the country, though few in numbers they never ceased
attacking Charles's kingdom, coming in their ships up the Loire
as far as Auvergne, up the Garonne to Toulouse, and up the
Seine and the Scheldt to Paris, where they made four descents
in forty years, burning towns, pillaging treasure, destroying
harvests and slaughtering the peasants or carrying them off into
slavery. Charles the Bald thus spent his life sword in hand,
fighting unsuccessfully against the Bretons, whose two kings,
Nomenoe and Erispoe, he had to recognize in turn; and against
the people of Aquitaine, who, in full revolt, appealed for help to
his brother, Louis the German. He was beaten everywhere
and always: by the Bretons at Ballon (845) and Juvardeil
(851); by the people of Aquitaine near Angouleme (845); and
by the Northmen, who several times extorted heavy ransoms
from him. Before long, too, Louis the German actually allied
himself with the people of Brittany and Aquitaine, and invaded
France at the summons of Charles the Bald's own vassals!
Though the treaty of Coblenz (860) seemed to reconcile the two
kings for the moment, no peace was ever possible in Charles
the Bald's kingdom. His own son Charles, king of Aquitaine,
revolted, and Salomon proclaimed himself king of Brittany in
succession to Erispoe, who had been assassinated. To check
the Bretons and the Normans, who were attacking from the
Atlantic and the Mediterranean, Charles the Bald found himself
obliged to entrust the defence of the country to Robert the Strong,
ancestor of the house of Capet and duke of the lands between
Loire and Seine. Robert the Strong, however, though many
times victorious over the incorrigible pirates, was killed by them
in a fight at Brissarthe (866).
Despite all this, Charles spoke authoritatively in his capitularies,
and though incapable of defending western France, coveted
other crowns and looked obstinately eastwards. D/vte/on
He managed to become king of Lorraine on the death c fthe
of his nephew Lothair II., and emperor and king of kingdom
Germany on that of his other nephew Louis II. (875); '"'" large
though only by breaking the compact of the year 800.
In 876, the year before his death, he took a third crown, that of
Italy, though not without a fresh defeat at Andernach by Louis
the German's troops. His titles increased, indeed, but not his
power; for while his kingdom was thus growing in area it was
falling to pieces. The duchy with which he rewarded Robert
the Strong was only a military command, but became a powerful
fief. Baldwin I. (d. 879),. count of Flanders, turned the country
between the Scheldt, the Somme and the sea into another feudal
principality. Aquitaine and Brittany were almost independent,
Burgundy was in full revolt, and within thirty years Rollo,
a Norman leader, was to be master of the whole of the lower
Seine from the Cotentin to the Somme. The fact was that
between the king's inability to defend the kingdom, and the
powerlessness of nobles and peasants to protect themselves from
pillage, every man made it his business to seek new protectors,
and the country, in spite of Charles the Bald's efforts, began to be
covered with strongholds, the peasant learning to live beneath
the shelter of the donjon keeps. Such vassals gave themselves
utterly to the lord who guarded them', working for him sword
8l2
FRANCE
[HISTORY
or pickaxe in hand. The king was far away, the lord close
at hand. Hence 'the sixty years of terror and confusion
which came between Charlemagne and the death of Charles
the Bald suppressed the direct authority of the king in
favour of the nobles, and prepared the way for a second de-
struction of the monarchy at the hands of a stronger power
(see FEUDALISM).
Before long Charles the Bald's followers were dictating to
him; and in the disaffection caused by his feebleness and
cowardice prelates and nobles allied themselves
a S ainst nim - If tne y acknowledged the king's authority
feudalism, at the assemblies of Yiitz (near Thionville) in 844,
they forced from him a promise that they should keep
their fiefs and their dignities; and while establishing a right of
control over all his actions they deprived him of his right of
jurisdiction over them. Despite Charles's resistance his royal
power dwindled steadily: an appeal to Hincmar, archbishop of
Reims, entailed concessions to the Church. In 856 some of his
vassals deserted him and went over to Louis the German. To
win them back Charles had to sign a new charter, by the terms
of which loyalty was no longer a one-sided engagement but
a reciprocal contract between king and vassal. He gave up his
personal right of distributing the fiefs and honours which were
the price of adherence, and thus lost for the Carolingians the free
disposal of the immense territories they had gradually usurped;
they retained the over-lordship, it is true, but this over-lordship,
without usufruct and without choice of tenant, was but a
barren possession.
Like their territories public authority little by little slipped
from the grasp of the Carolingians, largely because of their
Decay O f abuse of their too great power. They had concentrated
the Caro- the entire administration in their own hands. Like
iiogian Charlemagne, Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald
rer ' were omnipotent. There were no provincial assemblies,
no municipal bodies, no merchant-gilds, no autonomous churches;
the people had no means of making themselves heard; they
had no place in an administration which was completely in the
hands of a central hierarchy of officials of all ranks, from dukes
to scabini, with counts, viscounts and centenarii in between.
However, these dukes and counts were not merely officials: they
too had become lords oifideles, of their own advocati, centenarii
and scabini, whom they nominated, and of all the free men of
the county, who since Charlemagne's time had been first allowed
and then commanded to " commend " themselves to a lord,
receiving feudal benefices in return. Any deprivation or super-
session of the count might impoverish, dispossess or ruin the
vassals of the entire county; so that all, vassals or officials,
small and great, feeling their danger, united their efforts, and
lent each other mutual assistance against the permanent menace
of an overweening monarchy. Hence, at the end of the (jth
century, the heredity of offices as well as of fiefs. In the dis-
ordered state of society official stability was a valuable warrant
of peace, and the administrative hierarchy, lay or spiritual,
thus formed a mould for the hierarchy of feudalism. There
was no struggle with the king, simply a cessation of obedience;
for without strength or support in the kingdom he was powerless
to resist. In vain Charles the Bald affirmed his royal authority
in the capitularies of Quierzy-sur-Oise (857), Reims (860), Pistes
(864), Gondreville (872) and Quierzy-sur-Oise (877); each time
in exchange for assent to the royal will and renewal of oaths
he had to acquiesce in new safeguards against himself and by
so much to diminish that power of protection against violence
and injustice for which the weak had always looked to the throne.
Far from forbidding the relation of lord and vassal, Charles the
Bald imposed it upon every man in his kingdom, himself proclaim-
ing the real incapacity and failure of that theoretic royal power
to which he laid claim. Henceforward royalty had no servants,
since it performed no service. There was no longer the least
hesitation over the choice between liberty with danger and
subjection with safety; men sought and found in vassalage
the right to live, and willingly bartered away their liberty
for it.
The degeneration of the monarchy was clearly apparent on
the death of Charles the Bald, when his son, Louis the Stammerer,
was only assured of the throne, which had passed by Louls <Ae
right of birth under the Merovingians and been stam-
hereditary under the earlier Carolingians, through his merer
election by nobles and bishops under the direction t 877 " 879 )-
of Hugh the Abbot, successor of Robert the Strong, each voter
having been won over by gift of abbeys, counties or manors.
When Louis died two years later (879), the same nobles met,
some at Creil, the rest at Meaux, and the first party chose Louis
of Germany, who preferred Lorraine to the crown; while the
rest anointed Louis III. and Carloman, sons of the /,/, ///.
late king, themselves deciding how the kingdom was andCario-
to be divided between the two princes. Thus the matt ( 8lr9 '
king no longer chose his own vassals; but vassals
and fief-holders actually elected their king according to the
material advantages they expected from him. Louis III. and
Carloman justified their election by their brilliant victories
over the Normans at Saucourt (88 1) and near Epernay (883);
but at their deaths (882-884), the nobles, instead of taking
Louis's boy-son, Charles the Simple, as king, chose Charles the
Fat, king of Germany, because he was emperor and seemed
powerful. He united once more the dominions of
Charlemagne; but he disgraced the imperial throne ^^"
by his feebleness, and was incapable of using his (884-888.)
immense army to defend Paris when it was besieged
by the Normans. Expelled from Italy, he only came to France
to buy a shameful peace. When he died in January 888 he had
not a single faithful vassal, and the feudal lords resolved never
again to place the sceptre in a hand that could not wield the
sword.
The death-struggle of the Carolingians lasted for a century
of uncertainty and anarchy, during which time the bishops,
counts and lords might well have suppressed the
monarchy had they been hostile to it. Such, however, straggle of
was not their policy; on the contrary, they needed a the Can-
king to act as agent for their private interests, since '!"*'*? s _
he alone could invest their rank and dignities with
an official and legitimate character. They did not at once
agree on Charles's successor; for some of them chose Eudes
(Odo) , son of Robert the Strong, for his brilliant defence of Paris
against the Normans in 885; others Guy, duke of Spoleto in
Italy, who had himself crowned at Langres; while many wished
for Arnulf, illegitimate son of Carloman, king of Germany and
emperor. Eudes was victor in the struggle, and was crowned
and anointed at Compiegne on the 29th of February 888; but
five years later, meeting with defeat after defeat at the hands of
the Normans, his followers deserted from him to Charles the
Simple, grandson of Charles the Bald, who was also supported
by Fulk, archbishop of Reims.
This first Carolingian restoration took place on the a8th of
January 893, and thenceforward throughout this warlike period
from 888 to 936 the crown passed from one dynasty
to the other according to the interests of the nobles. ^*
After desperate strife, an agreeement between the two (888-893).
rivals, Arnulf's support, and the death of Odo,
secured it for Charles III., surnamed the Simple. His subjects
remained faithful to him for a good while, as he put an end to the
Norman invasions which had desolated the kingdom for two
centuries, and cowed those barbarians, much to the benefit of
France. By the treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte (911) their leader
Rolf (Rollo) obtained one of Charles's daughters in marriage
and the district of the Lower Seine which the Normans had long
occupied, on condition that he and his men ceased their attacks
and accepted Christianity. Having thus tranquillized the west,
Charles took advantage of Louis the Child's death, and
conquered Lorraine, in spite of opposition from Conrad, ^"^mple
king of Germany (921). But his preference for his new (893-929}.
conquest, and for a Lorrainer of low birth named
Hagano, aroused the jealousy and discontent of his nobles.
They first elected Robert, count of Paris (923), and then after
his death in a successful battle near Soissons against Charles the
HISTORY]
FRANCE
813
Simple, Rudolph of Burgundy, his son-in-law. But Herbert of
Vermandois, one of the successful combatants at
B^g'uady' Soissons coveted the countship of Laon, which
(92J-9J6). Rudolph refused him; and he thereupon proclaimed
Charles the Simple, who had confided his cause to him,
as king once more. Seeing his danger Rudolph ceded the count-
ship to Herbert, and Charles was relegated to his prison until
his death in 929. After unsuccessful wars against the nobles
of the South, against the Normans, who asserted that they were
bound to no one except Charles the Simple, and against the
Hungarians (who, now the Normans were pacified, were acting
their part in the East), Rudolph had a return of good fortune
in the years between 930 and 936, despite the intrigues of Herbert
of Vermandois. Upon his death the nobles assembled to elect
a king; and Hugh the Great, Rudolph's brother-in-law, moved
by irresolution as much as by prudence, instead of taking the
crown, preferred to restore the Carolingians once more in the
person of Charles the Simple's son, Louis d'Outremer, himself
claiming numerous privileges and enjoying the exercise of power
unencumbered by a title which carried with it the jealousy of
the nobles.
This restoration was no more peaceful than its predecessor.
The Carolingians had as it were a fresh access of energy, and the
Louis IV struggle against the Robertinians went on relentlessly.
the Both sides employed similar methods: one was sup-
Foreigaer ported by Normandy, the other by Germany; the
(936-934.) archbishop o f Reims was for the Carolingians, the
Robertinians had to be content with the less influential bishop
of Sens. Louis soon proved to Hugh the Great, who was trying
to play the part of a mayor of the palace, that he was by no
means a roi faineant; and the powerful duke of the Franks,
growing uneasy, allied himself with Herbert of Vermandois,
William of Normandy and his brother-in-law Otto I. king of
Germany, who resented the loss of Lorraine. Louis defended
himself with energy, aided chiefly by the nobles of the South,
by his relative Edmund, king of the English, and then by Otto
himself, whose brother-in-law he also had become. A peace
advantageous to him was made in 942, and on the deaths of his
two opponents, Herbert of Vermandois and William of Nor-
mandy, all seemed to be going well for him; but his guardian-
ship of Richard, son of the duke of Normandy, aroused fresh
strife, and on the I3th of July 945 he fell into an ambush and
suffered a captivity similar to his father's of twenty-two years
before. No one had befriended Charles the Simple, but Louis had
his wife Gerberga, who won over to his cause the kings of England
and Germany and even Hugh. Hugh set him free, insisting, as
payment for his aid, on the cession of Laon, the capital of the
kingdom and the last fortified town remaining to the Carolingians
(946) . Louis was hardly free before he took vengeance, harried
the lands of his rival, restored to the archiepiscopal throne of
Reims Artald, his faithful adviser, in place of the son of Herbert
of Vermandois, and managed to get Hugh excommunicated
by the council of Ingelheim (948) and by the pope. A two years'
struggle wearied the rivals, and they made peace in 950. Louis
once more held Laon, and in the following year further
strengthened his position by a successful expedition into Bur-
gundy. Still his last years were not peaceful; for besides civil
wars there were two Hungarian invasions of France (951
and 954).
Louis's sudden death in 954 once more placed the Carolingian
line in peril, since he had not had time to have his son Lothair
crowned. For a third time Hugh had the disposal of
(954*986) the crown, and he was no more tempted to take it him-
self in 954 than in 923 or 936: it was too profitless a
possession. Thanks to Hugh's support and to the good offices
of Otto and his brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne and duke
of Lorraine, Lothair was chosen king and crowned at Reims.
Hugh exacted, as payment for his disinterestedness and fidelity,
a renewal of his sovereignty over Burgundy with that of Aquitaine
as well; he was in fact the viceroy of the kingdom, and others
imitated him by demanding indemnities, privileges and con-
firmation of rights, as was customary at the beginning of a reign.
Hugh strengthened his position in Burgundy, Lorraine and
Normandy by means of marriages; but just as his power was
at its height he died (956). His death and the minority of his
sons, Hugh Capet and Eudes, gave the Carolingian dynasty thirty
years more of life.
For nine years (956-965) Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, was
regent of France, and thanks to him there was a kind of entente
cordiale between the Carolingians and the Robertinians and Otto.
Bruno made Lothair recognize Hugh as duke of France and
Eudes as duke of Burgundy; but the sons preserved the father's
enmity towards king Louis, despite the archbishop's repeated
efforts. His death deprived Lothair of a wise and devoted
guardian, even if it did set him free from German influence;
and the death of Odalric, archbishop of Reims, in 969, was
another fatal loss for the Carolingians, succeeded as he was by
Adalbero, who, though learned, pious and highly intelligent,
was none the less ambitious. On the death of Otto I. (973)
Lothair wished to regain Lorraine; but his success was small,
owing to his limited resources and the uncertain support of his
vassals. In 980, regretting his fruitless quarrel with Otto II.,
who had ravaged the whole country as far as Paris, and fearing
that even with the support of the house of Vermandois he would
be crushed like his father Louis IV. between the duke of France
and the emperor, who could count on the archbishop of Reims,
Lothair made peace with Otto a great mistake, which cost him
the prestige he had gained among his nobles by his fairly success-
ful struggle with the emperor, drawing down upon him, moreover,
the swift wrath of Hugh, who thought himself tricked. Otto,
meanwhile, whom he was unwise enough to trust, made peace
secretly with Hugh, as it was his interest to play off his two old
enemies one against the other. However, Otto died first (983),
leaving a three-year-old son, Otto III., and Lothair, hoping for
Lorraine, upheld the claims of Henry of Bavaria, who wished to
oust Otto. This was a war-signal for Archbishop Adalbero
and his adviser Gerbert, devoted to the idea of the Roman
empire, and determined that it should still be vested in the race
of Otto, which had always been beneficent to the Church.
They decided to set the Robertinians against the Carolingians,
and on their advice Hugh Capet dispersed the assembly of
Compiegne which Lothair had commissioned to ex-
amine Adalbero's behaviour. On Lothair's death in igs6-9S7)
986, Hugh surrounded his son and successor, Louis V.,
with intrigues. Louis was a weak-minded and violent young man
with neither authority nor prestige, and Hugh tried to have him
placed under tutelage. After Louis V.'s sudden death, aged
twenty, in 987, Adalbero and Gerbert, with the support of the
reformed Cluniac clergy, at the Assembly of Senlis eliminated
from the succession the rightful heir, Charles of Lorraine, who,
without influence or wealth, had become a stranger in his own
country, and elected Hugh Capet, who, though rich and powerful,
was superior neither in intellect nor character. Thus the triple
alliance of Adalbero's bold and adroit imperialism with the
cautious and vacillating ambition of the duke of the Franks,
and the impolitic hostility towards Germany of the ruined
Carolingians, resulted in the unlooked-for advent of the new
Capetian dynasty.
This event completed the evolution of the forces that had
produced feudalism, the basis of the medieval social system.
The idea of public authority had been replaced by one o/ smem .
that was simpler and therefore better fitted for a half- bermeat of
civilized society that of dependence of the weak on <*e kiay
the strong, voluntarily entered on by means of mutual aom '
contract. Feudalism had gained ground in the 8th century;
feudalism it was which had raised the first Carolingian to the
throne as being the richest and most powerful person in Austrasia;
and Charlemagne with all his power had been as utterly unable
as the Merovingians to revive the idea of an abstract and im-
personal state. Charlemagne's vassals, however, had needed
him; while from Charles the Bald onward it was the king who
needed the vassals a change more marked with each successive
prince. The feudal system had in fact turned against the throne,
the vassals using it to secure a permanent hold upon offices and
814
FRANCE
[HISTORY
fiefs, and to get possession of estates and of power. After Charles
the Bald's death royalty had only, so to speak, a shell administra-
tive officialdom. No longer firmly rootedin the soil, the monarchy
was helpless before local powers which confronted it, seized upon
the land, and cut off connexion between throne and people.
The king, the supreme lord, was the only lord without lands, a
nomad in his own realms, merely lingering there until starved out.
Feudalism claimed its new rights in the capitulary of Quierzy-sur-
Oise in 857; the rights of the monarchy began to dwindle in
877.
But vassalage could only be a cause of disintegration, not of
unity, and that this disintegration did not at once spread in-
definitely was due to the dozen or so great military commands
Flanders, Burgundy, Aquitaine, &c. which Charles the Bald
had been obliged to establish on a strong territorial basis. One
of these great vassals, the duke of France, was amply provided
with estates and offices, in contrast to the landless Carolingian,
and his power, like that of the future kings of Prussia and
Austria, was based on military authority, for he had a frontier
that of Anjou. Then the inevitable crisis had come. For a
hundred years the great feudal lords had disposed of the crown
as they pleased, handing it back and forward from one dynasty
to another. At the same time the contrast between the vast
proportions of the Carolingian empire and its feeble administra-
tive control over a still uncivilized community became more
and more accentuated. The Empire crumbled away by degrees.
Each country began to lead its own separate existence, stammer-
ing its own tongue; the different nations no longer understood
one another, and no longer had any general ideas in common.
The kingdoms of France and Germany, still too large, owed their
existence to a series of dispossessions imposed on sovereigns
too feeble to hold their own, and consisted of a great number
of small states united by a very slight bond. At the end of the
loth century the duchy of France was the only central part of
the kingdom which was still free and without organization. The
end was bound to come, and the final struggle was between Laon,
the royal capital, and Reims, the ecclesiastical capital, the
former carrying with it the soil of France, and the latter the
crown. The Capets captured the first in 985 and the other in
987. Thenceforth all was over for the Carolingians, who were
left with no heritage save their great name.
Was the day won for the House of Capet? In the 1 1 th century
the kings of that line possessed meagre domains scattered about
in the He de France among the seigniorial possessions
The House c T> -o j w i >ni_
O f Capet. * Brie, Beauce, Beauvaisis and Valois. They were
hemmed in by the powerful duchy of Normandy, the
counties of Blois, Flanders and Champagne, and the duchy
of Burgundy. Beyond these again stretched provinces prac-
tically impenetrable to royal influence: Brittany, Gascony,
Toulouse, Septimania and the Spanish March. The monarchy
lay stifling in the midst of a luxuriant feudal forest which sur-
rounded its only two towns of any importance: Paris, the city
of the future, and Orleans, the city of learning. Its power,
exercised with an energy tempered by prudence, ran to waste
like its wealth in a suzerainty over turbulent vassals devoid of
common government or administration, and was undermined
by the same lack of social discipline among its vassals which had
sapped the power of the Carolingians. The new dynasty was
thus the poorest and weakest of the great civil and ecclesiastical
lordships which occupied the country from the estuary of the
Scheldt to that of the Llobregat, and bounded approximately
by the Meuse, the Sa6ne and the ridge of the Cevennes; yet it
cherished a great ambition which it revealed at times during its
first century (987-1108) a determination not to repeat the
Carolingian failure. It had to wait two centuries after the revolu-
tion of 987 before it was strong enough to take up the dormant
tradition of an authority like that of Rome; and until then it
cunningly avoided unequal strife in which, victory being im-
possible, reverses might have weakened those titles, higher than
any due to feudal rights, conferred by the heritage of the Caesars
and the coronation at Reims, and held in reserve for the
future.
The new dynasty thus at first gave the impression rather of
decrepitude than of youth, seeming more a continuation of the
Carolingian monarchy than a new departure. Hugh
Capet's reign was one of disturbance and danger; l " g * t
behind his dim personality may be perceived the (987.996).
struggle of greater forces royalty and feudalism, the
French clergy and the papacy, the kingdom of France and the
Empire. Hugh Capet needed more than three years and the be-
trayal of his enemy into his hands before he could parry the attack
of a quite second-rate adversary, Charles of Lorraine (990), the
last descendant of Charlemagne. The insubordination of several
great vassals the count of Vermandois, the duke of Burgundy,
the count of Flanders who treated him as he had treated the
Carolingian king; the treachery of Arnulf, archbishop of Reims,
who let himself be won over by the empress Theophano; the
papal hostility inflamed by the emperor against the claim of
feudal France to independence, all made it seem for a time
as though the unity of the Roman empire of the West would
be secured at Hugh's expense and in Otto's favour; but as
a matter of fact this papal and imperial hostility ended by
making the Capet dynasty a national one. When Hugh died
in 996, he had succeeded in maintaining his liberty mainly, it
is true, by diplomacy, not force, despite opposing powers and
his own weakness. Above all, he had secured the future by
associating his son Robert with him on the throne; and although
the nobles and the archbishop of Reims were disturbed by this
suspension of the feudal right of election, and tried to oppose it,
they were unsuccessful.
Robert the Pious, a crowned monk, resembled his father in
eschewing great schemes, whether from timidity or prudence;
yet from 996 to 1031 he preserved intact the authority jy j ert
he had inherited from Hugh , despite many domestic dis- the Pious
turbances. He maintained a defiant attitude towards (996-
Germany; increased his heritage; strengthened his I03t )-
royal title by the addition of that of duke of Burgundy after
fourteen years of pillage; and augmented the royal domain by
adding several countships on the south-east and north-west.
Limited in capacity, he yet understood the art of acquisition.
Henry I., his son, had to struggle with a powerful vassal,
Eudes, count of Chartres and Troyes, and was obliged for a time
to abandon his father's anti-German policy. Eudes,
who was rash and adventurous, in alliance with the
queen-mother, supported the second son, Robert, t060).
and captured the royal town of Sens. In order to
retake it Henry ceded the beautiful valley of the Saone and the
Rhone to the German emperor Conrad, and henceforth the
kingdom of Burgundy was, like Lorraine, to follow the fortunes
of Germany. Henry had besides to invest his brother with the
duchy of Burgundy a grave error which hampered French
politics during three centuries. Like his father, he subsequently
managed to retrieve some of the crown lands from William the
Bastard, the too-powerful duke of Normandy; and he made
a praiseworthy though fruitless attempt to regain possession
of Lorraine for the French crown. Finally, by the coronation
of his son Philip (1059) he confirmed the hereditary right of the
Capets, soon to be superior to the elective rights of the bishops
and great barons of the kingdom. The chief merit of these
early Capets, indeed, was that they had sons, so that their
dynasty lasted on without disastrous minorities or quarrels
over the division of inheritance.
Philip I. achieved nothing during his long reign of forty-eight
years except the necessary son, Louis the Fat. Unsuccessful
even in small undertakings he was utterly incapable
of great ones; and the two important events of his
reign took place, the one against his will, the other
without his help. The first, which lessened Norman
aggression in his kingdom, was William the Bastard's conquest
of England (1066); the second was the First Crusade preached
by the French pope Urban II. (1095). A few half-hearted
campaigns against recalcitrant vassals and a long and obstinate
quarrel with the papacy over his adulterous union with Bertrade
de Montfort, countess of Anjou, represented the total activity
HISTORY]
FRANCE
815
of Philip's reign; he was greedy and venal, by no means disdain-
ing the petty profits of brigandage, and he never left his own
domains.
After a century's lethargy the house of Capet awoke once more
with Louis VI. and began the destruction of the feudal polity.
Louis VI. For thirty-four years of increasing warfare this active
the Fat and energetic king, this brave and persevering soldier,
(H08- never spared himself, energetically policing the royal
demesne against such pillagers as Hugh of Le Puiset
or Thomas of Marie. There was, however, but little difference
yet between a count of Flanders or of Chartres and Louis VI.,
the possessor of a but small and perpetually disturbed realm,
who was praised by his minister, the monk Suger, for making
his power felt as far as distant Berri! This was clearly shown
when he attempted to force the great feudal lords to recognize
his authority. His bold endeavour to establish William Ciito
in Flanders ended in failure; and his want of strength was
particularly humiliating in his unfortunate struggle with Henry
L, king of the English and duke of Normandy, who was powerful
and well served, the real master of a comparatively weak baron-
age. Louis only escaped being crushed because he remembered,
as did his successors for long after him, that his house owed its
power to the Church.
The Church has never loved weakness; she has always had a
secret sympathy for power, whatever its source, when she could
hope to capture it and make it serve her ends. Louis VI. de-
fended her against feudal robbers; and she supported him in his
struggles against the nobles, making him, moreover, by his son's
marriage with the heiress of Aquitaine, the greatest and richest
landholder of the kingdom. But Louis was not the obedient
tool she wished for. With equal firmness and success he vindi-
cated his rights, whether against the indirect attacks of the
papacy on his independence, or the claims of the ecclesiastical
courts which, in principle, he made subordinate to the jurisdic-
tion of the crown; whether in episcopal elections, or in ecclesi-
astical reforms which might possibly imperil his power or his
revenues. The prestige of this energetic king, protector of the
Church, of the infant communes in the towns, and of the peasants
as against the constant oppressions of feudalism, became still
greater at the end of his reign, when an invasion of the German
emperor Henry V. in alliance with Henry Beauclerk of Normandy
(Henry I. of England), rallied his subjects round the oriflamme of
St Denis, awakening throughout northern France the unanimous
and novel sentiment of national danger.
Unfortunately his successor, Louis VII., almost destroyed
his work by a colossal blunder, although circumstances
seemed much in his favour. Germany and England, the two
Louis vn. powers especially to be dreaded, were busy with
the Young internal troubles and quarrels of succession. On the
(1137- other hand, thanks to his marriage with Eleanor
of Aquitaine, Louis's own domains had been increased
by the greater part of the country between the Loire and the
Pyrenees; while his father's minister, the monk Suger, continued
to assist him with his moderation and prudence. His first
successes against Theobald of Champagne, who for thirty years
had been the most dangerous of the great French barons and
had refused a vassal's services to Louis VI., as well as the adroit
diplomacy with which he wrested from Geoffrey the Fair, count
of Anjou, a part of the Norman Vexin long claimed by the French
kings, in exchange for permitting him to conquer Normandy,
augured well for his boldness and activity, had he but confined
them to serving his own interests. The second crusade, under-
taken to expiate his burning of the church of Vitry, inaugurated
a series of magnificent but fruitless exploits; while his wife
was the cause of domestic quarrels still more disastrous. Piety
and a thirst for glory impelled Louis to take the lead in this
fresh expedition to the Holy Land, despite the
lecood opposition of Suger, and the hesitation of the pope,
crusade. Bernard of Clairvaux and the barons. The alliance
with the German king Conrad III. only enhanced the
difficulties of an enterprise already made hazardous by the
misunderstandings between Greeks and Latins. The Crusade
ended in the double disaster of military defeat and martial
dishonour (1147-1149); and Suger's death in 1151 deprived
Louis of a counsellor who had exercised the regency skilfully
and with success, just at the very moment when his divorce
from Eleanor was to jeopardize the fortunes of the Capets.
For the proud and passionate Eleanor married, two months
later (May 1152), the young Henry, count of Anjou and duke
of Normandy, who held, besides these great fiefs,
the whole of the south-west of France, and in two Rivalry of
years' time the crown of England as well. Henry and
Louis at once engaged in the first Capet-Angevin duel,
destined to last a hundred years (1152-1242). When France
and England thus entered European history, their conditions
were far from being equal. In England royal power was strong;
the size of the Angevin empire was vast, and the succession
assured. It was only abuse of their too-great powers that ruined
the early Angevin kings. France in the 1 2th century was merely
a federation of separate states, jealously independent, which
the king had to negotiate with rather than rule; while his own
possessions, shorn of the rich heritage of Aquitaine, were, so to
speak, swamped by those of the English king. For some time
it was feared that the French kingdom would be entirely ab-
sorbed in consequence of the marriage between Louis's daughter
and Henry II. 's eldest son. The two rivals were typical of their
states, Henry II. being markedly superior to Louis in political
resource, military talent and energy. He failed, however, to
realize his ambition of shutting in the Capet king and isolating
him from the rest of Europe by crafty alliances, notably that
with the emperor Frederick Barbarossa while watching an
opportunity to supplant him upon the French throne. It is
extraordinary that Louis should have escaped final destruction,
considering that Henry had subdued Scotland, retaken Anjou
from his brother Geoffrey, won a hold over Brittany, and schemed
successfully for Languedoc. But the Church once more came
to the rescue of her devoted son. The retreat to France of Pope
Alexander III., after he had been driven from Rome by the
emperor Frederick in favour of the anti-pope Victor, revived
Louis's moral prestige. Henry II. 's quarrel with Thomas Becket,
archbishop of Canterbury, which ran its course in France (i 164-
1 1 7 1) as a struggle for the independence and reform of the Church,
both threatened by the Constitutions of Clarendon, and ended
with the murder of Becket in 1172, gave Louis yet another
advantage over his rival. Finally the birth of Philip Augustus
(1165), after thirty years of childless wedlock, saved the kingdom
from a war of succession just at the time when the powerful
Angevin sway, based entirely upon force, was jeopardized by
the rebellion of Henry II. 's sons against their father. Louis
naturally joined the coalition of 1173, but showed no more
vigour in this than in his other wars; and his fate would have been
sealed had not the pope checked Henry by the threat of an
interdict, and reconciled the combatants (1177). Louis had still
time left to effect the coronation of his son Philip Augustus
(1179), and to associate him with himself in the exercise of the
royal power for which he had grown too old and infirm.
Philip Augustus, who was to be the bitterest enemy of Henry
II. and the Angevins, was barely twenty before he revealed the
full measure of his cold energy and unscrupulous phulp
ambition. In five years (1180-1186) he rid himself Augustus
of the overshadowing power of Philip of Alsace, count (iiso-
of Flanders, and his own uncles, the counts of a23 ^
Champagne; while the treaty of May 2oth, 1186, was his first
rough lesson to the feudal leagues, which he had reduced to
powerlessness, and to the subjugated duke of Burgundy and
count of Flanders. Northern and eastern France recognized the
suzerainty of the Capet, and Philip Augustus was now bold
enough to attack Henry II., the master of the west, whose
friendly neutrality (assured by the treaty of Gisors) had made
possible the successive defeats of the great French barons.
Like his father, Philip understood how to make capital out of the
quarrels of the aged and ailing Henry II. with his sons, especially
with Richard, who claimed his French heritage in his father's
lifetime, and raised up enemies for the disunited Angevins even
8i6
FRANCE
[HISTORY
Caeurde
Lion.
in Germany. After two years of constant defeat, Henry's
capitulation at Azai proved once more that fortune is never
with the old. The English king had to submit himself to " the
advice and desire of the king of France," doing him homage for
all continental fiefs (1187-1189).
The defection of his favourite son John gave Henry his death-
blow, and Philip Augustus found himself confronted by a new
king of England, Richard Cceur de Lion, as powerful,
besides being younger and more energetic. Philip's
and ambition could not rest satisfied with the petty
Richard principalities of Amiens, Vermandois and Valois,
which he had added to the royal demesne. The third
crusade, undertaken, sorely against Philip's will, in
alliance with Richard, only increased the latent hostility between
the two kings; and in 1191 Philip abandoned the enterprise
in order to return to France and try to plunder his absent rival.
Despite his solemn oath no scruples troubled him: witness the
large sums of money he offered to the emperor Henry VI. if he
would detain Richard, who had been made prisoner by the duke
of Austria on his return from the crusade; and his negotiations
with his brother John Lackland, whom he acknowledged king of
England in exchange for the cession of Normandy. But Henry
VI. suddenly liberated Richard, and in five years that " devil
set free " took from Philip all the profit of his trickery, and shut
him off from Normandy by the strong fortress of Chateau-
Gaiflard (1194-1199).
Happily an accident which caused Richard's death at the
siege of Chalus, and the evil imbecility of his brother and suc-
Phiiip cessor, John Lackland, brilliantly restored the fortunes
Augustus of the Capets. The quarrel between John and his
and John nephew Arthur of Brittany gave Philip Augustus
Lackland. one Q tjj Ose opportunities of profiting by family
discord which, coinciding with discontent- among the various
peoples subject to the house of A.njou, had stood him in such
good stead against Henry II. and Richard. He demanded
renunciation on John's part, not of Anjou only, but of Poitou
and Normandy of all his French-speaking possessions, in fact
in favour of Arthur, who was supported by William des Roches,
the most powerful lord of the region of the Loire. Philip's
divorce from Ingeborg of Denmark, who appealed successfully
to Pope Innocent HI., merely delayed the inevitable conflict.
John of England, moreover, was a past-master in the art of
making enemies of his friends, and his conduct towards his vassals
of Aquitaine furnished a judicial pretext for conquest. The
royal judges at Paris condemned John, as a felon, to death and
the forfeiture of his fiefs (1203), and the murder of Arthur com-
pleted his ruin. Philip Augustus made a vigorous onslaught on
Normandy in right of justice and of superior force, took the
formidable fortress of Chateau-Gaillard on the Seine after several
months' siege, and invested Rouen, which John abandoned,
fleeing to England. In Anjou, Touraine, Maine and Poitou,
lords, towns and abbeys made their submission, won over by
Philip's bribes despite Pope Innocent III.'s attempts at inter-
vention. In 1208 John was obliged to own the Plantagenet
continental power as lost. There were no longer two rival
monarchies in France; the feudal equilibrium was destroyed,
to the advantage of the duchy of France.
But Philip in his turn nearly allowed himself to be led into an
attempt at annexing England, and so reversing for his own
benefit the work of the Angevins (1213); but, happily for the
future of the dynasty, Pope Innocent III. prevented this.
Thanks to the ecclesiastical sanction of his royalty, Philip had
successfully braved the pope for twenty years, in the matter of
Ingeborg and again in that of the German schism, when he had
supported Philip of Swabia against Otto of Brunswick, the
pope's candidate. In 1213, John Lackland, having been in con-
flict with Innocent regarding the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury,
had made submission and done homage for his kingdom, and
Philip wished to take vengeance for this at the expense of the
rebellious vassals of the north-west, and of Renaud and Ferrand,
counts of Boulogne and Flanders, thus combating English
influence in those quarters.
This was a return to the old Capet policy; but it was also
menacing to many interests, and sure to arouse energetic re-
sistance. John seized the opportunity to consolidate coalition
against Philip a European coalition, which included against
most of the feudal lords in Flanders, Belgium and Pump
Lorraine, and the emperor Otto IV. So dangerous did ?$%**""'
the French monarchy already seem! John began
operations with an attack from Anjou, supported by the notably
capricious nobles of Aquitaine, and was routed by Philip's son
at La Roche aux Moines, near Angers, on the 2nd of July
1214. Twenty-five days later the northern allies, intending to
surprise the smaller French army on its passage over the bridge
at Bouvines, themselves sustained a complete defeat. This first
national victory had not only a profound effect on the whole
kingdom, but produced consequences of far-reaching importance:
in Germany it brought about Otto's fall before Frederick II.;
in England it introduced the great drama of 1215, the first act
of which closed with Magna Carta John Lackland being forced
to acknowledge the control of his barons, and to share with them
the power he had abused and disgraced. In France, on the con-
trary, the throne was exalted beyond rivalry, raised far above a
feudalism which never again ventured on acts of independence
or rebellion. Bouvines gave France the supremacy of the West.
The feudalism of Languedoc was all that now remained to
conquer.
The whole world, in fact, was unconsciously working for
Philip Augustus. Anxious not to risk his gains, but to consolidate
them by organization, Philip henceforth until his death in 1223
operated through diplomacy alone, leaving to others the toil
and trouble of conquests, the advantages of which were not for
them. When his son Louis wished to wrest the English crown
from John, now crushed by his barons, Philip intervened without
seeming to do so, first with the barons, then with Innocent III.,
supporting and disowning his son by turns; until the latter,
held in check by Rome, was forced to sign the treaty of Lambeth
(1217). When the Church and the needy and fanatical nobles
of northern and central France destroyed the feudal dynasty
of Toulouse and the rich civilization of the south in the
Albigensian crusade, it was for Philip Augustus that their
leader, Simon de Montfort, all unknowing, conquered Languedoc.
At last, instead of the two Frances of the langue d'oc and the
langue d'oil, there was but one royal France comprising the whole
kingdom.
Philip Augustus was not satisfied with the destruction of a
turbulent feudalism; he wished to substitute for it such unity
and peace as had obtained in the Roman Empire; Adminis-
and just as he had established his supremacy over the tration of
feudal lords, so now he managed to extend it over the Philip
clergy, and to bend them to his will. He took ad- ' 4u s ' u *'
vantage of their weakness in the midst of an age of violence.
By contracts of " pariage " the clergy claimed and obtained
the king's protection even in places beyond the king's jurisdiction,
to their common advantage. Philip thus set the feudal lords
one against the other; and against them all, first the Church,
then the communes. He exploited also the townspeople's need
for security and the instinct of independence which made them
claim a definite place in the feudal hierarchy. He was the actual
creator of the communes, although an interested creator, since
they made a breach in the fortress of feudalism and extended
the royal authority far beyond the king's demesne. He did
even more: he gave monarchy the instruments of which it
still stood in need, gathering round him in Paris a council
of men humble in origin, but wise and loyal; while in 1190
he instituted baillis and seneschals throughout his enlarged
dominions, all-powerful over the nobles and subservient to
himself. He filled his treasury with spoils harshly wrung from
all classes; thus inaugurating the monarchy's long and patient
labours at enlarging the crown lands bit by bit through taxes
on private property. Finally he created an army, no longet
the temporary feudal ost, but a more or less permanent royal
force. By virtue of all these organs of government the throne
guaranteed peace, justice and a secure future, having routed
HISTORY]
FRANCE
817
feudalism with sword and diplomacy. Philip's son was the first
of the Capets who was not crowned during his father's lifetime;
a fact clearly showing that the principle of heredity had _ now
been established beyond discussion.
Louis VIII. 's short reign was but a prolongation of Philip's
in its realization of his two great designs: the recovery from
Henry III. of England of Poitou as far as the Garonne;
(1223- ' an< ^ the crusa de against the Albigenses, which with
1226). small pains procured him the succession of Amaury
de Montfort, and the Languedoc of the counts of
Toulouse, if not the whole of Gascony. Louis VIII. died on
his return from this short campaign without having proved his
full worth.
But the history of France during the nth and I2th centuries
does not entirely consist of these painful struggles of the Capet
dynasty to shake off the fetters of feudalism. France,
no l n g er s P ut U P i nto separate fragments, now began
activity. to exercise both intellectual and military influence
over Europe. Everywhere her sons gave proof of
rejuvenated activity. The Christian missions which others
were reviving in Prussia and beginning in Hungary were under-
taken on a vaster scale by the Capets. These " elder sons of
the Church " made themselves responsible for carrying out the
" work of God," and French pilgrims in the Holy Land pre-
pared the great movement of the Crusades against the infidels.
Religious faith, love of adventure, the hope of making ad-
vantageous conquests, anticipations of a promised paradise
all combined to force this advance upon the Orient, which
though failing to rescue the sepulchre of Christ, the ephemeral
kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus, the dukedom of Athens,
or the Latin empire of Constantinople, yet gained for France
that prestige for military glory and religious piety which for
centuries constituted her strength in the Levant (see CRUSADES).
At the call of the pope other members of the French chivalry
also made victorious expeditions against the Mussulmans, and
founded the Christian kingdom of Portugal. Obeying that
enterprising spirit which was to take them to England half a
century later, Normans descended upon southern Italy and
wrested rich lands from Greeks and Saracens.
In the domain of intellect the advance of the French showed
a no less dazzling and a no less universal activity; they sang
Intel- as well as they fought, and their epics were worthy
factual of their swordsmanship, while their cathedrals were
develop- hymns in stone as ardent as their soaring flights of
devotion. In this period of intense religious life
France was always in the vanguard. It was the ideas of Cluniac
monks that freed the Church from feudal supremacy, and in
the nth century produced a Pope Gregory VII.; the spirit
of free investigation shown by the heretics of Orleans inspired
the rude Breton, Abelard, in the I2th century; and with
Gerbert and Fulbert of Chartres the schools first kindled that
brilliant light which the university of Paris, organized by Philip
Augustus, was to shed over the world from the heights of
Sainte-Genevieve. In the quarrels of the priesthood under
the Empire it was St Bernard, the great abbot of Clairvaux,
who tried to arrest the papacy on the slippery downward path
of theocracy; finally, it was in Suger's church of St Denis
that French art began that struggle between light against
darkness which, culminating in Notre-Dame and the Sainte-
Chapelle, was to teach the architects of the world the delight
of building with airiness of effect. The old basilica which
contains the history of the monarchy sums up the whole of Gothic
art to this day, and it was Suger who in the domain of art and
politics brought forward once more the conception of unity.
The courteous ideal of French chivalry, with its " delectable "
language, was adopted by all seigniorial Europe, which thus
became animated, as it were, by the life-blocd of France. Simi-
larly, in the universal movement of those forces which made for
freedom, France began the age-long struggle to maintain the
rights of civil society and continually to enlarge the social
categories. The townsman enriched by commerce and the
emancipated peasant tried more or less valiantly to shake off
'
the yoke of the feudal system, which had been greatly weakened,
if not entirely broken down, by the crusades. Grouped around
their belfry-towers and organized within their gilds, they made
merry in their free jocular language over their own hardships,
and still more over the vices of their lords. They insinuated
themselves into the counsels of their ignorant masters, and
though still sitting humbly at the feet of the barons, these
upright and well-educated servitors were already dreaming
of the great deeds they would do when their tyrants should have
vacated their high position, and when royalty should have
summoned them to power.
By the beginning of the I3th century the Capet monarchy
was so strong that the crisis occasioned by the sudden death
of Louis VIIL was easily surmounted by the foreign
woman and the child whom he left behind him. It (226- *'
is true that that woman was Blanche of Castile, and 1270).
that child the future Louis IX. A virtuous and very
devout Spanish princess, Blanche assumed the regency of the
kingdom and the tutelage of her child, and carried them on for
nine years with so much force of character and capacity
for rule that she soon impressed the clamorous and
disorderly leaders of the opposition (1226-1235). By
the treaty of Meaux (1229), her diplomacy combined with the
influence of the Church to prepare effectually for the annexation
of Languedoc to the kingdom, supplementing this again by a
portion of Champagne; and the marriage of her son to Margaret
of Provence definitely broke the ties which held the country
within the orbit of the German empire. She managed also to keep
out of the great quarrel between Frederick II. and the papacy
which was convulsing Germany. But her finest achievement
was the education of her son; she taught him that lofty religious
morality which in his case was not merely a rule for private
conduct, but also a political programme to which he remained
faithful even to the detriment of his apparent interests. With
Louis IX. morality for the first time permeated and dominated
politics; he had but one end: to do justice to every one and to
reconcile all Christendom in view of a general crusade.
The oak of Vincennes, under which the king would sit to
mete out justice, cast its shade over the whole political action
of Louis IX. He was the arbiter of townspeople, of feudal
lords and of kings. The interdiction of the judicial Louis ix.'s
duel, the " quarantaine le roi," i.e. " the king's truce policy of
of forty days " during which no vengeance might " bltT *-
be taken for private wrongs, and the assurement, 1
went far to diminish the abuses of warfare by allowing his
mediation to make for a spirit of reconciliation throughout his
kingdom. When Thibaud (Theobald), count of Champagne,
attempted to marry the daughter of Pierre Mauclerc, duke of
Brittany, without the king's consent, Louis IX., who held the
county of Champagne at his mercy, contented himself with
exacting guarantees of peace. Beyond the borders of France,
at the time of the emperor Frederick II. 's conflict with a papacy
threatened in its temporal powers, though he made no response
to Frederick's appeal to the civil authorities urging them to
present a solid front against the pretensions of the Church, and
though he energetically supported the latter, yet he would not
admit her right to place kingdoms under interdict, and refused the
imperial crown which Gregory IX. offered him for one of his
brothers. He always hoped to bring about an honourable
agreement between the two adversaries, and in his estimation
1 The assurement (assecuratio, assecuramentum) differed from the
truce, which was a suspension of hostilities by mutual consent,
in so far as it was a peace forced by judicial authority on one of the
parties at the request of the other. The party desiring protection
applied for the assurement, either before or during hostilities, to any
royal, seigniorial or communal judge, who thereupon cited the other
party to appear and take an oath that he would assure the person,
property and dependents of his adversary (qu'il Vassurera, elle et les
siens). This custom, which became common in the I3th century,
of course depended for its effectiveness on the degree of respect
inspired in the feudal nobles by the courts. It was difficult, for
instance, to refuse or to violate an assurement imposed by a royal
bailli or by the parlement itself. See A. Luchaire, Manuel des
institutions frangaises (Paris, 1892), p. 233. (W. A. P.)
8i8
FRANCE
[HISTORY
the advantages of peace outweighed personal interest. In
matters concerning the succession in Flanders, Hainaut and
Navarre; in the quarrels of the princes regarding the Empire,
and in those of Henry III. of England with his barons; it was
because of his justice and his disinterestedness that he was
appealed to as a trusted mediator. His conduct towards Henry
III. was certainly a most characteristic example of his behaviour.
The king of England had entered into the coalition formed
by the nobility of Poitou and the count of Toulouse to prevent
the execution of the treaty of 1229 and the enfeoffment
Louis IX. O f p itou to the king's brother Alphonse. Louis IX.
"nearyin. defeated Henry III. twice within two days, at Taille-
bourg and at Saintes,and obliged him to demand a truce
(1242). It was forbidden that any lord should be a vassal both
of the king of France and of the king of England. After this
Louis IX. had set off upon his first crusade in Egypt (1248-54),
and on his return he wanted to make this truce into a definite
treaty and to " set love " between his children and those of. the
English king. By a treaty signed at Paris (1259), Henry III.
renounced all the conquests of Philip Augustus, and Louis IX.
those of his father Louis VIII. an example unique in history of a
victorious king spontaneously giving up his spoil solely for the
sake of peace and justice, yet proving by his act that honesty is
the best policy; for monarchy gained much by that moral
authority which made Louis IX. the universal arbitrator.
But his love of peace and concord was not always " sans grands
despens " to the kingdom. In 1 2 38, by renouncing his rights over
Roussillon and the countship of Barcelona, conquered
ky Charlemagne, he made an advantageous bargain
because he kept Montpellier; but he committed a
grave fault in consenting to accept the offers regarding
Sicily made by Pope Urban IV. to his brother the count of Anjou
and Provence. That was the origin of the expeditions into Italy
on which the house of Valois was two centuries later to squander
the resources of France unavailingly, compromising beyond the
Alps its interests in the Low Countries and upon the Rhine.
But Louis IX.'s worst error was his obsession with regard to the
crusades, to which he sacrificed everything. Despite the signal
failure of the first crusade, when he had been taken prisoner;
despite the protests of his mother, of his counsellors, and of the
pope himself, he flung himself into the mad adventure of Tunis.
Nowhere was his blind faith more plainly shown, combined as
it was with total ignorance of the formidable migrations that were
convulsing Asia, and of the complicated game of politics just then
proceeding between the Christian nations and the Moslems of the
Mediterranean. At Tunis he found his death, on the 25th of
August 1270.
The death of Louis IX. and that of his brother Alphonse
of Poitiers, heir of the count of Toulouse, made Philip III., the
Philip in., Bold, legitimate master of northern France andundis-
the Bold puted sovereign of southern France. From the latter
(/270- h e detached the comlal Venaissin in 1274 and gave it to
" the papacy, which held it until 1791. But he had not
his father's great soul nor disinterested spirit. Urged by Pope
Martin IV. he began the fatal era of great international wars by
his unlucky crusade against the king of Aragon, who, thanks to the
massacre of the Sicilian Vespers, substituted his own predomin-
ance in Sicily for that of Charles of Anjou. Philip returned from
Spain only to die at Perpignan, ending his insignificant reign as he
had begun it , amid the sorrows of a disastrous retreat(i27o-i285).
His reign was but a halting-place of history between those of
Louis IX. and Philip the Fair, just when the transition was
taking place from the last days of the middle ages to the modern
epoch.
The middle ages had been dominated by four great problems.
The first of these had been to determine whether there should
Philip iv. be a universal empire exercising tutelage over the
theFair nations; and if so, to whom this empire should
belong, to pope or emperor. The second had been
the extension to the East of that Catholic unity which
reigned in the West. Again, for more than a century, the
question had also been debated whether the English kings were
to preserve and increase their power over the soil of France.
And, finally, two principles had been confronting one another
in th.e internal life of all the European states: the feudal and the
monarchical principles. France had not escaped any of these
conflicts; but Philip the Fair was the initiator or the instrument
(it is difficult to say which) who was to put an end to both imperial
and theocratic dreams, and to the international crusades; who
was to remove the political axis from the centre of Europe, much
to the benefit of the western monarchies, now definitely emanci-
pated from the feudal yoke and firmly organized against both the
Church and the barons. The hour had come for Dante, the great
Florentine poet, to curse the man who was to dismember the
empire, precipitate the fall of the papacy and discipline feudalism.
Modern in his practical schemes and in his calculated purpose,
Philip the Fair was still more so in his method, that of legal
procedure, and in his agents, the lawyers. With him Lltlj ., ous
the French monarchy defined its ambitions, and little character
by little forsook its feudal and ecclesiastical character of Philip
in order to clothe itself in juridical forms. His aggres- the Falr> *
sive and litigious policy and his ruthless financial nga '
method were due to those lawyers of the south and of Normandy
who had been nurtured on Roman law in the universities of
Bologna or Montpellier, had practised chicanery in the provincial
courts, had gradually thrust themselves into the great arena of
politics, and were now leading the king and filling his parlement.
It was no longer upon religion or morality, it was upon imperial
and Roman rights that these chevaliers es lois based the prince's
omnipotence; and nothing more clearly marks the new tradition
which was being elaborated than the fact that all the great events
of Philip the Fair's reign were lawsuits.
The first of these was with the papacy. The famous quarrel
between the priesthood and the Empire, which had culminated
at Canossa under Gregory VII., in the apotheosis of ...... ..
' J Philip the
the Lateran council under Innocent III., and again pairana
in the fall of the house of Hohenstaufen under Innocent the
IV., was reopened with the king of France by Boniface Paaa <y-
VIII. The quarrel began in 1294 about a question of money.
In his bull Clericis luicos the pope protested against the taxes
levied upon the French clergy by the king, whose expenses were
increasing with his conquests. But he had not insisted; because
Philip, between feudal vassals ruined by the crusades and
lower classes fleeced by everybody, had threatened to forbid
the exportation from France of any ecclesiastical gold and
silver. In 1301 and 1302 the arrest of Bernard Saisset, bishop
of Pamiers, by the officers of the king, and the citation of this
cleric before the king's tribunal for the crime of lese-majesti,
revived the conflict and led Boniface to send an order to free
Saisset, and to put forward a claim to reform the kingdom
under the threat of excommunication. In view of the gravity
of the occasion Philip made an unusually extended appeal to
public opinion- by convoking the states-general at Notre-Dame
in Paris (1302). Whatever were their views as to the relations
between ecclesiastical and secular jurisdiction, the French
clergy, ruined by the dues levied by the papal court, ranged
themselves on the national side with the nobility and the
bourgeoisie; whereupon the king, with a bold stroke far ahead
of his time, gave tit for tat. His chancellor, Nogaret, went to
Anagni to seize the pope and drag him before a council; but
Boniface died without confessing himself vanquished. As a
matter of fact the king and his lawyers triumphed, where the
house of Swabia had failed. After the death of Boniface the
splendid fabric of the medieval theocracy gave place to the
rights of civil society, the humiliation of Avignon, the disruption
of the great schism, the vain efforts of the councils for reform,
and the radical and heretical solutions of Wycliffe and Huss.
The affair of the Templars was another legal process carried
out by the same Nogaret. Of course this military religious
order had lost utility and justification when the Holy p AW/ - the
Land had been evacuated and the crusades were over. Fair and
Their great mistake had lain in becoming rich, and '*
rich to excess, through serving as bankers to princes, Tem P Iars -
kings and popes; for great financial powers soon became
HISTORY]
FRANCE
819
unpopular. Philip took advantage of this hatred of the lower
classes and the cowardice of his creature, Pope Clement V.,
to satisfy his desire for money. The trial of the order (1307-
I 3 I 3) was a remarkable example of the use of the religious
tribunal of the Inquisition as a political instrument. There was
a dramatic completeness about this unexpected result of the
crusades. A general arbitrary arrest of the Templars, the
sequestration of their property, examination under torture,
the falsifying of procedure, extortion of money from the pope,
the auto-da-fe of innocent victims, the dishonest pillaging of
their goods by the joint action of the king and the pope: such
was the outcome of this vast process of secularization, which
foreshadowed the events of the i6th and i8th centuries.
External policy had the same litigious character. Philip
the Fair instituted suits against his natural enemies, the king
of England and the count of Flanders, foreign princes
Philip the holding possessions within his kingdom ; and against
Fair find , i . * T
Edward I. tne emperor, whose ancient province of Lorraine and
kingdom of Aries constantly changed hands between
Germany and France. Philip began by interfering in the
affairs of Sicily and Aragon, his father's inheritance; after
which, on the pretext of a quarrel between French and English
sailors, he set up his customary procedure: a citation of the king
of England before the parlement of. Paris, and in case of default
a decree of forfeiture; the whole followed by execution that
is to say by the unimportant war of 1295. A truce arranged
by Boniface VIII. restored Guienne to Edward I., gave him
the hand of Philip's sister for himself and that of the king's
daughter for his son (1298).
A still more lengthy and unfortunate suit was the attempt
of Philip the Fair and his successors to incorporate the Flemish
fief like the English one (130x3-1326), thus coming
into conflict witn proud and turbulent republics
Flanders, composed of wool and cloth merchants, weavers,
fullers and powerful counts. Guy de Dampierre,
count of Namur, who had become count of Flanders on the
death of his mother Margaret II. in 1279 an ambitious, greedy
and avaricious man was arrested at the Louvre on account
of his attempt to marry his daughter to Edward I.'s eldest son
without the consent of his suzerain Philip. Released after two
years, he sided definitely with the king of England when the latter
was in arms against Philip; and being only weakly supported
by Edward, he was betrayed by the nobles who favoured France,
and forced to yield up not only his personal liberty but the whole
of Flanders (1300). The Flemings, however, soon wearying of
the oppressive administration of the French governor, Jacques
de Chatillon, and the recrudescence of patrician domination,
rose and overwhelmed the French chivalry at Courtrai (1302)
a prelude to the coming disasters of the Hundred Years' War.
Philip's double revenge, on sea at Zierikzee and on land at
Mons-en-Pe vele ( 1304) , led to the signing of a treaty at Athis-sur-
Orge (1305).
The efforts of Philip the Fair to expand the limits of his
kingdom on the eastern border were more fortunate. His
Eastern marriage had gained him Champagne; and he after-
poiicyof wards extended his influence over Franche Comte,
Philip the Bar and the bishoprics of Lorraine, acquiring also
Fair. Viviers and the important town of Lyons all this
less by force of arms than by the expenditure of money. Disdain-
ing the illusory dream of the imperial crown, still cherished
by his legal advisers, he pushed forward towards that fluctuating
eastern frontier, the line of least resistance, which would have
yielded to him had it not been for the unfortunate interruption
of the Hundred Years' War.
His three sons, Louis X., Philip V. the Tall, and Charles IV.,
continued his work. They increased the power of the monarchy
The sons ^>o\\\.\c3\\y by destroying the feudal reaction excited
of Philip m I 3 I 4 by the tyrannical conduct of the jurists, like
the Fair Enguerrand de Marigny , and by the increasingfinancial
(131-4- extortions of their father; and they also notably
Philip V., one of the most hard-working of the Capets
increased it on the administrative side by specializing the services
of justice and of finance, which were separated from the king's
council. Under these mute self-effacing kings the progress of
royal power was only the more striking. With them the senior
male line of the house of Capet became extinct.
During three centuries and a half they had effected great
things: they had founded a kingdom, a royal family and civil
institutions. The land subject to Hugh Capet in
987, barely representing two of the modern departments Ttle m y al
of France, in 1328 covered a space equal to fifty-nine capet.
of them. The political unity of the kingdom was only
fettered by the existence of four large isolated fiefs: Flanders
on the north, Brittany on the west, Burgundy on the east and
Guienne on the south. The capital, which for long had been
movable, was now established in the Louvre at Paris, fortified
by Philip Augustus. Like the fiefs, feudal institutions at large
had been shattered. The Roman tradition which made the
will of the sovereign law, gradually propagated by the teaching
of Roman law the law of servitude, not of liberty and already
proclaimed by the jurist Philippe de Beaumanoir as superior
to the customs, had been of immense support to the interest of
the state and the views of the monarchs; and finally the Capets,
so humble of origin, had created organs of general administration
common to all in order to effect an administrative centralization.
In their grand council and their domains they would have none
but silent, servile and well-disciplined agents. The royal
exchequer, which was being painfully elaborated in the chambre
des comptes, and the treasury of the crown lands at the Louvre,
together barely sufficed to meet the expenses of this more compli-
cated and costly machinery. The uniform justice exercised by
the parlement spread gradually over the whole kingdom by
means of cas royaux (royal suits) , and at the same time the royal
coinage became obligatory. Against this exaltation of their
power two adversaries might have been formidable; but one,
the Church, was a captive in Babylon, and the second, the
people, was deprived of the communal liberties which it had
abused, or humbly effaced itself in the states-general behind the
declared will of the king. This well-established authority was
also supported by the revered memory of " Monseigneur Saint
Louis "; and it is this prestige, the strength of this ideal superior
to all other, that explains how the royal prerogative came to
survive the mistakes and misfortunes of the Hundred Years'
War.
On the extinction of the direct line of the Capets the crown
passed to a younger branch, that of the Valois. Its seven
representatives (1328-1498) were on the whole very
inferior to the Capets, and, with the exception of ^ veat of
Charles V. and Louis XL, possessed neither their Valois.
political sense nor even their good common sense;
they cost France the loss of her great advantage over all other
countries. During this century and a half France passed through
two very severe crises; under the first five Valois the Hundred
Years' War imperilled the kingdom's independence; and under
Louis XI. the struggle against the house of Burgundy endangered
the territorial unity of the monarchy that had been established
with such pains upon the ruins of feudalism.
Charles the Fair having died and left only a daughter, the
nation's rights, so long in abeyance, were once more regained.
An assembly of peers and barons, relying on two
precedents under Philip V. and Charles IV., declared p ' n
that " no woman, nor therefore her son, could in 1350).
accordance with custom succeed to the monarchy of
France." This definite decision, to which the name of the Salic
law was given much later, set aside Edward III., king of England,
grandson of Philip the Fair, nephew of the late kings and son of
their sister Isabel. Instead it gave the crown to the feudal
chief, the hard and coarse Philip VI. of Valois, nephew of Philip
the Fair. This at once provoked war between the two monarchies,
English and French, which, including periods of truce, lasted
for a hundred and sixteen years. Of active warfare there were
two periods, both disastrous to begin with, but ending favourably:
one lasted from 1337 to 1378 and the other from 1413 to 1453,
thirty-three years of distress and folly coming in between.
820
FRANCE
[HISTORY
However, the Hundred Years' War was not mainly caused
by the pretensions of Edward III. to the throne of the Capets;
The since after having long hesitated to do homage to
Hundred Philip VI. for his possessions in Guienne, Edward at
years' last brought himself to it though certainly only after
**''"' lengthy negotiations, and even threats of war in 1331.
It is true that six years later he renounced his homage and again
claimed the French inheritance; but this was on the ground
of personal grievances, and for economic and political reasons.
There was a natural rivalry between Edward III. and Philip VI.,
both of them young, fond of the life of chivalry, festal magnifi-
cence, and the " belles apertises d'armes." This rivalry was
aggravated by the enmity between Philip VI. and Robert of
Artois, his brother-in-law, who, after having warmly supported
the disinheriting of Edward III., had been convicted of deceit
in a question of succession, had revenged himself on Philip by
burning his waxen effigy, and -had been welcomed with open
arms at Edward's court. Philip VI. had taken reprisals against
him in 1336 by making his parlement declare the forfeiture of
Edward's lands and castles in Guienne; but the Hundred Years'
War, at first simply a feudal quarrel between vassal and suzerain,
soon became a great national conflict, in consequence of what
was occurring in Flanders.
The communes of Flanders, rich, hard-working, jealous of
their liberties, had always been restive under the authority of
their counts and the influence of their suzerain, the king of
France. The affair at Cassel, where Philip VI. had avenged
the injuries done by the people of Bruges in 1325 to their
count, Louis of Nevers, had also compromised English
interests. To attack the English through their colonies, Guienne
and Flanders, was to injure them in their most vital interests
cloth and claret; for England sold her wool to Bruges in
order to pay Bordeaux for her wine. Edward III. had replied
by forbidding the exportation of English wool, and by threaten-
ing the great industrial cities of Flanders with the transference
to England of the cloth manufacture an excellent means of
stirring them up against the French, as without wool they could
do nothing. Workless, and in desperation, they threw themselves
on Edward's mercy, by the advice of a rich citizen of Ghent,
Jacob van Artevelde (?..); and their last scruples of loyalty
gave way when Edward decided to follow the counsels of Robert
of Artois and of Artevelde, and to claim the crown of France.
The war began, like every feudal war of that day, with a
solemn defiance, and it was soon characterized by terrible
disasters. The destruction of the finest French
The fleet that had yet been seen, surprised in the port of
Sluys, closed the sea to the king of France; the
struggle was continued on land, but with little result.
Flanders tired of it, but fortunately for Edward III. Brittany
now took fire, through a quarrel of succession, analogous to that
in France, between Charles of Blois (who had married the
daughter of the late duke and was a nephew of Philip VI., by
whom he was supported) and John of Montfort, brother of the
old duke, who naturally asked assistance from the king of
England. But here, too, nothing important was accomplished;
the capture of John of Montfort at Nantes deprived Edward of
Brittany at the very moment when he finally lost Flanders
by the death of Artevelde, who was killed by the people of Ghent
in 1345. Under the influence of Godefroi d'Harcourt, whom
Philip VI. had wished to destroy on account of his ambitions
with regard to the duchy of Normandy, Edward III. now
invaded central France, ravaged Normandy, getting as near
to Paris as Saint-Germain; and profiting by Philip VI. 's hesita-
tion and delay, he reached the north with his spoils by dint of
forced marches. Having been pursued and encountered at
The Crecy, Edward gained a complete victory there on the
defeat at 26th of April 1346. The seizure of Calais in 1347,
Crecy and despite heroic resistance, gave the English a port
'ofcaia'is* where the y could always find entry into France, just
when the queen of England had beaten David of
Scotland, the ally of France, at Neville's Cross, and when
Charles of Blois, made prisoner in his turn, was held captive
in London. The Black Death put the finishing touch to the
military disasters and financial upheavals of this unlucky
reign; though before his death in 1350 Philip VI. was fortunate
enough to augment his territorial acquisitions by the purchase
of the rich port of Montpellier, as well as by that of Dauphine,
which extended to the Alpine frontier, and was to become the
appanage of the eldest son of the king of France (see DAUPHINE
and DAUPHIN).
Philip VI. 's successor was his son John the Good or rather,
the stupid and the spendthrift. This noble monarch was un-
speakably brutal (as witness the murders, simply on
suspicion, of the constable Raoul de Brienne, count
of Eu, and of the count of Harcourt) and incredibly
extravagant. His need of money led him to debase
the currency eighty-one times between 1350 and 1355. And
this money, so necessary for the prosecution of the war with
England, which had been interrupted for a year, thanks to the
pope's intervention, was lavished by him upon his favourite,
Charles of La Cerda. The latter was murdered in 1354 by
order of Charles of Navarre, the king's son-in-law, who also
prevented the levying of the taxes voted by the states in 1355
with the object of replenishing the treasury. The Black Prince
took this opportunity to ravage the southern provinces, and
then marched to join the duke of Lancaster and Charles of
Navarre in Normandy. John the Good managed
to bring the English army to bay at Maupertuis,
not far from Poitiers; but the battle was conducted
with such a want of intelligence on his part that the French
army was overwhelmed, though very superior in numbers, and
King John was made prisoner, after a determined resistance,
on the igth of September 1356.
The disaster at Poitiers almost led to the establishment in
France of institutions analogous to those which England owed
to Bouvines. The king a prisoner, the dauphin dis-
credited and deserted, and the nobility decimated,
the people that is to say, the states-general could
raise their voice. Philip the Fair had never regarded
the states-general as a financial institution, but merely as a
moral support. Now, however, in order to obtain substantial
help from taxes instead of mere driblets, the Valois needed a
stronger lever than cunning or force. War against the English
assured them the support of the nation. Exactions, debasement
of the currency and extortionate taxation were ruinous palliatives,
and insufficient to supply a treasury which the revenue from
crown lands and various rights taken from the nobles could
not fill even in times of peace. By the I4th century the motto
" N'impose qui ne iieut " (i.e. no taxation without consent) was
as firmly established in France as in England. After Crecy
Philip VI. called the states together regularly, that he might
obtain subsidies from them, as an assistance, an "aid" which
subjects could not refuse their suzerain. In return for this
favour, which the king could not claim as a right, the states,
feeling their power, began to bargain, and at the session of
November 1355 demanded the participation of all classes in the
tax voted, and obtained guarantees both for its levy and the use
to be made of it. A similar situation in England had given
birth to political liberty; but in France the great crisis of the
early i5th century stifled it. It was with this money that John
the Good got himself beaten and taken prisoner at Poitiers.
Once more the states-general had to be convoked. Confronted
by a pale weakly boy like the dauphin Charles and the remnants
of the discredited council, the situation of the states was stronger
than ever. Predominant in influence were the deputies Robert le
from the towns, and above all the citizens of the Coq and
capital, led by Robert le Coq, bishop of Laon, and
Etienne Marcel, provost of the merchants of Paris.
Having no cause for confidence in the royal administration,
the states refused to treat with the dauphin's councillors, and
proposed to take him under their own tutelage. He himself
hesitated whether to sacrifice the royal authority, or else,
without resources or support, to resist an assembly backed by
public opinion. He decided for resistance. Under pretext of
HISTORY]
FRANCE
821
grave news received from his father, and of an interview at
Metz with his uncle, the emperor Charles IV., he begged the
states to adjourn till the 3rd of November 1356. This was a
political coup d'etat, and when the time had expired he attempted
a financial coup d'etat by debasing the currency. An uprising
obliged him to call the states-general together again in February
1357, when they transformed themselves into a deliberative,
independent and permanent assembly by means of the Grande
Ordonnance.
In order to make this great French charter really effective
resistance to the royal authority should have been collective,
Thg national and even popular, as in the case of the charters
Grande of 1215 and 1 258 in England. But the lay and ecclesi-
Ordon- astical feudal lords continued to show themselves
nvMce or j n F rancej as everywhere else except across the Straits
of Dover, a cause of division and oppression. More-
over, the states were never really general; those of the Langue
d'oc and the Langue d'oil sometimes acted together; but there
was never a common understanding between them and always
two Frances within the kingdom. Besides, they only represented
the three classes who alone had any social standing at that
period: the nobles, the clergy, and the burgesses of important
towns. Etienne Marcel himself protested against councillors
" de petit etat." Again, the states, intermittently convoked
according to the king's good pleasure, exercised neither periodical
rights nor effective control, but fulfilled a duty which was soon
felt as onerous. Indifference and satiety spread speedily; the
bourgeoisie forsook the reformers directly they had recourse
to violence (February 1358), and the Parisians became hostile
when Etienne Marcel complicated his revolutionary work by
intrigues with Navarre, releasing from prison the grandson of
Louis X., the Headstrong, an ambitious, fine-spoken courier of
popularity, covetous of the royal crown. The dauphin's flight
from Paris excited a wild outburst of monarchist loyalty and
anger against the capital among the nobility and in the states-
general of Compiegne. Marcel, like the dauphin, was not a man
to turn back. But neither the support of the peasant insurgents
the " Jacques " who were annihilated in the market of
Meaux, nor a last but unheeded appeal to the large towns, nor
yet the uncertain support of Charles the Bad, to whom Marcel
in despair proposed to deliver up Paris, saved him from being
put to death by the royalist party of Paris on the 3ist of July
1358.
Isolated as he was, Etienne Marcel had been unable either to
seize the government or to create a fresh one. In the reaction
which followed his downfall royalty inherited the financial
administration which the states had set up to check extravagance.
The " elus " and the superintendents, instead of being delegates
of the states, became royal functionaries like the baillis and the
provosts; imposts, hearth-money (fouage), salt-tax (gabelle),
sale-dues (droils de vente), voted for the war, were levied during
the whole of Charles V.'s reign and added to his personal revenue.
The opportunity of founding political liberty upon the vote and
the control of taxation, and of organizing the administration
of the kingdom so as to ensure that the entire military and
financial resources should be always available, was gone beyond
recall.
Re-establishing the royal authority in Paris was not enough ;
an end had to be put to the war with England and Navarre, and
this was effected by the treaty of Bretigny (1360).
Treat of King John ceded Poitou, Saintonge, Agenais, Perigord
Bretigoy. an d Limousin to Edward III., and was offered his
liberty for a ransom of three million gold crowns;
but, unable to pay that enormous sum, he returned to his
agreeable captivity in London, where he died in 1364.
Yet through the obstinacy and selfishness of John the Good,
France, in stress of suffering, was gradually realizing herself.
More strongly than her king she felt the shame of
(1364-* defeat. Local or municipal patriotism waxed among
1380). peasants and townsfolk, and combined with hatred
of the English to develop national sentiment. Many
of the conquered repeated that proud, sad answer of the men
of Rochelle to the English: " We will acknowledge you with
our lips; but with our hearts, never I "
The peace of Bretigny brought no repose to the kingdom.
War having become a congenial and very lucrative industry,
its cessation caused want of work, with all the evils The
that entails. For ten years the remnants of the armies " Orandes
of England, Navarre and Brittany the " Grandes Com -
Compagnies," as they were called ravaged the pa * ales -"
country; although Charles V., " durement subtil et sage,"
succeeded in getting rid of them, thanks to du Guesclin, one of
their chiefs, who led them to any place where fighting was going
on to Brittany, Alsace, Spain. Charles also had all towns
and large villages fortified; and being a man of affairs he set
about undoing the effect of the treaty of Bretigny by alliances
with Flanders, whose heiress he married to his brother Philip,
duke of Burgundy; with Henry, king of Castile, and Ferdinand
of Portugal, who possessed fine navies; and, finally, with the
emperor Charles IV. Financial and military preparations
were made no less seriously when the harsh administration
of the Black Prince, to whom Edward III. had given Guienne
in fief, provoked the nobles of Gascony to complain to Charles V.
Cited before the court of Paris, the Black Prince refused to
attend, and war broke out in Gascony, Poitou and Normandy,
but with fresh tactics (1369). Whilst the English adhered to
the system of wide circuits, under Chandos or Robert Knolles,
Charles V. limited himself to defending the towns and exhausting
the enemy without taking dangerous risks. Thanks to the
prudent constable du Guesclin, sitting quietly at home he re-
conquered bit by bit what his predecessors had lost upon the
battlefield, helm on head and sword in hand; and when he
died in 1380, after the decease of both Edward III. and the
Black Prince, the only possessions of England in a liberated
but ruined France were Bayonne, Bordeaux, Brest, Cherbourg
and Calais.
The death of Charles V. and dynastic revolutions in England
stopped the war for thirty-five years. Then began an era of
internal disorder and misery. The men of that
period, coarse, violent and simple-minded, with few y
political ideas, loved brutal^and noisy pleasures 1422),
witness the incredible festivities at the marriage of
Charles VI., and the assassinations of the constable de Clisson,
the duke of Orleans and John the Fearless. It would have
needed an energetic hand to hold these passions in check; and
Charles VI. was a gentle-natured child, twelve years of age,
who attained his majority only to fall into a second childhood.
Thence arose a question which remained without reply during
the whole of his reign. Who should have possession of the
royal person, and, consequently, of the royal power ? The klng , s
Should it be the uncles of the king, or his followers uncles and
Clisson and Bureau de la Riviere, whom the nobles the Mar-
culled in mockery the Marmousets ? His uncles first mousets -
seized the government, each with a view to his own particular
interests, which were by no means those of the kingdom at
large. The duke of Anjou emptied the treasury in conquering
the kingdom of Naples, at the call of Queen Joanna of Sicily.
The duke of Berry seized upon Languedoc and the wine-tax.
The duke of Burgundy, heir through his wife to the countship
of Flanders, wanted to crush the democratic risings among the
Flemings. Each of them needed money, but Charles V., pricked
by conscience on his death-bed, forbade the levying of the
hearth-tax (1380). His brother's attempt to re-establish it set
Paris in revolt. The Maillotins of Paris found imitators
in other great towns; and in Auvergne and Vivarais ^ v "
the Tuchins renewed the Jacquerie. Revolutionary Maltlotiat.
attempts between 1380 and 1385 to abolish all taxes
were echoed in England, Florence and Flanders. These isolated
rebellions, however, were crushed by the ever-ready coalition
of royal and feudal forces at Roosebeke (1382). Taxes and
subsidies were maintained and the hearth-money re-established.
The death of the duke of Anjou at Bari (1384) gave pre-
ponderant influence to Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who
increased the large and fruitless expenses of his Burgundian
822
FRANCE
[HISTORY
Struggle
between
tbeAr-
magaacs
and the
Bur-
guadlans.
policy to such a point that on the return of a last unfortunate
expedition into Gelderland Charles VI., who had been made
by him to marry Isabel of Bavaria, took the govern-
Madaess mnt from m ' s unc i es on the 3rd of May 1389, and
otCha reca ]] e( j t h e Marmousets. But this young king, aged
only twenty, very much in love with his young wife
and excessively fond of pleasure, soon wrecked the delicate
poise of his mental faculties in the festivities of the Hotel Saint-
Paul; and a violent attack of Pierre de Craon on the constable
de Clisson having led to an expedition against his accomplice,
the duke of Brittany, Charles was seized by insanity on the
road. The Marmousets were deposed, the king's brother, the
duke of Orleans, set aside, and the old condition of affairs began
again (1392).
The struggle was now between the two branches of the royal
family, the Orleanist and the Burgundian, between the aristo-
cratic south and the democratic north; while the
deposition of Richard II. of England in favour of
Henry of Lancaster permitted them to vary civil war
by war against the foreigner. Philip the Bold, duke
of Burgundy, the king's uncle, had certain advantages
over his rival Louis of Orleans, Charles VI.'s brother:
superiority in age, relations with the Lancastrians
and with Germany, and territorial wealth and power. The two
adversaries had each the same scheme of government: each
wanted to take charge of Charles VI., who was intermittently
insane, and to exclude his rival from the pillage of the royal
exchequer; but this rivalry of desires brought them into opposi-
tion on all the great questions of the day the war with England,
the Great Schism and the imperial election. The struggle
became acute when John the Fearless of Burgundy succeeded
his father in 1404. Up to this time the queen, Isabel of Bavaria,
had been held in a kind of dependency upon Philip of Burgundy,
who had brought about her marriage ; but less eager for influence
than for money, since political questions were unintelligible to
her and her situation was a precarious one, she suddenly became
favourable to the duke of Orleans. Whether due to passion
or caprice this cost the duke his life, for John the Fearless
had him assassinated in 1407, and thus let loose against one
another the Burgundians and the Armagnacs, so-called because
the son of the murdered duke was the son-in-law of the count of
Armagnac (see ARMAGNAC). Despite all attempts at reconciliation
the country was divided into two parties. Paris, with her
tradesmen the butchers in particular and her university,
played an important part in this quarrel; for to be master of
Paris was to be master of the king. In 1413 the duke of Bur-
gundy gained the upper hand there, partly owing to the rising
of the Cabochiens, i.e. the butchers led by the skinner Simon
Caboche, partly to the hostility of the university to the Avignon
pope and partly to the Parisian bourgeoisie.
Amid this reign of terror and of revolt the university, the only
moral and intellectual force, taking the place of the impotent
states-general and of a parlement carefully restricted to
the judiciary sphere, vainly tried to re-establish a firm
monarchical system by means of the Ordonnance Cabo-
chienne; but this had no effect, the government being
now at the mercy of the mob, themselves at the mercy
of incapable hot-headed leaders. The struggle ended in becoming
one between factions of the townsmen, led respectively by the
h&chier Cirasse and by Jean Caboche. The former overwhelmed
John the Fearless, who fled from Paris; and the Armagnacs,
re-entering on his exit, substituted white terror for red terror,
from the I2th of December 1413 to the 28th of July 1414. The
butchers' organization was suppressed and all hope of reform
lost. Such disorders allowed Henry V. of England to take the
offensive again.
The Armagnacs were in possession of Paris and the king
when Henry V. crushed them at Agincourt on the 25th of
October 1415. It was as at Crecy and Poitiers;
the French chivalry, accustomed to mere playing at
battle in the tourneys, no longer knew how to fight. Charles
of Orleans being a captive and his father-in-law, the count of
The Or-
doaaaace
Cabo-
chtenae,
1413.
Aglacourt.
Armagnac, highly unpopular, John the Fearless, hitherto
prudently neutral, re-entered Paris, amid scenes of carnage, on
the invitation of the citizen Perrinet le Clerc.
Secure from interference, Henry V. had occupied the whole
of Normandy and destroyed in two years the work of Philip
Augustus. The duke of B urgundy, feeling as incapable
of coming to an understanding with the masterful
Englishman as of resisting him unaided, tried to 1420.
effect a reconciliation with the Armagnacs, who had
with them the heir to the throne, the dauphin Charles; but his
assassination at Montereau in 1419 nearly caused the destruction
of the kingdom, the whole Burgundian party going over to the
side of the English. By the treaty of Troyes (1420) the son
of John the Fearless, Philip the Good, in order to avenge his
father recognized Henry V. (now married to Catherine, Charles
VI.'s daughter) as heir to the crown of France, to the detriment
of the dauphin Charles, who was disavowed by his mother and
called in derision " the soi-disant dauphin of Viennois," When
Henry V. and Charles VI. died in 1422, Henry VI. son of
Henry V. and Catherine was proclaimed at Paris king of France
and of England, with the concurrence of Philip the Good, duke
of Burgundy. Thus in 1428 the English occupied all eastern
and northern France, as far as the Loire; while the two most
important civil powers of the time, the parlement and the
university of Paris, had acknowledged the English king.
But the cause of greatest weakness to the French party was
still Charles VII. himself, the king of Bourges. This youth of
nineteen, the ill-omened son of a madman and of a
Bavarian of loose morals, was a symbol of France,
timorous and mistrustful. The chateaux of the
Loire, where he led a restless and enervating existence,
held an atmosphere little favourable to enthusiasm and energy.
After his victories at Cravant (1423) and Verneuil (1424), the
duke of Bedford, appointed regent of the kingdom, had given
Charles VII. four years' respite, and these had been occupied
in violent intrigues between the constable de Richemont l and
the sire de la Tremoille, the young king's favourites, and solely
desirous of enriching themselves at his expense. The king,
melancholy spectacle as he was, seemed indeed to suit that tragic
hour when Orleans, the last bulwark of the south, was besieged
by the earlof Salisbury, now roused from inactivity (1428).
He had neither taste nor capacity like Philip VI. or John the
Good for undertaking "belles apertises d'armes"; but then
a lack of chivalry combined with a temporizing policy had
not been particularly unsuccessful in the case of his grandfather
Charles V.
Powerful aid now came from an unexpected quarter. The
war had been long and cruel, and each successive year naturally
increased feeling against the English. The damage
done to Burgundian interests by the harsh yet impotent
government of Bedford, disgust at the iniquitous
treaty of Troyes, the monarchist loyalty of many of the warriors,
the still deeper sentiment felt by men like Alain Chartier towards
" Dame France," and the " great misery that there was in the
kingdom of France "; all these suddenly became incarnate in
the person of Joan of Arc, a young peasant of Domremy in
Lorraine. Determined in her faith and proud in her meekness,
in opposition to the timid counsels of the military leaders, to
the interested delays of the courtiers, to the scruples of the
experts and the quarrelling of the doctors, she quoted her
" voices," who had, she said, commissioned her to raise the
siege of Orleans and to conduct the gentle dauphin to Reims,
there to be crowned. Her sublime folly turned out to be wiser
than their wisdom; in two months, from May to July 1429,
she had freed Orleans, destroyed the prestige of v the English
army at Patay, and dragged the doubting and passive king
against his will to be crowned at Reims. All this produced a
marvellous revulsion of political feeling throughout France,
Charles VII. now becoming incontestably " him to whom the
kingdom of France ought to belong." After Reims Joan's
first thought was for Paris, and to achieve the final overthrow
1 Earl of Richmond ; afterwards Arthur, duke of Brittany (q.v.).
Joan of
Arc.
HISTORY]
FRANCE
823
of the English; while Charles VII. was already sighing for the
easy life of Touraine, and recurring to that policy of truce which
was so strongly urged by his counsellors, and so keenly irritating
to the clear-sighted Joan of Arc. A check before Paris allowed
the jealousy of La Tremoille to waste the heroine for eight months
on operations of secondary importance, until the day when she
was captured by the Burgundians under the walls of Compiegne,
and sold by them to the English. The latter incontinently
prosecuted her as a heretic; they had, indeed, a great interest
in seeing her condemned by the Church, which would render
her conquests sacrilegious. After a scandalous four months'
duel between this simple innocent girl and a tribunal of crafty
malevolent ecclesiastics and doctors of the university of Paris,
Joan was burned alive in the old market-place of Rouen, on the
30th of May 1431 (see JOAN OF ARC).
On Charles VII. 's part this meant oblivion and silence until
the day when in 1450, more for his own sake than for hers, he
caused her memory to be rehabilitated; but Joan had given the
country new life and heart. From 1431 to 1454 the struggle
against the English went on energetically; and the king,
relieved in 1433 of his evil genius, La Tremoille, then became
a man once more, playing a kingly part under the guidance of
Dunois, Richemont, La Hire and Saintrailles, leaders of worth
on the field of battle. Moreover, the English territory, a great
triangle, with the Channel for base and Paris for apex, was not
a really solid position. Yet the war seemed interminable;
until at last Philip of Burgundy, for long embarrassed by his
English alliance, decided in 1435 to become reconciled with
Charles VII. This was in consequence of the death of his sister,
who had been married to Bedford, and the return of his brother-
in-law Richemont into the French king's favour. The treaty
of Arras, which made him a sovereign prince for life, though
harsh, at all events gave a united France the opportunity of
expelling the English from the east, and allowed the king to
re-enter Paris in 1436. From 1436 to 1439 there was a terrible
repetition of what happened after the Peace of Bretigny;
famine, pestilence, extortions and, later, the aristocratic revolt
of the Praguerie, completed the ruin of the country. But thanks
to the permanent tax of the taille during this time of truce
Charles VII. was able to effect the great military reform of the
Compagnies d'Ordonnance, of the Francs-Archers, and of the
artillery of the brothers Bureau. From this time forward the
English, ruined, demoralized and weakened both by the death
of the duke of Bedford and the beginnings of the Wars of the
Roses, continued to lose territory on every recurrence of conflict.
Normandy was lost to them at Formigny (1450), and Guienne,
English since the i2th century, at Castillon (1453). They kept
only Calais; and now it was their turn to have a madman,
Henry VI., for king.
France issued from the Hundred Years' War victorious,
but terribly ruined and depopulated. It is true she had de-
finitely freed her territory from the stranger, and
quencesot through the sorrows of defeat and the menace of
the Hun- disruption had fortified her national solidarity, and
ared defined her patriotism, still involved in and not yet
dissociated from loyalty to the monarchy. A happy
awakening, although it went too far in establishing
royal absolutism; and a victory too complete, in that it enervated
all the forces of resistance. The nation, worn out by the long
disorders consequent on the captivity of King John and the
insanity of Charles VI., abandoned itself to the joys of peace.
Preferring the solid advantage of orderly life to an unstable
liberty, it acquiesced in the abdication of 1439, when the States
consented to taxation for the support of a permanent army
without any periodical renewal of their authorization. No
doubt by the prohibition to levy the smallest taille the feudal
lords escaped direct taxation; but from the day when the
privileged classes selfishly allowed the taxing of the third estate,
provided that they themselves were exempt, they opened the
door to monarchic absolutism. The principle of autocracy
triumphed everywhere over the remnants of local or provincial
authority, in the sphere of industry as in that of administration;
Years'
War.
while the gild system became much more rigid. A loyal bureau-
cracy, far more powerful than the phantom administration of
Bourges or of Poitiers, gradually took the place of the court
nobility; and thanks to this the institutions of control which
the war had called into power the provincial states-general
were nipped in the bud, withered by the people's poverty of
political idea and by the blind worship of royalty. Without the
nation's concurrence the king's creatures were now to endow
royalty with all the organs necessary for the exertion of authority;
by which imprudent compliance, and above all thanks to Jacques
Cceur (q.v.), the financial independence of the provinces dis-
appeared little by little, and all the public revenues were left
at the discretion of the king alone (1436-1440). By this means,
too, and chiefly owing to the constable de Richemont and the
brothers Bureau, the first permanent royal army was established
(i445)-
Henceforward royalty, strengthened by victory and organized
for the struggle, was able to reduce the centrifugal social forces
to impotence. The parlement of Paris saw its monopoly Monarch-
encroached upon by the court of Toulouse in 1443, Icaicen-
and by the parlement of Grenoble in 1453. The *""
university of Paris, compromised with the English,
like the parlement, witnessed the institution and growth of
privileged provincial universities. The Church of France was
isolated from the papacy by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges
(1438) only to be exploited and enslaved by royalty. Monarchic
centralization, interrupted for the moment by the war, took
up with fresh vigour its attacks upon urban liberties, especially
in the always more independent south. It caused a slackening
of that spirit of communal initiative which had awakened in the
midst of unprecedented disasters. The decimated and im-
poverished nobility proved their impotence in the coalitions
they attempted between 1437 an d 1442, of which the most
important, the Praguerie, fell to pieces almost directly, despite
the support of the dauphin himself.
The life of society, now alarmingly unstable and ruthlessly
cruel, was symbolized by the danse macabre painted on the
walls of the cemeteries; the sombre and tragic art social
of the i sth century, having lost the fine balance w/e-
shown by that of the I3th, gave expression in its
mournful realism to the general state of exhaustion. The
favourite subject of the mysteries and of other artistic manifesta-
tions was no longer the triumphant Christ of the middle ages,
nor the smiling and teaching Christ of the i3th century, but the
Man of sorrows and of death, the naked bleeding Jesus, lying
on the knees of his mother or crowned with thorns. France,
like the Christ, had known all the bitterness and weakness of a
Passion.
The war of independence over, after a century of fatigue,
regrets and doubts, royalty and the nation, now more united
and more certain of each other, resumed the methodic and
utilitarian war of widening boundaries. Leaving dreams about
crusades to the poets, and to a papacy delivered from schism,
Charles VII. turned his attention to the ancient appanage of
Lothair, Alsace and Lorraine, those lands of the north and the
east whose frontiers were constantly changing, and which
seemed to invite aggression. But the chance of annexing them
without great trouble was lost; by the fatal custom of appanages
the Valois had set up again those feudal institutions which the
Capets had found such difficulty in destroying, and Louis XI.
was to make sad experience of this.
To the north and east of the kingdom extended a wide territory
of uncertain limits; countries without a chief like Alsace;
principalities like Lorraine, ecclesiastical lordships
like the bishopric of Liege; and, most important of T fg" se
all, a royal appanage, that of the duchy of Burgundy, gua a^.
which dated back to the time of John the Good.
Through marriages, conquests and inheritance, the dukes of
Burgundy had enormously increased their influence; while
during the Hundred Years' War they had benefited alternately
by their criminal alliance with the English and by their self-
interested reconciliation with their sovereign. They soon
824
FRANCE
[HISTORY
(1461-
1483).
appeared the most formidable among the new feudal chiefs
so imprudently called into being by Louis XL's predecessors.
Fleeing from the paternal wrath which he had drawn down upon
himself by his ambition and by his unauthorized marriage
with Charlotte of Savoy, the future Louis XL had passed five
years of voluntary exile at the court of the chief of the House
of Burgundy, Philip the Good; and he was able to appreciate
the territorial power of a duchy which extended from the Zuyder
Zee to the Somme, with all the country between the Sa6ne
and the Loire in addition, and its geographical position as a
commercial intermediary between Germany, England and
France. He had traversed the fertile country of Flanders;
he had visited the rich commercial and industrial republics of
Bruges and Ghent, which had escaped the disasters of the
Hundred Years' War; and, finally, he had enjoyed a hospitality
as princely as it was self-interested at Brussels and at Dijon,
the two capitals, where he had seen the brilliancy of a court
unique in Europe for the ideal of chivalric life it offered.
But the dauphin Louis, although a bad son and impatient for
the crown, was not dazzled by all this. With very simple
tastes, an inquiring mind, and an imagination always
at work, he combined a certain easy good-nature
which inspired confidence, and though stingy in
spending money on himself, he could be lavish in
buying men either dangerous or likely to be useful. More inclined
to the subtleties of diplomacy than to the risks of battle, he had
recognized and speedily grasped the disadvantages of warfare.
The duke of Burgundy, however rich and powerful, was still the
king's vassal; his wide but insecure authority, of too rapid
growth and unpopular, lacked sovereign rights. Hardly, there-
fore, had Louis XL heard of his father's death than he made his
host aware of his perfectly independent spirit, and his very
definite intention to be master in his own house.
But by a kind of poetic justice, Louis XI. had for seven years,
from 1465 to 1472, to struggle against fresh Pragueries, called
_. Leagues of the Public Weal (presumably from their
Leagues disregard of it), composed of the most powerful
of the French nobles, to whom he had set the example of
Public revolt. His first proceedings had indeed given no
promise of the moderation and prudence afterwards
to characterize him; he had succeeded in exasperating all
parties; the officials of his father, " the well-served," whom he
dismissed in favour of inferiors like Jean Balue, Oliver le Daim
and Tristan Lermite; the clergy, by abrogating the Pragmatic
Sanction; the university of Paris, by his ill-treatment of it;
and the nobles, whom he deprived of their hunting rights, among
them being those whom Charles VII. had been most careful
to conciliate in view of the inevitable conflict with the duke of
Burgundy in particular, Francis II., duke of Brittany. The
repurchase in 1463 of the towns of the Somme (to which Philip
the Good, now grown old and engaged in a quarrel with his son,
the count of Charolais, had felt obliged to consent on considera-
tion of receiving four hundred thousand gold crowns), and the
intrigues of Louis XI. during the periodical revolts of the Liegois
against their prince-bishop, set the powder alight. On three
different occasions (in 1465, 1467 and 1472), Louis XL's own
brother, the duke of Berry, urged by the duke of Brittany, the
count of Charolais, the duke of Bourbon, and the other feudal
lords, attempted to set up six kingdoms in France instead of one,
and to impose upon Louis XL a regency which should give them
enormous pensions. This was their idea of Public Weal.
Louis XL won by his favourite method, diplomacy
rather than arms. At the time of the first league, the battle
ch of Montlhery (i6th of July 1465) having remained
the Bold, undecided between the two equally badly organized
armies, Louis XI. conceded everything in the treaties
of Conflans and Saint-Maur promises costing him little, since
he had no intention of keeping them. But during the course of
the second league, provoked by the recapture of Normandy,
which he had promised to his brother in exchange for Berry,
he was nearly caught in his own trap. On the isth of June
1467 Philip the Good died, and the accession of the count of
Charolais was received with popular risings. In order to
embarrass him Louis XL had secretly encouraged the people
of Liege to revolt; but preoccupied with the marriage of Charles
the Bold with Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV. of England,
he wished to negotiate personally with him at Peronne, and
hardly had he reached that place when news arrived there of the
revolt of Liege amid cries of " Vive France." Charles the Bold,
proud, violent, pugnacious, as treacherous as his rival, a hardier
soldier, though without his political sagacity, im-
prisoned Louis in the tower where Charles the Simple IK <"*
had died as a prisoner of the count of Vermandois. Peroone.
He only let him depart when he had sworn in the
treaty of Peronne to fulfil the engagements made at Conflans
and Saint-Maur to assist in person at the subjugation of rebellious
Liege, and to give Champagne as an appanage to his ally the duke
of Berry.
Louis XL, supported by the assembly of notables at Tours
(1470), had no intention of keeping this last promise, since the
duchy of Champagne would have made a bridge
between Burgundy and Flanders the two isolated ^g"f^ dal
branches of the house of Burgundy. He gave the duke coalitions.
of Berry distant Guienne. But death eventually rid
him of the duke in 1472, just when a third league was being
organized, the object of which was to make the duke of Berry
king with the help of Edward IV., king of England. The duke of
Brittany, Francis II., was defeated; Charles the Bold, having
failed at Beauvais in his attempt to recapture the towns of the
Somme which had been promised him by the treaty of Conflans,
was obliged to sign the peace of Senlis (1472). This was the end
of the great feudal coalitions, for royal vengeance soon settled
the account of the lesser vassals; the duke of Alencon was
condemned to prison for life; the count of Armagnac was
killed; and "the Germans" were soon to disembarrass Louis
of Charles the Bold.
Charles had indeed only signed the peace so promptly because
he was looking eastward towards that royal crown and territorial
cohesion of which his father had also dreamed. The Charles
king, he said of Louis XL, is always ready. He wanted the Bold 1 *
to provide his future sovereigntywith organs analogous Imperial
to those of France; a permanent army, and a judiciary dnams "
and financial administration modelled on the French parlement
and exchequer. Since he could not dismember the kingdom
of France, his only course was to reconstitute the ancient kingdom
of Lotharingia; while the conquest of the principality of Liege
and of the duchy of Gelderland, and the temporary occupation
of Alsace, pledged to him by Sigismund of Austria, made him
greedy for Germany. To get himself elected king of the Romans
he offered his daughter Mary, his eternal candidate for marriage,
to the emperor Frederick III. for his son. Thus either he or
his son-in-law Maximilian would have been emperor.
But the Tarpeian rock was a near neighbour of the Capitol.
Frederick distrustful, and in the pay of Louis XI. evaded a
meeting arranged at Trier, and Burgundian influence
in Alsace was suddenly brought to a violent end by the
putting to death of its tyrannical agent, Peter von the Bold.
Hagenbach. Charles thought to repair the rebuff
of Trier at Cologne, and wasted his resources in an attempt to
win over its elector by besieging the insignificant town of Neuss.
But the " universal spider " as he called Louis XL was
weaving his web in the darkness, and was eventually to entangle
him in it. First came the reconciliation, in his despite, of those
irreconcilables, the Swiss and Sigismund of Austria; and then
the union of both with the duke of Lorraine, who was also
disturbed at the duke of Burgundy's ambition. In vain Charles
tried to kindle anew the embers of former feudal intrigues;
the execution of the duke of Nemours and the c6unt of Saint
Pol cooled all enthusiasm. In vain did he get his dilatory
friends, the English Yorkists, to cross the Channel; on the 29th
of August 1475, at Picquigny, Louis XL bribed them with a
sum of seventy-five thousand crowns to forsake him, Edward
further undertaking to guarantee the loyalty of the duke of
Brittany. Exasperated, Charles attacked and took Nancy,.
HISTORY]
FRANCE
825
wishing, as he said, " to skin the Bernese bear and wear its fur."
To the hanging of the brave garrison of Granson the Swiss re-
sponded by terrible reprisals at Granson and at Morat (March
to June 1476); while the* people of Lorraine finally routed
Charles at Nancy on the sth of January 1477, the duke himself
falling in the battle.
The central administration of Burgundy soon disappeared,
swamped by the resurgence of ancient local liberties; the army
Ruin of fell to pieces; and all hope of joining the two limbs
the house of the great eastern duchy was definitely lost. As for
of Bur- tne remnan ts that were left, French provinces and
gundy. imperial territory, Louis XI. claimed the whole.
He seized everything, alleging different rights in each place;
but he displayed such violent haste and such trickery that he
threw the heiress of Burgundy, in despair, into the arms of
Maximilian of Austria. At the treaty of Arras (December 1482)
Louis XI. received only Picardy, the Boulonnais and Burgundy;
by the marriage of Charles the Bold's daughter the rest was
annexed to the Empire, and later to Spain. Thus by Louis XL's
short-sighted error the house of Austria established itself in the
Low Countries. An age-long rivalry between the houses of
France and Austria was the result of this disastrous marriage;
and as the son who was its issue espoused the heiress of a now
unified Spain, France, hemmed in by the Spaniards and by the
Empire, was thenceforward to encounter them everywhere in
her course. The historical progress of France was once more
endangered.
The reasons of state which governed all Louis XL's external
policy also inspired his internal administration. If they justified
The hi m m employing lies and deception in international
adminis- affairs, in his relations with his subjects they led him
tration of J. Q re g ar d as lawful everything which favoured his
" s ' authority; no question of right could weigh against it.
The army and taxation, as the two chief means of domina-
tion within and without the kingdom, constituted the main
bulwarks of his policy. As for the nobility, his only thought
was to diminish their power by multiplying their number,
as his predecessors had done; while he reduced the rebels to
submission by his iron cages or the axe of his gossip Tristan
Lermite. The Church was treated with the same unconcerned
cynicism; he held her in strict tutelage, accentuating her moral
decadence still further by the manner in which he set aside
or re-established the Pragmatic Sanction, according to the
fluctuations of his financial necessities or his Italian ambitions.
It has been said that on the other hand he was a king of the
common people, and certainly he was one of them in his simple
habits, in his taste for rough pleasantries, and above all in his
religion, which was limited to superstitious practices and small
devoutnesses. But in the states of Tours in 1468 he evinced
the same mistrust for fiscal control by the people as for the
privileges of the nobility. He inaugurated that autocratic rule
which was to continue gaining strength until Louis XV. 's time.
Louis XI. was the king of the bourgeoisie; he exacted much
from them, but paid them back with interest by allowing them
to reduce the power of all who were above them and to lord it
over all who were below. As a matter of fact Louis XL's most
faithful ally was death. Saint-Pol, Nemours, Charles the Bold,
his brother the duke of Berry, old Rene of Anjou and his nephew
the count of Maine, heir to the riches of Provence and to rights
over Naples the skeleton hand mowed down all his adversaries
as though it too were in his pay; until the day when at Plessis-
les-Tours it struck a final blow, claimed its just dues from Louis
XL, and carried him off despite all his relics on the 3oth of
August 1483.
There was nothing noble about Louis XL but his aims, and
nothing great but the results he attained; yet however different
Charles ^ e m iht have been he could not have done better,
vin. ana for what he achieved was the making of France.
Brittany This was soon seen after his death in the reaction
\4*>8)~ which menaced his work and those who had served
him; but thanks to himself and to his true successor,
his eldest daughter Anne, married to the sire de Beaujeu, a
younger member of the house of Bourbon, the set-back was
only partial. Strife began immediately between the numerous
malcontents and the Beaujeu party, who had charge of the little
Charles VIII. These latter prudently made conces-
sions: reducing the tattle, sacrificing some of Louis XL's w * r "
creatures to the rancour of the parlement, and restoring i48s'.
a certain number of offices cr lands to the hostile princes
(chief of whom was the duke of Orleans), and even consenting
to a convocation of the states-general at Tours (1484). But the
elections having been favourable to royalty, the Beaujeu family
made the states reject the regency desired by the duke of Orleans,
and organize the king's council after their own views. When
they subsequently eluded the conditions imposed by the states,
the deputies nobles, clergy and burgesses showed their
incapacity to oppose the progress of despotism. In vain did
the malcontent princes attempt to set up a new League of
Public Weal, the Guerre folk (Mad War), in which the duke of
Brittany, Francis II., played the part of Charles the Bold,
dragging in the people of Lorraine and the king of Navarre.
In vain did Charles VIII. , his majority attained, at once abandon
in the treaty of Sable the benefits gained by the victory of
Saint-Aubin du Cormier (1488). In vain did Henry VII. of
England, Ferdinand the Catholic, and Maximilian of Austria
try to prevent the annexation of Brittany by France; its heiress
Anne, deserted by every one, made peace and married Charles
VIII. in 1491. There was no longer a single great fief in France
to which the malcontents could fly for refuge.
It now remained to consolidate the later successes attained
by the policy of the Valois the acquisition of the duchies of
Burgundy and Brittany; but instead there was a
sudden change and that policy seemed about to be ^L^/
lost in dreams of recapturing the rights of the Angevins ticeace. "
over Naples, and conquering Constantinople. Charles
VIII., a prince with neither intelligence nor resolution, his
head stuffed with chivalric romance, was scarcely freed from
his sister's control when he sought in Italy a fatal distraction
from the struggle with the house of Austria. By this " war of
magnificence " he caused an interruption of half a century
in the growth of national sentiment, which was only revived by
Henry II.; and he was not alone in thus leaving the bone for
the shadow: his contemporaries, Ferdinand the Catholic
when delivered from the Moors, and Henry VII. from the power
of the English nobles, followed the same superficial policy, not
taking the trouble to work for that real strength which comes
from the adhesion of willing subjects to their sovereign. They
only cared to aggrandize themselves, without thought of national
feeling or geographical conditions. The great theorist of these
" conquistadores " was Machiavelli. The regent, Anne of
Beaujeu, worked in her daughter's interest to the detriment of
the kingdom, by means of a special treaty destined to prevent
the property of the Bourbons from reverting to the crown;
while Anne of Brittany did the like for her daughter Claude.
Louis XII., the next king of France, thought only of the Milanese;
Ferdinand the Catholic all but destroyed the Spanish unity at
the end of his life by his marriage with Germaine de Foix; while
the house of Austria was for centuries to remain involved in this
petty course of policy. Ministers followed the example of their
self-seeking masters, thinking it no shame to accept pensions
from foreign sovereigns. The preponderating consideration
everywhere was direct material advantage; there was dis-
proportion everywhere between the means employed and the
poverty of the results, a contradiction between the interests
of the sovereigns and those of their subjects, which were associ-
ated by force and not naturally blended. For the sake of a
morsel of Italian territory every one forgot the permanent
necessity of opposing the advance of the Turkish crescent, the
two horns of which were impinging upon Europe on the Danube
and on the Mediterranean.
Italy and Germany were two great tracts of land at the mercy
of the highest bidder, rich and easy to dominate, where these
coarse and alien kings, still reared on medieval traditions, were
for fifty years to gratify their love of conquest. Italy was their
826
FRANCE
[HISTORY
first battlefield; Charles VEIL was summoned thither by
Lodovico II Moro, tyrant of Milan, involved in a quarrel with
his rival, Ferdinand II. of Aragon. The Aragonese
had snatched the kingdom of Naples from the
French house of Anjou, whose claims Louis XI. had
inherited in 1480. To safeguard himself in the rear Charles VIII.
handed over Roussillori and Cerdagne (Cerdana) to Ferdinand
the Catholic (that is to say, all the profits of Louis XL's policy) ;
gave enormous sums of money to Henry VII. of England; and
finally, by the treaty of Senlis ceded Artois and Franche-Comte
to Maximilian of Austria. After these fool's bargains the paladin
set out for Naples in 1494. His journey was long and triumphant,
and his return precipitate; indeed it very nearly ended in a
disaster at Fornovo, owing to the first of those Italian holy
leagues which at the least sign of friction were ready to turn
against France. At the age of twenty-eight, however, Charles
VIII. died without issue (1498).
The accession of his cousin, Louis of Orleans, under the title
of Louis XII., only involved the kingdom still further in this
Italian imbroglio. Louis did indeed add the fief of
Louis XII. Orleans to the royal domain and hastened to divorce
isiS) ' Jeanne of France in order to marry Anne, the widow
of his predecessor, so that he might keep Brittany.
But he complicated the Naples affair by claiming Milan in con-
sideration of the marriage of his grandfather, Louis of Orleans,
to Valentina, daughter of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, duke of Milan.
In 1499, appealed to by Venice, and encouraged by his favourite,
Cardinal d'Amboise (who was hoping to succeed Pope Alexander
VI.), and also by Cesare Borgia, who had lofty ambitions in
Italy, Louis XII. conquered Milan in seven months and held
it for fourteen years; while Lodovico Sforza, betrayed by his
Swiss mercenaries, died a prisoner in France. The kingdom
of Naples was still left to recapture; and fearing to be thwarted
by Ferdinand of Aragon, Louis XII. proposed to this master
of roguery that they should divide the kingdom according to
the treaty of Granada (1500). But no sooner had Louis XII.
assumed the title of king of Naples than Ferdinand set about
despoiling him of it, and despite the bravery of a Bayard and a
Louis d'Ars, Louis XII., being also betrayed by the pope, lost
Naples for good in 1504. The treaties of Blois occasioned a
vast amount of diplomacy, and projects of marriage between
Claude of France and Charles of Austria, which came to nothing
but served as a prelude to the later quarrels between Bourbons
and Habsburgs.
It was Pope Julius II. who opened the gates of Italy to the
horrors of war. Profiting by Louis XII. 's weakness and the
emperor Maximilian's strange capricious character, this martial
pope sacrificed Italian and religious interests alike in order to
re-establish the temporal power of the papacy. Jealous of
Venice, at that time the Italian state best provided with powers
of expansion, and unable to subjugate it single-handed, Julius
succeeded in obtaining help from France, Spain and the Empire.
The league of Cambrai (1508) was his finest diplomatic achieve-
ment. But he wanted to be sole master of Italy; so in order to
expel the French " barbarians " whom he had brought in, he
appealed to other barbarians who were far more dangerous
Spaniards, Germans and Swiss to help him against Louis XII.,
and stabbed him from behind with the Holy League of 1511.
Weakened by the death of Cardinal d'Amboise, his best
counsellor, Louis XII. tried vainly in the assembly of Tours
and in the unsuccessful council of Pisa to alienate the
and'* Xl1 ' F renc h clergy from a papacy which was now so little
Julius ii. worthy of respect. But even the splendid victories
of Gaston de Foix could not shake that formidable
coalition; and despite the efforts of Bayard, La Palice and
La Tremoille, it was the Church that triumphed. Julius II.
died in the hour of victory; but Louis XII. was obliged to
evacuate Milan, to which he had sacrificed everything, even
France itself, with that political stupidity characteristic of the
first Valois. He died almost immediately after this, on the
ist of January 1515, and his subjects, recognizing his thrift,
bis justice and the secure prosperity of the kingdom, forgot the
seventeen years of war in which they had not been consulted,
and rewarded him with the fine title of Father of his People.
As Louis XII. left no son, the crown devolved upon his cousin
and son-in-law the count of Angouleme, Francis I. No sooner
king, Francis, in alliance with Venice, renewed the
chimerical attempts to conquer Milan and Naples;
also cherishing dreams of his own election as emperor 1547).
and of a partition of Europe. The heroic episode of
Marignano, when he defeated Cardinal Schinner's Swiss troops
(13-1 S of September 1515), made him master of the duchy of Milan
and obliged his adversaries to make peace. Leo X., Julius II. 's
successor, by an astute volte-face exchanged Parma and the
Concordat for a guarantee of all the Church's possessions, which
meant the defeat of French plans (1515). The Swiss signed
the permanent peace which they were to maintain until the
Revolution of 1789; while the emperor and the king of Spain
recognized Francis II. 's very precarious hold upon Milan. Once
more the French monarchy was pulled up short by the indigna-
tion of all Italy (1518).
The question now was how to occupy the military activity
ot a young, handsome, chivalric and gallant prince, " ondoyant
et divers," intoxicated by his first victory and his
tardy accession to fortune. This had been hailed with ^Aaracter
joy by all who had been his comrades in his days of Francis I.
difficulty; by his mother, Louise of Savoy, and his
sister Marguerite; by all the rough young soldiery; by the
nobles, tired of the bourgeois ways of Louis XI. and the patri-
archal simplicity of Louis XIL; and finally by all the aristocracy
who expected now to have the government in their own hands.
So instead of heading the crusade against the Turks, Francis
threw himself into the electoral contest at Frankfort, which
resulted in the election of Charles V., heir of Ferdinand the
Catholic, Spain and Germany thus becoming united. Pope
Leo X., moreover, handed over three-quarters of Italy to the
new emperor in exchange for Luther's condemnation, thereby
kindling that rivalry between Charles V. and the king of France
which was to embroil the whole of Europe throughout half a
century (1519-1559), from Pavia to St Quentin.
The territorial power of Charles V., heir to the houses of
Burgundy, Austria, Castile and Aragon, which not only arrested
the traditional policy of France but hemmed her Ri va iryof
in on every side ; his pretensions to be the head of Francis I.
Christendom; his ambition to restore the house of **"*
Burgundy and the Holy Roman Empire; his grave
and forceful intellect all rendered rivalry both inevitable and
formidable. But the scattered heterogeneity of his possessions,
the frequent crippling of his authority by national privileges
or by political discords and religious quarrels, his perpetual
straits for money, and his cautious calculating character, almost
outweighed the advantages which he possessed in the terrible
Spanish infantry, the wealthy commerce of the Netherlands,
and the inexhaustible mines of the New World. Moreover,
Francis I. stirred up enmity everywhere against Charles V.,
and after each defeat he found fresh support in the patriotism
of his subjects. Immediately after the treaty of Madrid (1526),
which Francis I. was obliged to sign after the disaster at Pavia
and a period of captivity, he did not hesitate between D e / ea < a t
his honour as a gentleman and the interests of his Pavia and
kingdom. Having been unable to win over Henry 'jJJ"^?'
VIII. of England at their interview on the Field of
the Cloth of Gold, he joined hands with Suleiman the Magnificent,
the conqueror of Mohacs; and the Turkish cavalry, crossing
the Hungarian Puszta, made their way as far as Vienna, while
the mercenaries of Charles V., under the constable de Bourbon,
were reviving the saturnalia of Alaric in the sack of Rome (1527).
In Germany, Francis I. assisted the Catholic princes to maintain
their political independence, though he did not make the capital
he might have made of the reform movement. Italy remained
faithful to the vanquished in spite of all, while even Henry VIII.
of England, who only needed bribing, and Wolsey, accessible to
flattery, took part in the temporary coalition. Thus did France,
menaced with disruption, embark upon a course of action imposed
HISTORY]
FRANCE
827
expedi-
tions.
The truce
at Nice.
upon her by the harsh conditions of the treaty of Madrid
otherwise little respected and later by those of Cambrai (1529) ;
but it was not till later, too late indeed, that it was defined and
became a national policy.
After having, despite so many reverses and mistakes, saved
Burgundy, though not Artois nor Flanders, and joined to the
crown lands the domains of the constable de Bourbon
prose-' wno na d gone over to Charles V., Francis I. should
cation at have had enough of defending other people's independ-
romaatic ence as we u as his own, and should have thought more
of his interests in the north and east than of Milan.
Yet between 1531 and 1547 he manifested the same
regrets and the same invincible ambition for that land of Italy
which Charles V., on his side, regarded as the basis of his strength.
Their antagonism, therefore, remained unabated, as also the
contradiction of an official agreement with Charles V., combined
with secret intrigues with his enemies. Anne de Montmorency,
now head of the government in place of the headstrong chancellor
Duprat, for four years upheld a policy of reconciliation and of
almost friendly agreement between the two monarchs (1531-
I S3S)- The death of Francis I.'s mother, Louise of Savoy (who
had been partly instrumental in arranging the peace of Cambrai),
the replacement of Montmorency by the bellicose Chabot, and
the advent to power of a Burgundian, Granvella, as Charles V.'s
prime minister, put an end to this double-faced policy, which
attacked the Calviru'sts of France while supporting the Lutherans
of Germany; made advances to Clement VII. while pretending
to maintain the alliance with Henry VIII. (just then consummat-
ing the Anglican schism); and sought an alliance with Charles
V. without renouncing the possession of Italy. The death of
the duke of Milan provoked a third general war (1536-1538);
but after the conquest of Savoy and Piedmont and a
fruitless invasion of Provence by Charles V., it resulted
in another truce, concluded at Nice, in the interview
at Aigues-mortes, and in the old contradictory policy of the
treaty of Cambrai. This was confirmed by Charles V.'s triumphal
journey through France (1539).
Rivalry between Madame d'Etampes, the imperious mistress
of the aged Francis I., and Diane de Poitiers, whose ascendancy
over the dauphin was complete, now brought court
outbreak i nt "g ues an d constant changes in those who held
of war. office, to complicate still further this wearisome
policy of ephemeral " combinazioni " with English,
Germans, Italians and Turks, which urgent need of money always
brought to naught. The disillusionment of Francis I., who
had hitherto hoped that Charles V. would be generous enough
to give Milan back to him, and then the assassination of Rincon,
his ambassador at Constantinople, led to a fourth war (1544-
1546), in the course of which the king of England went over to
the side of Charles V.
Unable in the days of his youth to make Italy French, when
age began to come upon him, Francis tried to make France
Koyaiab- Italian. In his chateau at Blois he drank greedily
soiutism of the cup of Renaissance art; but he found the
under exciting draughts of diplomacy which he imbibed
Francis I. f rom Machiavelli's Prince even more intoxicating,
and he headed the ship of state straight for the rock of absolutism.
He had been the first king " du bon plaisir " (" of his own good
pleasure ") a " Caesar," as his mother Louise of Savoy proudly
hailed him in 1515 and to a man of his gallant and hot-headed
temperament love and war were schools little calculated to
teach moderation in government. Italy not only gave him a
taste for art and letters, but furnished him with an arsenal of
despotic maxims. Yet his true masters were the jurists of the
southern universities, passionately addicted to centralization
and autocracy, men like Duprat and Poyet, who revived the
persistent tradition of Philip the Fair's legists. Grouped together
on the council of affairs, they managed to control the policy
of the common council, with its too mixed and too independent
membership. They successfully strove to separate " the grandeur
and superexcellence of the king " from the rest of the nation;
to isolate the nobility amid the seductions of a court lavish in
promises of favour and high office; and to win over the
bourgeoisie by the buying and selling and afterwards by the
hereditary transmission of offices. Thanks to their action,
feudalism was attacked in its landed interest in the person of
the constable de Bourbon; feudalism in its financial aspect
by the execution of superintendent Semblanfay and the special
privileges of towns and provinces by administrative centraliza-
tion. The bureaucracy became a refuge for the nobles, and above
all for the bourgeois, whose fixed incomes were lowered by the
influx of precious metals from the New World, while the wages
of artisans rose. All those time-worn medieval institutions
which no longer allowed free scope to private or public life were
demolished by the legists in favour of the monarchy.
Their masterstroke was the Concordat of 1516, which meant
an immense stride in the path towards absolutism. While
Germany and England, where ultramontane doctrines
had been allowed to creep in, were seeking a remedy T hecoam
., . .. , ., . * conlatot
against the economic exactions of the papacy in a isie.
reform of dogma or in schism, France had supposed
herself to have found this in the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges.
But to the royal jurists the right of the churches and abbeys
to make appointments to all vacant benefices was a guarantee
of liberties valuable to the clergy, but detestable to themselves
because the clergy thus retained the great part of public wealth
and authority. By giving the king the ecclesiastical patronage
they not only made a docile instrument of him, but endowed
him with a mine of wealth, even more productive than the sale
of offices, and a power of favouring and rewarding that trans-
formed a needy and ill-obeyed king into an absolute monarch.
To the pope they offered a mess of pottage in the shape of onnates
and the right of canonical institution, in order to induce him
to sell the Church of France to the king. By this royal reform
they completely isolated the monarchy, in the presumptuous
pride of omnipotence, upon the ruins of the Church and the
aristocracy, despite both the university and the parlement
of Paris.
Thus is explained Francis I.'s preoccupation with Italian
adventures in the latter part of his reign, and also the inordinate
squandering of money, the autos-da-fe in the provinces and in
Paris, the harsh repression of reform and free thought, and the
sale of justice; while the nation became impoverished and the
state was at the mercy of the caprices of royal mistresses all
of which was to become more and more pronounced during
the twelve years of Henry II. 's government.
Henry II. shone but with a reflected light in his private
life reflected from his old mistress, Diane de Poitiers, and in his
political action reflected from the views of Mont-
morency or the Guises. He only showed his own ( "J"/ K// '
personality in an egoism more narrow-minded, in 1559.)
hatred yet bitterer than his father's; or in a haughty
and jealous insistence upon an absolute authority which he never
had the wit to maintain.
The struggle with Charles V. was at first delayed by differences
with England. The treaty of Ardres had left two bones of
contention: the cession of Boulogne to England
and the exclusion of the Scotch from the terms of "gj ty "'
peace. At last the regent, the duke of Somerset, Charles v.
endeavoured to arrange a marriage between Edward
VI., then a minor, and Mary Stuart, who had been offered in
marriage to the dauphin Francis by her mother, Marie of
Lorraine, a Guise who had married the king of Scotland. The
transference of Mary Stuart to France, and the treaty of 1550
which restored Boulogne to France for a sum of 400,000 crowns,
suspended the state of war; and then Henry II. 's opposition
to the imperial policy of Charles V. showed itself everywhere:
in Savoy and Piedmont, occupied by the French and claimed by
Philibert Emmanuel, Charles V.'s ally; in Navarre, unlawfully
conquered by Ferdinand the Catholic and claimed by the family
of Albret; in Italy, where, aided and abetted by Pope Paul III.,
Henry II. was trying to regain support; and, finally, in Germany,
where after the victory of Charles V. at Miihlberg (1547) the
Protestant princes called Henry II. to their aid, offering to
828
FRANCE
[HISTORY
Defence
of Met*.
subsidize him and cede to him the towns of Metz, Toul and
Verdun. The Protestant alliance was substituted for the
Turkish alliance, and Henry II. hastened to accept the offers
made to him (1552); but this was rather late in the day, for
the reform movement had produced civil war and evoked
fresh forces. The Germans, in whom national feeling got the
better of imperialistic ardour, as soon as they saw the French
at Strassburg, made terms with the emperor at Passau and
permitted Charles to use all his forces against Henry II. The
defence of Metz by Francis of Guise was admirable
and successful; but in Picardy operations continued
their course without much result, owing to the in-
capacity of the constable de Montmorency. Fortunately,
despite the marriage of Charles V.'s son Philip to Mary Tudor,
which gave him the support of England (1554), and despite
the religious pacification of Germany through the peace of
Augsburg (1555), Charles V., exhausted by illness
and bv tmrt y years of intense activity, in the truce
of Vaucelles abandoned Henry II. 's conquests
Piedmont and the Three Bishoprics. He then abdicated the
government of his kingdoms, which he divided between his son
Philip II. and his brother Ferdinand (1556). A double victory,
this, for France.
Henry II. "s resumption of war, without provocation and
without allies, was a grave error; but more characterless than
ever, the king was urged to it by the Guises, whose
1e . ry II ' influence since the defence of Metz had been supreme
Philip U. at court and who were perhaps hoping to obtain
Naples for themselves. On the other hand, Pope Paul
IV. and his nephew Carlo Caraffa embarked upon the struggle,
because as Neapolitans they detested the Spaniards, whom they
Peace of considered as " barbarous " as the Germans or the
Gateau- French. The constable de Montmorency's disaster
c *^' at Saint Quentin (August 1557), by which Philip II.
had not the wit to profit, was successfully avenged
by Guise, who was appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom.
He took Calais by assault in January 1558, after the English
had held it for two centuries, and occupied Luxemburg. The
treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (August 1559) finally put an end to
the Italian follies, Naples, Milan and Piedmont; but it also
lost Savoy, making a gap in the frontier for a century. The
question of Burgundy was definitely settled, too; but the
Netherlands had still to be conquered. By the possession of
the three bishoprics and the recapture of Calais an effort towards
a natural line of frontier and towards a national policy seemed
indicated; but while the old soldiers could not forget Marignano,
Ceresole, nor Italy perishing with the name of France on her
lips, the secret alliance between the cardinal of Lorraine and
Granvella against the Protestant heresy foretold the approaching
subordination of national questions to religious differences, and
a decisive attempt to purge the kingdom of the new doctrines.
The origin and general history of the religious reformation
in the i6th century are dealt with elsewhere (see CHURCH
HISTORY and REFORMATION). In France it had
formation. originally no revolutionary character whatever; it
proceeded from traditional Galilean theories and from
the innovating principle of humanism, and it began as a protest
against Roman decadence and medieval scholasticism. It
found its first adherents and its first defenders among the clerics
and learned men grouped around Faber (Lefevre) of Etaples
at Meaux; while Marguerite of Navarre, " des Roynes la non
pareille," was the indefatigable Maecenas of these innovators,
and the incarnation of the Protestant spirit at its purest. The
reformers shook off the yoke of systems in order boldly to renovate
both knowledge and faith; and, instead of resting on the abstract
a priori principles within which man and nature had been
imprisoned, they returned to the ancient methods of observation
and analysis. In so doing, they separated intellectual from
popular life; and acting in this spirit, through the need of a
moral renaissance, they reverted to primitive Christianity,
substituting the inner and individual authority of conscience
for the general and external authority of the Church. Their
efforts would not, however, have sufficed if they had not been
seconded by events; pure doctrine would not have given birth
to a church, nor that church to a party; in France, as in
Germany, the religious revolution was conditioned by an economic
and social revolution.
The economic renaissance due to the great maritime discoveries
had the consequence of concentrating wealth in the hands of the
bourgeoisie. Owing to their mental qualities, their tendencies and
their resources, the bourgeoisie had been, if not alone, at least
most apt in profiting by the development of industry, by the
extension of commerce, and by the formation of a new and mobile
means of enriching themselves. But though the bourgeois had
acquired through capitalism certain sources of influence, and
gradually monopolized municipal and public functions, the king
and the peasants had also benefited by this revolution. After a
hundred and fifty years of foreign war and civil discord, at a
period when order and unity were ardently desired, an absolute
monarchy had appeared the only power capable of realizing
such aspirations. The peasants, moreover, had profited by the
reduction of the idle landed aristocracy; serfdom had decreased
or had been modified; and the free peasants were more prosper-
ous, had reconquered the soil, and were selling their produce
at a higher rate while they everywhere paid less exorbitant
rents. The victims of this process were the urban proletariat,
whose treatment by their employers in trade became less and
less protective and beneficent, and the nobility, straitened
in their financial resources, uprooted from their ancient strong-
holds, and gradually despoiled of their power by a monarchy
based on popular support. The unlimited sovereignty of the
prince was established upon the ruins of the feudal system;
and the capitalism of the merchants and bankers upon the
closing of the trade-gilds to workmen, upon severe economic
pressure and upon the exploitation of the artisans' labour.
Though reform originated among the educated classes it
speedily found an echo among the industrial classes of the
1 6th century, further assisted by the influence of
German and Flemish journeymen. The popular fm*atioa
reform-movement was essentially an urban movement; of religious
although under Francis I. and Henry II. it had already reform into
begun to spread into the country. The artisans,
labourers and small shop-keepers who formed the
first nucleus of the reformed church were numerous enough
to provide an army of martyrs, though too few to form a party.
Revering the monarchy and established institutions, they
endured forty years of persecution before they took up arms.
It was only during the second half of Henry II. 's reign that
Protestantism, having achieved its religious evolution, became
a political party. Weary of being trodden under foot, it now
demanded much more radical reform, quitting the ranks of
peaceable citizens to pass into the only militant class of the time
and adopt its customs. Men like Cohgny, d'Andelot and Cond
took the place of the timid Lefevre of Etaples and the harsh and
bitter Calvin; and the reform party, in contradiction to its
doctrines and its doctors, became a political and religious party
of opposition, with all the compromises that presupposes. The
struggle against it was no longer maintained by the university
and the parlement alone, but also by the king, whose authority
it menaced. ,
With his intrepid spirit, his disdain for ecclesiastical authority
and his strongly personal religious feeling, Francis I. had for
a moment seemed ready to be a reformer himself; Ro alper .
but deprived by the Concordat of all interest in the secutloa
confiscation of church property, aspiring to political under
alliance with the pope, and as mistrustful of popular F "J lcl * l '
forces as desirous of absolute power and devoted n eary //.
to Italy, he paused and then drew back. Hence came
the revocation in 1540 of the edict of tolerance of Coucy
(!S3S)> and the massacre of the Vaudois (1545). Henry II.,
a fanatic, went still further in his edict of Chateaubriant (1551),
a code of veritable persecution, and in the coup d'etat carried out
in the parlement against Antoine du Bourg and his colleagues
(1559). At the same time the pastors of the reformed religion,
HISTORY]
FRANCE
829
met in synod at Paris, were setting down their confession of
faith founded upon the Scriptures, and their ecclesiastical
discipline founded upon the independence of the churches.
Thenceforward Protestantism adopted a new attitude, and
refused obedience to the orders of a persecuting monarchy when
contrary to its faith and its interests. After the saints came
men. Hence those wars of religion which were to hold the
monarchy in check for forty years and even force it to come to
terms.
In slaying Henry II. Montgomery's lance saved the Protestants
for the time being. His son and successor, Francis II., was but
a nervous sickly boy, bandied between two women:
' his mother, Catherine de' Medici, hitherto kept in the
1S60). background, and his wife, Mary Stuart, queen of
Scotland, who being a niece of the Guises brought her
uncles, the constable Francis and the cardinal of Lorraine, into
power. These ambitious and violent men took the government
out of the hands of the constable de Montmorency and the
princes of the blood: Antoine de Bourbon, king of Navarre,
weak, credulous, always playing a double game on account of his
preoccupation with Navarre; Conde, light-hearted and brave,
but not fitted to direct a party; and the cardinal de Bourbon,
a mere nonentity. The only plan which these princes could
adopt in the struggle, once they had lost the king, was to make
a following for themselves among the Calvinist malcontents
and the gentlemen disbanded after the Italian wars. The
Guises, strengthened by the failure of the conspiracy of Amboise,
which had been aimed at them, abused the advantage due to
their victory. Despite the edict of Romorantin, which by
giving the bishops the right of cognizance of heresy prevented
the introduction of the Inquisition on the Spanish model into
France; despite the assembly of Fontainebleau, where an
attempt was made at a compromise acceptable to both Catholics
and moderate Calvinists; the reform party and its Bourbon
leaders, arrested at the states-general of Orleans, were in danger
of their lives. The death of Francis II. in December 1560
compromised the influence of the Guises and again saved
Protestantism.
Charles IX. also was a minor, and the regent should legally
have been the first prince of the blood, Antoine de Bourbon;
but cleverly flattered by the queen-mother, Catherine
^ e> Medici, he let her take the reins of government.
1574). Hitherto Catherine had been merely the resigned
and neglected wife of Henry II., and though eloquent,
insinuating and ambitious, she had been inactive. She had
attained the age of forty-one when she at last came into power
amidst the hopes and anxieties aroused by the fall of the Guises
and the return of the Bourbons to fortune. Indifferent in
religious matters, she had a passion for authority, a character-
istically Italian adroitness in intrigue, a fine political sense,
and the feeling that the royal authority might be endangered
both by Calvinistic passions and Catholic violence. She decided
for a system of tolerance; and Michel de 1'Hopital, the new
chancellor, was her spokesman at the states of Orleans (1560).
He was a good and honest man, moderate, conciliatory and
temporizing, anxious to lift the monarchy above the strife of
parties and to reconcile them; but he was so little practical
that he could believe in a reformation of the laws in the midst
of all the violent passions which were now to be let loose. These
two, Catherine and her chancellor, attempted, like Charles V.
at Augsburg, to bring about religious pacification as a necessary
condition for the maintenance of order; but they were soon
overwhelmed by the different factions.
On one side was the Catholic triumvirate of the constable
de Montmorency, the duke of Guise, and the marshal de St
Andre; and on the other the Huguenot party of
parties Conde and Coligny, who, having obtained liberty
of conscience in January 1561, now demanded liberty
of worship. The colloquy at Poissy between the cardinal of
Lorraine and Theodore Beza (September 1561), did not end
in the agreement hoped for, and the duke of Guise so far abused
its spirit as to embroil the French Calvinists with the German
Lutherans. The rupture seemed irremediable when the assembly
of Poissy recognized the order of the Jesuits, which the French
church had held in suspicion since its foundation. However,
yielding to the current which was carrying the greater part of the
nation towards reform, and despite the threats of Philip II.
who dreaded Calvinistic propaganda in his Netherlands, Michel
de 1'Hopital promulgated the edict of January 17,
1562 a true charter of enfranchisement for the tolerance.
Protestants. But the pressure of events and of parties
was too strong; the policy of toleration which had mis-
carried at the council of Trent had no chance of success in
France.
The triumvirate's relations with Spain and Rome were very
close; they had complete ascendancy over the king and over
Catherine; and now the massacre of two hundred character
Protestants at Vassy on the ist of March 1562 made of the
the cup overflow. The duke of Guise had either religious
ordered this, or allowed it to take place, on his return
from an interview with the duke of Wiirttemberg at Zabern,
where he had once more demanded the help of his Lutheran
neighbours against the Calvinists; and the Catholics having
celebrated this as a victory the signal was given for the commence-
ment of religious wars. When these eight fratricidal wars first
began, Protestants and Catholics rivalled one another in respect
for royal authority; only they wished to become its masters
so as to get the upper hand themselves. But in course of time,
as the struggle became embittered, Catholicism itself grew
revolutionary; and this twofold fanaticism, Catholic and
Protestant, even more than the ambition of the leaders, made
the war a ferocious one from the very first. Beginning with
surprise attacks, if these failed, the struggle was continued by
means of sieges and by terrible exploits like those of the Catholic
Montluc and the Protestant des Adrets in the south of France.
Neither of these two parties was strong enough to crush the
other, owing to the apathy and continual desertions of the gentle-
men-cavaliers who formed the elite of the Protestant army
and the insufficient numbers of the Catholic forces. Allies from
outside were therefore called in, and this it was that gave a
European character to these wars of religion; the two parties
were parties of foreigners, the Protestants being supported by
German Landsknechls and Elizabeth of England's cavalry, and
the royal army by Italian, Swiss or Spanish auxiliaries. It was
no longer patriotism but religion that distinguished the two
camps. There were three principal theatres of war: in the
north Normandy and the valley of the Loire, where Orleans,
the general centre of reform, ensured communications between
the south and Germany; in the south-west Gascony and
Guienne; in the south-east Lyonnais and Vivarais.
In the first war, which lasted for a year (1562-1563), the
triumvirs wished to secure Orleans, previously isolated. The
threat of an English landing decided them to lay
siege to Rouen, and it was taken by assault; but this
cost the life of the versatile Antoine de Bourbon. On .
the ipth of December 1562 the duke of Guise barred
the way to Dreux against the German reinforcements of
d'Andelot, who after having threatened Paris were marching
to join forces with the English troops for whom Coligny and
Conde had paid by the cession of Havre. The death of marshal
de St Andre, and the capture of the constable de Montmorency
and of Conde, which marked this indecisive battle, left Coligny
and Guise face to face. The latter's success was of brief duration ;
for on the i8th of February 1563 Poltrot de Mere assassinated
him before Orleans, which he was trying to take once and for
all. Catherine, relieved by the loss of an inconvenient preceptor,
and by the disappearance of the other leaders, became mistress
of the Catholic party, of whose strength and popularity she had
now had proof, and her idea was to make peace at once on the
best terms possible. The egoism of Conde, who got himself
made lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and bargained for
freedom of worship for the Protestant nobility only, compromised
the future of both his church and his party, though rendering
possible the peace of Amboise, concluded the igth of March
8 3 o
FRANCE
[HISTORY
Ambolse
(1563).
civil
war.
1563. All now set off together to recapture Havre from the
English.
The peace, however, satisfied no one; neither Catholics
(because of the rupture of religious unity) nor the parlements;
the pope, the emperor and king of Spain alike protested
Peace of against it. Nor yet did it satisfy the Protestants,
who considered its concessions insufficient, above all
for the people. It was, however, the maximum of
tolerance possible just then, and had to be reverted to; Catherine
and Charles IX. soon saw that the times were not ripe for a
third party, and that to enforce real toleration would require
an absolute power which they did not possess. After three
years the Guises reopened hostilities against Coligny, whom they
accused of having plotted the murder of their chief; while
the Catholics, egged on by the Spaniards, rose against the
Protestants, who had been made uneasy by an interview between
Catherine and her daughter Eh'zabeth, wife of Philip II. of
Spain, at Bayonne, and by the duke of Alva's persecutions of
the reformed church of the Netherlands a daughter-church of
Geneva, like their own. The second civil war began like the
first with a frustrated attempt to kidnap the king, at
Second (-he cas tle of Montceaux, near Meaux, in September
1567; and with a siege of Paris, the general centre
of Catholicism, in the course of which the constable
de Montmorency was killed at Saint-Denis. Conde, with the
men-at-arms of John Casimir, son of the Count Palatine, tried
to starve out the capital; but once more the defection
Peace of o f tne nOD i e s obliged him to sign a treaty of peace at
Longjumeau on the 23rd of March 1568, by which
the conditions of Amboise were re-established. After
the attempt at Montceaux the Protestants had to be contented
with Charles IX. 's word.
This peace was not of long duration. The fall of Michel
de 1'Hopital, who had so often guaranteed the loyalty of the
Huguenots, ruined the moderate party (May 1568).
Catholic propaganda, revived by the monks and the
Jesuits, and backed by the armed confraternities and
by Catherine's favourite son, the duke of Anjou, now entrusted
with a prominent part by the cardinal of Lorraine; Catherine's
complicity in the duke of Alva's terrible persecution in the
Netherlands; and her attempt to capture Coligny and Conde
at Noyers all combined to cause a fresh outbreak of hostilities
in the west. Thanks to Tavannes, the duke of Anjou gained
easy victories at Jarnac over the prince of Conde, who was killed,
and at Moncontour over Coligny, who was wounded (March-
October 1569); but these successes were rendered fruitless by
the jealousy of Charles IX. Allowing the queen of Navarre to
shut herself up in La Rochelle, the citadel of the reformers, and
the king to loiter over the siege of Saint Jean d'Angely, Coligny
pushed boldly forward towards Paris and, having reached
Burgundy, defeated the royal army at Arnay-le-duc. Catherine
had exhausted all her resources; and having failed in her
project of remarrying Philip II. to one of her daughters, and of
betrothing Charles IX. to the eldest of the Austrian archduchesses,
exasperated also by the presumption of the Lorraine family, who
aspired to the marriage of their nephew with Charles IX. 's
Peace of s i ster > she signed the peace of St Germain on the 8th
s< of August 157- This was the culminating point of
(iermain Protestant liberty; for Coligny exacted and obtained,
first, liberty of conscience and of worship, and then,
as a guarantee of the king's word, four fortified places: La
Rochelle, a key to the sea; La Charite, in the centre; Cognac
and Montauban in the south.
The Guises set aside, Coligny, supported as he was by Jeanne
d'Albret, queen of Navarre, now received all Charles IX. 's
Coiignv favour. Catherine de' Medici, an inveterate match-
and the maker, and also uneasy at Philip II. 's increasing
Nether- power, made advances to Jeanne, proposing to marry
her own daughter, Marguerite deValois.to Jeanne's son,
Henry of Navarre, now chief of the Huguenot party. Coligny
was a Protestant, but he was a Frenchman before all; and
wishing to reconcile all parties in a national struggle, he
Third
war.
" trumpeted war " (cornait la guerre) against Spain in the
Netherlands despite the lukewarmness of Elizabeth of England
and the Germans, and despite the counter-intrigues of the pope
and of Venice. He succeeded in getting French troops sent
to the Netherlands, but they suffered defeat. None the less
Charles IX. still seemed to see only through the eyes of Coligny;
till Catherine, fearing to be supplanted by the latter, dreading
the results of the threatened war with Spain, and egged on by a
crowd of Italian adventurers in the pay of Spain men like
Gondi and Birague, reared like herself in the political theories
and customs of their native land saw no hope but in the assassi-
nation of this rival in her son's esteem. A murderous attack
upon Coligny, who had opposed the candidature of Catherine's
favourite son, the duke of Anjou, for the throne of Poland, having
only succeeded in wounding him and in exciting the Calvinist
leaders, who were congregated in Paris for the occasion of
Marguerite deValois'marriage with the king of Navarre,Catherine
and the Guises resolved together to put them all to death. There
followed the wholesale massacre of St Bartholomew's st g ar .
Eve, in Paris and in the provinces; a natural con- thoiomew,
sequence of public and private hatreds which had August
poisoned the entire social organism. This massacre j^
had the effect of preventing the expedition into
Flanders, and destroying Francis I.'s policy of alliance with the
Protestants against the house of Austria.
Catherine de' Medici soon perceived that the massacre of St
Bartholomew had settled nothing. It had, it is true, dealt
a blow to Calvinism just when, owing to the reforms
of the council of Trent, the religious ground had been The party
crumbling beneath it. Moreover, within the party O pomfqu es .
itself a gulf had been widening between the pastors,
supported by the Protestant democracy and the political nobles.
The reformers had now no leaders, and their situation seemed
as perilous as that of their co-religionists in the Netherlands;
while the sieges of La Rochelle and Leiden, the enforced exile
of the prince of Orange, and the conversion under pain of death
of Henry of Navarre and the prince of Conde, made the common
danger more obvious. Salvation came from the very excess of
the repressive measures. A third party was once more formed,
composed of moderates from the two camps, and it was recruited
quite as much by jealousy of the Guises and by ambition as by
horror at the massacres. There were the friends of the Mont-
morency party Damville at their head; Coligny's relations;
the king of Navarre; Cond6; and a prince of the blood, Catherine
de' Medici's third son, the duke of Alencon, tired of being kept
in the background. This party took shape at the
end of the fourth war, followed by the edict of
Boulogne (1573), forced from Charles IX. when the Edict of
Catholics were deprived of their leader by the election Boulogne
of his brother, the duke of Anjou, as king of Poland.
A year later the latter succeeded his brother on the throne of
France as Henry III. This meant a new lease of power for the
queen-mother.
The politiques, as the supporters of religious tolerance and
an energetic repression of faction were called, offered their
alliance to the Huguenots, but these, having foimed
themselves, by means of the Protestant Union, into
a sort of republic within the kingdom, hesitated to
accept. It is, however, easy to bring about an understanding
between people in whom religious fury has been extinguished
either by patriotism or by ambition, like that of the duke of
Alencon, who had now escaped from the Louvre where he had
been confined on account of his intrigues. The compact was
concluded at Millau; Conde becoming a Protestant once more
in order to treat with Damville, Montmorency's brother. Henry
of Navarre escaped from Paris. The new king,, Henry III.,
vacillating and vicious, and Catherine herself, eager
for war as she was, had no means of separating the
Protestants and the politiques. Despite the victory
of Guise at Dormans, the agreement between the
duke of Alencon and John Casimir's German army obliged the
royal party to grant all that the allied forces demanded of them
Pourtfi ,
HISTORY]
FRANCE
831
in the "peace of Monsieur," signed at Beaulieu on the 6th of May
1576, the duke of Alencon receiving the appanage of Anjou,
Touraine and Berry, the king of Navarre Guienne,
Monsieur anc ^ Conde Picardy, while the Protestants were granted
(1S76). freedom of worship in all parts of the kingdom
except Paris, the rehabilitation of Coligny and the
other victims of St Bartholomew, their fortified towns, and an
equal number of seats in the courts of the parlements.
This was going too fast; and in consequence of a reaction
against this too liberal edict a fourth party made its appearance,
that of the Catholic League, under the Guises Henry
Catholic ^ e Balafre, duke of Guise, and his two brothers, Charles,
League. duke of Mayenne, and Louis, archbishop of Reims
and cardinal. With the object of destroying Calvinism
by effective opposition, they imitated the Protestant organization
of provincial associations, drawing their chief supporters from
the upper middle class and the lesser nobility. It was n t at
first a demagogy maddened by the preaching of the irreconcilable
clergy of Paris, but a union of the more honest and prudent
classes of the nation in order to combat heresy. Despite the
immorality and impotence of Henry III. and the Protestantism
of Henry of Navarre, this party talked of re-establishing the
authority of the king; but in reality it inclined more to the
Guises, martyrs in the good cause, who were supported by Philip
II. of Spain and Pope Gregory XIII. A sort of popular govern-
ment was thus established to counteract the incapacity of
royalty, and it was in the name of the imperilled rights of the
people that, from the States of Blois onward, this Holy League
demanded the re-establishment of Catholic unity, and set the
religious right of the nation in opposition to the divine right of
incapable or evil-doing kings (1576).
In order to oust his rival Henry of Guise, Henry III. made
a desperate effort to outbid him in the eyes of the more extreme
Catholics, and by declaring himself head of the League
of Blois degraded himself into a party leader. The League,
(1576). furious at this stroke of policy, tried to impose a council
of thirty-six advisers upon the king. But the deputies
of the third estate did not support the other two orders, and
the latter in their turn refused the king money for making war
on the heretics, desiring, they said, not war but the
an< / destruction of heresy. This would have reduced
peace of Henry III. to impotence; fortunately for him, how-
Bergerac ever; the break of the Huguenots with the " Mal-
Sevea'th contents," and the divisions in the court of Navarre
War and and in the various parties at La Rochelle, allowed
peace of Henry III., after two little wars in the south west,
during which fighting gradually degenerated into
brigandage, to sign terms of peace at Bergerac (1577),
which much diminished the concessions made in the edict of
Beaulieu. This peace was confirmed three years after by that
of Fleix. The suppression of both the leagues was stipulated
for (1580). It remained, however, a question whether the Holy
League would submit to this.
The death of the duke of Anjou after his mad endeavour
to establish himself in the Netherlands (1584), and the accession
Union f H enr v of Navarre, heir to the effeminate Henry III.,
between reversed the situations of the two parties: the Pro-
the dulses testants again became supporters of the principle of
heredity and divine right; the Catholics appealed
to right of election and the sovereignty of the people.
Could the crown of the eldest daughter of the Church be allowed
to devolve upon a relapsed heretic? Such was the doctrine
officially preached in pulpit and pamphlet. But between
Philip II. on the one hand now master of Portugal and delivered
from William of Orange, involved in strife with the English
Protestants, and desirous of avenging the injuries inflicted upon
him by the Valois in the Netherlands and the Guises on the
other hand, whose cousin Mary Stuart was a prisoner of Queen
Elizabeth, there was a common interest in supporting one
another and pressing things forward. A definite agreement
was made between them at Joinville (December 31, 1584), the
religious and popular pretext being the danger of leaving the
Fleix
(1580).
it
.
kingdom to the king of Navarre, and the ostensible end to secure
the succession to a Catholic prince, the old Cardinal de Bourbon,
an ambitious and violent man of mean intelligence; while the
secret aim was to secure the crown for the Guises, who had
already attempted to fabricate for themselves a genealogy
tracing their descent from Charlemagne. In the meantime
Philip II., being rid of Don John of Austria, whose ambition he
dreaded, was to crush the Protestants of England and the
Netherlands ; and the double result of the compact at Joinville
was to allow French politics to be controlled by Spain, and
to transform the wars of religion into a purely political
quarrel.
The pretensions of the Guises were, in fact, soon manifested
in the declaration of Peronne (March 30, 1585) against the foul
court of the Valois; they were again manifested in a The com-
furious agitation, fomented by the secret council mittee of
of the League at Paris, which favoured the Guises, sixteea at
P3rls
and which now worked on the people through their
terror of Protestant retaliations and the Church's peril. Incited
by Philip II., who wished to see him earning his pension of
600,000 golden crowns, Henry of'Guise began the war in the end
of April, and in a few days the whole kingdom was on fire. The
situation was awkward for Henry III., who had not Eighth
the courage to ask Queen Elizabeth for the soldiers war of the
and money that he lacked. The crafty king of Navarre
being unwilling to alienate the Protestants save by an
apostasy profitable to himself, Henry III., by the treaty of
Nemours (July 7, 1585), granted everything to the head of
the League in order to save his crown. By a stroke of the pen
he suppressed Protestantism, while Pope Sixtus V., who had
at first been unfavourable to the treaty of Joinville as a purely
political act, though he eventually yielded to the solicitations
of the League, excommunicated the two Bourbons, Henry and
Conde. But the duke of Guise's audacity did not make Henry III.
forget his desire for vengeance. He hoped to ruin him by
attaching him to his cause. His favourite Joyeuse was to defeat
the king of Navarre, whose forces were very weak, while Guise
was to deal with the strong reinforcement of Germans that
Elizabeth was sending to Henry of Navarre. Exactly the
contrary happened. By the defeat of Joyeuse at Coutras
Henry III. found himself wounded on his strongest side ; and
by Henry of Guise's successes at Vimory and Auneau theGermans,
who should have been his best auxiliaries against the League,
were crushed (October-November 1587).
The League now thought they had no longer anything to fear.
Despite the king's hostility the duke of Guise came to Paris,
urged thereto by Philip II., who wanted to occupy
Paris and be master of the Channel coasts whilst he 9? y 2 f ^
launched his invincible Armada to avenge the death of ca< / es .
Mary Stuart in 1587. On the Day of the Barricades
(May 12, 1588) Henry III. was besieged in the Louvre by the
populace in revolt; but his rival dared not go so far as to depose
the king, and appeased the tumult. The king, having succeeded
in taking refuge at Chartres, ended, however, by granting him
in the Act of Union all that he had refused in face of the barricades
the post of lieutenant-general of the kingdom and the pro-
scription of Protestantism. At the second assembly of the states
of Blois, called together on account of the need for money(is88),
all of Henry III.'s enemies who were elected showed
themselves even bolder than in 1576 in claiming the t^o^ "he
control of the financial administration of the kingdom; dulses at
but the destruction of the Armada gave Henry III., the second
already exasperated by the insults he had received, s e ^,"J/
new vigour. He had the old Cardinal de Bourbon O f Blois.
imprisoned, and Henry of Guise and his brother the
cardinal assassinated (December 23, 1588). On the sth of
January, 1589, died his mother, Catherine de'Medici, the astute
Florentine.
" Now I am king! " cried Henry III. But Paris being
dominated by the duke of Mayenne, who had escaped assassina-
tion, and by the council of "Sixteen," the chiefs of the League,
most of the provinces replied by open revolt, and Henry III.
FRANCE
[HISTORY
I6W).
had no alternative but an alliance with Henry of Navarre.
Thanks to this he was on the point of seizing Paris,
Assassiaa- wn en in his turn he was assassinated on the ist of
Au K ust J 5 8 9 b y a Jacobin monk, Jacques C16ment;
with his dying breath he designated the king of
Navarre as his successor.
Between the popular League and the menace of the Protestants
it was a question whether the new monarch was to be powerless
in his turn. Henry IV. had almost the whole of his
Bourbons kingdom to conquer. The Cardinal de Bourbon, king
according to the League and proclaimed under the title
of Charles X., could count upon the Holy League itself, upon the
Spaniards of the Netherlands, and upon the pope. Henry IV.
was only supported by a certain number of the Calvinists and
by the Catholic minority of the Politiques, who, however,
gradually induced the rest of the nation to rally round the only
legitimate prince. The nation wished for the establishment
of internal unity through religious tolerance and the extinction
of private organizations; it looked for the extension of France's
external power through the abasement of the house of Spain,
protection of the Protestants in the Netherlands and Germany,
and independence of Rome. Henry IV., moreover, w^s forced
to take an oath at the camp of Saint Cloud to associate the nation
in the affairs of the kingdom by means of the states-general.
These three conditions were interdependent; and Henry IV.,
with his persuasive manners, his frank and charming character,
and his personal valour, seemed capable of keeping them all
three.
The first thing for this soldier-king to do was to conquer his
kingdom and maintain its unity. He did not waste time by
withdrawing towards the south; he kept in the neigh-
bourhood f P ar is> on the banks of tKe Seine, within
reach of help from Elizabeth; and twice at Arques
and at Ivry (1589-1590) he vanquished the duke
of Mayenne, lieutenant-general of the League. But after having
tried to seize Paris (as later Rouen) by a coup-de-main, he was
obliged to raise the siege in view of reinforcements sent to
Mayenne by the duke of Parma. Pope Gregory XIV., an
enthusiastic supporter of the League and a strong adherent
of Spain, having succeeded Sixtus V., who had been very luke-
warm towards the League, made Henry IV.'s position still
more serious just at the moment when, the old Cardinal de
Bourbon having died, Philip II. wanted to be declared the pro-
tector of the kingdom in order that he might dismember it, and
when Charles Emmanuel of Savoy, a grandson of Francis I., and
Charles III., duke of Lorraine, a son-in-law of Henry II., were
both of them claiming the crown. Fortunately, however, the
Sixteen had disgusted the upper bourgeoisie by their demagogic
airs; while their open alliance with Philip II., and their accept-
ance of a Spanish garrison in Paris had offended the patriotism
of the Poliliques or moderate members of the League. Mayenne,
who oscillated between Philip II. and Henry IV., was himself
obliged to break up and subdue this party of fanatics and
theologians (December 1591). This game of see-saw between
the Politiques and the League furthered his secret ambition, but
also the dissolution of the kingdom; and the pressure of public
opinion, which desired an effective monarchy, put an end to this
temporizing policy and caused the convocation of the states-
general in Paris (December 1592). Philip II., through
S< oera/ tne duke of Fer ia's instrumentality, demanded the
oUS92. throne for his daughter Isabella, grand-daughter of
Henry II. through her mother. But who was to be her
husband? The archduke Ernest of Austria, Guise or Mayenne?
The parlement cut short these bargainings by condemning all
ultramontane pretensions and Spanish intrigues. The unpopu-
larity of Spain, patriotism, the greater predominance of national
questions in public opinion, and weariness of both religious
disputation and indecisive warfare, all these sentiments were
expressed in the wise and clever pamphlet entitled the Satire
Mi nipple. What had been a slow movement between 1585
and 1592 was quickened by Henry IV.'s abjuration of Protestant-
ism at Saint-Denis on the 23rd of July 1593.
The coronation of the king at Chartres in February 1594
completed the rout of the League. The parlement of Paris
declared against Mayenne, who was simply the mouth- obturation
piece of Spain, and Brissac, the governor, surrendered ot Henry
the capital to the king. The example of Paris and' lv.,Juiy
Henry IV.'s clemency rallied round him all prudent 23 < 1593 -
Catholics, like Villeroy and Jeannin, anxious for national unity;
but he had to buy over the adherents of the League, who sold
him his own kingdom for sixty million francs. The pontifical
absolution of September 17, 1595, finally stultified the League,
which had been again betrayed by the unsuccessful plot of Jean
Chastel, the Jesuit's pupil.
Nothing was now left but to expel the Spaniards, who under
cover of religion had worked for their own interests alone.
Despite the brilliant charge of Fontaine-Franfaise
in Burgundy (June 5, 1595), and the submission of the
heads of the League, Guise, Mayenne, Joyeuse, and
Mercceur, the years 1595-1597 were not fortunate for Henry IV.'s
armies. Indignant at his conversion, Elizabeth, the Germans,
and the Swiss Protestants deserted him; while the taking of
Amiens by the Spaniards compromised for the moment the
future both of the king and the country. But exhaustion of
each other, by which only England and Holland profited, brought
about the Peace of Vervins. This confirmed the results of the
treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (May 2, 1598), that is to say, the
decadence of Spanish power, and its inability either to conquer
or to dismember France.
The League, having now no reason for existence, was dissolved;
but the Protestant party remained very strong, with its
political organization and the fortified places which
the assemblies of Millau, Nimes and La Rochelle Edict ot
(1573-1574) had established in the south and the west. 1593"'
It was a republican state within the kingdom, and,
being unwilling to break with it, Henry IV. came to terms by
the edict of Nantes, on the i3th of April 1598. This was a
compromise between the royal government and the Huguenot
government, the latter giving up the question of public worship,
which was only authorized where it bad existed before 1597
and in two towns of each bailliage, with the exception of Paris;
but it secured liberty of conscience throughout the kingdom,
state payment for its ministers, admission to all employments,
and courts composed equally of Catholics and Protestants in the
parlements. An authorization to hold synods and political
assemblies, to open schools, and to occupy a hundred strong
places for eight years at the expense of the king, assured to the
Protestants not only rights but privileges. In no other country
did they enjoy so many guarantees against a return of persecu-
tion. This explains why the edict of Nantes was not registered
without some difficulty.
Thus the blood-stained i6th century closed with a promise
of religious toleration and a dream of international arbitration.
This was the end of the long tragedy of civil strife
and of wars of conquest, mingled with the sound of Kesulis r
madrigals and psalms and pavanes. It had been the OU s a f s "
golden age of the arquebus and the viol, of sculptors
and musicians, of poets and humanists, of fratricidal conflicts
and of love-songs, of mignons and martyrs. At the close of this
troubled century peace descends upon exhausted passions;
and amidst the choir of young and ardent voices celebrating
the national reconciliation, the tocsin no longer sounds its
sinister and persistent bass. Despite the leagues of either faith,
religious liberty was now confirmed by the more free and generous
spirit of Henry IV.
Why was this king at once so easygoing and so capricious?
Why, again, had the effort and authority of feudal and popular
resistance been squandered in the follies of the League and to
further the ambitions of the rebellious Guises? Why had the
monarchy been forced to purchase the obedience of the upper
classes and the provinces with immunities which enfeebled it
without limiting it? At all events, when the kingdom had been
reconquered from the Spaniards and religious strife ended, in
order to fulfil his engagements, Henry IV. need only have
HISTORY]
FRANCE
833
associated the nation with himself in the work of reconstructing
the shattered monarchy. But during the atrocious holocausts
formidable states had grown up around France, observing her
and threatening her; and on the other hand, as on the morrow
of the Hundred Years' War, the lassitude of the country, the
lack of political feeling on the part of the upper classes and their
selfishness, led to a fresh abdication of the nation's rights. The
need of living caused the neglect of that necessity for control
which had been maintained by the states-general from 1560
to 1593. And this time, moderation on the part of the monarchy
no longer made for success. Of the two contrary currents which
have continually mingled and conflicted throughout the course
of French history, that of monarchic absolutism and that of
aristocratic and democratic liberty, the former was now to
carry all before it.
The kingdom was now issuing from thirty-eight years of
civil war. Its inhabitants had grown unaccustomed to work;
The its finances were ruined by dishonesty, disorder, and
Bourbons, a very heavy foreign debt. The most characteristic
France la symptom of this distress was the brigandage carried
I6IO- on incessantly from 1598 to 1610. Side by side with
this temporary disorder there was a more serious administrative
disorganization, a habit of no longer obeying the king. The
harassed population, the municipalities which under cover of
civil war had resumed the right of self-government, and the
parlements elated with their social importance and their security
of position, were not alone in abandoning duty and obedience.
Two powers faced each other threateningly: the organized and
malcontent Protestants; and the provincial governors, all great
personages possessing an armed following, theoretically agents
of the king, but practically independent. The Montmorencys,
the D'Epernons, the Birons, the Guises, were accustomed to
consider their offices as hereditary property. Not that these
two powers entered into open revolt against the king; but they
had adopted the custom of recriminating, of threatening, of
coming to understandings with the foreign powers, which with
some of them, like Marshal Biron, the D'Entragues and the due
de Bouillon, amounted to conspiracy (1602-1606).
As to the qualifications of the king: he had had the good
fortune not to be educated for the throne. Without much
learning and sceptical in religious matters, he had the
Ch f a cter lively intelligence of the Gascon, more subtle than
v. el>ry profound, more brilliant than steady. Married to a
woman of loose morals, and afterwards to a devout
Italian, he was gross and vulgar in his appetites and pleasures.
He had retained all the habits of a country gentleman of his
native Beam, careless, familiar, boastful, thrifty, cunning,
combined since his sojourn at the court of the Valois with a
taint of corruption. He worked little but rapidly, with none
of the bureaucratic pedantry of a Philip II. cloistered in the dark
towers of the Escurial. Essentially a man of action and a soldier,
he preserved his tone of command after he had reached the
throne, the inflexibility of the military chief, the conviction of
his absolute right -to be master. Power quickly intoxicated
him, and his monarchy was therefore anything but parliamentary.
His personality was everything, institutions nothing. If, at
the gathering of the notables at Rouen in 1596, Henry IV.
spoke of putting himself in tutelage, that was but preliminary
to a demand for money. The states-general, called together ten
times in the i6th century, and at the death of Henry III. under
promise of convocation, were never assembled. To put his
absolute right beyond all control he based it upon religion, and
to this sceptic disobedience became a heresy. He tried to
make the clergy into an instrument of government by recalling the
Jesuits, who had been driven away in 1 594, partly from fear of
their regicides, partly because they have always been the best
teachers of servitude; and he gave the youth of the nation into
the hands of this cosmopolitan and ultramontane clerical order.
His government was personal, not through departments; he
retained the old council though reducing its members; and his
ministers, taken from every party, were never not even Sully
anything more than mere clerks, without independent position,
x. 27
mere instruments of his good pleasure. Fortunately this was
not always capricious.
Henry IV. soon realized that his most urgent duty was to
resuscitate the corpse of France. Pilfering was suppressed,
and the revolts of the malcontents the Gauthiers of Tlle
Normandy, the Croquants and Tard-avises of Perigord achieve-
and Limousin were quelled, adroitly at first, and meats of
later with a sterner hand. He then provided for the neary lv -
security of the country districts, and reduced the taxes on the
peasants, the most efficacious means of making them productive
and able to pay. Inspired by Barthelemy de Laffemas (1545-
1612), controller-general of commerce, and by Olivier de Serres
(1539-1619), * Henry IV. encouraged the culture of silk, though
without much result, had orchards planted and marshes drained;
while though he permitted the free circulation of wine and corn,
this depended on the harvests. But the twofold effect of civil
war the ruin of the farmers and the scarcity and high price of
rural labour was only reduced arbitrarily and by fits and
starts.
Despite the influence of Sully, a convinced agrarian because
of his horror of luxury and love of economy, Henry IV. likewise
attempted amelioration in the towns, where the state
of affairs was even worse than in the country. But the industrial
edict of 1597, far from inaugurating individual liberty,
was but a fresh edition of that of 1581, a second
preface to the legislation of Colbert, and in other ways no better
respected than the first. As for the new features, the syndical
courts proposed by Laffemas, they were not even put into
practice. Various industries, nevertheless, concurrent with
those of England, Spain and Italy, were created or reorganized:
silk-weaving, printing, tapestry, &c. Sully at least provided
renascent manufacture with the roads necessary for communica-
tion and planted them with trees. In external commerce
Laffemas and Henry IV. were equaMy the precursors of Colbert,
freeing raw material and prohibiting the import of products
similar to those manufactured within the kingdom. Without
regaining that preponderance in the Levant which had been
secured after the victory of Lepanto and before the civil wars,
Marseilles still took an honourable place there, confirmed by
the renewal in 1604 of the capitulations of Francis I. with the
sultan. Finally, the system of commercial companies, anti-
pathetic to the French bourgeoisie, was for the first time practised
on a grand scale; but Sully never understood that movement
of colonial expansion, begun by Henry II. in Brazil and continued
in Canada by Champlain, which had so marvellously enlarged
the European horizon. His point of view was altogether more
limited than that of Henry IV.; and he did not foresee, like
Elizabeth, that the future would belong to the peoples whose
national energy took that line of action.
His sphere was essentially the superintendence of finance,
to which he brought the same enthusiasm that he had shown
in fighting the League. Vain and imaginative,
his reputation was enormously enhanced by his
" Economies royales "; he was no innovator, and
being a true representative of the nation at that period, like it
he was but lukewarm towards reform, accepting it always against
the grain. He was not a financier of genius; but he administered
the public moneys with the same probity and exactitude which
he used in managing his own, retrieving alienated property,
straightening accounts, balancing expenditure and receipts,
and amassing a reserve in the Bastille. He did not reform the
system of aides and lailles established by Louis XI. in 1482;
but by charging much upon indirect taxation, and slightly
lessening the burden of direct taxation, he avoided an appeal
to the states-general and gave an illusion of relief.
Nevertheless, economic disasters, political circumstances and
the personal government of Henry IV. (precursor in this also
1 Olivier de Serres, sieur de Pradel, spent most of his life on his
model farm at Pradel. In 1599 he dedicated a pamphlet on the
cultivation of silk to Henry IV., and in 1600 published his Thedtre
d' agriculture et menage des champs, which passed through nineteen
editions up to 1675.
FRANCE
[HISTORY
of Louis XIV.) rendered his task impossible or fatal. The
nobility remained in debt and disaffected; and the clergy, more
Criticism remarkable for wealth and breeding than for virtues,
oiheary were won over to the ultramontane ideas of the
iv.'s ' triumphant Jesuits. The rich bourgeoisie began more
achieve- an( j more t o monopolize the magistracy; and though
the country-people were somewhat relieved from the
burden which had been crushing them, the working-classes
remained impoverished, owing to the increase of prices which
followed at a distance the rise of wages. Moreover, under
insinuating and crafty pretexts, Henry IV. undermined as
far as he could the right of control by the states-general, the
right of remonstrance by the parlements, and the communal
franchises, while ensuring the impoverishment of the munici-
palities by his fiscal methods. Arbitrary taxation, scandalous
intervention in elections, forced candidatures, confusion in their
financial administration, bankruptcy and revolt on the part of
the tenants: all formed an anticipation of the personal rule
of Richelieu and Louis XIV.
Thus Henry IV. evinced very great activity in restoring order
and very great poverty of invention in his methods. His sole
original creation, the edict of La Paulette in 1604,
Edict of was disastrous. In consideration of an annual payment
ette."' f one-sixtieth of the salary, it made hereditary
offices which had hitherto been held only for life;
and the millions which it daily poured into the royal exchequer
removed the necessity for seeking more regular and better
distributed resources. Political liberty and social justice were
equally the losers by this extreme financial measure, which
paved the way for a catastrophe.
In foreign affairs the abasement of the house of Austria
remained for Henry IV., as it had been for Francis I. and Henry
II., a political necessity, while under his successors
Ucv*'f * l was * Decorne a mechanical obsession. The peace
neary iv. of Vervins had concluded nothing. The difference
concerning the marquisate of Saluzzo, which the duke
of Savoy had seized upon in 1588, profiting by Henry III.'s
embarrassments, is only worth mentioning because the treaty
of Lyons (1601) finally dissipated the Italian mirage, and
because, in exchange for the last of France's possessions beyond
the Alps, it added to the royal domain the really French territory
of La Bresse, Bugey, Valromey and the district of Gex. The
great external affair of the reign was the projected war upon
which Henry IV. was about to embark when he was assassinated.
The " grand design " of Sully, the organization of a " Christian
Republic " of the European nations for the preservation of
peace, was but the invention of an irresponsible minister, soured
by defeat and wishing to impress posterity. Henry IV., the
least visionary of kings, was between 1598 and 1610 really
hesitating between two great contradictory political schemes:
the war clamoured for by the Protestants, politicians like Sully,
and the nobility; and the Spanish alliance, to be cemented by
marriages, and preached by the ultramontane Spanish camarilla
formed by the queen, Perc Coton, the king's confessor, the
minister Villeroy, and Ubaldini, the papal nuncio. Selfish and
suspicious, Henry IV. consistently played this double game of
policy in conjunction with president Jeannin. By his alliance
with the Grisons (1603) he guaranteed the integrity of the
Valtellina, the natural approach to Lombardy for the imperial
forces; and by his intimate union with Geneva he controlled
the routes by which the Spaniards could reach their hereditary
possessions in Franche-Comte and the Low Countries from
Italy. But having defeated the duke of Savoy he had no hesita-
tion in making sure of him by a marriage; though the Swiss
might have misunderstood the treaty of Brusol (1610) by which
he gave one of his daughters to the grandson of Philip II. On
the other hand he astonished the Protestant world by the
imprudence of his mediation between Spain and the rebellious
United Provinces (1609). When the succession of Cleves and of
Jiilich, so long expected and already discounted by the treaty
of Halle (1610), was opened up in Germany, the great war was
largely due to an access of senile passion for the charms of the
princesse de Conde. The stroke of Ravaillac's knife caused a
timely descent of the curtain upon this new and tragi-comic
Trojan War. Thus, here as elsewhere, we see a vacillating
hand-to-mouth policy, at the mercy of a passion for power or
for sensual gratification. The Cornette blanche of Arques, the
Poule au pot of the peasant, successes as a lover and a dashing
spirit, have combined to surround Henry IV. with a halo of
romance not justified by fact.
The extreme instability of monarchical government showed
itself afresh after Henry IV. 's death. The reign of Louis XIII.,
a perpetual regency by women, priests, and favourites, The
was indeed a curious prelude to the grand age of the regency of
French monarchy. The eldest son of Henry IV. Marie de'
being a minor, Marie de' Medici induced the parlement Medlcl -
to invest her with the regency, thanks to Villeroy and contrary
to the last will of Henry IV. This second Florentine, at once
jealous of power and incapable of exercising it, bore little resem-
blance to her predecessor. Light-minded, haughty, apathetic
and cold-hearted, she took a sort of passionate delight in changing
Henry IV. 's whole system of government. Who would support
her in this ? On one side were the former ministers, Sillery
and president Jeannin, ex-leaguers but loyalists, no lovers of
Spain and still less of Germany; on the other the princes of the
blood and the great nobles, Conde, Guise, Mayenne and Nevers,
apparently still much more faithful to French ideas, but in
reality convinced that the days of kings were over and that
their own had arrived. Instead of weakening this aristocratic
agitation by the see-saw policy of Catherine de' Medici, Marie
could invent no other device than to despoil the royal treasure
by distributing places and money to the chiefs of both parties.
The savings all expended and Sully fallen into disgrace, she
lost her influence and became the almost unconscious instrument
of an ambitious man of low birth, the Florentine Concini, who
was to drag her down with him in his fall; petty shifts became
thenceforward the order of the day.
Thus Villeroy thought fit to add still further to the price
already paid to triumphant Madrid and Vienna by disbanding
the army, breaking the treaty of Brusol, and abandon-
ing the Protestant princes beyond the Rhine and the f^jjj* XIHt
trans-Pyrenean Moriscos. France joined hands with 1^43).
Spain in the marriages of Louis XIII. with Anne
of Austria and Princess Elizabeth with the son of Philip III.,
and the Spanish ambassador was admitted to the secret council
of the queen. To soothe the irritation of England the due de
Bouillon was sent to London to offer the hand of the king's
sister to the prince of Wales. Meanwhile, however, still more
was ceded to the princes than to the kings; and after a pretence
of drawing the sword against the prince of Conde, rebellious
through jealousy of the Italian surroundings of the queen-mothei,
recourse was had to the purse. The peace of Sainte Menehould,
four years after the death of Henry IV., was a virtual abdication
of the monarchy (May 1614) ; it was time for a move in the other
direction. Villeroy inspired the regent with the idea of an
armed expedition, accompanied by the little king, into the West.
The convocation of the states-general was about to take place,
wrung, as in all minorities, from the royal weakness this time
by Condi; so the elections were influenced in the monarchist
interest. The king's majority, solemnly proclaimed on the a8th
of October 1614, further strengthened the throne; while owing
to the bungling of the third estate, who did not contrive to gain
the support of the clergy and the nobility by some sort of con-
cessions, the states-general, the last until 1789, proved like the
others a mere historic episode, an impotent and inorganic
expedient. In vain Conde tried to play with the parlement of
Paris the same game as with the states-general, in a sort of
anticipation of the Fronde. Villeroy demurred; and the
parlement, having illegally assumed a political r61e, broke with
Conde and effected a reconciliation with the court. After this
double victory Marie de' Medici could at last undertake the
famous journey to Bordeaux and consummate the Spanish
marriages. In order not to countenance by his presence an
act which had been the pretext for his opposition, Conde rebelled
HISTORY]
FRANCE
835
once more in August 1615; but he was again pacified by the
governorships and pensions of the peace of Loudun (May 1616).
But Villeroy and the other ministers knew not how to reap
the full advantage of their victory. They had but one desire,
to put themselves on a good footing again with Conde,
Coadai, i ns t eac i o f applying themselves honestly to the service
d'Aacre. f the king. The " marshals," Concini and his wife
Leonora Galigai, more influential with the queen and
more exacting than ever, by dint of clever intrigues forced the
ministers to retire one after another; and with the last of Henry
IV.'s " greybeards " vanished also all the pecuniary reserves left.
Concini surrounded himself with new men, insignificant persons
ready to do his bidding, such as Barbin or Mangot, while in
the background was Richelieu, bishop of Lucon. Conde now
began intrigues with the princes whom he had previously
betrayed; but his pride dissolved in piteous entreaties when
Themines, captain of the guard, arrested him in September
1616. Six months later Concini had not even time to protest
when another captain, Vitry, slew him at the Louvre, under
orders from Louis XIII., on the 24th of April 1617.
Richelieu had appeared behind Marie de' Medici; Albert
de Luynes rose behind Louis XIII., the neglected child whom
he had contrived to amuse. " The tavern remained the same,
having changed nothing but the bush." De Luynes was made
a duke and marshal in Concini's place, with no better title;
while the due d'Epernon, supported by the queen-mother
(now in disgrace at Blois), took Conde's place at the head of
the opposition. The treaties of Angouleme and Angers (1619-
1620), negotiated by Richelieu, recalled the " unwholesome "
treaties of Sainte-Menehould and Loudun. The revolt of the
Protestants was more serious. Goaded by the vigorous revival
of militant Catholicism which marked the opening of the i?th
century, de Luynes tried to put a finishing touch to the triumph
of Catholicism in France, which he had assisted, by abandoning
in the treaty of Ulm the defence of the small German states
against the ambition of the ruling house of Austria, and by
sacrificing the Protestant Grisons to Spain. The re-establish-
ment of Catholic worship in Beam was the pretext for a rising
among the Protestants, who had remained loyal during these
troublous years; and although the military organization
of French Protestantism, arranged by the assembly of La
Rochelle, had been checked in 1621, by the defection of most
of the reformed nobles, like Bouillon and Lesdiguieres, de Luynes
had to raise the disastrous siege of Montauban. Death alone
saved him from the disgrace suffered by his predecessors
(December 15, 1621).
From 1621 to 1624 Marie de' Medici, re-established in credit,
prosecuted her intrigues; and in three years there were three
different ministries: de Luynes was succeeded by the
P r ^ nce de Conde, whose Montauban was found at
Montpellier; the Brularts succeeded Conde, and
having, like de Luynes, neglected France's foreign
interests, they had to give place to La Vieuville; while this
latter was arrested in his turn for having sacrificed the interests
of the English Catholics in the negotiations regarding the
marriage of Henrietta of France with the prince of Wales. All
these personages were undistinguished figures beyond whom
might be discerned the cold clear-cut profile of Marie de' Medici's
secretary, now a cardinal, who was to take the helm and act
as viceroy during eighteen years.
Richelieu came into power at a lucky moment. Every one
was sick of government by deputy; they desired a strong hand
Cardinal an ^ an energetic foreign policy, after the defeat of
Richelieu the Czechs at the White Mountain by the house of
1624- Austria, the Spanish intrigues in the Valtellina, and
the resumption of war between Spain and Holland.
Richelieu contrived to raise hope in the minds of all. As
president of the clergy at the states-general of 1614 he had
figured as an adherent of Spain and the ultramontane interest;
he appeared to be a representative of that religious party which
was identical with the Spanish party. But he had also been
put into the ministry by the party of the Poliliques, who had
Xl11 '
terminated the civil wars, acclaimed Henry IV., applauded the
Protestant alliance, and by the mouth of Miron, president of the
third estate, had in 1614 proclaimed its intention to take up
the national tradition once more. Despite the concessions
necessary at the outset to the partisans of a Catholic alliance,
it was the programme of the Poliliques that Richelieu adopted
and laid down with a master's hand in his Political Testament.
To realize it he had to maintain his position. This was very
difficult with a king who " wished to be governed and yet was
impatient at being governed." Incapable of applying
himself to great affairs, but of sane and even acute
judgment, Louis XIII. excelled only in a passion for
detail and for manual pastimes. He realized the
superior qualities of his minister, though with a lively sense of
his own dignity he often wished him more discreet and less
imperious; he had confidence in. him but did not love him.
Cold-hearted and formal by nature, he had not even self-love,
detested his wife Anne of Austria too good a Spaniard and
only attached himself fitfully to his favourites, male or female,
who were naturally jealously suspected by the cardinal. He
was accustomed to listen to his mother, who detested Richelieu
as her ungrateful protege. Neither did he love his brother,
Gaston of Orleans, and the feeling was mutual; for the latter,
remaining for twenty years heir-presumptive to a crown which
he could neither defend nor seize, posed as the beloved prince
in all the conspiracies against Richelieu, and issued from them
each time as a Judas. Add to this that Louis XIII., like
Richelieu himself, had wretched health, aggravated by the
extravagant medicines of the day; and it is easy to understand
how this pliable disposition which offered itself to the yoke
caused Richelieu always to fear that his king might change
his master, and to declare that " the four square feet of the king's
cabinet had been more difficult for him to conquer than all the
battlefields of Europe."
Richelieu, therefore, passed his time in safeguarding himself
from his rivals and in spying upon them; his suspicious nature,
rendered still more irritable by his painful practice of a dissimula-
tion repugnant to his headstrong character, making him fancy
himself threatened more than was actually the case. He brutally
suppressed six great plots, several of which were scandalous,
and had more than fifty persons executed; and he identified
himself with the king, sincerely believing that he was maintaining
the royal authority and not merely his own. He had a preference
for irregular measures rather than legal prosecutions, and a
jealousy of all opinions save his own. He maintained his power
through the fear of torture and of special commissions. It
was Louis XIII. whose cold decree ordained most of the rigorous
sentences, but the stain of blood rested on the cardinal's robe
and made his reasons of state pass for private vengeance. Chalais
was beheaded at Nantes in 1626 for having upheld Gaston of
Orleans in his refusal to wed Mademoiselle de Montpensier,
and Marshal d'Ornano died at Vincennes for having given him
bad advice in this matter; while the duellist de Boutteville
was put to the torture for having braved the edict against duels.
The royal family itself was not free from his attacks; after the
Day of Dupes (1630) he allowed the queen-mother to die in exile,
and publicly dishonoured the king's brother Gaston of Orleans
by the publication of his confessions; Marshal de Marillac
was put to the torture for his ingratitude, and the constable
de Montmorency for rebellion (1632). The birth of Louis XIV.
in 1638 confirmed Richelieu in power. However, at the point
of death he roused himself to order the execution of the king's
favourite, Cinq-Mars, and his friend de Thou, guilty of treason
with Spain (1642).
Absolute authority was not in itself sufficient; much money
was also needed. In his state-papers Richelieu has shown that
at the outset he desired that the Huguenots should
share no longer in public affairs, that the nobles should Flaaaclal
cease to behave as rebellious subjects, and the powerful
provincial governors as suzerains over the lands
committed to their charge. With his passion for the uniform
and the useful on a grand scale, he hoped by means of the Code
8 3 6
FRANCE
[HISTORY
Michaud to put an end to the sale of offices, to lighten imposts,
to suppress brigandage, to reduce the monasteries, &c. To do
this it would have been necessary to make peace, for it was
soon evident that war was incompatible with these reforms. He
chose war, as did his Spanish rival and contemporary Olivares.
War is expensive sport; but Richelieu maintained a lofty
attitude towards finance, disdained figures, and abandoned all
petty details to subordinate officials like D'Effiat or Bullion.
He therefore soon reverted to the old and worse measures,
including the debasement of coinage, and put an extreme
tension on all the springs of the financial system. The land-tax
was doubled and trebled by war, by the pensions of the nobles,
by an extortion the profits of which Richelieu disdained neither
for himself nor for his family; and just when the richer and
more powerful classes had been freed from taxes, causing the
wholesale oppression of the poorer, these few remaining were
jointly and severally answerable. Perquisites, offices, forced
loans were multiplied to such a point that a critic of the times,
Guy Patin, facetiously declared that duties were to be exacted
from the beggars basking in the sun. Richelieu went so far as to
make poverty systematic and use famine as a means of govern-
ment. This was the price paid for the national victories.
Thus he procured money at all costs, with an extremely
crude fiscal judgment which ended by exasperating the people;
hence numerous insurrections of the poverty-stricken; Dijon
rose in revolt against the aides in 1630, Provence against the
tax-officers (elus) in 1631, Paris and Lyons in 1632, and Bordeaux
against the increase of customs in 1635. In 1636 theCroquants
ravaged Limousin, Poitou, Angoumois, Gascony and Perigord;
in 1 639 it needed an army to subdue the Va-nu-pieds (bare-feet)
in Normandy. Even the rentiers of the H6tel-de-Ville, big and
little, usually very peaceable folk, were excited by the curtail-
ment of their incomes, and in 1639 and 1642 were roused to fury.
Every one had to bend before this harsh genius, who insisted
on uniformity in obedience. After the feudal vassals, decimated
Struggle ky the wars of religion and the executioner's hand,
with the and after the recalcitrant taxpayers, the Protestants,
Protest- in their turn, and by their own fault, experienced this.
Mte " While Richelieu was opposing the designs of the pope
and of the Spaniards in the Valtellina, while he was arming
the duke of Savoy and subsidizing Mansfeld in Germany,
Henri, due de Rohan, and his brother Benjamin de Rohan, due
de Soubise, the Protestant chiefs, took the initiative in a fresh
revolt despite the majority of their party (1625). This Huguenot
rising, in stirring up which Spanish diplomacy had its share,
was a revolt of discontented and ambitious individuals who
trusted for success to their compact organization and the ultimate
assistance of England. Under pressure of this new danger and
urged on by the Catholic devdts, supported by the influence of
Pope Urban VIII., Richelieu concluded with Spain the treaty
of Monzon (March 5, 1626), by which the interests of his allies
Venice, Savoy and the Grisons were sacrificed without their
being consulted. The Catholic Valtellina, freed from the claims
of the Protestant Grisons, became an independent state under
the joint protection of France and Spain; the question of the
right of passage was left open, to trouble France during the
campaigns that followed; but the immediate gain, so far as
Richelieu was concerned, was that his hands were freed to deal
with the Huguenots.
Soubise had begun the revolt (January 1625) by seizing
Port Blavet in Brittany, with the royal squadron that lay there,
and in command of the ships thus acquired, combined with
those of La Rochelle, he ranged the western coast, intercepting
commerce. In September, however, Montmorency succeeded,
with a fleet of English and Dutch ships manned by English
seamen, in defeating Soubise, who took refuge in England.
La Rochelle was now invested, the Huguenots were hard pressed
also on land, and, but for the reluctance of the Dutch to allow
their ships to be used for such a purpose, an end might have been
made of the Protestant opposition in France; as it was, Richelieu
was forced to accept the mediation of England and conclude a
treaty with the Huguenots (February 1626).
He was far, however, from forgiving them for their attitude
or being reconciled to their power. So long as they retained
their compact organization in France he could undertake no
successful action abroad, and the treaty was in effect no more
than a truce that was badly observed. The oppression of the
French Protestants was but one of the pretexts for the English
expedition under James I.'s favourite, the duke of Buckingham,
to La Rochelle in 1627; and, in the end, this intervention of a
foreign power compromised their cause. When at last the citizens
of the great Huguenot stronghold, caught between two dangers,
chose what seemed to them the least and threw in their lot
with the English, they definitely proclaimed their attitude as
anti-national; and when, on the 29th of October 1628, after
a heroic resistance, the city surrendered to the French king,
this was hailed not as a victory for Catholicism only,
but for France. The taking of La Rochelle was a *** of
crushing blow to the Huguenots, and the desperate i&g'
alliance which Rohan, entrenched in the Cevennes,
entered into with Philip IV. of Spain, could not prolong their
resistance. The amnesty of Alais, prudent and moderate in
religious matters, gave back to the Protestants their common
rights within the body politic. Unfortunately what was an end
for Richelieu was but a first step for the Catholic party.
The little Protestant group eliminated, Richelieu next wished
to estabh'sh Catholic religious uniformity; for though in France
the Catholic Church was the state church, unity did
not exist in it. There were no fixed principles in the
relations between king and church, hence incessant
conflicts between Gallicans and Ultramontanes, in
which Richelieu claimed to hold an even balance. Moreover,
a Catholic movement for religious reform in the Church of
France began during the ryth century, marked by the creation
of seminaries, the foundation of new orthodox religious orders,
and the organization of public relief by Saint Vincent de Paul.
Jansenism was the most vigorous contemporary effort to renovate
not only morals but Church doctrine (see JANSENISM). But
Richelieu had no love for innovators, and showed this very
plainly to du Vergier de Hauranne, abbot of Saint Cyran, who
was imprisoned at Vincennes for the good of Church and State.
In affairs of intellect dragooning was equally the policy; and,
as Corneille learnt to his cost, the French Academy was created
in 1635 simply to secure in the republic of letters the same unity
and conformity to rules that was enforced in the state.
Before Richelieu, there had been no effective monarchy and
no institutions for controlling affairs; merely advisory institu-
tions which collaborated somewhat vaguely in the Destno
administration of the kingdom. Had the king been tloa of
willing these might have developed further; but public
Richelieu ruthlessly suppressed all such growth, and s P' r/t
they remained embryonic. According to him, the king must
decide in secret, and the king's will must be law. No one might
meddle in political affairs, neither parlements nor states-general;
still less had the public any right to judge the actions of the
government. Between 1631 and the edict of February 1641
Richelieu strove against the continually renewed opposition
of the parlements to his system of special commissions and
judgments; in 1641 he refused them any right of interference
in state affairs; at most would he consent occasionally to take
counsel with assemblies of notables. Provincial and municipal
liberties were no better treated when through them the king's
subjects attempted to break loose from the iron ring of the royal
commissaries and intendants. In Burgundy, Dijon saw her
municipal liberties restricted in 1631; the provincial assembly
of Dauphine was suppressed from 1628 onward, and that of
Languedoc in 1629; that of Provence was in 1639 replaced by
communal assemblies, and that of Normandy was prorogued
from 1639 to 1642. Not that Richelieu was hostile to them
in principle; but he was obliged at all hazards to find money
for the upkeep of the army, and the provincial states were a
slow and heavy machine to put in motion. Through an excessive
reaction against the disintegration that had menaced the kingdom
after the dissolution of the League, he fell into the abuse of
HISTORY]
FRANCE
837
The
results.
over-centralization; and depriving the people of the habit
of criticizing governmental action, he taught them a fatal
acquiescence in uncontrolled and undisputed authority. Like
one of those physical forces which tend to reduce everything
to a dead level, he battered down alike characters and fortresses;
and in his endeavours to abolish faction, he killed that public
spirit which, formed in the i6th century, had already produced the
Republique of Bodin, de Thou's History of his Times, La Boetie's
Contre un, the Satire Mlnippee, and Sully's Economies royales.
In order to establish this absolute despotism Richelieu created
no new instruments, but made use of a revolutionary institution
Methods f tne Io ^h century, namely " intendants " (q.v.),
employed agents who were forerunners of the commissaries of
by Riche- tjj e Convention, gentlemen of the long robe of inferior
condition, hated by every one, and for that reason the
more trustworthy. He also drew most of the members of his
special commissions from the grand council, a supreme adminis-
trative tribunal which owed all its influence to him.
However, having accomplished all these great things, the
treasury was left empty and the reforms were but ill-established;
for Richelieu's policy increased poverty, neglected
the toiling and suffering peasants, deserted the cause
of the workers in order to favour the privileged classes,
and left idle and useless that bourgeoisie whose intellectual
activity, spirit of discipline, and civil and political culture would
have yielded solid support to a monarchy all the stronger for
being limited. Richelieu completed the work of Francis I.;
he endowed France with the fatal tradition of autocracy. This
priest by education and by turn of mind was indifferent to
material interests, which were secondary in his eyes; he could
organize neither finance, nor justice, nor an army, nor the
colonies, but at the most a system of police. His method was
not to reform, but to crush. He was great chiefly in negotiation,
the art par excellence of ecclesiastics. His work was entirely
abroad; there it had more continuity, more future, perhaps
because only in his foreign policy was he unhampered in his
designs. He sacrificed everything to it; but he ennobled it by
the genius and audacity of his conceptions, by the energetic
tension of all the muscles of the body politic.
The Thirty Years' War in fact dominated all Richelieu's
foreign policy; by it he made France and unmade Germany.
It was the support of Germany which Philip II. had
poifcyot kicked in order to realize his Catholic empire; and the
Richelieu, election of the archduke Ferdinand II. of Styria as
emperor gave that support to his Spanish cousins
(1619). Thenceforward all the forces of the Habsburg monarchy
would be united, provided that communication could be main-
tained in the north with the Netherlands and in the south with
the duchy of Milan, so that there should be no flaw in the iron
vice which locked France in on either side. It was therefore of
the highest importance to France that she should dominate the
valleys of the Alps and Rhine. As soon as Richelieu became
minister in 1624 there was an end to cordial relations with Spain.
He resumed the policy of Henry IV., confining his military
operations to the region of the Alps, and contenting himself
at first with opposing the coalition of the Habsburgs with a
coalition of Venice, the Turks, Bethlen Gabor, king of Hungary,
and the Protestants of Germany and Denmark. But the revolts
of the French Protestants, the resentment of the nobles at his
dictatorial power, and the perpetual ferment of intrigues and
treason in the court, obliged him almost immediately to draw
back. During these eight years, however, Richelieu had pressed
on matters as fast as possible.
While James I. of England was trying to get a general on the
cheap in Denmark to defend his son-in-law, the elector palatine,
Richelieu was bargaining with the Spaniards in the
ing'poiicy, treat y f Monzon (March 1626); but as the strained
except la' relations between France and England forced him
Italy, to conciliate Spain still further by the treaty of April
1627, the Spaniards profited by this to carry on an
intrigue with Rohan, and in concert with the duke
of Savoy, to occupy Montferrat when the death of Vicenzo II.
1624-
1630.
(December 26, 1627) left the succession of Mantua, under the
will of the late duke, to Charles Gonzaga, duke of Nevers, a
Frenchman by education and sympathy. But the taking of
La Rochelle allowed Louis to force the pass of Susa, to induce
the duke of Savoy to treat with him, and to isolate the Spaniards
in Italy by a great Italian league between Genoa, Venice and
the dukes of Savoy and Mantua (April 1629). Unlike the Valois,
Richelieu only desired to free Italy from Spain in order to
restore her independence.
The fact that the French Protestants in the Cevennes were
again in arms enabled the Habsburgs and the Spaniards to make
a fresh attack upon the Alpine passes; but after the peace of
Alais Richelieu placed himself at the head of forty thousand
men, and stirred up enemies everywhere against the emperor,
victorious now over the king of Denmark as in 1621 over the
elector palatine. He united Sweden, now reconciled with Poland,
and the Catholic and Protestant electors, disquieted by the edict
of Restitution and the omnipotence of Wallenstein; and he
aroused the United Provinces. But the disaffection of the
court and the more extreme Catholics made it impossible for
him as yet to enter upon a struggle against both Austria and
Spain; he was only able to regulate the affairs of Italy with
much prudence. The intervention of Mazarin, despatched by
the pope, who saw no other means of detaching Italy from Spain
than by introducing France into the affair, brought about the
signature of the armistice of Rivalte on the 4th of September
1630, soon developed into the peace of Cherasco, which re-
established the agreement with the still fugitive duke of Savoy
(June 1631). Under the harsh tyranny of Spain, Italy was now
nothing but a lifeless corpse; young vigorous Germany was
better worth saving. So Richelieu's envoys, Brulart de Leon
and Father Joseph, disarmed * the emperor at the diet of Regens-
burg, while at the same time Louis XIII. kept Casale and
Pinerolo, the gates of the Alps. Lastly, by the treaty of Fontaine-
bleau (May 3oth, 1631), Maximilian of Bavaria, the head of
the Catholic League, engaged to defend the king of France against
all his enemies, even Spain, with the exception of the emperor.
Thus by the hand of Richelieu a union against Austrian imperial-
ism was effected between the Bavarian Catholics and the
Protestants who dominated in central and northern Germany.
Twice had Richelieu, by means of the purse and not by force
of arms, succeeded in reopening the passes of the Alps and of
the Rhine. The kingdom at peace and the Huguenot Richelieu
party ruined, he was now able to engage upon his and
policy of prudent acquisitions and apparently dis- Oustavua
interested alliances. But Gustavus Adolphus, king Adol P hus -
of Sweden, called in by Richelieu and Venice to take the place
of the played-out king of Denmark, brought danger to all parties.
He would not be content merely to serve French interests in
Germany, according to the terms of the secret treaty of Barwalde
(June 1631); but, once master of Germany and the rich valley
of the Rhine, considered chiefly the interests of Protestantism
and Sweden. Neither the prayers nor the threats of Richelieu,
who wished indeed to destroy Spain but not Catholicism, nor
the death of Gustavus Adolphus at Lutzen (1632), could repair
the evils caused by this immoderate ambition. A violent
Catholic reaction against the Protestants ensued; and the
union of Spain and the Empire was consolidated just when that
of the Protestants was dissolved at Nordlingen, despite the
efforts of Oxenstierna (September 1634) . Moreover, Wallenstein,
who had been urged by Richelieu to set up an independent
kingdom in Bohemia, had been killed on the 23rd of February
1634. In the course of a year Wurttemberg and Franconia
were reconquered from the Swedes; and the duke of Lorraine,
who had taken the side of the Empire, called in the Spanish and
the imperial forces to open the road to the Netherlands through
Franche-Comte.
His allies no longer able to stand alone, Richelieu was obliged
to intervene directly (May igth, 1635). By the treaty of Saint-
Germain-en-Laye he purchased the army of Bernard of Saxe-
1 Ferdinand is reported to have said: " Le capucin m'a desarme
avec son scapulaire et a mis dans capuchon six bonnets electoraux."
8 3 8
FRANCE
[HISTORY
The
Years'
War.
Weimar; by that of Rivoli he united against Spain the dukes
of Modena, Parma and Mantua; he signed an open alliance with
the league of Heilbronn, the United Provinces and
Sweden; and after these alliances military operations
Thirty began, Marshal de la Force occupying the duchy of Lor-
raine. Richelieu attempted to operate simultaneously
in the Netherlands by joining hands with the Dutch,
and on the Rhine by uniting with the Swedes; but the bad
organization of the French armies, the double invasion of the
Spaniards as far as Corbie and the imperial forces as far as the
gates of Saint-Jean-de-Losne (1636), and the death of his allies,
the dukes of Hesse-Cassel, Savoy and Mantua at first frustrated
his efforts. A decided success was, however, achieved between
1638 and 1640, thanks to Bernard of Saxe-Weimar and after-
wards to Guebriant, and to the parallel action of the Swedish
generals, Baner, Wrangel and Torstensson. Richelieu obtained
Alsace, Breisach and the forest-towns on the Rhine; while
in the north, thanks to the Dutch and owing to the conquest of
Artois, marshals de la Meilleraye, de Chatillon and de Breze
forced the barrier of the Netherlands. Turin, the capital of
Piedmont, was> taken by Henri de Lorraine, comte d'Harcourt;
the alliance with rebellious Portugal facilitated the occupation
of Roussillon and almost the whole of Catalonia, and Spain was
reduced to defending herself; while the embarrassments of the
Habsburgs at Madrid made those of Vienna more tractable.
The diet of Regensburg, under the mediation of Maximilian of
Bavaria, decided in favour of peace with France, and on the 25th
of December 1641 the preliminary settlement at Hamburg
fixed the opening of negotiations to take place at Miinster and
Osnabriick. Richelieu's death (December 4, 1642) prevented
him from seeing the triumph of his policy, but it can be judged
by its results; in 1624 the kingdom had in the east only the
frontier of the Meuse to defend it from invasion; in 1642 the
whole of Alsace, except Strassburg, was occupied and the Rhine
guarded by the army of Guebriant. Six months later, on the
i4th of May 1643, Louis XIII. rejoined his minister in his true
kingdom, the land of shades.
But thanks to Mazarin, who completed his work, France
gathered in the harvest sown by Richelieu. At the outset no
one believed that the new cardinal would have any
SUC cess. Every one expected from Anne of Austria
a change in the government which appeared to be
justified by the persecutions of Richelieu and the
disdainful unscrupulousness of Louis XIII. On the i6th of
May the queen took the little four-year-old Louis XIV. to the
parlement of Paris which, proud of playing a part in politics,
hastened, contrary to Louis XIII. 's last will, to acknowledge
the command of the little king, and to give his mother " free,
absolute and entire authority." The great nobles were already
looking upon themselves as established in power, when they
learnt with amazement that the regent had appointed as her
chief adviser, not Gaston of Orleans, but Mazarin. The political
revenge which in their eyes was owing to them as a body, the
queen claimed for herself alone, and she made it a romantic one.
This Spaniard of waning charms, who had been neglected by her
husband and insulted by Richelieu, now gave her indolent and
full-blown person, together with absolute power, into the hands
of the Sicilian. Whilst others were triumphing openly, Mazarin,
in the shadow and silence of the interregnum, had kept watch
upon the heart of the queen; and when the old party of Marie
de' Medici and Anne of Austria wished to come back into power,
to impose a general peace, and to substitute for the Protestant
alliances an understanding with Spain, the arrest of Francois
de Vendome, duke of Beaufort, and the exile of other important
nobles proved to the great families that their hour had gone
by (September 1643).
Mazarin justified Richelieu's confidence and the favour of
Anne of Austria. It was upon his foreign policy that he relied
to maintain his authority within the kingdom. Thanks to him,
the duke of Enghien (Louis de Bourbon, afterwards prince of
Conde), appointed commander-in-chief at the age of twenty-
two, caused the downfall of the renowned Spanish infantry at
1643-
1661.
Rocroi; and he discovered Turenne, whose prudence tempered
Conde's overbold ideas. It was he too who by renewing the tradi-
tional alliances and resuming against Bavaria, Fer-
dinand III.'s most powerful ally, the plan of common Treaties
action with Sweden which Richelieu had sketched out,
pursued it year after year: in 1644 at Freiburg
im Breisgau, despite the death of Guebriant at Rottweil; in
1645 a t Nordlingen, despite the defeat of Marienthal; and in
1646 in Bavaria, despite the rebellion of the Weimar cavalry;
to see it finally triumph at Zusmarshausen in May 1648. With
Turenne dominating the Eiser and the Inn, Conde victorious
at Lens, and the Swedes before the gates of Prague, the emperor,
left without a single ally, finally authorized his plenipotentiaries
to sign on the 24th of October 1648 the peace about which
negotiations had been going on for seven years. Mazarin had
stood his ground notwithstanding the treachery of the duke of
Bavaria, the defection of the United Provinces, the resistance of
the Germans, and the general confusion which was already
pervading the internal affairs of the kingdom.
The dream of the Habsburgs was shattered. They had
wished to set up a centralized empire, Catholic and German;
but the treaties of Westphalia kept Germany in its passive
and fragmentary condition; while the Catholic and Protestant
princes obtained formal recognition of their territorial inde-
pendence and their religious equality. Thus disappeared the
two principles which justified the Empire's existence; the
universal sovereignty to which it laid claim was limited simply
to a German monarchy much crippled in its powers; and the
enfranchisement of the Lutherans and Calvinists from papal
jurisdiction cut the last tie which bound the Empire to Rome.
The victors' material benefits were no less substantial: the con-
gress of Miinster ratified the final cession of the Three Bishoprics
and the conquest of Alsace, and Breislch and Philippsburg
completed these acquisitions. The Spaniards had no longer
any hope of adding Luxemburg to their Franche-Comte; while
the Holy Roman Empire in Germany, taken in the rear by
Sweden (now mistress of the Baltic and the North Sea), cut off
for good from the United Provinces and the Swiss cantons, and
enfeebled by the recognized right of intervention in German
affairs on the part of Sweden and France, was now nothing but
a meaningless name.
Mazarin had not been so fortunate in Italy, where in 1642
the Spanish remained masters. Venice, the duchy of Milan and
the duke of Modena were on his side; the pope and the grand-
duke of Tuscany were trembling, but the romantic expedition
of the duke of Guise to Naples, and the outbreak of the Fronde,
saved Spain, who had refused to take part in the treaties of
Westphalia and whose ruin Mazarin wished to compass.
It was, however, easier for Mazarin to remodel the map of
Europe than to govern France. There he found himself face to
face with all the difficulties that Richelieu had neglected
to solve, and that were now once more giving trouble. state
The Lit de Justice of the i8th of May 1643 had proved kingdom.
authority to remain still so personal an affair that the
person of the king, insignificant though that was, continued to
be regarded as its absolute depositary. Thus regular obedience
to an abstract principle was under Mazarin as incomprehensible
to the idle and selfish nobility as it had been under Richelieu.
The parlement still kept up the same extra-judicial pretensions;
but beyond its judicial functions it acted merely as a kind of town-
crier to the monarchy, charged with making known the king's
edicts. Yet through its right of remonstrance it was the only
body that could legally and publicly intervene in politics; a large
and independent body, moreover, which had its own demands
to make upon the monarchy and its ministers. Richelieu, by
setting his special agents above the legal but complicated
machinery of financial administration, had so corrupted it as
to necessitate radical reform; all the more so because financial
charges had been increased to a point far beyond what the nation
could bear. With four armies to keep up, the insurrection in
Portugal to maintain, and pensions to serve the needs of the
allies, the burden had become a crushing one.
HISTORY]
FRANCE
839
Richelieu had been able to surmount these difficulties because
he governed in the name of a king of full age, and against isolated
adversaries; while Mazarin had the latter against
him in a coalition which had lasted ten years, with
"iHazarin. the further disadvantages of his foreign origin and a
royal minority at a time when every one was sick of
government by ministers. He was the very opposite of Richelieu,
as wheedling in his ways as the other had been haughty and
scornful, as devoid of vanity and rancour as Richelieu had been
full of jealous care for his authority; he was gentle where the
other had been passionate and irritable, with an intelligence as
great and more supple, and a far more grasping nature.
It was the fiscal question that arrayed against Mazarin a
coalition of all petty interests and frustrated ambitions; this
was always the Achilles' heel of the French monarchy,
which in 1648 was at the last extremity for money.
"uliics. All imposts were forestalled, and every expedient for
obtaining either direct or indirect taxes had been
exhausted by the methods of the financiers. As the country
districts could yield nothing more, it became necessary to
demand money from the Parisians and from the citizens of the
various towns, and to search out and furbish up old disused
edicts edicts as to measures and scales of prices at the very
moment when the luxury and corruption of the parvenus was
insulting the poverty and suffering of the people, and exasperating
all those officials who took their functions seriously.
A storm burst forth in the parlement against Mazarin as the
patron of these expedients, the occasion for this being the edict
of redemption by which the government renewed for
nine years the " Paulette " which had now expired,
"pariement. by withholding four years' salary from all officers of
the Great Council, of the Chambres des comples, and of
the Gourdes aides. The parlement, although expressly exempted,
associated itself with their protest by the decree of union of
May 13, 1648, and deliberations in a body upon the reform of
the state. Despite the queen's express prohibition, the in-
surrectionary assembly of the Chambre Saint Louis criticized
the whole financial system, founded as it was upon usury, claimed
the right of voting taxes, respect for individual liberty, and the
suppression of the intendants, who were a menace to the new
bureaucratic feudalism. The queen, haughty and exasperated
though she was, yielded for the time being, because the invasion
of the Spaniards in the north, the arrest of Charles I. of England,
and the insurrection of Masaniello at Naples made the moment
a critical one for monarchies; but immediately after the victory
at Lens she attempted a coup d'ttat, arresting the leaders, and
among them Broussel, a popular member of the parlement
(August 26, 1648). Paris at once rose in revolt a Paris of
swarming and unpoliced streets, that had been making French
history ever since the reign of Henry IV., and that had not
forgotten the barricades of the League. Once more a pretence
of yielding had to be made, until Conde's arrival enabled the
court to take refuge at Saint-Germain (January 15, 1649).
Civil war now began against the rebellious coalition of great
nobles, lawyers of the parlement, populace, and mercenaries
Tne just set free from the Thirty Years' War. It lasted
Fronde four years, for motives often as futile as the Grande
(1648- Mademoiselle's ambition to wed little Louis XIV.,
1652). Cardinal deRetz's red hat, or Madame de Longueville's
stool at the queen's side; it was, as its name of Fronde indicates,
a hateful farce, played by grown-up children, in several acts.
Its first and shortest phase was the Fronde of the Parlement.
At a period when all the world was a little mad, the parlement
The had imagined a loyalist revolt, and, though it raised
Fronde an armed protest, this was not against the king but
of the against Mazarin and the persons to whom he had
Pariemeat. Delegated p Ower . ]j u t the parlement soon became
disgusted with its allies the princes and nobles, who had only
drawn their swords in order to beg more effectively with arms
in their hands; and the Parisian mob, whose fanaticism had
been aroused by Paul de Gondi, a warlike ecclesiastic, a Catiline
in a cassock, who preached the gospel at the dagger's point.
When a suggestion was made to the parlement to receive an
envoy from Spain, the members had no hesitation in making
terms with the court by the peace of Rueil (March n, 1649),
which ended the first Fronde.
As an entr'acte, from April 1649 to January 1650, came the
affair of the Petits Maitres: Conde, proud and violent; Gaston
of Orleans, pliable and contemptible; Conti, the The
simpleton; and Longueville, the betrayed husband. Fronde
The victor of Lens and Charenton imagined that every of the
one was under an obligation to him, and laid claim to a
dictatorship so insupportable that Anne of Austria and Mazarin
assured by Gondi of the concurrence of the parlement and
people had him arrested. To defend Conde the great con-
spiracy of women was formed: Madame de Chevreuse, the
subtle and impassioned princess palatine, and the princess of
Conde vainly attempted to arouse Normandy, Burgundy and
the mob of Bordeaux; while Turenne, bewitched by Madame
de Longueville, allowed himself to become involved with Spain
and was defeated at Rethel (December 1 5, 1650). Unfortunately,
after his custom when victor, Mazarin forgot his promises
above all, Condi's cardinal's hat. A union was effected between
the two Frondes, that of the Petits Maitres and that of the
parlements, and Mazarin was obliged to flee for safety to the
electorate of Cologne (February 1651), whence he continued
to govern the queen and the kingdom by means of secret letters.
But the heads of the two Frondes Conde, now set free from
prison at Havre, and Gondi who detested him were not long in
quarrelling fatally. Owing to Mazarin's exile and to the king's
attainment of his majority (September 5, 1651) quiet was being
restored, when the return of Mazarin, jealous of Anne of Austria,
nearly brought about another reconciliation of all his opponents
(January 1652). Conde resumed civil war with the support of
Spain, because he was not given Mazarin's place; but though
he defeated the royal army at B16neau, he was surprised at
Etampes, and nearly crushed by Turenne at the gate of Saint-
Antoine. Saved, however, by the Grande Mademoiselle, daughter
of Gaston of Orleans, he lost Paris by the disaster of the Hotel de
Ville July 4, 1652), where he had installed an insurrectionary
government. A general weariness of civil war gave plenty of
opportunity after this to the agents of Mazarin, who in order to
facilitate peace made a pretence of exiling himself for a second
time to Bouillon. Then came the final collapse: Conde having
taken refuge in Spain for seven years, Gaston of Orleans being
in exile, Retz in prison, and the parlement reduced to its judiciary
functions only, the field was left open for Mazarin, who, four
months after the king, re-entered in triumph that Paris which
had driven him forth with jeers and mockery (February 1653).
The task was now to repair these four years of madness and
folly. The nobles who had hoped to set up the League again,
half counting upon the king of Spain, were held in The
check by Mazarin with the golden dowries of his admtais-
numerous nieces, and were now employed by him in tratioa of
warfare and in decorative court functions; while Hazarln -
others, De Retz and La Rochefoucauld, sought consolation in
their Memoirs or their Maxims, one for his mortifications and the
other for his rancour as a statesman out of employment. The
parlement, which had confused political power with judiciary
administration, was given to understand, in the session of April
!3> !6SS, at Vincennes, that the era of political manifestations
was over; and the money expended by Gourville, .Mazarin's
agent, restored the members of the parlement to docility. The
power of the state was confided to middle-class men, faithful
servants during the evil days: Abel Servien, Michel le Tellier,
Hugues de Lionne. Like Henry IV. after the League, Mazarin,
after having conquered the Fronde, had to buy back bit by bit
the kingdom he had lost, and, like Richelieu, he spread out a
network of agents, thenceforward regular and permanent, who
assured him of that security without which he could never
have carried on his vast plunderings in peace and quiet. His
imitator and superintendent, Fouquet, the Maecenas of the
future Augustus, concealed this gambling policy beneath the
lustre of the arts and the glamour of a literature remarkable for
840
FRANCE
[HISTORY
elevation of thought ana vigour oi style, and further characterized
by the proud though somewhat restricted freedom conceded to
men like Corneille, Descartes and Pascal, but soon to disappear.
It was also necessary to win back from Spain the territory
which the Frondeurs had delivered up to her. Both countries,
exhausted by twenty years of war, were incapable
.sT'to"'** f bringing it to a successful termination, yet neither
would be first to give in; Mazarin, therefore, dis-
quieted by Conde's victory at Valenciennes (1656), reknit the
bond of Protestant alliances, and, having nothing to expect
from Holland, he deprived Spain of her alliance with Oliver
Cromwell (March 23, 1657). A victory in the Dunes by Turenne,
now reinstalled in honour, and above all the conquest of the
Flemish seaboard, were the results (June 1658); but when, in
order to prevent the emperor's intervention in the Netherlands,
Mazarin attempted, on the death of Ferdinand III., to wrest
the Empire from the Habsburgs, he was foiled by the gold of
the Spanish envoy Penaranda (1657). When the abdication of
Christina of Sweden caused a quarrel between Charles^Gustavus
of Sweden and John Casimir of Poland, by which the emperor
and the elector of Brandenburg hoped to profit, Mazarin (August
15, 1658) leagued the Rhine princes against them; while at
the same time the substitution of Pope Alexander VII. for
Innocent X., and the marriage of Mazarin's two nieces with
the duke of Modena and a prince of the house of Savoy, made
Spain anxious about her Italian possessions. The suggestion
of a marriage between Louis XIV. and a princess of Savoy
decided Spain, now brought to bay, to accord him the
^^ hand of Maria Theresa as a chief condition of the peace
Pyrenees, of the Pyrenees (November 1659). Roussillon and
Artois, with a line of strongholds constituting a
formidable northern frontier, were ceded to France; and the
acquisition of Alsace and Lorraine under certain conditions was
ratified. Thus from this long duel between the two countries
Spain issued much enfeebled, while France obtained the pre-
ponderance in Italy, Germany, and throughout northern Europe,
as is proved by Mazarin's successful arbitration at Copenhagen
and at Oliva (May-June 1660). That dream of Henry. IV. and
Richelieu, the ruin of Philip II. 's Catholic empire, was made a
realized fact by Mazarin; but the clever engineer, dazzled by
success, took the wrong road in national policy when he hoped
to crown his work by the Spanish marriage.
The development of events had gradually enlarged the royal
prerogative, and it now came to its full flower in the administra-
tive monarchy of the i7th century. Of this system
Louis XIV. was to be the chief exponent. His
1715). reign may be divided into two very distinct periods.
The death of Colbert and the revocation of the edict
of Nantes brought the first to a close (1661-1683-1685); coin-
ciding with the date when the Revolution in England definitely
reversed the traditional system of alliances, and when the
administration began to disorganize. In the second period
(1685-1715) all the germs of decadence were developed until the
moment of final dissolution.
In a monarchy so essentially personal the preparation of
the heir to the throne for his position should have been the chief
task. Anne of Austria, a devoted but unintelligent
mother, knew no method of dealing with her son,
xiv. save devotion combined with the rod. His first
preceptors were nothing but courtiers; and the most
intelligent, his valet Laporte, developed in the royal child's
mind his natural instinct of command, a very lively sense of his
rank, and that nobly majestic air of master of the world which
he preserved even in the commonest actions of his life. The
continual agitations of the Fronde prevented him from persever-
ing in any consistent application during those years which are
the most valuable for study, and only instilled in him a horror
of revolution, parliamentary remonstrance, and disorder of
all kinds; so that this recollection determined the direction
of his government. Mazarin, in his later years, at last taught
him his trade as king by admitting him to the council, and by
instructing him in the details of politics and of administration.
H '
In 1661 Louis XIV. was a handsome youth of twenty-two,
of splendid health and gentle serious mien; eager for pleasure,
but discreet and even dissimulating; his rather mediocre
intellectual qualities relieved by solid common sense; fully.
alive to his rights and his duties.
The duties he conscientiously fulfilled, but he considered he
need render no account of them to any one but his Maker, the
last humiliation for God's vicegerent being " to take
the law from his people." In the solemn language of
the " Memoirs for the Instruction of the Dauphin "
he did but affirm the arbitrary and capricious character
of his predecessors' action. As for his rights, Louis XIV. looked
upon these as plenary and unlimited. Representative of God
upon earth, heir to the sovereignty of the Roman emperors,
a universal suzerain and master over the goods and the lives
of his vassals, he could conceive no other bounds to his authority
than his own interests or his obligations towards God, and in this
he was a willing believer of Bossuet. He therefore had but two
aims: to increase his power at home and to enlarge his kingdom
abroad. The army and taxation were the chief instruments
of his policy. Had not Bodin, Hobbes and Bossuet taught
that the force which gives birth to kingdoms serves best also to
feed and sustain them? His theory of the state, despite Grotius
and Jurieu, rejected as odious and even impious the notion
of any popular rights, anterior and superior to his own. A
realist in principle, Louis XIV. was terribly utilitarian and
egotistical in practice; and he exacted from his subjects an
absolute, continual and obligatory self-abnegation before his
public authority, even when improperly exercised.
This deified monarch needed a new temple, and Versailles,
where everything was his creation, both men and things, adored
its maker. The highest nobility of France, beginning The / orms
with the princes of the blood, competed for posts at Louis
in the royal household, where an army of ten thousand XIV -'*
soldiers, four thousand servants, and five thousand **
horses played its costly and luxurious part in the ordered and
almost religious pageant of the king's existence. The " anciennes
cohues de France," gay, familiar and military, gave place to a
stilted court life, a perpetual adoration, a very ceremonious and
very complicated ritual, in which the demigod " pontificated "
even " in his dressing-gown." To pay court to himself was the
first and only duty in the eyes of a proud and haughty prince
who saw and noted everything, especially any one's absence.
Versailles, where the delicate refinements of Italy and the grave
politeness of Spain were fused and mingled with French vivacity,
became the centre of national life and a model for foreign royalties ;
hence if Versailles has played a considerable part in the history
of civilization, it also seriously modified the life of France.
Etiquette and self-seeking became the chief rules of a courtier's
life, and this explains the division of the nobility into two
sections: the provincial squires, embittered by neglect; and
the courtiers, who were ruined materially and intellectually
by their way of living. Versailles sterilized ah 1 the idle upper
classes, exploited the industrious classes by its extravagance,
and more and more broke relations between king and
kingdom.
But however divine, the king could not wield his power
unaided. Louis XIV. called to his assistance a hierarchy of
humbly submissive functionaries, and councils over
which he regularly presided. Holding the very name jfi" *
of roi faineant in abhorrence, he abolished the office ministers.
of mayor of the palace that is to say, the prime
minister thus imposing upon himself work which he always
regularly performed. In choosing his collaborators his principle
was never to select nobles or ecclesiastics, but persons of inferior
birth. Neither the immense fortunes amassed by these men,
nor the venality and robust vitality which made their families
veritable races of ministers, altered the fact that De Lionne, Le
Tellier, Louvois and Colbert were in themselves of no account,
even though the parts they played were much more important
than Louis XIV. imagined. This was the age of plebeians, to
the great indignation of the duke and peer Saint Simon. Mere
HISTORY]
FRANCE
841
reflected lights, these satellites professed to share their master's
honor of all individual and collective rights of such a
despotism, nature as to impose any check upon his public authority.
Louis XIV. detested the states-general and never
convoked them, and the parlements were definitely reduced
to silence in 1673; he completed the destruction of municipal
liberties, under pretext of bad financial administration; suffered
no public, still less private criticism; was ruthless when his
exasperated subjects had recourse to force; and made the police
the chief bulwark of his government. Prayers and resignation
were the only solace left for the hardships endured by his subjects.
All the ties of caste, class, corporation and family were severed;
the jealous despotism of Louis XIV. destroyed every opportunity
of taking common action; he isolated every man in private life,
in individual interests, just as he isolated himself more and more
from the body social. Freedom he tolerated for himself alone.
His passion for absolutism made him consider himself master
of souls as well as bodies, and Bossuet did nothing to contravene
an opinion which was, indeed, common to every
sovere! g n of m 's day. Louis XIV., like Philip II.,
Chunh. pretending to not only political but religious authority,
would not allow the pope to share it, still less would
he abide any religious dissent; and this gave rise to many
conflicts, especially with the pope, at that time a temporal
sovereign both at Rome and at Avignon, and as the head of
Christendom bound to interfere in the affairs of France. Louis
XIV.'s pride caused the first struggle, which turned exclusively
upon questions of form, as in the affair of the Corsican Guard
in 1662. The question of the right of regale (right of the Crown
to the revenues of vacant abbeys and bishoprics), which touched
the essential rights of sovereignty, further inflamed the hostility
between Innocent XI. and Louis XIV. Conformably with the
traditions of the administrative monarchy in 1673, the king
wanted to extend to the new additions to the kingdom his
rights of receiving the revenues of vacant bishoprics and making
appointments to their benefices, including taking oaths of fidelity
from the new incumbents. A protest raised by the bishops of
Pamiers and Aleth, followed by the seizure of their revenues,
provoked the intervention of Innocent XI. in 1678; but the
king was supported by the general assembly of the clergy, which
declared that, with certain exceptions, the regale extended over
the whole kingdom (1681). The pope ignored the decisions of
the assembly; so, dropping the regale, the king demanded that,
to obviate further conflict, the assembly should define the limits
of the authority due respectively to the king, the Church and the
pope. This was the object of the Declaration of the Four
Deciara- Articles: the pope has no power in temporal matters;
ttoa at general councils are superior to the pope in spiritual
the Four affairs; the rules of the Church of France are inviolable;
Articles. d ec ; s i ons o f the pope in matters of faith are only irre-
vocable by consent of the Church. The French laity transferred
to the king this quasi-divine authority, which became the political
theory of the ancien regime; and since the pope refused to submit,
or to institute the new bishops, the Sorbonne was obliged to
interfere. The affair of the " diplomatic prerogatives," when
Louis XIV. was decidedly in the wrong, made relations even
more strained (1687), and the idea of a schism was mooted with
greater insistence than in 1681. The death of Innocent XI. in
1689 allowed Louis XIV. to engage upon negotiations rendered
imperative by his check in the affair of the Cologne bishopric,
where his candidate was ousted by the pope's. In 1693, under
the pontificate of Innocent XII., he went, like so many others,
to Canossa.
Recipient now of immense ecclesiastical revenues, which,
owing to the number of vacant benefices, constituted a powerful
engine of government, Louis XIV. had immense power over the
French Church. Religion began to be identified with the state;
and the king combated heresy and dissent, not only as a religious
duty, but as a matter of political expediency, unity of faith
being obviously conducive to unity of law.
Richelieu having deprived the Protestants of all political
guarantees for their liberty of conscience, an anti-Protestant
testaats -
party (directed by a cabal of religious devotees, the Compagnie
du Saint Sacremenl) determined to suppress it completely by
conversions and by a Jesuitical interpretation of the L OU I S
terms of the edict of Nantes. Louis XIV. made xiv. ana
this impolitic policy his own. His passion for absolu- the
tism, a religious zeal that was the more active because
it had to compensate for many affronts to public and private
morals, the financial necessity of augmenting the free donations
of the clergy, and the political necessity of relying upon that body
in his conflicts with the pope, led the king between 1661 and
1685 to embark upon a double campaign of arbitrary proceedings
with the object of nullifying the edict, conversions being procured
either by force or by bribery. The promulgation and application
of systematic measures from above had a response from below,
from the corporation, the urban workshop, and the village street,
which supported ecclesiastical and royal authority in its suppres-
sion of heresy, and frequently even went further: individual
and local fanaticism co-operating with the head of the state,
the intendants, and the military and judiciary authorities.
Protestants were successively removed from the states-general,
the consulates, the town councils, and even from the humblest
municipal offices; they were deprived of the charge of their
hospitals, their academies, their colleges and their schools, and
were left to ignorance and poverty; while the intolerance
of the clergy united with chicanery of procedure to invade
their places of worship, insult their adherents, and put a stop
to the practice of their ritual. Pellisson's methods of conversion,
considered too slow, were accelerated by the violent
guppres-
persecution of Louvois and by the king's galleys, s i oa O t
until the day came when Louis XIV., deceived by the the edict
clergy, crowned his record of complaisant legal methods ?i^ ates
by revoking the edict of Nantes. This was the signal
for a Huguenot renaissance, and the Camisards of the Cevehnes
held the royal armies in check from 1 703 to 1 7 1 1 . Notwithstand-
ing this, however, Louis XIV. succeeded only too well, since
Protestantism was reduced both numerically and intellectually.
He never perceived how its loss threw France back a full
century, to the great profit of foreign nations; while neither
did the Church perceive that she had been firing on her own
troops.
The same order of ideas produced the persecution of the
Jansenists, as much a political as a religious sect. Founded
by a bishop of Ypres on the doctrine of predestination, ^ou/s
and growing by persecution, it had speedily recruited xiv. ana
adherents among the disillusioned followers of the the Jan-
Fronde, the Gallican clergy, the higher nobility, even * ealsts -
at court, and more important still, among learned men and
thinkers, such as the great Arnauld, Pascal and Racine. Pure
and austere, it enjoined the strictest morals in the midst of
corruption, and the most dignified self-respect in face of idolatrous
servility. Amid general silence it was a formidable and much
dreaded body of opinion; and in order to stifle it Louis XIV.,
the tool of his confessor, the Jesuit Le Tellier, made use of his
usual means. The nuns of Port Royal were in their turn sub-
jected to persecution, which, after a truce between 1666 and
1679, became aggravated by the affair of the regale, the bishops
of Aleth and Pamiers being Jansenists. Port Royal was de-
stroyed, the nuns dispersed, and the ashes of the dead scattered
to the four winds. The bull Unigenitus launched by Pope
Clement XI. in 1713 against a Jansenist book by Father Quesnel
rekindled a quarrel, the end of which Louis XIV. did not live to
see, and which raged throughout the i8th century.
Bossuet, Louis XIV.'s mouthpiece, triumphed in his turn over
the quietism of Madame Guyon, a mystic who recognized
neither definite dogmas nor formal prayers, but
abandoned herself " to the torrent of the forces of amM-Ae^'
God." Fenelon, who in his Maximes des Saints had ubertins.
given his adherence to her doctrine, was obliged to
submit in 1699; but Bossuet could not make the spirit of
authority prevail against the religious criticism of a Richard
Simon or the philosophical polemics of a Bayle. He might
exile their persons; but their doctrines, supported by the
842
FRANCE
[HISTORY
scientific and philosophic work of Newton and Leibnitz, were
to triumph over Church and religion in the i8th century.
The chaos of the administrative system caused difficulties
no less great than those produced by opinions and creeds.
Traditional rights, differences of language, provincial autonomy,
ecclesiastical assemblies, parlements, governors, intendants
vestiges of the past, or promises for the future all jostled
against and thwarted each other. The central authority had not
yet acquired a vigorous constitution, nor destroyed all the
intermediary authorities. Colbert now offered his aid in making
Louis XIV. the sole pivot of public life, as he had already become
the source of religious authority, thanks to the Jesuits and to
Bossuet.
Colbert, an agent of Le Tellier, the honest steward of
Mazarin's dishonest fortunes, had a future opened to him by
the fall of Fouquet (1661). Harsh and rough, he
e ' compelled admiration for his delight in work, his
aptitude in disentangling affairs, his desire of continually aug-
menting the wealth of the state, and his regard for the
public welfare without forgetting his own. Born in a draper's
shop, this great administrator always preserved its narrow
horizon, its short-sighted imagination, its taste for detail, and the
conceit of the parvenu; while with his insinuating ways, and
knowing better than Fouquet how to keep his distance, he
made himself indispensable by his savoir-faire and his readiness
for every emergency. He gradually got everything into his
control: finance, industry, commerce, the fine arts, the navy
and colonies, the administration, even the fortifications, and
through his uncle Pussort the law, with all the profits attaching
to its offices.
His first care was to restore the exhausted resources of the
country and to re-establish order in finance. He began by
measures of liquidation: the Chambre ardente of
albert jggj O j66j to deal with the farmers of the revenue,
"{nance. tne condemnation of Fouquet, and a revision of the
funds. Next, like a good man of business, Colbert
determined that the state accounts should be kept as accurately
as those of a shop; but though in this respect a great minister,
he was less so in his manner of levying contributions. He
kept to the old system of revenues from the demesne and from
imposts that were reactionary in their effect, such as the taille,
aids, salt- tax (gabelle) and customs; only he managed them
better. His forest laws have remained a model. He demanded
less of the taille, a direct impost, and more from indirect aids,
of which he created the code not, however, out of sympathy
for the common people, towards whom he was very harsh, but
because these aids covered a greater area and brought in larger
returns. He tried to import more method into the very unequal
distribution of taxation, less brutality in collection, .less confusion
in the fiscal machine, and more uniformity in the matter of rights;
while he diminished the debts of the much-involved towns
by putting them through the bankruptcy court. With revolu-
tionary intentions as to reform, this only ended, after several
years of normal budgets, in ultimate frustration. He could
never make the rights over the drink traffic uniform and equal,
nor restrict privileges in the matter of the taille; while he
was soon much embarrassed, not only by the coalition of
particular interests and local immunities, which made despotism
acceptable by tempering it, but also by Louis XIV. 's two master-
passions for conquest and for building. To his great chagrin
he was obliged to begin borrowing again in 1672, and to have
recourse to " affaires extraordinaires "; and this brought him at
last to his grave.
Order was for Colbert the prime condition of work. He
desired all France to set to work as he did " with a contented
air and rubbing his hands for joy "; but neither
general theories nor individual happiness preoccupied
industry. ^is attention. He made economy truly political:
that is to say, the prosperity of industry and commerce
afforded him no other interest than that of making the country
wealthy and the state powerful. Louis XIV. 's aspirations
towards glory chimed in very well with the extremely positive
views of his minister; but here too Colbert was an innovator
and an unsuccessful one. He wanted to give i yth-century France
the modern and industrial character which the New World
had imprinted on the maritime states; and he created industry
on a grand scale with an energy of labour, a prodigious genius
for initiative and for organization; while, in order to attract a
foreign clientele, he imposed upon it the habits of meticulous
probity common to a middle-class draper. But he maintained
the legislation of the Valois, who placed industry in a state of
strict dependency on finance, and he instituted a servitude of
labour harder even than that of individuals; his great factories
of soap, glass, lace, carpets and cloth had the same artificial
life as that of contemporary Russian industry, created and
nourished by the state. It was therefore necessary, in order to
compensate for the fatal influence of servitude, that administra-
tive protection should be lavished without end upon the royal
manufactures; moreover, in the course of its development,
industry on a grand scale encroached in many ways upon the
resources of smaller industries. After Colbert's day, when the
crutches lent by privilege were removed, his achievements lost
vigour; industries that ministered to luxury alone escaped
decay; the others became exhausted in struggling against the
persistent and teasing opposition of the municipal bodies and
the bourgeoisie conceited, ignorant and terrified at any innova-
tion and against the blind and intolerant policy of Louis XIV.
Colbert, in common with all his century, believed that the
true secret of commerce and the indisputable proof of a country's
prosperity was to sell as many of the products of
national industry to the foreigner as possible, while c o* ert
purchasing as little as possible. In order to do this, cammene
he sometimes figured as a free-trader and sometimes
as a protectionist, but always in a practical sense; if he imposed
prohibitive tariffs, in 1664 and 1667, he also opened the free
ports of Marseilles and Dunkirk, and engineered the Canal du
midi. But commerce, like industry, was made to rely only on
the instigation of the state, by the intervention of officials;
here, as throughout the national life, private initiative was
kept in subjection and under suspicion. Once more Colbert
failed; with regard to internal affairs, he was unable to unify
weights and measures, or to suppress the many custom-houses
which made France into a miniature Europe; nor could he in
external affairs reform the consulates of the Levant. He did
not understand that, in order to purge the body of the nation
from its traditions of routine, it would be necessary to reawaken
individual energy in France. He believed that the state, or
rather the bureaucracy, might be the motive power of national
activity.
His colonial and maritime policy was the newest and most
fruitful part of his work. He wished to turn the eyes of con-
temporary adventurous France towards her distant
interests, the wars of religion having diverted her Col ^ e ^
attention from them to the great profit of English colonies.
and Dutch merchants. Here too he had no pre-
conceived ideas; the royal and monopolist companies were
never for him an end but a means; and after much experimenting
he at length attained success. In the course of twenty years
he created many dependencies of France beyond sea. To her
colonial empire in America he added the greater part of Santo
Domingo, Tobago and Dominica; he restored Guiana; prepared
for the acquisition of Louisiana by supporting Cavelier de la
Salle; extended the suzerainty of the king on the coast of Africa
from the Bay of Arguin to the shores of Sierra Leone, and
instituted the first commercial relations with India. The
population of the Antilles doubled; that of Canada quintupled;
while if in 1672 at the time of the war with Holland Louis XIV.
had listened to him, Colbert would have sacrificed his pride to
the acquisition of the rich colonies of the Netherlands. In order
to attach and defend these colonies Colbert created a navy which
became his passion; he took convicts to man the galleys in the
Mediterranean, and for the fleet in the Atlantic he established
the system of naval reserve which still obtains. But, in the i8th
century, the monarchy, hypnotized by the classical battle-fields
HISTORY]
FRANCE
843
tratloo.
of Flanders and Italy, madly squandered the fruits of Colbert's
work as so much material for barter and exchange.
In the administration, the police and the law, Colbert preserved
all the old machinery, including the inheritance of office. In
Colbert the great codification of laws, made under the direction
and the of his uncle Pussort, he set aside the parlement of
Paris, and justice continued to be ill-administered
and cruel. The police, instituted in 1667 by La
Reynie, became a public force independent of magistrates and
under the direct orders of the ministers, making the arbitrary
royal and ministerial authority absolute by means of lettres de
cachet (?..), which were very convenient for the government
and very terrible for the individuals concerned.
Provincial administration was no longer modified; it was
regularized. The intendant became the king's factotum, not
purchasing his office but liable to dismissal, the government's
confidential agent and the real repository of royal authority,
the governor being only for show (see INTENDANT).
Colbert's system went on working regularly up to the year
1675; from that time forward he was cruelly embarrassed
for money, and, seeking new sources of revenue,
Coibe'rf's Begged for subsidies from the assembly of the clergy.
wort. He did not succeed either in stemming the tide of
expense, nor in his administration, being in no way
in advance of his age, and not perceiving that decisive reform
could not be achieved by a government dealing with the nation
as though it were inert and passive material, made to obey and to
pay. Like a good Cartesian he conceived of the state as an
immense machine, every portion of which should receive its
impulse from outside that is from him, Colbert. Leibnitz had
not yet taught that external movement is nothing, and inward
spirit everything. As the minister of an ambitious and magnifi-
cent king, Colbert was under the hard necessity of sacrificing
everything to the wars in Flanders and the pomp of Versailles
a gulf which swallowed up all the country's wealth; and,
amid a society which might be supposed submissively docile
to the wishes of Louis XIV., he had to retain the most absurd
financial laws, making the burden of taxation weigh heaviest
on those who had no other resources than their labour, whilst
landed property escaped free of charge. Habitual privation
during one year in every three drove the peasants to revolt: in
Boulonnais, the Pyrenees, Vivarais, in Guyenne from 1670
onwards and in Brittany in 1675. Cruel means of repression
assisted natural hardships and the carelessness of the administra-
tion in depopulating and laying waste the countryside; while
Louis XIV. 's martial and ostentatious policy was even more
disastrous than pestilence and famine, when Louvois' advice
prevailed in council over that of Colbert, now embittered and
desperate. The revocation of the edict of Nantes vitiated
through a fatal contradiction all the efforts of the latter to
create new manufactures; the country was impoverished for
the benefit of the foreigner to such a point that economic condi-
tions began to alarm those private persons most noted for their
talents, their character, or their regard for the public welfare;
such as La Bruyere and Fenelon in 1692, Bois-Guillebert in
1697 and Vauban in 1707. The movement attracted even
the ministers, Boulainvilliers at their head, who caused the
intendants to make inquiry into the causes of this general
ruin. There was a volume of attack upon Colbert; but as the
fundamental system remained unchanged, because reform would
have necessitated an attack upon privilege and even upon the
constitution of the monarchy, the evil only went on increasing.
The social condition of the time recalls that of present-day
Morocco, in the high price of necessaries and the extortions of
the financial authorities; every man was either soldier, beggar
or smuggler.
Under Pontchartrain, Chamillard and Desmarets, the expenses
of the two wars of 1688 and 1701 attained to nearly five milliards.
In order to cover this recourse was had as usual, not to remedies,
but to palliatives worse than the evil: heavy usurious loans,
debasement of the coinage, creation of stocks that were per-
petually being converted, and ridiculous charges which the
bourgeois, sickened with officialdom, would endure no longer.
Richelieu himself had hesitated to tax labour; Louis XIV. trod
the trade organizations under foot. It was necessary Recourse
to have recourse to revolutionary measures, to direct to revoiu-
taxation, ignoring all class distinction. In 1695 the tloaar y
graduated poll-tax was a veritable coup d'etat against *
privileged persons, who were equally brought under the tax;
in 1710 was added the tithe (dixieme), a tax upon income from
all landed property. Money scarce, men too were lacking;
the institution of the militia, the first germ of obligatory enlist-
ment, was a no less important innovation. But these were only
provisionary and desperate expedients, superposed upon the
old routine, a further charge in addition to those already existing;
and this entirely mechanical system, destructive of private
initiative and the very sources of public life, worked with diffi-
culty even in time of peace. As Louis XIV. made war continually
the result was the same as in Spain under Philip II.: depopula-
tion and bankruptcy within the kingdom and the coalitions
of Europe without.
In 1660 France was predominant in Europe; but she aroused
no jealousy except in the house of Habsburg, enfeebled and
divided against itself. It was sufficient to remain
faithful to the practical policy of Henry IV., of
Richelieu and of Mazarin: that of moderation in Louis xiv,
strength. This Louis XIV. very soon altered, while
yet claiming to continue it; he superseded it by one principle:
that of replacing the proud tyranny of the Habsburgs of Spain by
another. He claimed to lay down the law everywhere, in the
preliminary negotiations between his ambassador and the
Spanish ambassador in London, in the affair of the salute exacted
from French vessels by the English, and in that of the Corsican
guard in Rome; while he proposed to become the head of the
crusade against the Turks in the Mediterranean as in Hungary.
The eclipse of the great idea of the balance of power in Europe
was no sudden affair; the most flourishing years of the reign
were still enlightened by it: witness the repurchase of Dunkirk
from Charles II. in 1662, the cession of the duchies of Bar and
of Lorraine and the war against Portugal. But soon the partial
or total conquest of the Spanish inheritance proved " the grandeur
of his beginnings and the meanness of his end." Like Philip
the Fair and like Richelieu, Louis XIV. sought support for his
external policy in that public opinion which in internal matters
he held so cheap; and he found equally devoted auxiliaries
in the jurists of his parlements.
It was thus that the first of his wars for the extension of
frontiers began, the War of Devolution. On the death of his
father-in-law, Philip IV. of Spain, he transferred
into the realm of politics a civil custom of inheritance -
prevailing in Brabant, and laid claim to Flanders in tioa,i667.
the name of his wife Maria Theresa. The Anglo-Dutch
War (1665-1667), in which he was by way of supporting the
United Provinces without engaging his fleet, retarded this
enterprise by a year. But after his mediation in the treaty of
Breda (July 1667), when Hugues de Lionne, secretary of state
for foreign affairs, had isolated Spain, he substituted soldiers
for the jurists and cannon for diplomacy in the matter of the
queen's rights.
The secretary of state for war, Michel le Tellier, had organized
his army; and thanks to his great activity in reform, especially
after the Fronde, Louis XIV. found himself in possession of an
army that was well equipped, well clothed, well provisioned,
and very different from the rabble of the Thirty Years' War,
fitted out by dishonest jobbing contractors. Severe discipline,
suppression of fraudulent interference, furnishing of clothes
and equipment by the king, regulation of rank among the
officers, systematic revictualling of the army, settled means of
manufacturing and furnishing arms and ammunition, placing
of the army under the direct authority of the king, abolition of
great military charges, subordination of the governors of strong-
holds, control by the civil authority over the soldiers effected
by means of paymasters and commissaries of stores; all this
organization of the royal army was the work of le Tellier.
FRANCE
[HISTORY
"
His son, Francois Michel le Tellier, marquis de Louvois, had
one sole merit, that of being his father's pupil. A parvenu of
the middle classes, he was brutal in his treatment of the lower
orders and a sycophant in his behaviour towards the powerful;
prodigiously active, ill-obeyed as was the custom but much
dreaded. From 1677 onwards he did but finish perfecting Louis
XIV.'s army in accordance with the suggestions left by his
father, and made no fundamental changes: neither the definite
abandonment of the feudal arriere-ban and of recruiting sources
of disorder and insubordination nor the creation of the militia,
which allowed the nation to penetrate into all the ranks of the
army, nor the adoption of the gun with the bayonet, which
was to become the ultima ratio of peoples as the cannon was that
of sovereigns, nor yet the uniform, intended to strengthen
esprit de corps, were due to him. He maintained the institutions
of the day, though seeking to diminish their abuse, and he
perfected material details; but misfortune would have it that
instead of remaining a great military administrator he flattered
Louis XIV.'s megalomania, and thus caused his perdition.
Under his orders Turenne conquered Flanders (June-August
1667); and as the queen-mother of Spain would not give in,
Conde occupied Franche Comte in fourteen days
The triple (February 1668). But Europe rose up in wrath; the
"the Hague United Provinces and England, jealous and disquieted
by this near neighbourhood, formed with Sweden
the triple alliance of the Hague (January 1668), ostensibly
to offer their mediation, though in reality to prevent the
occupation of the Netherlands. Following the advice of Colbert
and de Lionne, Louis XIV. appeared to accede, and by the
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle he preserved his conquests in Flanders
(May 1668).
This peace was neither sufficient nor definite enough for Louis
XIV.; and during four years he employed all his diplomacy
to isolate the republic of the United Provinces in
Europe, as he had done for Spain. He wanted to ruin
this nation both in a military and an economic sense,
in order to annex to French Flanders the rest of the
Catholic Netherlands allotted to him by a secret treaty for parti-
tioning the Spanish possessions, signed with his brother-in-law the
emperor Leopold on the ipth of January 1668. Colbert very
envious of Holland's wealth prepared the finances, le Tellier
the army and de Lionne the alliances. In vain did the grand-
pensionary of the province of Holland, Jan de Witt,
Holiaad. ^ er concessions of all kinds; both England, bound
by the secret treaty of Dover (January 1670), and
France had need of this war. Avoiding the Spanish Nether-
lands, Louis XIV. effected the passage of the Rhine in
June 1672; and the disarmed United Provinces, which had on
their side only Brandenburg and Spain, were occupied in a few
days. The brothers de Witt, in consequence of their fresh offer
to treat at any price, were assassinated; the broken dykes of
Muiden arrested the victorious march of Conde and Turenne;
while the popular and military party, directed by the stadtholder
William of Orange, took the upper hand and preached resistance
to the death. " The war is over," said the new secretary of
state for foreign affairs, Arnauld de Pomponne; but Louvois
and Louis XIV. said no. The latter wished not only to take
possession of the Netherlands, which were to be given up to him
with half of the United Provinces and their colonial empire;
he wanted " to play the Charlemagne," to re-establish Catholicism
in that country as Philip II. had formerly attempted to do,
to occupy all the territory as far as the Lech, and to exact an
annual oath of fealty. But the patriotism and the religious
fanaticism of the Dutch revolted against this insupportable
tyranny. Power had passed from the -hands of the burghers
of Amsterdam into those of William of Orange, who on the 3oth
Peace ot of Au 8 ust l6 73, profiting by the arrest of the army
Nijm- brought about by the inundation and by the fears of
wegen, Europe, joined in a coalition with the emperor, the
king of Spain, the duke of Lorraine, many of the
princes of the Empire, and with England, now at last enlightened
as to the projects of Catholic restoration which Louis XIV. was
planning with Charles II. It was. necessary to evacuate and
then to settle with the United Provinces, and to turn against
Spain. After fighting for five years against the whole of Europe
by land and by sea, the efforts of Turenne, Conde and Duquesne
culminated at Nijmwegen in fresh acquisitions (1678). Spain
had to cede to Louis XIV., Franche Comte, Dunkirk and half
of Flanders. This was another natural and glorious result
of the treaty of the Pyrenees. The Spanish monarchy was
disarmed.
But Louis XIV. had already manifested that unmeasured
and restless passion for glory, that claim to be the exclusive
arbiter of western Europe, that blind and narrow
insistence, which were to bear out his motto " Seul
centre tons." Whilst all Europe was disarming he
kept his troops, and used peace as a means of conquest.
Under orders from Colbert de Croissy the jurists came upon the
scene once more, and their unjust decrees were sustained by
force of arms. The Chambres de Reunion sought for and joined
to the kingdom those lands which were not actually dependent
upon his new conquests, but which had formerly been so: such
as Saarbriicken, Deux Fonts (Zweibriicken) and Montbeliard in
1680, Strassburg and Casale in 1681. The power of the house
of Habsburg was paralysed by an invasion of the Turks, and
Louis XIV. sent 35,000 men into Belgium; while Luxemburg
was occupied by Crequi and Vauban. The truce of Ratisbon
(Regensburg) imposed upon Spain completed the work of the
peace of Nijmwegen (1684); and thenceforward Louis XIV.'s
terrified allies avoided his clutches while making ready to fight
him. i
This was the moment chosen by Louis XIV.'s implacable
enemy, William of Orange, to resume the war. His surprise
of Marshal Luxembourg near Mons, after the signature
of the peace of Nijmwegen, had proved that in his eyes
war was the basis of his authority in Holland and
in Europe. His sole arm of support amidst all his allies was not
the English monarchy, sold to Louis XIV., but Protestant
England, jealous of France and uneasy about her independence.
Being the husband of the duke of York's daughter, he had an
understanding in this country with Sunderland, Godolphin and
Temple a party whose success was retarded for several years
by the intrigues of Shaf tesbury. But Louis XIV. added mistake
to mistake; and the revocation of the edict of Nantes added
religious hatreds to political jealousies. At the same time the
Catholic powers responded by the league of Augsburg
(July 1686) to his policy of unlimited aggrandisement.
The unsuccessful attempts of Louis XIV. to force
his partisan Cardinal Wilhelm Egon von Furstenberg (sec
FURSTENBERG: House) into the electoral see of Cologne; the
bombardment of Genoa; the humiliation of the pope in Rome
itself by the marquis de Lavardin; the seizure of the Huguenot
emigrants at Mannheim, and their imprisonment at Vincennes
under pretext of a plot, precipitated the conflict. The question
of the succession in the Palatinate, where Louis XIV. supported
the claims of his sister-in-law the duchess of Orleans, gave the
signal for a general war. The French armies devastated the
Palatinate instead of attacking William of Orange in the Nether-
lands, leaving him free to disembark at Torbay, usurp the throne
of England, and construct the Grand Alliance of 1689.
Far from reserving all his forces for an important struggle
elsewhere, foreshadowed by the approaching death of Charles II.
of Spain, Louis XIV., isolated in his turn, committed
the error of wasting it for a space of ten years in a War i tlte
war of conquest , by which he alienated all that remained Alliance.
to him of European sympathy. The French armies,
notwithstanding the disappearance of Conde and Turenne, had
still glorious days before them with Luxembourg at Fleurus, at
Steenkirk and at Neerwinden (1690-1693), and with Catinat
in Piedmont, at Staffarda, and at Marsaglia; but these successes
alternated with reverses. Tourville's fleet, victorious at Beachy
Head, came to grief at La Hogue (1692); and though the ex*
peditions to Ireland in favour of James II. were unsuccessful,
thanks to the Huguenot Schomberg, Jean Bart and Duguay-
HISTORY]
FRANCE
845
Trouin ruined Anglo-Dutch maritime commerce. Louis XIV.
assisted in person at the sieges of Mons and Namur, operations
for which he had a liking, because, like Louvois, who died in
1691, he thought little of the French soldiery in the open field.
After three years of strife, ruinous to both sides, he made the first
overtures of peace, thus marking an epoch in his foreign policy;
though William took no unfair advantage of this, remaining
content with the restitution of places taken by the Chambres de
Reunion, except Strassburg, with a frontier-line of fortified
places for the Dutch, and with the official deposition
^s^fct. of the Stuarts. But the treaty of Ryswick (1697)
marked the condemnation of the policy pursued
since that of Nijmwegen. While signing this peace Louis XIV.
was only thinking of the succession in Spain. By partitioning
her in advance with the other strong powers, England and
Holland, by means of the treaties of the Hague and of London
(1698-1699), as he had formerly done with the emperor in
1668, he seemed at first to wish for a pacific solution of the eternal
conflict between the Habsburgs and the Bourbons, and to restrict
himself to the perfecting of his natural frontiers; but on the
death of Charles II. of Spain (1700) he claimed everything in
favour of his grandson, the duke of Anjou, now appointed
universal heir, though risking the loss of all by once more letting
himself fall into imprudent and provocative action in the dynastic
interest.
English public opinion, desirous of peace, had forced William
III. to recognize Philip V. of Spain; but Louis XIV.'s mainten-
Warofthe ance * tne even tual right of his grandson to the crown
Spanish of France, and the expulsion of the Dutch, who had
Suites- no t recognized Philip V., from the Barrier towns,
sloo. brought about the Grand Alliance of 1701 between
the maritime Powers and the court of Vienna, desirous of parti-
tioning the inheritance of Charles II. The recognition of the Old
Pretender as James III., king of England, was only a response
to the Grand Alliance, but it drew the English Tories into an
inevitable war. Despite the death of William III. (March 19,
1702) his policy triumphed, and in this war, the longest in the
reign, it was the names of the enemy's generals, Prince Eugene
of Savoy, Mazarin's grand-nephew, and the duke of Marlborough,
which sounded in the ear, instead of Conde, Turenne and
Luxembourg. Although during the first campaigns (1701-1703)
in Italy, in Germany and in the Netherlands success was equally
balanced, the successors of Villars thanks to the treason of the
duke of Savoy were defeated at Hochstadt and Landau, and
were reduced to the defensive (1704). In 1706 the defeats at
Ramillies and Turin led to the evacuation of the Netherlands
and Italy, and endangered the safety of Dauphine. In 1708
Louis XIV. by a supreme effort was still able to maintain his
armies; but the rout at Oudenarde, due to the misunderstanding
between the duke of Burgundy and Vendome, left the northern
frontier exposed, and the cannons of the Dutch were heard at
Marly. Louis XIV. had to humble himself to the extent of asking
the Dutch for peace; but they forgot the lesson of 1673, and
revolted by their demands at the Hague, he made a last appeal
to arms and to the patriotism of his subjects at Malplaquet
(September 1709). After this came invasion. Nature herself
conspired with the enemy in the disastrous winter of 1709.
What saved Louis XIV. was not merely his noble constancy of
resolve, the firmness of the marquis de Torcy, secretary of state
for foreign affairs, the victory of Vendome at Villaviciosa, nor
the loyalty of his people. The interruption of the conferences
at Gertruydenberg having obliged the Whigs and Marlborough to
resign their power into the hands of the Tories, now sick of war,
the death of the emperor Joseph I. (April 1711), which risked
the reconstruction of Charles V.'s colossal and unwieldy monarchy
upon the shoulders of the archduke Charles, and Marshal Villars'
famous victory of Denain (July 1712) combined to render possible
the treaties of Utrecht, Rastatt and Baden (1713-1714).
These 8 ave Italv and the Netherlands to the Habsburgs,
Spain and her colonies to the Bourbons, the places on
the coast and the colonial commerce to England (who
had the lion's share), and a royal crown to the duke of Savoy
and the elector of Brandenburg. The peace of Utrecht was to
France what the peace of Westphalia had been to Austria, and
curtailed the former acquisitions of Louis XIV.
The ageing of the great king was betrayed not only by the
fortune of war in the hands of Villeroy, la Feuillade, or Marsin;
disgrace and misery at home were worse than defeat. Bad of
By the strange and successive deaths of the Grand Louis
Dauphin (1711), the duke and duchess of Burgundy xiv.'*
(1712) who had been the only joy of the old monarch reif.
and of his two grandsons (1712-1714), it seemed as though his
whole family were involved under the same curse. The court,
whose sentimental history has been related by Madame de la
Fayette, its official splendours by Loret, and its intrigues by the
due de Saint-Simon, now resembled an infirmary of morose
invalids, presided over by Louis XIV.'s elderly wife, Madame
de Maintenon, under the domination of the Jesuit le Tellier.
Neither was it merely the clamours of the people that arose against
the monarch. All the more remarkable spirits of the time, like
prophets in Israel, denounced a tyranny which put Chamillart
at the head of the finances because he played billiards well, and
Villeroy in command of the armies although he was utterly
untrustworthy; which sent the " patriot " Vauban into disgrace,
banished from the court Catinat, the Pere la Pensee, " exiled "
to Cambrai the too clear sighted Fenelon, and suspected Racine
of Jansenism and La Fontaine of independence.
Disease and famine; crushing imposts and extortions;
official debasement of the currency; bankruptcy; state prisons;
religious and political inquisition; suppression of all institutions
for the safe-guarding of rights; tyranny by the intendants;
royal, feudal and clerical oppression burdening every faculty
and every necessary of life; " monstrous and incurable luxury ";
the horrible drama of poison; the twofold adultery of Madame de
Montespan; and the narrow bigotry of Madame de Maintenon
all concurred to make the end of the reign a sad contrast with the
splendour of its beginning. When reading Moliere and Racine,
Bossuet and Fenelon, the campaigns of Turenne, or Colbert's
ordinances; when enumerating the countless literary and
scientific institutions of the great century; when considering the
port of Brest, the Canal du Midi, Perrault's colonnade of the
Louvre, Mansart's Invalides and the palace of Versailles, and
Vauban's fine fortifications admiration is kindled for the
radiant splendour of Louis XIV.'s period. But the art and
literature expressed by the genius of the masters, reflected in the
tastes of society, and to be taken by Europe as a model throughout
a whole century, are no criterion of the social and political order
of the day. They were but a magnificent drapery of pomp and
glory thrown across a background of poverty, ignorance, super-
stition, hypocrisy and cruelty; remove it, and reality appears in
all its brutal and sinister nudity. The corpse of Louis XIV.,
left to servants for disposal, and saluted all along the road to
Saint Denis by the curses of a noisy crowd sitting in the cabarets,
celebrating his death by drinking more than their fill as a com-
pensation for having suffered too much from hunger during his
lifetime such was the coarse but sincere epitaph which popular
opinion placed on the tomb of the " Grand Monarque." The
nation, restive under his now broken yoke, received with a
joyous anticipation, which the future was to discount, the royal
infant whom they called Louis the Well-beloved, and whose
funeral sixty years later was to be greeted with the same proofs
of disillusionment.
The death of Louis XIV. closed a great era of French history;
the i8th century opens upon a crisis for the monarchy. From
1715 to 1723 came the reaction of the Regency, with its character
marvellous effrontery, innovating spirit and frivolous otthe
immorality. From 1723 to 1743 came the mealy- eighteenth
mouthed despotism of Cardinal Fleury, and his centl "y-
apathetic policy within and without the kingdom. From 1743
to 1 7 74 came the personal rule of Louis XV. , when all the different
powers were in conflict the bishops and parlement quarrelling,
the government fighting against the clergy and the magistracy,
and public opinion in declared opposition to the state. Till at
last, from 1774 to 1789, came Louis XVI. with his honest illusions.
8 4 6
FRANCE
[HISTORY
his moral pusillanimity and his intellectual impotence, to
aggravate still further the accumulated errors of ages and to
prepare for the inevitable Revolution.
The i8th century, like the I7th, opened with a political
coup d'etat. Louis XV. was five years old, and the duke of
The Orleans held the regency. But Louis XIV. had in his
Regency will delegated all the power of the government to a
(1715- council on which the duke of Maine, his legitimated
I723) ' son, had the first, but Madame de Maintenon and the
Jesuits the predominant place. This collective administration,
designed to cripple the action of the regent, encountered a two-
fold opposition from the nobles and the parlement; but on the
2nd of September 1715 the emancipated parlement set aside
the will in favour of the duke of Orleans, who thus together
with the title of regent had all the real power. He therefore
reinstituted the parlement in its ancient right of remonstrance
(suspended since the declarations of 1667 and 1673), and handed
over ministerial power to the nobility, replacing the secretaries
of state by six councils composed in part of great nobles, on the
advice of the famous due de Saint-Simon. The due de Noailles,
president of the council of finance, had the direction of this
" Polysynodie."
The duke of Orleans, son of the princess palatine and Louis
XIV.'s brother, possessed many gifts courage, intelligence
and agility of mind but he lacked the one gift of
Orieaa" using these to good advantage. The political crisis
that had placed him in power had not put an end to
the financial crisis, and this, it was hoped, might be effected by
substituting partial and petty bankruptcies for the general
bankruptcy cynically advocated by Saint-Simon. The reduction
of the royal revenues did not suffice to fill the treasury; while
the establishment of a chamber of justice (March 1716) had no
other result than that of demoralizing the great lords and ladies
already mad for pleasure, by bringing them into contact with
the farmers of the revenue who purchased impunity from them.
A very clever Scotch adventurer named John Law (q.v.) now
offered his assistance in dealing with the enormous debt of more
than three milliards, and in providing the treasury. Being well
acquainted with the mechanism of banking, he had adopted
views as to cash, credit and the circulation of values which
contained an admixture of truth and falsehood. Authorized
after many difficulties to organize a private bank of deposit and
account, which being well conceived prospered and revived
commerce, Law proposed to lighten the treasury by the profits
accruing to a great maritime and colonial company. Payment
for the shares in this new Company of the West, with a capital
of a hundred millions, was to be made in credit notes upon the
government, converted into 4% stock. These aggregated
funds, needed to supply the immense and fertile valley of the
Mississippi, and the annuities of the treasury destined to pay
for the shares, were non-transferable. Law's idea was to ask the
bank for the floating capital necessary, so that the bank and the
Company of the West were to be supplementary to each other;
this is what was called Law's system. After the chancellor
D'Aguesseau and the due de Noailles had been replaced by
D'Argenson alone, and after the lit de justice of the 26th of
August 1718 had deprived the parlement, hostile to Law, of the
authority left to it, the bank became royal and the Company
of the West universal. But the royal bank, as a state establish-
ment, asked for compulsory privilege to increase the emission
of its credit notes, and that they should receive a premium upon
all metallic specie. The Company of the Indies became the
grantee for the farming of tobacco, the coinage of metals, and
farming in general; and in order to procure funds it multiplied
the output of shares, which were adroitly launched and became
more and more sought for on the exchange in the rue Quin-
campoix. This soon caused a frenzy of stock-jobbing, which
disturbed the stability of private fortunes and social positions,
and depraved customs and manners with the seductive notion
of easily obtained riches. The nomination of Law to the con-
troller-generalship, re-established for his benefit on the resignation
of D'Argenson (January 5, 1 720), let loose still wilder speculation ;
till the day came when he could no longer face the terrible
difficulty of meeting both private irredeemable shares with a
variable return, and the credit notes redeemable at sight and
guaranteed by the state. Gold and silver were proscribed;
the bank and the company were joined in one; the credit notes
and the shares were assimilated. But credit cannot be com-
manded either by violence or by expedients; between July
and September 1720 came the suspension of payments, the
flight of Law, and the disastrous liquidation which proved once
again that respect for the state's obligations had not yet entered
into the law of public finance.
Reaction on a no less extensive scale characterized foreign
policy during the Regency. A close alliance between France
and her ancient enemies, England and Holland, was y fie
concluded and maintained from 1717 to 1739: France, Anglo-
after thirty years of fighting, between two periods of Dutch
bankruptcy; Holland reinstalled in her commercial Aaia ce.
position; and England, seeing before her the beginning of her
empire over the seas all three had an interest in peace. On the
other hand, peace was imperilled by Philip V. of Spain and by
the emperor (who had accepted the portion assigned to them
by the treaty of Utrecht, while claiming the whole), by Savoy
and Brandenburg (who had profited too much by European
conflicts not to desire their perpetuation), by the crisis from
which the maritime powers of the Baltic were suffering, and by
the Turks on the Danube. The dream of Cardinal Alberoni,
Philip V.'s minister, was to set fire to all this inflammable
material in order to snatch therefrom a crown of some sort to
satisfy the maternal greed of Elizabeth Farnese; and this he
might have attained by the occupation of Sardinia and the
expedition to Sicily (1717-1718), if Dubois, a priest without a
religion, a greedy parvenu and a diplomatist of second rank,
though tenacious and full of resources as a minister, had not
placed his common sense at the disposal of the regent's interests
and those of European peace. He signed the triple alliance at
the Hague, succeeding with the assistance of Stanhope, the
English minister, in engaging the emperor therein, after attempt-
ing this for a year and a half. Whilst the Spanish fleet was
destroyed before Syracuse by Admiral Byng, the intrigue of
the Spanish ambassador Cellamare with the duke of Maine to
exclude the family of Orleans from the succession on Louis XV. 's
death was discovered and repressed; and Marshal Berwick
burned the dockyards at Pasajes in Spain. Alberoni's dream
was shattered by the treaty of London in 1720.
Seized in his turn with a longing for the cardinal's hat, Dubois
paid for it by the registering of the bull Unigenitus and by the
persecution of the Jansenists which the regent had stopped.
After the majority of Louis XV. had been proclaimed on the i6th
of February 1723, Dubois was the first to depart; and four
months after his disappearance the duke of Orleans, exhausted
by his excesses, carried with him into the grave that spirit of
reform which he had compromised by his frivolous voluptuous-
ness (December 2, 1723).
The Regency had been the making of the house of Orleans;
thenceforward the question was how to humble it, and the due
de Bourbon, now prime minister a great-grandson ministry
of the great Conde, but a narrow-minded man of of the
limited intelligence, led by a worthless woman ttucde
set himself to do so. The marquise de Prie was the
first of a series of publicly recognized mistresses; from 1723
to 1726 she directed foreign policy and internal affairs despite
the king's majority, moved always more by a spirit of vengeance
than by ambition. This sad pair were dominated by the self-
interested and continual fear of becoming subject to the son of
the Regent, whom they detested; but danger came upon them
from elsewhere. They found standing in their way the very
man who had been the author of their fortunes, Louis XV. 's
tutor, uneasy in the exercise of a veiled authority; for the
churchman Fleury knew how to wait, on condition of ultimately
attaining his end. Neither the festivities given at Chantilly
in honour of the king, nor the dismissal (despite the most solemn
promises) of the Spanish infanta, who had been betrothed
HISTORY]
FRANCE
847
to Louis XV., nor yet the young king's marriage to Maria
Leszczynska (1725) a marriage negotiated by the marquise
de Prie in order to bar the throne from the Orleans family
could alienate the sovereign from his old master. The irritation
kept up by the agents of Philip V., incensed by this affront,
and the discontent aroused by the institutions of the cinquantieme
and the militia, by the re-establishment of the feudal tax on
Louis XV.'s joyful accession, and by the resumption of a persecu-
tion of the Protestants and the Jansenists which had apparently
died out, were cleverly exploited by Fleury; and a last ill-timed
attempt by the queen to separate the king from him brought
about the fall of the due de Bourbon, very opportunely for
France, in June 1726.
From the hands of his unthinking pupil Fleury eventually
received the supreme direction of affairs, which he retained for
Cardinal seventeen years. He was aged seventy-two when
Fleury, he thus obtained the power which had been his un-
1726- measured though not ill-calculated ambition. Soft-
1743 ' spoken and polite, crafty and suspicious, he was
pacific by temperament and therefore allowed politics to slumber.
His turn for economics made Orry, 1 the controller-general of
finance, for long his essential partner. The latter laboured at
re-establishing order in fiscal affairs; and various measures
like the impost of the dixieme upon all property save that of the
clergy, together with the end of the corn famine, sufficed to
restore a certain amount of well-being. Religious peace was
more difficult to secure; in fact politico-religious quarrels
dominated all the internal policy of the kingdom during forty
years, and gradually compromised the royal authority. The
Jesuits, returned to power in 1723 with the due de Bourbon
and in 1726 with Fleury, rekindled the old strife regarding the
bull Unigenitus in opposition to the Gallicans and the Jansenists.
The retractation imposed upon Cardinal de Noailles, and his
replacement in the archbishopric of Paris by Vintimille, an
unequivocal Molinist, excited among the populace a very
violent agitation against the court of Rome and the Jesuits,
the prelude to a united Fronde of the Sorbonne and the parlement.
Fleury found no other remedy for this agitation in which
appeal was made even to miracles than lits de justice and leltres
de cachet; Jansenism remained a potent source of trouble
within the heart of Catholicism.
This worn-out septuagenarian, who prized rest above every-
thing, imported into foreign policy the same mania for economy
and the same sloth in action. He naturally adopted
Fieury's ^jje j(j ea o f reconciling Louis XIV.'s descendants,
policy" who had all been embroiled ever since the Polish
marriage. He succeeded in this by playing very
adroitly on the ambition of Elizabeth Farnese and her husband
Philip V., who was to reign in France notwithstanding
any renunciation that might have taken place. Despite
the birth of a dauphin (September 1729), which cut short the
Spanish intrigues, the reconciliation was a lasting one (treaty of
Seville) ; it led to common action in Italy, and to the installation
of Spanish royalties at Parma, Piacenza, and soon after at
Naples. Fleury, supported by the English Hanoverian alliance,
to which he sacrificed the French navy, obliged the emperor
Charles VI. to sacrifice the trade of the Austrian Netherlands to
the maritime powers and Central Italy to the Bourbons, in
order to gain recognition for his Pragmatic Sanction. The
question of the succession in France lay dormant until the end
of the century, and Fleury thought he had definitely obtained
peace in the treaty of Vienna (1731).
The war of the Polish succession proved him to have been
deceived. On the death of Augustus II. of Saxony, king of
Poland, Louis XV.'s father-in-law had been proclaimed king by
the Polish diet. This was an ephemeral success, ill-prepared
and obtained by taking a sudden advantage of national senti-
ment ; it was soon followed by a check, owing to a Russian and
'Jean Orry Louis Orry de Fulvy (1703-1751), counsel to the
parlement in 1723, intendant of finances in 1737, founded at Vincennes
the manufactory of porcelain which was bought in 175 by the
farmers general and transferred to Sevres.
German coalition and the baseness of Cardinal Fleury, who, in
order to avoid intervening, pretended to tremble before an
imaginary threat of reprisals on the part of England.
But Chauvelin, the keeper of the seals, supported by p,,//.,/,
public opinion, avenged on the Rhine and the Po the Succes-
unlucky heroism of the comte de Plelo at Danzig, 2 the ^ < - t733 '
vanished dream of the queen, the broken word of Louis
XV., and the treacherous abandonment of Poland. Fleury never
forgave him for this: Chauvelin had checkmated him with war;
he checkmated Chauvelin with peace, and hastened to replace
Marshals Berwick and Villars by diplomatists. The third
treaty of Vienna (1738), the reward of so much effort, would only
have claimed for France the little duchy of Bar, had not Chauvelin
forced Louis XV. to obtain Lorraine for his father-in-law still
hoping for the reversion of the crown; but Fleury thus rendered
impossible any influence of the queen, and held Stanislaus at
his mercy. In order to avenge himself upon Chauvelin he
sacrificed him to the cabinets of Vienna and London, alarmed
at seeing him revive the national tradition in Italy.
Fleury hardly had time to breathe before a new conflagration
broke out in the east. The Russian empress Anne and the
emperor Charles VI. had planned to begin dismember-
ing the Turkish empire. More fortunate than Plelo, g*g tero
Villeneuv'e, the French ambassador at Constantinople, question.
endeavoured to postpone this event, and was well
supported; he revived the courage of the Turks and provided
them with arms, thanks to the comte de Bonneval (q.v.), one
of those adventurers of high renown whose influence in Europe
during the first half of the eighteenth century is one of the
most piquant features of that period. The peace of Belgrade
(September 1739) was, by its renewal of the capitulations, a
great material success for France, and a great moral victory by
the rebuff to Austria and Russia.
France had become once more the- arbiter of Europe, when
the death of the emperor Charles VI. in 1740 opened up a new
period of wars and misfortunes for Europe and for jy aro /f/, e
the pacific Fleury. E very one had signed Charles VI. 's Austrian
Pragmatic Sanction, proclaiming the succession-rights Succes-
of his daughter, the archduchess Maria Theresa; but sloa '
on his death there was a general renunciation of signatures
and an attempt to divide the heritage. The safety of the
house of Austria depended on the attitude of France; for
Austria could no longer harm her. Fieury's inclination was
not to misuse France's traditional policy by exaggerating it,
but to respect his sworn word; he dared not press his opinion,
however, and yielded to the fiery impatience of young hot-heads
like the two Belle-Isles, and of all those who, infatuated by
Frederick II., felt sick of doing nothing at Versailles and were
backed up by Louis XV.'s bellicose mistresses. He had to
experience the repeated defections of Frederick II. in his own
interests, and the precipitate retreat from Bohemia. He had to
humble himself before Austria and the whole of Europe; and it
was high time for Fleury, now fallen into second childhood, to
vanish from the scene (January 1743).
Louis XV. was at last to become his own prime minister
and to reign alone; but in reality he was more embarrassed
than pleased by the responsibility incumbent upon him.
He therefore retained the persons who had composed
Fieury's staff; though instead of being led by a single
one of them, he fell into the hands of several, who
disputed among themselves for the ascendancy: Maurepas,
incomparable in little things, but neglectful of political affairs;
D'Argenson, bold, and strongly attached to his work as minister
2 Louis Robert Hippolyte de Brehan, comte de Plelo (1699-1734),
a Breton by birth, originally a soldier, was at the time of the siege
of Danzig French ambassador to Denmark. Enraged at the return
to Copenhagen, without having done anything, of the French force
sent to help Stanislaus, he himself led it back to Danzig and fell in an
attack on the Russians on the 27th of May 1734. Plelo was a poet
of considerable charm, and well-read both in science and literature.
See Marquis de Brehan, Le Comte de Plelo (Nantes, 1874); R.
Rathery, Le Comte de Plelo (Paris, 1876); and P. Boye, Stanislaus
Leszczynski et le troisieme traite de Vienne (Paris, 1898).
848
FRANCE
[HISTORY
Pompa-
dour.
of war; and the cardinal de Tencin, a frivolous and worldly
priest. Old Marshal de Noailles tried to incite Louis XV. to
take his kingship in earnest, thinking to cure him by war of his
effeminate passions^ and, in the spring of 1744, the king's
grave illness at Metz'gave a momentary hope of reconciliation
between him and the deserted queen. But the due de Richelieu,
a roue who had joined hands with the sisters of the house of
Nesle and was jealous of Marshal de Noailles, soon regained
his lost ground; and, under the influence of this panderer to
his pleasures, Louis XV. settled down into a life of vice. Holding
aloof from active affairs, he tried to relieve the incurable boredom
of satiety in the violent exercise of hunting, in supper-parties
with his intimates, and in spicy indiscretions. Brought up
religiously and to shun the society of women, his first experiences
in adultery had been made with many scruples and intermittently.
Little by little, however, jealous of power, yet incapable of
exercising it to any purpose, he sank into a sensuality which
became utterly shameless under the influence of his chief mistress
the duchesse de Chateauroux.
Hardly had a catastrophe snatched her away in the zenith
of her power when complete corruption and the flagrant triumph
of egoism supervened with the accession to power of
Madame de t k e ma rquise de Pompadour, and for nearly twenty
years (1745-1764) the whims and caprices of this
little bourgeoise ruled the realm. A prime minister
in petticoats, she had her political system: reversed the time-
honoured alliances of France, appointed or disgraced ministers,
directed fleets and armies, concluded treaties, and failed in all
her enterprises ! She was the queen of fashion in a society
where corruption blossomed luxuriantly and exquisitely, and
in a century of wit hers was second to none. Amidst this
extraordinary instability, when everything was at the mercy
of a secret thought of the master, the mistress alone held lasting
sway; in a reign of all-pervading satiety and tedium, she
managed to remain indispensable and bewitching to the day
of her death.
Meanwhile the War of the Austrian Succession broke out
again, and never had secretary of state more intricate questions
to solve than had D'Argenson. In the attempt
x/x-to"' to ma ke a stage-emperor of Charles Albert of Bavaria,
cisapeiie. defeat was incurred at Dettingen, and the French
were driven back on the Rhine (1743). The Bavarian
dream dissipated, victories gained in Flanders by Marshal Saxe,
another adventurer of genius, at Fontenoy, Raucoux and
Lawfeld (1745-1747), were hailed with joy as continuing those
of Louis XIV.; even though they resulted in the loss of Germany
and the doubling of English armaments. The " disinterested "
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (October 1748) had no effectual result
other than that of destroying in Germany, and for the benefit
of Prussia, a balance of power that had yet to be secured in
Italy, despite the establishment of the Spanish prince Philip at
Parma. France, meanwhile, was beaten at sea by England,
Maria Theresa's sole ally. While founding her colonial empire
England had come into collision with France; and the rivalry
of the Hundred Years' War had immediately sprung up again
between the two countries. Engaged already in both Canada
and in India (where Dupleix was founding an empire with a
mere handful of men) , it was to France's interest not to become
involved in war upon the Rhine, thus falling into England's
continental trap. She did fall into it, however: for the sake of
conquering Silesia for the king of Prussia, Canada was left exposed
by the capture of Cape Breton; while in order to restore this
same Silesia to Maria Theresa, Canada was lost and with it India.
France had worked for the king of Prussia from 1740 to
1748; now it was Maria Theresa's game that was played in
TheSeven tne Seven Years' War. In 1755, the English having
Years' made a sudden attack upon the French at sea, and
War, Frederick II. having by a fresh volte-face passed into
/7! alliance with Great Britain, Louis XV.'s government
accepted an alliance with Maria Theresa in the treaty
of the ist of May 1 7 56. Instead of remaining upon the defensive
in this continental war merely accessory as it was he made
it his chief affair, and placed himself under the petticoat govern-
ment of three women, Maria Theresa, Elizabeth of Russia and the
marquise de Pompadour. This error the worst of all laid the
foundations of the Prussian and British empires. By three
battles, victories for the enemies of France Rossbach in
Germany, 1757, Plassey in India, 1757, and Quebec in Canada,
1759 (owing to the recall of Dupleix, who was not bringing in
large enough dividends to the Company of the Indies, and to
the abandonment of Montcalm, who could not interest any one
in " a few acres of snow "), the expansion of Prussia was assured,
and the British relieved of French rivalry in the expansion of
their empire in India and on the North American continent.
Owing to the blindness of Louis XV. and the vanity of the
favourite, the treaties of Paris and Hubertusburg (1763) once
more proved the French splendid in their conceptions, Treaties ol
but deficient in action. Moreover, Choiseul, secretary Paris and
of state for foreign affairs since 1758, made out of this Hubertus-
deceptive Austrian alliance a system which put the "'*'
finishing touch to disaster; and after having thrown away
everything to satisfy Maria Theresa's hatred of Frederick II.,
the reconciliation between these two irreconcilable Germans at
Neisse and at Neustadt (1769-1770) was witnessed by France,
to the prejudice of Poland, one of her most ancient adherents.
The expedient of the Family Compact, concluded with Spain
in 1761 with a view to taking vengeance upon England, whose
fleets were a continual thorn in the side to France served only
to involve Spain herself in misfortune. Choiseul, who at least
had a policy that was sometimes in the right, and who was very
anxious to carry it out, then realized that the real quarrel had
to be settled with England. Amid the anguish of defeat and of
approaching ruin, he had an acute sense of the actualities of
the case, and from 1763 to 1766 devoted himself passionately
to the reconstruction of the navy. To compensate for the loss
of the colonies he annexed Lorraine ( 1 766) , and by the acquisition
of Corsica in 1768 he gave France an intermediary position in
the Mediterranean, between friendly Spain and Italy, looking
forward to the time when it should become a stepping-stone to
Africa.
But Louis XV. had two policies. The incoherent efforts
which he made to repair by the secret diplomacy of the comte
de Broglie the evils caused by his official policy only
aggravated his shortcomings and betrayed his weak-
ness. The contradictory intrigues of the king's O f Poland.
secret proceedings in the candidature of Prince Xavier,
the dauphine's brother, and the patriotic efforts of the confedera-
tion of Bar, contributed to bring about the Polish crisis which
the partition of 1772 resolved in favour of Frederick II.; and
the Turks were in their turn dragged into the same disastrous
affair. Of the old allies of France, Choiseul preserved at least
Sweden by the coup d'etat of Gustavus III.; but instead of being
as formerly the centre of great affairs, the cabinet of Versailles
lost all its credit, and only exhibited before the eyes of con-
temptuous Europe France's extreme state of decay.
The nation felt this humiliation, and showed all the greater
irritation as the want of cohesion in the government and the
anarchy in the central authority became more and
more intolerable in home affairs. Though the adminis-
tration still possessed a fund of tradition and a Louis XV.
personnel which, including many men of note, protected
it from the enfeebling influence of the court, it looked as though
chance regulated everything so far as the government was
concerned. These fluctuations were owing partly to the character
of Louis XV., and partly also to the fact that society in the i8th
century was too advanced in its ideas to submit without resistance
to the caprice of such a man. His mis'tresses were not the only
cause of this; for ever since Fleury's advent political parties
had come to the fore. From 1749 to 1757 the party of religious
devotees grouped round the queen and the king's daughters,
with the dauphin as chief and the comte D'Argenson and
Machault d'Arnouville, keeper of the seals, as lieutenants, had
worked against Madame de Pompadour (who leant for support
upon the parlements, the Jansenists and the philosophers),
HISTORY]
FRANCE
849
and had gained the upper hand. Thenceforward poverty,
disorders, and consequently murmurs increased. The financial
reform attempted by Machault d'Arnouville between 1745
and 1749 a reduction of the debt through the impost of the
twentieth and the edict of 1749 against the extensive pro-
perty held in mortmain by the Church after his disgrace only
resulted in failure. The army, which D'Argenson (likewise
dismissed by Madame de Pompadour) had been from 1743 to
1747 trying to restore by useful reforms, was riddled by cabals.
Half the people in the kingdom were dying of hunger, while
the court was insulting poverty by its luxury and waste; and
from 1750 onwards political ferment was everywhere manifest.
It found all the more favourable foothold in that the Church,
the State's best ally, had made herself more and more unpopular.
Her refusal of the sacraments to those who would not accept
the bull Unigenitus (1746) was exploited in the eyes of the
masses, as in those of more enlightened people was her selfish
and short-sighted resistance to the financial plans of Machault.
The general discontent was expressed by the parlements in their
attempt to establish a political supremacy amid universal
confusion, and by the popular voice in pamphlets recalling by
their violence those of the League. Every one expected and
desired a speedy revolution that should put an end to a policy
which alternated between overheated effervescence, abnormal
activity and lethargy. Nothing can better show the point to
which things had descended than the attempted assassination
of Louis the Well-beloved by Damiens in 1757.
Choiseul was the means of accelerating this revolution, not
only by his abandonment of diplomatic traditions, but still
more by his improvidence and violence. He reversed
the policy of his predecessors in regard to the parletnent.
Supported by public opinion, which clamoured for guarantees
against abitrary power, the parlements had dared not only to
insist on being consulted as to the budget of the state in 1763,
but to enter upon a confederation throughout the whole of
France, and on repeated occasions to ordain a general strike
of the judicial authorities. Choiseul did not hesitate to attack
through lits de justice or by exile a judiciary oligarchy which
doubtless rested its pretensions merely on wealth, high birth,
or that encroaching spirit that was the only counteracting
agency to the monarchy. Louis XV. , wearied with their clamour ,
called them to order. Choiseul's religious policy was no less
venturesome; after the condemnation in 1759 of the Jesuits
who were involved in the bankruptcy of Father de la Valette,
their general, in the Antilles, he had the order dissolved for
refusing to modify its constitution (1761-1764). Thus, not
content with encouraging writers with innovating ideas to the
prejudice of traditional institutions, he attacked, in the order
of the Jesuits, the strongest defender of these latter, and delivered
over the new generation to revolutionary doctrines.
A woman had elevated him into power; a woman brought
him to the ground. He succumbed to a coalition of the chancellor
The 7W- Maupeou, the due d'Aiguillon and the Abbe Terray,
umvirate, which depended on the favour of the king's latest
1770- mistress, Madame du Barry (December 1770); and
t774 ' the Jesuits were avenged by a stroke of authority
similar to that by which they themselves had suffered. Following
on an edict registered by the lit de justice, which forbade any
remonstrance in political matters, the parlement had resigned,
and had been imitated by the provincial parlements; whereupon
Maupeou, an energetic chancellor, suppressed the parlements
and substituted superior councils of magistrates appointed by
the king (1771). This reform was justified by the religious
intolerance of the parlements; by their scandalous trials of
Calas, Pierre Paul Sirven (1709-1777), the chevalier de la Barre
and the comte de Lally; by the retrograde spirit that had made
them suppress the Encyclopaedia in 1759 and condemn Entile
in 1762; and by their selfishness in perpetuating abuses by
which they profited. But this reform, being made by the minister
of a hated sovereign, only aided in exasperating public opinion,
which was grateful to the parlements in that their remonstrances
had not always been fruitless.
Thus all the buttresses of the monarchical institution began
to fall to pieces: the Church, undermined by the heresy of
Jansenism, weakened by the inroads of philosophy, Anclent
discredited by evil-livers among the priesthood, and influences
divided against itself, like all losing parties; the ana insti-
nobility of the court, still brave at heart, though tutloas -
incapable of exertion and reduced to beggary, having lost all
respect for discipline and authority, not only in the camp, but in
civilian society; arid the upper-class officials, narrow-minded
and egotistical, unsettling by their opposition the royal authority
which they pretended to safeguard. Even the " liberties,"
among the few representative institutions which the ancien
regime had left intact in some provinces, turned against the
people. The estates opposed most of the intelligent and humane
measures proposed by such intendants as Tourny and Turgot
to relieve the peasants, whose distress was very great; they did
their utmost to render the selfishness of the privileged classes
more oppressive and vexatious.
Thus the terrible prevaknce of poverty and want; the
successive famines; the mistakes of the government; the
scandals of the Pare aux Cerfs; and the parlements
playing the Roman senate: all these causes, added
together and multiplied, assisted in setting a general
fermentation to work. The philosophers only helped to pre-
cipitate a movement which they had not created; with-
out pointing to absolute power as the cause of the trouble,
and without pretending to upset the traditional system, they
attempted to instil into princes the feeling of new and more
precise obligations towards their subjects. Voltaire, Montesquieu,
the Encyclopaedists and the Physiocrats (recurring to the
tradition of Bayle and Fontenelle) , by dissolving in their analyti-
cal crucible all consecrated beliefs and all fixed institutions,
brought back into the human society of the i8th century that
humanity which had been so rudely eliminated. They demanded
freedom of thought and belief with passionate insistence; they
ardently discussed institutions and conduct; and they imported
into polemics the idea of natural rights superior to all political
arrangements. Whilst some, like Voltaire and the Physiocrats,
representatives of the privileged classes and careless of political
rights, wished to make use of the omnipotence of the prince
to accomplish desirable reforms, or, like Montesquieu, adversely
criticized despotism and extolled moderate governments,
other, plebeians like Rousseau, proclaimed the theory of the
social contract and the sovereignty of the people. So that during
this reign of frivolity and passion, so bold in conception and so
poor in execution, the thinkers contributed still further to mark
the contrast between grandeur of plan and mediocrity of result.
The preaching of all this generous philosophy, not only in
France, but throughout the whole of Europe, would have been in
vain had there not existed at the time a social class interested
in these great changes, and capable of compassing them. Neither
the witty and lucid form in which the philosophers clothed
their ideas in their satires, romances, stage-plays and treatises,
nor the salons of Madame du Deffand, Madame Geoff rin and
Mademoiselle de Lespinasse, could possibly have been sufficiently
far-reaching or active centres of political propaganda. The
former touched only the more highly educated classes; while
to the latter, where privileged individuals alone had entry,
novelties were but an undiluted stimulant for the jaded appetites
of persons whose ideas of good-breeding, moreover, would have
drawn the line at martyrdom.
The class which gave the Revolution its chiefs, its outward
and visible forms, and the irresistible energy of its hopes, was
the bourgeoisie, intelligent, ambitious and rich; in _.
the forefront the capitalists and financiers of the haute ge oisie
bourgeoisie, farmers-general and army contractors, theincar-
who had supplanted or swamped the old landed and natloa f
military aristocracy, had insensibly reconstructed the "
interior of the ancient social edifice with the gilded and incon-
gruous materials of wealth, and in order to consolidate
or increase their monopolies, needed to secure themselves
against the arbitrary action of royalty and the bureaucracy.
850
FRANCE
[HISTORY
Next came the crowd of stockholders and creditors of the state,
who, in face of the government's " extravagant anarchy," no
longer felt safe from partial or total bankruptcy. More powerful
still, and more masterful, was the commercial, industrial and
colonial bourgeoisie; because under the Regency and under
Louis XV. they had been more productive and more creative.
Having gradually revolutionized the whole economic system,
in Paris, in Lyons, in Nantes, in Bordeaux, in Marseilles, they
could not tamely put up with being excluded from public affairs,
which had so much bearing upon their private or collective
enterprises. Finally, behind this bourgeoisie, and afar off, came
the crowd of serfs, rustics whom the acquisition of land had
gradually enfranchised, and who were the more eager to enjoy
their definitive liberation because it was close at hand.
The habits and sentiments of French society showed similar
changes. From having been almost exclusively national during
Louis XIV. 's reign, owing to the perpetual state
formation oi. war and to a sort of proud isolation, it had gradually
of man- become cosmopolitan. After the peace of Aix-la-
oers and Chapelle, France had been flooded from all quarters
of the civilized world, but especially from England,
by a concourse of refined and cultured men well acquainted
with her usages and her universal language, whom she had
received sympathetically. Paris became the brain of Europe.
This revolution in manners and customs, coinciding with the
revolution in ideas, led in its turn to a transformation in feeling,
and to new aesthetic needs. Gradually people became sick of
openly avowed gallantry, of shameless libertinism, of moral
obliquity and of the flattering artifices of vice; a long shudder
ran through the selfish torpor of the social body. After reading
the Nouiielle-Heloise, Clarissa and Sir Charles Grandison,
fatigued and wearied society revived as though beneath the
fresh breezes of dawn. The principle of examination, the
reasoned analysis of human conditions and the discussion of
causes, far from culminating in disillusioned nihilism, every-
where aroused the democratic spirit, the life of sentiment and
of human feeling: in the drama, with Marivaux, Diderot and
La Chaussee; in art, with Chardin and Greuze; and in the
salons, in view of the suppression of privilege. So that to
Louis XV. 's cynical and hopeless declaration: " Apres moi
le deluge," the setting i8th century responded by a belief in
progress and an appeal to the future. A long-drawn echo from
all classes hailed a revolution that was possible because it was
necessary.
If this revolution did not . burst forth sooner, in the actual
lifetime of Louis XV., if in Louis XVI. 's reign there was a
renewal of loyalty to the king, before the appeal to liberty was
made, that is to be explained by this hope of recovery. But
Louis XVI. 's reign (1774-1792) was only to be a temporary
halting-place, an artifice of history for passing through the
transition period whilst elaborating the transformation which
was to revolutionize, together with France, the whole world.
Louis XVI. was twenty years of age. Physically he was
stout, and a slave to the Bourbon fondness for good living;
Louis xvi. intellectually a poor creature and but ill-educated,
he loved nothing so much as hunting and lock-
smith's work. He had a taste for puerile amusements, a
mania for useless little domestic economies in a court where
millions vanished like smoke, and a natural idleness which
achieved as its masterpiece the keeping a diary from 1766 to
1792 of a life so tragic, which was yet but a foolish chronicle
of trifles. Add to this that he was a virtuous husband, a kind
father, a fervent Christian and a good-natured man full of
excellent intentions, yet a spectacle of moral pusillanimity and
ineptitude.
From 1770 onwards lived side by side with this king, rather
than at his side, the archduchess Marie Antoinette of Austria
one of the very graceful and very frivolous women
AnMa- who were to be f und at Versailles, opening to life
ee. like the flowers she so much loved, enamoured of
pleasure and luxury, delighting to free herself from
the formalities of court life, and mingling in the amusements
of society; lovable and loving, without ceasing to be virtuous.
Flattered and adored at the outset, she very soon furnished a
sinister illustration to Beaumarchais' Basile; for evil tongues
began to calumniate the queen: those of her brothers-in-law,
the due d'Aiguillon (protector of Madame du Barry and dismissed
from the ministry), and the Cardinal de Rohan, recalled from
his embassy in Vienna. She was blamed for her friendship
with the comtesse de Polignac, who loved her only as the dispenser
of titles and positions; and when weary of this persistent
begging for rewards, she was taxed with her preference for
foreigners who asked nothing. People brought up against her
the debts and expenditure due to her belief in the inexhaustible
resources of France; and hatred became definite when she
was suspected of trying to imitate her mother Maria Theresa and
play the part of ruler, since her husband neglected his duty. They
then became persuaded that it was she who caused the weight of .
taxation; in the most infamous libels comparison was made
between her freedom of behaviour and that of Louis XV. 's
former mistresses. Private envy and public misconceptions
very soon summed up her excessive unpopularity in the menacing
nickname, " L'Autrichienne." (See MARIE ANTOINETTE.)
All this shows that Louis XVI. was not a monarch capable
of directing or suppressing the inevitable revolution. His
reign was but a tissue of contradictions. External p ore i ga
affairs seemed in even a more dangerous position than policy of
those at home. Louis XVI. confided to Vergennes Louis
the charge of reverting to the traditions of the crown xvl '
and raising France from the humiliation suffered by the treaty
of Paris and the partition of Poland. His first act was to release
French policy from the Austrian alliance of 1756; in this he
was aided both by public opinion and by the confidence of the
king the latter managing to set aside the desires of the queen,
whom the ambition of Maria Theresa and Joseph II. hoped to
use as an auxiliary. Vergennes' object was a double one: to
free the kingdom from English supremacy and to shake off the
yoke of Austria. Opportunities offered themselves simul-
taneously. In 1 7 7 s the English colonies in America rebelled, and
Louis XVL, after giving them secret aid and encouragement
almost from the first, finally in February 1778, despite Marie
Antoinette, formed an open alliance with them; while when
Joseph II., after having partitioned Poland, wanted in addition to
balance the loss of Silesia with that of Bavaria, Vergennes pre-
vented him from doing so. In vain was he offered a share in the
partition of the Netherlands by way of an inducement. France's
disinterested action in the peace of Teschen (1779) restored to her
the lost adherence of the secondary states. Europe began to
respect her again when she signed a Franco-Dutch-Spanish
alliance (1770-1780), and when, after the capitulation of the
English at Yorktown, the peace of Versailles (1783) crowned
her efforts with at least formal success. Thenceforward,
partly from prudence and partly from penury, Vergennes
cared only for the maintenance of peace a not too easy task,
in opposition to the greed of Catherine II. and Joseph II., who
now wished to divide the Ottoman empire. Joseph II., recogniz-
ing that Louis XVI. would not sacrifice the "sick man" to him,
raised the question of the opening of the Scheldt, against the
Dutch. Vainly did Joseph II. accuse his sister of ingratitude
and complain of her resistance; the treaty of Fontainebleau in
1785 maintained the rights of Holland. Later on, Joseph II.,
sticking to his point, wanted to settle the house of Bavaria
in the Netherlands; but Louis XVI. supported the confederation
of princes (Fiirstenbund) which Frederick II. called together
in order to keep his turbulent neighbour within bounds. Ver-
gennes completed his work by signing a commercial treaty
in 1786 with England, whose commerce and industry were
favoured above others, and a second in 1787 with' Russia. He
died in 1787, at an opportune moment for himself; though
he bad temporarily raised France's position in Europe, his
work was soon ruined by the very means taken to secure its
successes: warfare and armaments had hastened the " hideous
bankruptcy."
From the very beginning of his reign Louis XVI. fell into
HISTORY]
FRANCE
851
contradictions and hesitation in internal affairs, which could
not but bring him to grief. He tried first of all to
internal g Overn j n accordance with public opinion, and was
P Lo'uisXvi. induced to flatter it beyond measure; in an extreme
of inconsistency he re-established the parlements,
the worst enemies of reform, at the very moment when he was
calling in the reformers to his councils.
Turgot, the most notable of these latter, was well fitted to
play his great part as an enlightened minister, as much from
the principle of hard work and domestic economy
traditional in his family, as from a maturity of mind
1776. developed by extensive study at the Sorbonne and
by frequenting the salons of the Encyclopaedists.
He had proved this by his capable administration in the pay-
master's office at Limoges, from 1761 to 1774. A disciple of
Quesnay and of Gournay, he tried to repeat in great affairs the
experience of liberty which he had found successful in small,
and to fortify the unity of the nation and the government
by social, political and economic reforms. He ordained the
free circulation of grain within the kingdom, and was supported
by Louis XVI. in the course of the flour-war (guerre des farines)
(April-May 1775); he substituted a territorial subsidy for the
royal corvee so burdensome upon the peasants and thus
tended to abolish privilege in the matter of imposts; and he
established the freedom of industry by the dissolution of
privileged trade corporations (1776). Finance was in a deplorable
state, and as controller-general he formulated a new fiscal policy,
consisting of neither fresh taxation nor loans, but of retrenchment.
At one fell stroke the two auxiliaries on which he had a right
to count failed him: public opinion, clamouring for reform on
condition of not paying the cost; and the king, too timid to
dominate public opinion, and not knowing how to refuse the
demands of privilege. Economy in the matter of public finance
implies a grain of severity in the collection of taxes as well as in
expenditure. By the former Turgot hampered the great interests ;
by the second he thwarted the desires of courtiers not only of
the second rank but of the first. Therefore, after he had aroused
the complaints of the commercial world and the bourgeoisie,
the court, headed by Marie Antoinette, profited by the general
excitement to overthrow him. The Choiseul party, which had
gradually been reconstituted, under the influence of the queen,
the princes, parlement, the prebendaries, and the trade corpora-
tions, worked adroitly to eliminate this reformer of lucrative
abuses. The old courtier Maurepas, jealous of Turgot and
desirous of remaining a minister himself, refrained from defending
his colleague; and when Turgot, who never knew how to give
in, spoke of establishing assemblies of freeholders in the communes
and the provinces, in order to relax the tension of over-centraliza-
tion, Louis XVI., who never dared to pass from sentiment to
action, sacrificed his minister to the rancour of the queen, as
he had already sacrificed Malesherbes (1776). Thus the first
governmental act of the queen was an error, and dissipated
the hope of replacing special privileges by a general guarantee
given to the nation, which alone could have postponed a revolu-
tion. It was still too early for a Fourth of August; but the
queen's victory was none the less vain, since Turgot's ideas
were taken up by his successors.
The first of these was Necker, a Genevese financier. More
able than Turgot, though a man of smaller ideas, he abrogated
the edicts registered by the lits de justice; and unable
Necker, or not (j ar i n g t o attack the evil at its root, he thought
he could suppress its symptoms by a curative process
of borrowing and economy. Like Turgot he failed,
and for the same reasons. The American war had finally
exhausted the exchequer, and, in order to replenish it, he would
have needed to inspire confidence in the minds of capitalists;
but the resumption in 1778 of the plan of provincial assemblies
charged with remodelling the various imposts, and his compte-
rendu in which he exhibited the monarchy paying its pensioners
for their inactivity as it had never paid its agents for their zeal,
aroused a fresh outburst of anger. Necker was carried away in
his turn by the reaction he had helped to bring about (1781).
1776-
1781.
Having fought the oligarchy of privilege, the monarchy next
tried to rally it to its side, and all the springs of the old regime
were strained to the breaking-point. The military Theretum
rule of the marquis de Segur eliminated the plebeians oifeudzi-
from the army; while the great lords, drones in the ism to the
hive, worked with a kind of fever at the enforcement offenslve -
of their seigniorial rights; the feudal system was making
a last struggle before dying. The Church claimed her right
of ordering the civil estate of all Frenchmen as an absolute
mistress more strictly than ever. Joly de Fleury and D 'Ormesson ,
Necker's successors, pushed their narrow spirit of reaction and
the temerity of their inexperience to the furthest limit; but
the reaction which reinforced the privileged classes was not
sufficient to fill the coffers of the treasury, and Marie Antoinette,
who seemed gifted with a fatal perversity of instinct, confided
the finances of the kingdom to Calonne, an upper-class official
and a veritable Cagliostro of finance.
From 1783 to 1787, this man organized his astounding system
of falsification all along the line. His unbridled prodigality,
by spreading a belief in unlimited resources, augmented
the confidence necessary for the success of perpetual ^gj" ne '
loans; until the day came when, having exhausted the 1737.
system, he tried to suppress privilege and fall back upon
the social reforms of Turgot, and the financial schemes of Necker,
by suggesting once more to the assembly of notables a territorial
subsidy from all landed property. He failed, owing to the same
reaction that was causing the feudal system to make inroads
upon the army, the magistracy and industry; but in his fall he
put on the guise of a reformer, and by a last wild plunge he left
the monarchy, already compromised by the affair of the Diamond
Necklace (?..), hopelessly exposed (April 1787).
The volatile and brilliant archbishop Lomenie de Brienne was
charged with the task of laying the affairs of the ancien regime
before the assembly of notables, and with asking the
nation for resources, since the monarchy could no Lomtaie
longer provide for itself; but the notables refused, and Brienne.
referred the minister to the states-general, the repre-
sentative of the nation. Before resorting to this extremity,
Brienne preferred to lay before the parlement his two edicts
regarding a stamp duty and the territorial subsidy; to be met
by the same refusal, and the same reference to the states-
general. The exile of the parlement to Troyes, the arrest of
various members, and the curt declaration of the king's absolute
authority (November 9, 1787) were unsuccessful in breaking
down its resistance. The threat of Chretien Francois de Lamoig-
non, keeper of the seals, to imitate Maupeou, aroused public
opinion and caused a fresh confederation of the parlements of
the kingdom. The royal government was too much exhausted
to overthrow even a decaying power like that of the parlements,
and being still more afraid of the future representatives of the
French people than of the supreme courts, capitulated to the
insurgent parlements. The recalled parlement seemed at the
pinnacle of power.
Its next action ruined its ephemeral popularity, by claiming
the convocation of the states-general " according to the formula
observed in 1614," as already demanded by the
estates of Dauphine at Vizille on the 2 ist of July 1 788.
The exchequer was empty; it was necessary to comply.
The royal declaration of the 23rd of September 1788 convoked
the states-general for the ist of May 1789, and the fall of Brienne
and Lamoignon followed the recall of Necker. Thenceforward
public opinion, which was looking for something quite different
from the superannuated formula of 1614, abandoned the parle-
ments, which in their turn disappeared from view; for the
struggle beginning between the privileged classes and the govern-
ment, now at bay, had given the public, through the states-genera 1,
that means of expression which they had always lacked.
The conflict immediately changed ground, and an engagement
began between privilege and the people over the twofold question
of the number of deputies and the mode of voting. Voting by
head, and the double representation of the third estate (tiers
etaf); this was the great revolution; voting by order meant the
8 5 2
FRANCE
[HISTORY
continued domination of privilege, and the lesser revolution. The
monarchy, standing apart, held the balance, but needed a decisive
policy. Necker, with little backing at court, could not
Prelude to act energetically, and Louis XVI., wavering between
'general.' Necker and the queen, chose the attitude most
convenient to his indolence and least to his interest :
he remained neutral, and his timidity showed clearly in the council
of the 27th of December 1788. Separating the two questions
which were so closely connected, and despite the sensational
brochure of the abbe Sieyes, " What is the Third Estate? "
he pronounced for the doubling of the third estate without
deciding as to the vote by head, yet leaving it to be divined that
he preferred the vote by order. As to the programme there was
no more decisive resolution; but the edict of convocation gave
it to be understood that a reform was under consideration: " the
establishment of lasting and permanent order in all branches
of the administration." The point as to the place of convoca-
tion gave rise to a compromise between the too-distant centre
of France and too-tumultuous Paris. Versailles was chosen
" because of the hunting! " In the procedure of the elections
the traditional system of the states-general of 1614
electorate was preserved, and the suffrage was almost universal,
but in two kinds: for the third estate nearly all citizens
over twenty-five years of age, paying a direct contribu-
tion, voted peasants as well as bourgeois; the country clergy
were included among the ecclesiastics; the smaller nobility
among the nobles; and finally, Protestants were electors and
eligible.
According to custom, documents (cahiers) were drawn up,
containing a list of grievances and proposals for reform. All the
orders were agreed in demanding prudently modified
addresses, re f rm: the vote on the budget, order in finance,
regular convocation of the states-general, and a written
constitution in order to get rid of arbitrary rule. The address
of the clergy, inspired by the great prelates, sought to make
inaccurate lamentations over the progress of impiety a means
of safeguarding their enormous spiritual and temporal powers,
their privileges and exemptions, and their vast wealth. The
nobility demanded voting by order, the maintenance of their
privileges, and, above all, laws to protect them against the
arbitrary proceedings of royalty. The third estate insisted on the
vote by head, the graduated abolition of privilege in all govern-
mental affairs, a written constitution and union. The programme
went on broadening as it descended in the social scale.
The elections sufficed finally to show that the ancien regime,
characterized from the social point of view by inequality, from
the political point of view by arbitrariness, and from
elections. tne religious point of view by intolerance, was com-
pleted from the administrative point of view by in-
extricable disorder. As even the extent of the jurisdiction
of the bailliages was unknown, convocations were made at
haphazard, according to the good pleasure of influential persons,
and in these assemblies decisions were arrived at by a process
that confused every variety of rights and powers, and was
governed by no logical principle; and in this extreme confusion
terms and affairs were alike involved.
Whilst the bureaucracy of the ancien regime sought for
desperate expedients to prolong its domination, the whole social
The body gave signs of a yet distant but ever nearing dis-
couater- integration. The revolution was already complete
currents before it was declared to the world. Two distinct
ome currents of disaffection, one economic, the other
Won. " philosophic, had for long been pervading the nation.
There had been much suffering throughout the I7th
and i8th centuries; but no one had hitherto thought of a
politico-social rising. But the other, the philosophic current,
had been set going in the i8th century; and the policy of
despotism tempered by privilege had been criticized in the name
of liberty as no longer justifying itself by its services to the
state. The ultramontane and oppressively burdensome church
had been taunted with its lack of Christian charity, apostolic
poverty and primitive virtue. All vitality had been sapped
from the old order of nobles, reduced in prestige by the savonnelte
d vilains (office purchased to ennoble the holder), enervated
by court life, and so robbed of its roots in the soil, from which
it had once drawn its strength, that it could no longer live save
as a ruinous parasite on the central monarchy. Lastly, to come
to the bottom of the social scale, there were the common people,
taxable at will, subject to the arbitrary and burdensome forced
labour of the corvee, cut off by an impassable barrier from the
privileged classes whom they hated. For them the right to work
had been asserted, among others by Turgot, as a natural right
opposed to the caprices of the arbitrary and selfish aristocracy
of the corporations, and a breach had been made in the tyranny
of the masters which had endeavoured to set a barrier to the
astonishing outburst of industrial force which was destined to
characterize the coming age.
The outward and visible progress of the Revolution, due
primarily to profound economic disturbance, was thus accelerated
and rendered irresistible. Economic reformers found a moral
justification for their dissatisfaction in philosophical theories;
the chance conjunction of a philosopho-political idea with a
national deficit led to the preponderance of the third estate at
the elections, and to the predominance of the democratic spirit
in the states-general. The third estate wanted civil liberty above
all; political liberty came second only, as a means and guarantee
for the former. They wanted the abolition of the feudal system,
the establishment of equality and a share in power. Neither the
family nor property was violently attacked; the church and the
monarchy still appeared to most people two respectable and
respected institutions. The king and the privileged classes had
but so to desire it, and the revolution would be easy and peaceful.
Louis XVI. was reluctant to abandon a tittle of his absolute
power, nor would the privileged classes sacrifice their time-
honoured traditions; they .were inexorable. The king,
more ponderous and irresolute every day, vacillated M* etla sl
j j TLI the states-
between Necker the liberal on one side and Marie general.
Antoinette, whose feminine pride was opposed to any
concessions, with the comte d'Artois, a mischievous nobody who
could neither choose a side nor stick to one, on the other. When
the states-general opened on the 5th of May 1789 Louis XVI. had
decided nothing. The conflict between him and the Assembly
immediately broke out, and became acute over the verification
of the mandates; the third estate desiring this to be made in
common by the deputies of the three orders, which would involve
voting by head, the suppression of classes and the preponderance
of the third estate. On the refusal of the privileged classes and
after an interval of six weeks, the third estate, considering that
they represented 96% of the nation, and in accordance with the
proposal of Sieyes, declared that they represented the nation
and therefore were authorized to take resolutions unaided, the
first being that in future no arrangement for taxation could take
place without their consent.
The king, urged by the privileged classes, responded to this
first revolutionary act, as in 1614, by closing the Salle des Menus
Plaisirs where the third estate were sitting; where- Oath ot
upon, gathered in one of the tennis-courts under the the
presidency of Bailly, they swore on the 2oth of June tennis-
not to separate before having established the con- court>
stitution of the kingdom.
Louis XVI. then decided, on the 23rd, to make known his
policy in a royal lit de justice. He declared for the lesser reform,
the fiscal, not the social; were this rejected, he declared fhe LHdc
that " he alone would arrange for the welfare of his Justice ot
people." Meanwhile he annulled the sitting of the ***
1 7th, and demanded the immediate dispersal of the
Assembly. The third estate refused to obey, and by the
mouth of Bailly and Mirabeau asserted the legitimacy of the
Revolution. The refusal of the soldiers to coerce the Assembly
showed that the monarchy could no longer rely on the army; and
a few days later, when the lesser nobility and the lower ranks
of the clergy had united with the third estate whose cause was
their own, the king yielded, and on the 27th of June commanded
both orders to join in the National Assembly, which was thereby
HISTORY]
FRANCE
853
recognized and the political revolution sanctioned. But at the
same time, urged by the " infernal cabal " of the queen and the
comte d'Artois, Louis XVI. called in the foreign regiments
the only ones of which he could be certain and dismissed
Necker. The Assembly, dreading a sudden attack, demanded
the withdrawal of the troops. Meeting with a refusal, Paris
opposed the king's army with her citizen-soldiers; and
ky the taking of the Bastille, that mysterious dark
Bastille. fortress which personified the ancien regime, secured
the triumph of the Revolution (July 14). The king
was obliged to recall Necker, to mount the tricolor cockade
at the Hotel de Ville, and to recognize Bailly as mayor of Paris
and La Fayette as commander of the National Guard, which
remained in arms after the victory. The National Assembly
had right on its side after the 2oth of June and might after the
I4th of July. Thus was accomplished the Revolution which
was to throw into the melting-pot all that had for centuries
appeared fixed and stable.
As Paris had taken her Bastille, it remained for the towns
and country districts to take theirs all the Bastilles of feudalism.
Want, terror and the contagion of examples precipitated
faneous l ^ e disruption of governmental authority and of the
anarchy. ld political status; and sudden anarchy dislocated
all the organs of authority. Upon the ruins of the
central administration temporary authorities were founded in
various isolated localities, limited in area but none the less
defiant of the government. The provincial assemblies of
Dauphine and elsewhere gave the signal; and numerous towns,
following the example of Paris, instituted municipalities which sub-
stituted their authority for that of the intendants and their sub-
ordinates. Clubs were openly organized, pamphlets and journals
appeared, regardless of administrative orders; workmen's unions
multiplied in Paris, Bordeaux and Lyons, in face of drastic pro-
hibition; and anarchy finally set in with the defection of the
army in Paris on the 23rd of June, at Nancy, at Metz and at Brest.
The crying abuses of the old regime, an insignificant factor at the
outset, soon combined with the widespread agrarian distress,
due to the unjust distribution of land, the disastrous exploitation
of the soil, the actions of the government, and the severe winter
of 1788. Discontent showed itself in pillage and incendiarism on
country estates; between March and July 1789 more than three
hundred agrarian riots took place, uprooting the feudal idea of
property, already compromised by its own excesses. Not only
did pillaging take place; the boundaries or property were also
ignored, and people no longer held themselves bound to pay
taxes. These jacqueries hastened the movement of the regular
revolution.
The decrees of the 4th of August, proposed by those noble
" patriots " the due d'Aiguillon and the vicomte de Noailles,
who had already on the 23rd of June made armed
of "ht of resistance to the evacuation of the Hall of Assembly,
August*, put the final touch to the revolution begun by the
provincial assemblies, by liberating land and labour,
and proclaiming equality among all Frenchmen. Instead of
exasperating the demands of the peasants and workmen by
repression and raising civil war between the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat, they drew a distinction between personal servitude,
which was suppressed, and the rights of contract, which were
to be redeemed a laudable but impossible distinction. The
whole feudal system crumbled before the revolutionary in-
sistence of the peasants; for their masters, bourgeois or nobles,
terrified by prolonged riots, capitulated and gradually had to
consent to make the resolutions of the 4th of August a
reality.
Overjoyed by this social liberation, the Assembly awarded
Louis XVI. the title of " renewer of French liberty"; but
FJabora- remaining faithful to his hesitating policy of the
tioaofthe 23rd of June, he ratified the decrees of the 4th of
coastltu- August, only with a very ill grace. On the other hand,
tioa. jj e p r i v ii e g e d classes, and notably the clergy, who saw
the whole traditional structure of their power threatened, now
rallied to him, and when after the 28th of August the Assembly
set to work on the new constitution, they combined in the effort
to recover some of the position they had lost. But whatever
their theoretical agreement on social questions, politically they
were hopelessly at odds. The bourgeoisie, conscious of their
opportunity, decided for a single chamber against the will of the
noblesse; against that of the king they declared it permanent,
and, if they accorded him a suspensory veto, this was only in
order, to guard them against the extreme assertion of popular
rights. Thus the progress of the Revolution, so far, had left the
mass of the people still excluded from any constitutional influence
on the government, which was in the hands of the well-to-do
classes, which also controlled the National Guard and the munici-
palities. The irritation of the disfranchised proletariat was more-
over increased by the appalling dearness of bread and food
generally, which the suspicious temper of the times fomented by
the tirades of Marat in the Ami du peuple ascribed to English
intrigues in revenge for the aid given by France to the American
colonies, and to the treachery in high places that made these
intrigues successful. The climax came with the rumour that the
court was preparing a new military coup d'etat, a rumour that
seemed to be confirmed by indiscreet toasts proposed at a banquet
by the officers of the guard at Versailles; and on the night of
the 5th to the 6th of October a Parisian mob forced the king
and royal family to return with them to Paris amid cries of
" We are bringing the baker, the baker's wife and the little
baker's boy!" The Assembly followed; and henceforth king
and Assembly were more or less under the influence of the
whims and passions of a populace maddened by want and
suspicion, by the fanatical or unscrupulous incitements of
an unfettered press, and by the unrestrained oratory of
obscure demagogues in the streets, the cafes and the political
clubs.
Convened for the purpose of elaborating a system that should
conciliate all interests, the Assembly thus found itself forced
into a conflict between the views of the people, who feared
betrayal, and the court, which dreaded being overwhelmed.
This schism was reflected in the parties of the Assembly; the
absolutists of the extreme Right; the moderate monarchists
of the Right and Centre; the constitutionalists of the Left
Centre and Left; and, finally, on the extreme Left the democratic
revolutionists, among whom Robespierre sat as yet all but
unnoticed. Of talent there was enough and to spare in the
Assembly; what was conspicuously lacking was common sense
and a practical knowledge of affairs. Of all the orators who
declaimed from the tribune, Mirabeau alone realized the perils
of the situation and possessed the power of mind and will to
have mastered them. Unfortunately, however, he was dis-
credited by a disreputable past, and yet more by the equivocal
attitude he had to assume in order to maintain his authority
in the Assembly while working in what he believed to be the true
interests of the court. His political ideal for France was that
of the monarchy, rescued from all association with the abuses
of the old regime and " broad-based upon the people's will ";
his practical counsel was that the king should frankly proclaim
this ideal to the people as his own, should compete with the
Assembly for popular favour, while at the same time using
every means to win over those by whom his authority was
flouted. For a time Mirabeau influenced the counsels of the
court through the comte de Montmorin; but the king neither
trusted him nor could be brought to see his point of view, and
Marie Antoinette, though she resigned herself to negotiating
with him, was very far from sympathizing with his ideals.
Finally, all hope of the conduct of affairs being entrusted to him
was shattered when the Assembly passed a law forbidding its
members to become ministers.
The attempted reconciliation with the king having failed, the
Assembly ended by working alone, and made the control that
it should have exerted an instrument, not of co- D ec j ara .
operation but of strife. It inaugurated its legislative tionofthe
labours by a metaphysical declaration of the Rights rights ot
of Man and of the Citizen (October 2, 1789). This maa -
enunciation of universal verities, the bulk of which have, sooner
FRANCE
[HISTORY
or later, been accepted by all civilized nations as " the gospel
of modern times," was inspired by all the philosophy of the i8th
century in France and by the Central Social. It comprised
various rational and humane ideas, no longer theological, but
profoundly and deliberately thought out: ideas as to the
sovereign-right of the nation, law by general consent, man
superior to the pretensions of caste and the fetters of dogma,
the vindication of the ideal and of human dignity. Unable
to rest on historic precedent like England, the Constituent
Assembly took as the basis for its labours the tradition of the
thinkers.
Upon the principles proclaimed in this Declaration the con-
stitution of 1791 was founded. Its provisions are discussed else-
where (see the section below on Law and Institutions) ;
The here it will suffice to say that it established under the
C toa. M sovereign people, for the king was to survive merely
as the supreme executive official, a wholly new model
of government in France, both in Church and State. The
historic divisions of the realm were wiped out; for the old
provinces were substituted eighty-three departments; and
with the provinces vanished the whole organization, territorial,
administrative and ecclesiastical, of the ancien regime. In one
respect, indeed, the system of the old monarchy remained intact;
the tradition of centralization established by Louis XIV. was
.00 strong to be overthrown, and the destruction of the historic
privileges and immunities with which this had been ever in
conflict only served to strengthen this tendency. In 1791
France was pulverized into innumerable administrative atoms
incapable of cohesion; and the result was that Paris became
more than ever the brain and nerve-centre of France. This fact
was soon to be fatal to the new constitution, though the admini-
strative system established by it still survives. Paris was in
effect dominated by the armed and organized proletariat, and
this proletariat could never be satisfied with a settlement which,
while proclaiming the .sovereignty of the people, had, by means
of the property qualification for the franchise, established the
political ascendancy of the middle classes. The settlement had,
in fact, settled nothing; it had, indeed, merely intensified the
profound cleavage between the opposing tendencies; for if the
democrats were alienated by the narrow franchise, the Civil
Constitution of the Clergy, which cut at the very roots of
the Catholic system, drove into opposition to the Revolution
not only the clergy themselves but a vast number of their
flocks.
The policy of the Assembly, moreover, hopelessly aggravated
its misunderstanding with the king. Louis, indeed, accepted
the constitution and attended the great Feast of Federation
(July 14, 1790), when representatives from all the new depart-
ments assembled in the Champ de Mars to ratify the work of the
Assembly; but the king either could not or would not say the
expected word that would have dissipated mistrust. The Civil
Constitution of the Clergy, too, seemed to him not only to
violate his rights as a king, but his faith as a Christian also;
and when the emigration of the nobility and the death of Mirabeau
(April 2, 1791) had deprived him of his natural supporters and
his only adviser, resuming the old plan of withdrawing to the
army of the marquis de Bouille at Metz, he made his ill-fated
attempt to escape from Paris (June 20, 1791). The flight to
Varennes was an irreparable error; for during the king's absence
and until his return the insignificance of the royal power became
apparent. La Fayette's fusillade of the republicans, who
demanded the deposition of the king (July 17, 1791), led to a
definite split between the democratic party and the bourgeois
party. Vainly did Louis, brought back a captive to Paris, swear
on the I4th of September 1791 solemnly mere lip-service to the
constitution; the mistrustful party of revolution abandoned
the constitution they had only just obtained, and to guard
against the sovereign's mental reservations and the selfish policy
of the middle classes, appealed to the main force of the people.
The conflict between the ancien regime and the National Assembly
ended in the defeat of the royalists.
Through lassitude or disinterestedness the men of 1791, on
Robespierre's suggestion, had committed one last mistake, by
leaving the task of putting the constitution into
practice to new men even more inexperienced than J^* *'***
themselves. Thus the new Assembly's time was Assembly
occupied in a conflict between the Legislative Assembly (Oct. i,
and the king, who plotted against it; and, as a result,
the monarchy, insulted by the proceedings of the 2oth
of June, was eliminated altogether by those of the joth
of August 1792.
The new Assembly which had met on the ist of October 1791
had a majority favourable to the constitutional monarchy and
to the bourgeois franchise. But, among these bourgeois
those who were called Feuillants, from the name of parties.
their club (see FEUILLANTS, CLUB or THE), desired the
strict and loyal application of the constitution without encroach-
ing upon the authority of the king; the triumvirate, Duport,
Barnave and Lameth, were at the head of this party. The
Jacobins, on the contrary, considered that the king should
merely be hereditary president of the Republic, to be deposed
if he attempted to violate the constitution, and that universal
suffrage should be established. The dominant group among
these was that of the Girondins or Girondists, so called because
its most brilliant members had been elected in the Gironde
(see GIRONDISTS). But the republican party was more powerful
without than within. Their chief was not so much Robespierre,
president of the parliamentary and bourgeois club of the Jacobins
(q.v.), which had acquired by means of its two thousand affiliated
branches great power in the provinces as the advocate Danton,
president of the popular and Parisian club of the Cordeliers (q.v.).
Between the Feuillants and the Jacobins, the independents,
incapable of keeping to any fixed programme, vacillated some-
times to the right, sometimes to the left.
But the best allies of the republicans against the Feuillants
were the royalists pure and simple, who cared nothing about
the constitution, and claimed to " extract good from
the excess of evil." The election of a Jacobin, Petion,
instead of Bailly, the resigning mayor, and La Fayette,
the candidate for office, was their first achievement. The court,
on its side, showed little sign of a conciliatory spirit, though,
realizing its danger, it attempted to restrain the foolish violence
of the Emigres, i.e. the nobles who after the sup-
pression of titles of nobility in 1790 and the arrest f m igrf s .
of the king at Varennes, had fled in a body to Coblenz
and joined Louis XVI. 's brothers, the counts of Provence and
Artois. They it was who set in motion the national and European
conflict. Under the prince of Conde they had collected a little
army round Trier; and in concert with the " Austrian Committee "
of Paris they solicited the armed intervention of monarchical
Europe. The declaration of Pilnitz, which was but an excuse
for non-interference on the part of the emperor and the
king of Prussia, interested in the prolongation of these
internal troubles, was put forward by them as an
assurance of forthcoming support (August 27, 1791).
At the same time the application of the Civil Constitution of
the Clergy roused the whole of western La Vendee; and in face
of the danger threatened by the refractory clergy and by the
army of the emgires, the Girondins set about confounding the
court with the Feuillants in the minds of the public, and com-
promising Louis XVI. by a national agitation, denouncing him
as an accomplice of the foreigner. Owing to the decrees against
the comte de Provence, the emigrants, and the ^
refractory priests, voted by the Legislative Assembly acmes.
in November 1791, they forced Louis XVI. to show ,
his hand by using his veto, so tnat his complicity should be
plainly declared, to replace his Feuillant ministry disparate
in birth, opinions and ambitions by the Girond'in ministry of
Dumouriez-Roland (March 10), no more united than the other,
but believers in a republican crusade for the overthrow Thf wfri
of thrones, that of Louis XVI. first of all; and finally
to declare war against the king of Bohemia and Hungary, a step
also desired by the court in the hope of ridding itself of the
Assembly at the first note of victory (April 20, 1792).
HISTORY]
FRANCE
855
But when, owing to the disorganization of the army through
emigration and desertion, the ill-prepared Belgian war was
followed by invasion and the trouble in La Vendee
increased, all France suspected a betrayal. The
Juae20. Assembly, in order to reduce the number of hostile
forces, voted for the exile of all priests who had refused
to swear to the Civil Constitution and the substitution of a body
of twenty thousand volunteer national guards, underthe authority
of Paris for the king's constitutional guard (May 27 -June 8,
1792). Louis XVI. 's veto and the dismissal of the Girondin
ministry thanks to an intrigue of Dumouriez, analogous to
that of Mirabeau and as ineffectual dismayed the Feuillants and
maddened the Girondins; the latter, to avert popular fury,
turned it upon the king. The emeute of the 2oth of June, a
burlesque which, but for the persistent good-humour of Louis
XVI., might have become a tragedy, alarmed but did not
overthrow the monarchy.
The bourgeoisie, the Assembly, the country and La Fayette,
one of the leaders of the army, now embarked upon a royalist
reaction, which. would perhaps have been efficacious,
o/Bnins" nad ' li not been for tne entrv mto tne affair of the
wkk. Prussians as allies of the Austrians, and for the insolent
manifesto of the duke of Brunswick. The Assembly's
cry of " the country in danger " (July n) proved to the nation
that the king was incapable of defending France against the
foreigner; and the appeal of the federal volunteers in Paris
gave to the opposition, together with the war-song of the Mar-
seillaise, the army which had been refused by Louis XVI., now
disarmed. The vain attempts of the Gironde to reconcile the
king and the Revolution, the ill-advised decree of the Assembly
on the 8th of August, freeing La Fayette from his guilt in for-
saking his army; his refusal to vote for the deposition of the
king, and the suspected treachery of the court, led to the success
of the republican forces when, on the loth of August, the mob
of Paris organized by the revolutionary Commune rose against
the monarchy.
The suspension and imprisonment of the king left the supreme
authority nominally in the hands of the Assembly, but actually
Theiasur- * n those of the Commune, consisting of. delegates
rectionai from the administrative sections of Paris. Installed
commune a t the Hotel de Ville this attempted to influence the
otParis. discredited government, entered into conflict with
the Legislative Assembly, which considered its mission at
an end, and paralyzed the action of the executive council,
particularly during the bloody days of September, provoked
by the discovery of the court's intrigues with the foreigner,
The by the treachery of La Fayette, the capture of Longwy,
September the investiture of Verdun by the Prussians (August
mas- 19-30), and finally by the incendiary placards of Marat.
Danton, a master of diplomatic and military operations,
had to avoid any rupture with the Commune. Fortunately,
on the very day of the dispersal of the Legislative Assembly,
Dumouriez saved France from a Prussian invasion by the
victory of Valmy, and by unauthorized negotiations which
prefigured those of Bonaparte at Leoben (September 22,
1792).
The popular insurrection against Louis XVI. determined
the simultaneous fall of the bourgeois regime and the establish-
ment of the democracy in power. The Legislative Assembly,
without a mandate for modifying a constitution that had
become inapplicable with the suspension of the monarch, had
before disappearing convoked a National Convention, and as
the reward of the struggle for liberty had replaced the limited
franchise by universal suffrage. Public opinion became re-
publican from an excess of patriotism, and owing to the propa-
ganda of the Jacobin club; while the decree of the 2 5th of
August 1792, which marked the destruction of feudalism, now
abolished in principle, caused the peasants to rally definitely
to the Republic.
This had hardly been established before it became distracted
by the fratricidal strife of its adherents, from September 22,
1792, to the i8th Fructidor (September 4, 1797). The electoral
The
parties.
assemblies, in very great majority, had desired this Republic to
be democratic and equalizing in spirit, but on the face _
of it, liberal, uniform and propagandist; in conse- ve atioa,
quence, the 782 deputies of the Convention were not Sept. 21,
divided on principles, but only by personal rivalries I792 ~
and ambition. They all wished for a unanimity and I79 ' s '
harmony impossible to obtain; and being unable to
convince they destroyed one another.
The Girondins in the Convention played the part of the
Feuillants in the Legislative Assembly. Their party was not
well disciplined, they purposely refrained from making
it so, and hence their ruin. Oratorically they repre-
sented the spirit of the South; politically, the ideas
of the bourgeoisie in opposition to the democracy which they
despised although making use of it and the federalist system,
from an objection to the preponderance of Paris. Paris, on the
other hand, had elected only deputies of the Mountain, as the
more advanced of the Jacobins were called, that party being
no more settled and united than the others. They drew support
from the Parisian democracy, and considered the decentralization
of the Girondins as endangering France's unity, circumstances
demanding a strong and highly concentrated government;
they opposed a republic on the model of that of Rome to the
Polish republic of the Gironde. Between the two came the
Plaine, the Marais, the troop of trembling bourgeois, sincerely
attached to the Revolution, but very moderate in the defence
of their ideas; some seeking a refuge from their timidity in
hard-working committees, others partaking in the violence of
the Jacobins out of weakness or for reasons of state.
The Girondins were the first to take the lead; in order to
retain it they should have turned the Revolution into a govern-
ment. They remained an exclusive party, relying on
the mob but with no influence over it. Without a
leader or popular power, they might have found both
in Danton; for, occupied chiefly with the external danger, he
made advances towards them, which they repulsed, partly in
horror at the proceedings of September, but chiefly because they
saw in him the most formidable rival in the path of the govern-
ment. They waged war against him as relentlessly as did the
Constitutionalists against Mirabeau, whom he resembled in his
extreme ugliness and his volcanic eloquence. They drove him
into the arms of Robespierre, Marat and the Commune of Paris.
On the other hand, after the 2jrd of September they declared
Paris dangerous for the Convention, and wanted to reduce
it to " eighty-three influential members." Danton and the
Mountain responded by decreeing the unity and indivisibility
of the Republic, in order to emphasize the suspicions of federalism
which weighed upon the Girondins.
The trial of Louis XVI. still further enhanced the contrasts
of ideas and characters. The discovery of fresh proofs of treachery
in the iron chest (November 20, 1792) gave the Moun- Triaiand
tain a pretext for forcing on the clash of parties and death of
raising the question not of legality but of public safety. Louis
By the execution of the king (January 21, 1793) they
" cast down a king's head as a challenge to the kings of Europe."
In order to preserve popular favour and their direction of the
Republic, the Girondins had not dared to pronounce against
the sentence of death, but had demanded an appeal to the people
which was rejected; morally weakened by this equivocal attitude
they were still more so by foreign events.
The king's death did not result in the unanimity so much
desired by all parties; it only caused the reaction on themselves
of the hatred which had been hitherto concentrated
upon the king, and also an augmentation in the armies I L lrst
e . , . 1.* i i. i i i European
of the foreigner, which obliged the revolutionists to coalition.
face all Europe. There was a coalition of monarchs,
and the people of La Vendee rose in defence of their faith.
Dumpuriez, the conqueror of Jemappes (November 6, 1792),
who invaded Holland, was beaten by the Austrians (March 1 793) .
A levy of 300,000 men was ordered; a Committee of General
Security was charged with the search for suspects; and thence-
forward military occurrences called forth parliamentary crises
856
FRANCE
[HISTORY
Struggle
between
the com-
mune
tad the
Qlroade.
and popular upheavals. Girondins and Jacobins unjustly
accused one another of leaving the traitors, the conspirators,
the " stipendiaries of Coblenz " unpunished. To avert the
danger threatened by popular dissatisfaction, the Gironde was
persuaded to vote for the creation of a revolutionary tribunal
to judge suspects, while out of spite against Danton who de-
manded it, they refused the strong government which might have
made a stand against the enemy (March 10, 1 793) . This was the
first of the exceptional measures which were to call down ruin
upon them. Whilst the insurrection in La Vendee was spreading,
and Dumouriez falling back upon Neerwinden, sentence of death
was laid upon Emigres and refractory priests; the treachery of
Dumouriez, disappointed in his Belgian projects, gave grounds
First com- for a11 kinds * suspicion, as that of Mirabeau had
mMeeof formerly done, and led the Gironde to propose the
public new government which they had refused to Danton.
safety. -p^e transformation of the provisional executive council
into the Committee of Public Safety omnipotent save in financial
matters was voted because the Girondins meant to control it;
but Danton got the upper hand (April 6).
The Girondins, discredited in Paris, multiplied their attacks
upon Danton, now the master: they attributed the civil war
and the disasters of the foreign campaign to the
despotism of the Paris Commune and the clubs; they
accused Marat of instigating the September massacres;
and they began the supreme struggle by demanding the
election of a committee of twelve deputies, charged with
breaking up the anarchic authorities in Paris (May 18).
The complete success of the Girondin proposals; the arrest of
Hebert the violent editor of the Pert Duchhie; the insurrection
of the Girondins of Lyons against the Montagnard Commune;
the bad news from La Vendee the military reverses; and the
economic situation which had compelled the fixing of a maximum
price of corn (May 4) excited the " moral insurrections " of
May 31 and June 2. Marat himself sounded the tocsin, and
Hanriot, at the head of the Parisian army, surrounded the
Convention. Despite the efforts of Danton and the Committee
of Public Safety, the arrest of the Girondins sealed the victory
of the Mountain.
The threat of the Girondin Isnard was fulfilled. The federalist
insurrection, to avenge the violation of national representation,
responded to the Parisian insurrection. Sixty-nine
Fatt of departmental governments protested against the
'aironde. violence done to the Convention; but the ultra-
democratic constitution of 1 793 deprived the Girondins,
who were arming in the west, the south and the centre, of all legal
force. To the departments that were hostile to the dictatorship
of Paris, and the tyranny of Danton or Robespierre, it promised
the referendum, an executive of twenty-four citizens, universal
suffrage, and the free exercise of religion. The populace, who
could not understand this parliamentary quarrel, and were in a
hurry to set up a national defence, abandoned the Girondins, and
the latter excited the enthusiasm of only one person, Charlotte
Corday, who by the murder of Marat ruined them irretrievably.
The battle of Brecourt was a defeat without a fight for their
party without stamina and their general without troops (July
13); while on the 3ist of October their leaders perished on the
guillotine, where they had been preceded by the queen, Marie
Antoinette. The Girondins and their adversaries were differen-
tiated by neither religious dissensions nor political divergency,
but merely by a question of time. The Girondins, when in power,
had had scruples which had not troubled them while scaling the
ladder; idols of Paris, they had flattered her in turn, and when
Paris scorned them they sought support in the provinces. A
great responsibility for this defeat of the liberal and republican
bourgeoisie, whom they represented, is to be laid upon Madame
Roland, the Egeria of the party. An ardent patriot and re-
publican, her relations with Danton resembled those of Marie
Antoinette with Mirabeau, in each case a woman spoilt by
flattery, enraged at indifference. She was the ruin of the Gironde,
but taught it how to die.
The fall of the Gironde left the country disturbed by civil war,
and the frontiers more seriously threatened than before Valmy.
Bouchotte, a totally inefficient minister for war, the Commune's
man of straw, left the army without food or ammunition, while
the suspected officers remained inactive. In the Angevin
Vendee the incapable leaders let themselves be beaten at Aubiers,
Beaupreau and Thouars, at a time when Cathelineau was taking
possession of Saumur and threatening Nantes, the capture of
which would have permitted the insurgents in La Vendee to join
those of Brittany and receive provisions from England. Mean-
while, the remnants of the Girondin federalists were overcome
by the disguised royalists, who had aroused the whole of the
Rhone valley from Lyons to Marseilles, had called in the
Sardinians, and handed over the fleet and the arsenal at Toulon
to the English, whilst Paoli left Corsica at their disposal. The
scarcity of money due to the discrediting of the assignats, the
cessation of commerce, abroad and on the sea, and the bad
harvest of 1793, were added to all these dangers, and formed a
serious menace to France and the Convention.
This meant a hard task for the first Committee of Public Safety
and its chief Danton. He was the only one to understand the
conditions necessary to a firm government; he caused
the adjournment of the decentralizing constitution
of 1793, and set up a revolutionary government. The O tbe
Committee of Public Safety, now a permanency, first
annulled the Convention and was itself the central
authority, its organization in Paris being the twelve
committees substituted for the provisional executive
committee and the six ministers, the Committee of General
Security for the maintenance of the police, and the arbitrary
Revolutionary Tribunal. The execution of its orders in the
departments was carried out by omnipotent representatives
" on mission " in the armies, by popular societies veritable
missionaries of the Revolution and by the revolutionary
committees which were its backbone.
Despite this Reign of Terror Danton failed; he could neither
dominate foes within nor divide those without. Representing
the sane and vigorous democracy, and like Jefferson >
a friend to liberty and self-government, he had been /a //"" *
obliged to set up the most despotic of governments
in face of internal anarchy and foreign invasion. Being of a
temperament that expressed itself only in action, and neither
a theorist nor a cabinet-minister, he held the views of a statesman
without having a following sufficient to realize them. Moreover,
the proceedings of the and of June, when the Commune of Paris
had triumphed, had dealt him a mortal blow. He is his turn
tried to stem the tumultuous current which had borne him
along, and to prevent discord; but the check to his policy of
an understanding with Prussia and with Sardinia, to whom,
like Richelieu and D'Argenson, he offered the realization of her
transalpine ambition in exchange for Nice and Savoy, was
added to the failure of his temporizing methods in regard to the
federalist insurgents, and of his military operations against
La Vendee. A man of action and not of cunning shifts, he
succumbed on the loth of July to the blows of his own govern-
ment, which had passed from his hands into those of Robespierre,
his ambitious and crafty rival.
The second Committee of Public Safety lasted until the
27th of July 1794. Composed of twelve members, re-eligible
every month, and dominated by the triumvirate, second
Robespierre, Saint-Just and Couthon, it was stronger committee
than ever, since it obtained the right of appointing ^?" w/c
leaders, disposed of money, and muzzled the press.
Many of its members were sons of the bourgeoisie, men who
having been educated at college, thanks to some charitable
agency, in the pride of learning, and raised above their original
station, were ready for anything but had achieved nothing.
They had plenty of talent at command, were full of classical
tirades against tyranny, and, though sensitive enough in their
private life, were bloodthirsty butchers in their public relations.
Such were Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couthon, Billaud-Varenne,
Cambon, Thuriot, Collot d'Herbois, Barrere and Prieur de
la Marne. Working hand in hand with these politicians, not
HISTORY]
FRANCE
857
always in accordance with them, but preserving a solid front,
were the specialists, Carnot, Robert Lindet, Jean Bon Saint-
Andre and Prieur de la Cote d'Or, honourable men, anxious
above all to safeguard their country. At the head of the former
type Robespierre, without special knowledge or exceptional
talent, devoured by jealous ambition and gifted with cold grave
eloquence, enjoyed a great moral ascendancy, due to his in-
corruptible purity of life and the invariably correct behaviour
that had been wanting in Mirabeau, and by the persevering will
which Danton had lacked. His marching orders were: no more
temporizing with the federalists or with generals who are afraid of
conquering; war to the death with all Europe in the name of re-
volutionary propaganda and the monarchical tradition of natural
frontiers; and fear, as a means of government. The specialists
answered foreign foes by their organization of victory; as for foes
at home, the triumvirate crushed them beneath the Terror.
France was saved by them and by that admirable outburst
of patriotism which provided 750,000 patriots for the army
through the general levy of the i6th of August 1793,
Defeat of a j ( j e( j i moreover, by the mistakes of her enemies.
coalition. Instead of profiting by Dumouriez's treachery and
the successes in La Vendee, the Coalition, divided
over the resuscitated Polish question, lost time on the frontiers
of this new Poland of the west which was sacrificing itself for
the sake of a Universal Republic. Thus in January 1794 the
territory of France was cleared of the Prussians and Austrians
by the victories at Hondschoote, Wattignies and Wissembourg;
the army of La Vendee was repulsed from Granville, over-
whelmed by Hoche's army at Le Mans and Savenay, and
its leaders shot; royalist sedition was suppressed at Lyons,
Bordeaux, Marseilles and Toulon; federalist insurrections
were wiped out by the terrible massacres of Carrier at Nantes,
the atrocities of Lebon at Arras, and the wholesale executions
of Fouche and Collot d'Herbois at Lyons; Louis XVI. and
Marie Antoinette guillotined, the emigres dispersed, denied or
forsaken by all Europe.
But the triumphant Mountain was not as united as it boasted.
The second Committee of Public Safety had now to struggle
against two oppositions: one of the left, represented
parties. ^y Hebert, the Commune of Paris and .the Cordeliers;
another of the right, Danton and his followers. The
former would not admit that the Terror was only a temporary
method of defence; for them it was a permanent system which
was even to be strengthened in order to crush all who were
hostile to the Revolution. Their sanguinary violence was com-
bined with an anti-religious policy, not atheistical, but inspired
by mistrust of the clergy, and by a civic and deistic creed that
was a direct outcome of the federations. To these latter were
due the substitution of the Republican for the Gregorian calendar,
and the secular Feasts of Reason (November 19, 1793). The
followers of Hebert wanted to push forward the movement of
May 31, 1793, in order to become masters in their turn; while
those of Danton were by way of arresting it. They considered it
time to re-establish the reign of ordinary laws and
J ust ' ce ! s ' c k f bloodshed, with Camille Desmoulins
. they demanded a " Committee of Clemency." A
deist and therefore hostile to "anti-religious masque-
rades," while uneasy at the absolute authority of the Paris
Commune, which aimed at suppressing the State, and at its
armed . propaganda abroad, Robespierre resumed the struggle
against its illegal power, so fatal to the Gironde. His boldness
succeeded (March 24, 1794), and then, jealous of Danton's
activity and statesmanship, and exasperated by the jeers of his
friends, he rid himself of the party of tolerance by a parody
of justice (April 5).
Robespierre now stood alone. During five months, while
affecting to be the representative of " a reign of justice and
Robes- virtue," he laboured at strengthening his politico-
piem's religious dictatorship already so formidably armed
dictator- with new powers. " The incorruptible wanted to
**** become the invulnerable" and the scaffold of the
guillotine was crowded. By his dogma of the supreme state
Robespierre founded a theocratic government with the police
as an Inquisition. The festival of the new doctrine, which
turned the head of the new pontiff (June 8), the loi de Prairial,
or " code of legal murder " (June 10), which gave the deputies
themselves into his hand; and the multiplication of executions
at a time when the victory of Fleurus (June 25) showed the
uselessness and barbarity of this aggravation of the Reign of
Terror provoked against him the victorious coalition of revenge,
lassitude and fear. Vanquished and imprisoned, he
refused to take part in the illegal action proposed
by the Commune against the Convention. Robespierre
was no man of action. On the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794)
he fell into the gulf that had opened on the 3ist of May, and
through which the i8th Brumaire was visible.
Although brought about by the Terrorists, the tragic fall of
Robespierre put an end to the Reign of Terror; for their chiefs
having disappeared, the subordinates were too much Thlrd
divided to keep up the dictatorship of the third committee
Committee of Public Safety, and reaction soon set in. of public
After a change in personnel in favour of the surviving saiety -
Dantonists, came a limitation to the powers of the Committee
of Public Safety, now placed in dependence upon the Convention;
and next followed the destruction of the revolutionary system,
the Girondin decentralization and the resuscitation of depart-
mental governments; the reform of the Revolutionary Tribunal
on the loth of August; the suppression of the Commune of
Paris on the ist of September, and of the salary of forty sous
given to members of the sections; the abolition of the maximum,
the suppression of the Guillotine, the opening of the prisons,
the closing of the Jacobin club (November ji), and the hence-
forward insignificant existence of the popular societies.
Power reverted to the Girondins and Dantonists, who re-
entered the Convention on the i8th of December; but with
them re-entered likewise the royalists of Lyons, ff esusclta .
Marseilles and Toulon, and further, after the peace of tion of the
Basel, many young men set free from the army, hostile royalist
to the Jacobins and defenders of the now moderate t> art y-
and peace-making Convention. These muscodins and in-
croyables, led by Freron, Tallien and Barras former revolu-
tionists who had become aristocrats profited by the restored
liberty of the press to prepare for days of battle in the salons
of the merveilleuses Madame Tallien, Madame de Stael and
Madame Recamier, as the sans-culottes had formerly done in
the clubs. The remnants of Robespierre's faction became
alarmed at this Thermidor reaction, in which they scented
royalism. Aided by famine, by the suppression of the maximum,
and by the imminent bankruptcy of the assignats, they en-
deavoured to arouse the working classes and the former Hanriot
companies against a government which was trying to destroy the
republic, and had broken the busts of Marat and guillotined
Carrier and Fouquier-Tinville, the former public prosecutor.
Thus the risings of the i2th Germinal (April i, 1795) _
and of the ist Prairial (May 20) were economic revolts rteingsfof
rather than insurrections excited by the deputies of the Germinal
Mountain; in order to suppress them the reactionaries a d
called in the army. Owing to this first intervention
of the troops in politics, the Committee of Public Safety, which
aimed not so much at a moderate policy as at steering a middle
course between the Thermidorians of the Right and of the Left,
was able to dispense with the latter.
The royalists now supposed that their hour had come. In
the south, the companions of Jehu and of the Sun inaugurated
a " White Terror," which had not even the apparent
excuse of the public safety or of exasperated patriotism. n
At the same time they prepared for a twofold in- terror.
surrection against the republic in the west with the
help of England, and in the east with that of Austria by an
attempt to bribe General Pichegru. But though the heads of
the government wanted to put an end to the Revolution they had
no thought of restoring the monarchy in favour of the Comte de
Provence, who had taken the title of Louis XVIII. on hearing
of the death of the dauphin in the Temple, and still less of bringing
858
FRANCE
[HISTORY
the con-
vention.
back the ancien regime. Hoche crushed the insurrection of the
Chouans and the Bretons at Quiberon on the 2nd of July 1795,
and Pichegru, scared, refused to entangle himself any further.
To cut off all danger from royalists or terrorists the Convention
now voted the Constitution of the year III.; suppressing that
of 1793, in order to counteract the terrorists, and'
stituiion re-establishing the bourgeois limited franchise with
of the election in two degrees a less liberal arrangement than
year in. t jj at gran ted from 1 789 to 1 792. The chambers of the
Five Hundred and of the Ancients were elected by the moneyed
and intellectual aristocracy, and were to be re-elected by thirds
annually. The executive authority, entrusted to five Directors,
was no more than a definite and very strong Committee of Public
Safety; but Sieyes, the author of the new constitution, in opposi-
tion to the royalists, had secured places of refuge for his party
by reserving posts as directors for the regicides, and two-thirds
of the deputies' seats for members of the Convention. In self-
defence against this continuance of the policy and the
The 13th personnel of the Convention a modern " Long Parlia-
ment " tne royalists, persistent street-fighters and
masters in the " sections " after the suppression of
the daily indemnification of forty sous, attempted the insurrection
of the i3th Vendemiaire (October 5, 1795), which was easily
put down by General Bonaparte.
Thus the bourgeois republic reaped the fruits of its predecessor's
external policy. After the freeing of the land in January 1794
.,..., an impulse had been given to the spirit of conquestwhich
achieve- had gradually succeeded to the disinterested fever of
mentsnf propaganda and overheated patriotism. This it was
which had sustained Robespierre's dictatorship; and,
owing to the " amalgam " and the re-establishment of
discipline, Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine had been con-
quered and Holland occupied, simultaneously with Kosciusko's
rising in Poland, Prussia's necessity of keeping and extending
her Polish acquisitions, Robespierre's death, the prevalent
desires of the majority, and the continued victories of Pichegru,
Jourdan and Moreau, enfeebled the coalition. At Basel (April-
July 1795) republican France, having rejoined the
concert of Europe, signed the long-awaited peace with
Prussia, Spain, Holland and the grand-duke of Tuscany.
But thanks to the past influence of the Girondin party, who
had caused the war, and of the regicides of the Mountain, this
peace not only ratified the conquest of Belgium, the left bank
of the Rhine and Santo Domingo, but paved the way for fresh
conquests; for the old spirit of domination and persistent
hostility to Austria attracted the destinies of the Revolution
definitely towards war.
The work of internal construction amidst this continued battle
against the whole world had been no less remarkable. The
Constituent Assembly had been more destructive than
'"IT""' constructive; but the Convention preserved intact
meats'" those fundamental principles of civil liberty which
had been the main results of the Revolution: the
equality so dear to the French, and the sovereignty of the
people the foundation of democracy. It also managed to
engage private interests in state reform by creating the Grand
Livre de la Dette Publique (September 13-26, 1793), and enlisted
peasant and bourgeois savings in social reforms by the distribu-
tion and sale of national property. But with views reaching
beyond equality of rights to a certain equality of property, the
committees, as regards legislation, poor relief and instruction,
laid down principles which have never been realized, save in
the matter of the metric system; so that the Convention which
was dispersed on the i6th of October 1795 made a greater
impression on political history and social ideas than on institu-
tions. Its disappearance left a great blank.
During four years the Directory attempted to fill this blank.
Being the outcome of the Constitution of the year III., it should
The ^ ave k een tne organizing and pacifying government
Directory. ^ tne Republic; in reality it sought not to create, but
to preserve its own existence. Its internal weakness,
between the danger of anarchy and the opposition of the monar-
chists, was extreme; and it soon became discredited by its own
coups d'etat and by financial impotence in the eyes of a nation
sick of revolution, aspiring towards peace and the resumption
of economic undertakings. As to foreign affairs, its aggressive
policy imperilled the conquests that had been the glory of the
Convention, and caused the frontiers of France, the defence of
which had been a point of honour with the Republic, to be called
in question. Finally, there was no real government on the part
of the five directors: La Revelliere-Lepeaux, an honest man
but weak; Reubell, the negotiator of the Hague; Letourneur,
an officer of talent; Barras, a man of intrigue, corrupt and
without real convictions; and Carnot, the only really worthy
member. They never understood one another, and never con-
sulted together in hours of danger, save to embroil matters in
politics as in war. Leaning on the bourgeois, conservative,
liberal and anti-clerical republicans, they were no more able
than was the Thermidor party to re-establish the freedom that
had been suspended by revolutionary despotism; they created
a ministry of police, interdicted the clubs and popular societies,
distracted the press, and with partiality undertook the separation
of Church and State voted on the i8th of September 1794.
Their real defence against counter revolution was the army;
but, by a further contradiction, they reinforced the army attached
to the Revolution while -seeking an alliance with the peace-
making bourgeoisie. Their party had therefore no more homo-
geneity than had their policy.
Moreover the Directory could not govern alone; it had to
rely upon two other parties, according to circumstances: the
republican-democrats and the disguised royalists.'
The former, purely anti-royalist, thought only of parties
remedying the sufferings of the people. Roused by
the collapse of the assignats, following upon the ruin of industry
and the arrest of commerce, they were still further exasperated
by the speculations of the financiers, by the jobbery which
prevailed throughout the administration, and by the sale of
national property which had profited hardly any but the
bourgeoisie. After the i3th Vendemiaire the royalists too,
deceived in their hopes, were expecting to return gradually to
the councils, thanks to the high property qualification for the
franchise. Under the name of " moderates " they demanded
an end to this war which England continued and Austria
threatened to recommence, and that the Directory from self-
interested motives refused to conclude; they desired the
abandonment of revolutionary proceedings, order in finance
and religious peace.
The Directory, then, was in a minority in the country, and
had to be ever on the alert against faction; all possible methods
seemed legitimate, and during two years appeared struggle
successful. Order was maintained in France, even the against
royalist west being pacified, thanks to Hoche, who the
finished his victorious campaign of 1796 against m y aas **-
Stofflet, Charette and Cadoudal, by using mild and just measures
to complete the subjection of the country. The greatest danger
lay in the republican-democrats and their socialist ally, Francois
Noel (" Gracchus ") Babeuf (q.v.). The former had united the
Jacobins and the more violent members of the Conven-
tion in their club, the Societe du Pantheon; and
their fusion, after the closing of the club, with the there-
secret society of the Babouvists lent formidable publican-
strength to this party, with which Barras was secretly *J^ a "
in league. The terrorist party, deprived of its head, soc iaiists.
had found a new leader, who, by developing the
consequences of the Revolution's acts to their logical con-
clusion, gave first expression to the levelling principle of com-
munism. He proclaimed the right of property as appertain-
ing to the state, that is, to the whole community; Babeuf
the doctrine of equality as absolutely opposed to social
inequality of any kind that of property as well as that of rank;
and finally the inadequacy of the solution of the agrarian question,
which had profited scarcely any one, save a new class of privileged
individuals. But these socialist demands were premature;
the attack of the camp of Crenelle upon constitutional order
HISTORY]
FRANCE
859
ended merely in the arrest and guillotining of Babeuf (September
9, i790-May 25, 1797).
The liquidation of the financial inheritance of the Convention
was no less difficult. The successive issues of assignats, and the
Financial multiplication of counterfeits made abroad, had so
policy depreciated this paper money that an assignat of 100
of the francs was in February 1796 worth only 30 centimes;
ory ' while the government, obliged to accept them at their
nominal value, no longer collected any taxes and could not pay
salaries. The destruction of the plate for printing assignats,
on the i8th of February 1796, did not prevent the drop in the
forty milliards still in circulation. Territorial mandates were
now tried, which inspired no greater confidence, but served to
liquidate two-thirds of the debt, the remaining third being con-
solidated by its dependence on the Grand Livre (September 30,
1797). This widespread bankruptcy, falling chiefly on the
bourgeoisie, inaugurated a reaction which lasted until 1830
against the chief principle of the Constituent Assembly, which
had favoured indirect taxation as producing a large sum without
imposing any very obvious burden. The bureaucrats of the old
system having returned to their offices and being used to these
indirect taxes lent their assistance, and thus the Directory was
enabled to maintain its struggle against the Coalition.
All system in finance having disappeared, war provided the
Directory, now in extremis, with a treasury, and was its only
source for supplying constitutional needs; while it
f alley"' 1 opened a path to the military commanders who were
to be the support and the glory of the state. England
remaining invulnerable in her insular position despite Heche's
attempt to land in Ireland in 1796, the Directory resumed the
traditional policy against Austria of conquering the natural
frontiers, Carnot furnishing the plans; hence the war in southern
Germany, in which Jourdan and Moreau were repulsed by an
inferior force under the archduke Charles, and Bonaparte's
triumphant Italian campaign. Chief of an army that he had
made irresistible, not by honour but by glory, and master of
wealth by rapine, Bonaparte imposed his will upon the Directory,
which he provided with funds. After having separated the Pied-
montese from the Austrians, whom he drove back into Tyrol, and
repulsed offensive reprisals of Wurmser and Alvinzi on four occa-
sions, he stopped short at the preliminary negotiations of Leoben
just at the moment when the Directory, discouraged by the
problem of Italian reconstitution, was preparing the army of the
Rhine to re-enter the field under the command of Hoche. Bona-
parte thus gained the good opinion of peace-loving Frenchmen;
he partitioned Venetian territory with Austria, contrary to French
interests but conformably with his own in Italy, and henceforward
was the decisive factor in French and European policy, like
Caesar or Pompey of old. England, in consternation, offered
in her turn to negotiate at Lille.
These military successes did not prevent the Directory, like
the Thermidorians, from losing ground in the country. Every
Struggle strategic truce since 1795 had been marked by a political
against crisis; peace reawakened opposition. The constitu-
the tional party, royalist in reality, had made alarming
royalists. p rO g resS; chiefly owing to the Babouvist conspiracy ;
they now tried to corrupt the republican generals, and Conde
procured the treachery of Pichegru, Kellermann and General
Ferrand at Besancon. Moreover, their Clichy club, directed
by the abbe Brottier, manipulated Parisian opinion; while
many of the refractory priests, having returned after the liberal
Public Worship Act of September 1795, made active propaganda
against the principles of the Revolution, and plotted the fall
of the Directory as maintaining the State's independence of the
Church. Thus the partial elections of the year V. (May 20,
1797) had brought back into the two councils a counter-revolu-
tionary majority of royalists, constitutionalists of 1791, Catholics
and moderates. The Director Letourneur had been replaced
by Barthelemy, who had negotiated the treaty of Basel and was
a constitutional monarchist. So that the executive not only
found it impossible to govern, owing to the opposition of the
councils and a vehement press-campaign, but was distracted
by ceaseless internal conflict. Carnot and Barthelemy wished
to meet ecclesiastical opposition by legal measures only, and
demanded peace; while Barras, La Revelliere and Reubell
saw no other remedy save military force. The attempt of the
counter-revolutionaries to make an army for themselves out of
the guard of the Legislative Assembly, and the success of the
Catholics, who had managed at the end of August 1797 to repeal
the laws against refractory priests, determined the Directory
to appeal from the rebellious parliament to the ready swords of
Augereau and Bernadotte. On the i8th Fructidor (September
4, 1797) Bonaparte's lieutenants, backed up by the
whole army, stopped the elections in forty-nine
departments, and deported to Guiana many deputies
of both councils, journalists and non-juring priests, as
well as the director Barthelemy, though Carnot escaped into
Switzerland. The royalist party was once more overthrown,
but with it the republican constitution itself. Thus every act
of violence still further confirmed the new empire of the army
and the defeat of principles, preparing the way for military
despotism.
Political and financial coups d'etat were not enough for the
directors. In order to win back public opinion, tired of inter-
necine quarrels and sickened by the scandalous Aggressive
immorality of the generals and of those in power, policy
and to remove from Paris an army which after having of the
given them a fresh lease of life was now a menace to Dlrectof y-
them, war appeared their only hopeful course. They attempted
to renew the designs of Louis XIV. and anticipate those of
Napoleon. But Bonaparte saw what they were planning; and
to the rupture of the negotiations at Lille and an order for the
resumption of hostilities he responded by a fresh act of dis-
obedience and the infliction on the Directory of the peace of
Campo-Formio, on October 17, 1797. The directors were con-
soled for this enforced peace by acquiring the left bank of the
Rhine and Belgium, and for the forfeiture of republican principles
by attaining what had for so long been the ambition of the
monarchy. But the army continued a menace. To avoid
disbanding it, which might, as after the peace of Basel, have
given the counter-revolution further auxiliaries, the Directory
appointed Bonaparte chief of the Army of England, and employed
Jourdan to revise the conscription laws so as to make military
service a permanent duty of the citizen, since war was now to be
the permanent object of policy. The Directory finally conceived
the gigantic project of bolstering up the French Republic the
triumph of which was celebrated by the peace of Campo-Formio
by forming the neighbouring weak states into tributary
vassal republics. This system had already been applied to the
Batavian republic in 1795, to the Ligurian and Cisalpine republics
in June 1797; it was extended to that of Miilhausen on the 28th
of January 1798, to the Roman republic in February, to the
Helvetian in April, while the Parthenopaean republic (Naples)
was to be established in 1 799. This was an international coup de
force, which presupposed that all these nations in whose eyes
independence was flaunted would make no claim to enjoy it;
that though they had been beaten and pillaged they would not
learn to conquer in their turn; and that the king of Sardinia,
dispossessed of Milan, the grand-duke of Tuscany who had
given refuge to the pope when driven from Rome, and the
king of Naples, who had opened his ports to Nelson's fleet,
would not find allies to make a stand against this hypocritical
system.
What happened was exactly the contrary. Meanwhile, the
armies were kept in perpetual motion, procuring money for the
impecunious Directory, making a diversion for internal Coup
discontent, and also permitting of a "reversed d'etat of.
Fructidor," against the anarchists, who had got the the 22nd
upper hand in the partial elections of May 1798.
The social danger was averted in its turn after the clerical
danger had been dissipated. The next task was to relieve
Paris of Bonaparte, who had already refused to repeat
Hoche's unhappy expedition to Ireland and to attack England
at home without either money or a navy. The pecuniary
86o
FRANCE
[HISTORY
resources of Berne and the wealth of Rome fortunately tided
over the financial difficulty and provided for the expedi-
tion to Egypt, which permitted Bonaparte to wait
" for the fruit to ripen "i.e. till the Directory
should be ruined in the eyes of France and of all
Europe. The disaster of Aboukir (August i, 1798) speedily
decided the coalition pending between England, Austria, the
Empire, Portugal, Naples, Russia and Turkey. The Directory
had to make a stand or perish, and with it the Republic. The
directors had thought France might retain a monopoly
The in numbers and in initiative. They soon perceived
tnat enthusiasm is not as great for a war of policy
and conquest as for a war of national defence; and
the army dwindled, since a country cannot bleed itself to death.
The law of conscription was voted on the 5th of September 1798;
and the tragedy of Rastadt, where the French commissioners
were assassinated, was the opening of a war, desired but ill-
prepared for, in which the Directory showed hesitation in
strategy and incoherence in tactics, over a disproportionate
area in Germany, Switzerland and Italy. Military reverses
were inevitable, and responsibility for them could not be shirked.
As though shattered by a reverberant echo from the cannon of
the Trebbia, the Directory crumbled to pieces, succumbing
on the i8th of June 1799 beneath the reprobation showered on
Treilhard, Merlin de Douai, and La Revelliere-Lepeaux. A
few more military disasters, royalist insurrections in the south,
Chouan disturbances in Normandy, Orleanist intrigues and the
end came. To soothe the populace and protect the frontier
more was required than the resumption, as in all grave crises of
the Revolution, of terrorist measures such as forced taxation
or the law of hostages; the new Directory, Sieyes presiding,
saw that for the indispensable revision of the constitution
"a head and a sword " were needed. Moreau being unattainable,
Joubert was to be the sword of Sieyes; but, when he was
killed at the battle of Novi, the sword of the Revolution fell
into the hands of Bonaparte.
Although Brune and Massena retrieved the fight at Bergen
and Zurich, and although the Allies lingered on the frontier as
they had done after Valmy, still the fortunes of the
Directory were not restored. Success was reserved
for Bonaparte, suddenly landing at Frejus with the
prestige of his victories in the East, and now, after
Hoche's death, appearing as sole master of the armies.
He manoeuvred among the parties as on the I3th Vende-
miaire. On the i8th Brumaire of the year VIII. France and
the army fell together at his feet. By a twofold coup d'etat,
parliamentary and military, he culled the fruits of the Directory's
systematic aggression and unpopularity, and realized the
universal desires of the rich bourgeoisie, tired of warfare; of
the wretched populace; of landholders, afraid of a return to the
old order of things; of royalists, who looked upon Bonaparte
as a future Monk; of priests and their people, who hoped for an
indulgent treatment of Catholicism; and finally of the immense
majority of the French, who love to be ruled and for long had
had no efficient government. There was hardly any one to defend
a liberty which they had never known. France had, indeed,
remained monarchist at heart for all her revolutionary appear-
ance; and Bonaparte added but a name, though an illustrious
one, to the series of national or local dictatorships, which, after
the departure of the weak Louis XVI., had maintained a sort
of informal republican royalty.
On the night of the igth Brumaire a mere ghost of an
Assembly abolished the constitution of the year III., ordained
the provisionary Consulate, and legalized the coup
d'etat in favour of Bonaparte. A striking and singular
event; for the history of France and a great part
of Europe was now for fifteen years to be summed
up in the person of a single man (see NAPOLEON).
This night of Brumaire, however, seemed to be a victory for
Sieyes rather than for Bonaparte. He it was who originated
the project which the legislative commissions, charged with
elaborating the new constitution, had to discuss. Bonaparte's
Coup
d'etat of
the 18th
Brumaire.
The Con-
sulate,
Sept. 11,
1799-May
18, 1804.
cleverness lay in opposing Daunou's plan to that of Sieyes, and
in retaining only those portions of both which could serve his
ambition. Parliamentary institutions annulled by the The mn _
complication of three assemblies the Council of State stitution
which drafted bills, the Tribunate which discussed of the
them without voting them, and the Legislative year vm '
Assembly which voted them without discussing them; popular
suffrage, mutilated by the lists of notables (on which the members
of the Assemblies were to be chosen by the conservative senate) ;
and the triple executive authority of the consuls, elected for ten
years: all these semblances of constitutional authority were
adopted by Bonaparte. But he abolished the post of Grand
Elector, which Sieyes had reserved for himself, in order to
reinforce the real authority of the First Consul himself by
leaving the two other consuls, Cambaceres and Lebrun, as well as
the Assemblies, equally weak. Thus the aristocratic constitution
of Sieyes was transformed into an unavowed dictatorship, a
public ratification of which the First Consul obtained by a third
coup d'tlat from the intimidated and yet reassured electors
reassured by his dazzling but unconvincing offers of peace to the
victorious Coalition (which repulsed them), by the rapid dis-
armament of La Vendee, and by the proclamations in which
he filled the ears of the infatuated people with the new talk of
stability of government, order, justice and moderation. He gave
every one a feeling that France was governed once more by a
real statesman, that a pilot was at the helm.
Bonaparte had now to rid himself of Sieyes and those re-
publicans who had no desire to hand over the republic to one
man, particularly of Moreau and Massena, his military rivals.
The victory of Marengo (June 14, 1800) momentarily in the
balance, but secured by Desaix and Kellermann, offered a further
opportunity to his jealous ambition by increasing his popularity.
The royalist plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise (December 24, 1800)
allowed him to make a clean sweep of the democratic republicans,
who despite their innocence were deported to Guiana, and to
annul Assemblies that were a mere show by making the senate
omnipotent in constitutional matters; but it was necessary
for him to transform this deceptive truce into the general
pacification so ardently desired for the last eight years. The
treaty of Luneville, signed in February 1801 with Austria who
had been disarmed by Moreau's victory at Hohenlinden, restored
peace to the continent, gave nearly the whole of Italy to France,
and permitted Bonaparte to eliminate from the Assemblies
all the leaders of the opposition in the discussion of the Civil
Code. The Concordat (July 1801), drawn up not in the Church's
interest but in that of his own policy, by giving satisfaction
to the religious feeling of the country, allowed him to put down
the constitutional democratic Church, to rally round him the
consciences of the peasants, and above all to deprive the royalists
of their best weapon. The " Articles Organiques " hid from
the eyes of his companions in arms and councillors a reaction
which, in fact if not in law, restored to a submissive Church,
despoiled of her revenues, her position as the religion of the state.
The peace of Amiens with England (March 1802),
of which France's allies, Spain and Holland, paid all
the costs, finally gave the peacemaker a pretext for
endowing himself with a Consulate, not for ten years but for life,
as a recompense from the nation. The Rubicon was crossed
on that day: Bonaparte's march to empire began with the
constitution of the year X. (August 1802).
Before all things it was now necessary to reorganize France,
ravaged as she was by the Revolution, and with her institutions
in a state of utter corruption. The touch of the master
was at once revealed to all the foreigners who rushed ^^jan/-
to gaze at the man about whom, after so many cata- Z atioa.
strophesandstrangeadventures, Paris, "la villelumiere,"
and all Europe were talking. First of all, Louis XV.'s system
of roads was improved and that of Louis XVI. 's canals developed;
then industry put its shoulder to the wheel; order and discipline
were re-established everywhere, from the frontiers to the capital,
and brigandage suppressed: and finally there was Paris, the
city of cities! Everything was in process of transformation:
HISTORY]
FRANCE
861
a second Rome was arising, with its forum, its triumphal arches,
its shows and parades; and in this new Rome of a new Caesar
fancy, elegance and luxury, a radiance of art and learning
from the age of Pericles, and masterpieces rifled from the Nether-
lands, Italy and Egypt illustrated the consular peace. The
Man of Destiny renewed the course of time. He borrowed from
the ancien regime its plenipotentiaries;' its over-centralized,
strictly utilitarian administrative and bureaucratic methods;
and afterwards, in order to bring them into line, the subservient
pedantic scholasticism of its university. On the basis laid down
by the Constituent Assembly and the Convention he constructed
or consolidated the funds necessary for national institutions,
local governments, a judiciary system, organs of finance, banking,
codes, traditions of conscientious well-disciplined labour, and
in short all the organization which for three-quarters of a century
was to maintain and regulate the concentrated activity of the
French nation (see the section Law and Institutions). Peace and
order helped to raise the standard of comfort. Provisions, in
this Paris which had so often suffered from hunger and thirst,
and lacked fire and light, had become cheap and abundant;
while trade prospered and wages ran high. The pomp and
luxury of the nouveaux riches were displayed in the salons of the
good Josephine, the beautiful Madame Tallien, and the " divine "
Juliette Recamier.
But the republicans, and above all the military, saw in all this
little but the fetters of system; the wily despotism, the bullying
The re- police, the prostration before authority, the sympathy
publican lavished on royalists, the recall of the emigres, the
opposi- contempt for the Assemblies, the purification of the
tioa. Tribunate, the platitudes of the servile Senate, the
silence of the press. In the formidable machinery of state, above
all in the creation of the Legion of Honour, the Concordat, and
the restoration of indirect taxes, they saw the rout of the Revolu-
tion. But the expulsion of persons like Benjamin Constant
and Madame de Stael sufficed to quell this Fronde of the salons.
The expedition to San Domingo reduced the republican army
to a nullity; war demoralized or scattered the leaders, who were
jealous of their " comrade " Bonaparte; and Moreau, the last
of his rivals, cleverly compromised in a royalist plot, as Danton
had formerly been by Robespierre, disappeared into exile. In
contradistinction to this opposition of senators and republican
generals, the immense mass of the people received the ineffaceable
impression of Bonaparte's superiority. No suggestion of the
possibility of his death was tolerated, of a crime which might
cut short his career. The conspiracy of Cadoudal and Pichegru,
after Bonaparte's refusal to give place to Louis XVIII., and the
political execution of the due d'Enghien, provoked an outburst
of adulation, of which Bonaparte took advantage to put the
crowning touch to his ambitious dream.
The decision of the senate on the i8th of May 1804, giving
him the title of emperor, was the counterblast to the dread
he had excited. Thenceforward " the brow of the
emperor" emperor broke through the thin mask of the First
May 18, Consul." Never did a harder master ordain more
l804 ' imperiously, nor understand better how to command
obedience. " This was because," as Goethe said,
" under his orders men were sure of accomplishing
their ends. That is why they rallied round him, as one to inspire
them with that kind of certainty." Indeed no man ever con-
centrated authority to such a point, nor showed mental abilities
at all comparable to his: an extraordinary power of work,
prodigious memory for details and fine judgment in their selec-
tion; together with a luminous decision and a simple and rapid
conception, all placed at the disposal of a sovereign will. No
head of the state gave expression more imperiously than this
Italian to the popular passions of the French of that day:
abhorrence for the emigrant nobility, fear of the ancien regime,
dislike of foreigners, hatred of England, an appetite for conquest
evoked by revolutionary propaganda, and the love of glory.
In this Napoleon was a soldier of the people: because of this he
judged and ruled his contemporaries. Having seen their actions
in the stormy hours of the Revolution, he despised them and
April 6,
1814.
looked upon them as incapable of disinterested conduct, con-
ceited, and obsessed by the notion of equality. Hence his
colossal egoism, his habitual disregard of others, his jealous
passion for power, his impatience of all contradiction, his vain
untruthful boasting, his unbridled self-sufficiency and lack of
moderation passions which were gradually to cloud his clear
faculty of reasoning. His genius, assisted by the impoverish-
ment of two generations, was like the oak which admits beneath
its shade none but the smallest of saplings. With the exception
of Talleyrand, after 1808 he would have about him only mediocre
people, without initiative, prostrate at the feet of the giant:
his tribe of paltry, rapacious and embarrassing Corsicans; his
admirably subservient generals; his selfish ministers, docile
agents, apprehensive of the future, who for fourteen long years
felt a prognostication of defeat and discounted the inevitable
catastrophe.
So France had no internal history outside the plans and
transformations to which Napoleon subjected the institutions
of the Consulate, and the after-effects of his wars. Well knowing
that his fortunes rested on the delighted acquiescence of France,
Napoleon expected to continue indefinitely fashioning public
opinion according to his pleasure. To his contempt for men
he added that of all ideas which might put a bridle on his am-
bition; and to guard against them, he inaugurated the Golden
Age of the police that he might tame every moral force to his
hand. Being essentially a man of order, he loathed, as he said,
all demagogic action, Jacobinism and visions of liberty, which
he desired only for himself. To make his will predominant, he
stifled or did violence to that of others, through his bishops, his
gendarmes, his university, his press, his catechism. Nourished
likeFrederickll.andCatherinethe Great in iSth-century maxims,
neither he nor they would allow any of that ideology to filter
through into their rough but regular ordering of mankind. Thus
the whole political system, being summed up in the emperor,
was bound to share his fall.
Although an enemy of idealogues, in his foreign policy Napoleon
was haunted by grandiose visions. A condottiere of the Renais-
sance living in the igth century, he used France, and
all those nations annexed or attracted by the Revolu-
tion, to resuscitate the Roman conception of the idea.
Empire for his own benefit. On the other hand, he was
enslaved by the history and aggressive idealism of the Conven-
tion, and of the republican propaganda under the Directory;
he was guided by them quite as much as he guided them. Hence
the immoderate extension given to French activity by his classical
Latin spirit; hence also his conquests, leading on from one to
another, and instead of being mutually helpful interfering with
each other; hence, finally, his not entirely coherent policy,
interrupted by hesitation and counter-attractions. This explains
the retention of Italy, imposed on the Directory from 1796 on-
ward, followed by his criminal treatment of Venice, the founda-
tion of the Cisalpine republic a foretaste of future annexations
the restoration of that republic after his return from Egypt, and
in view of his as yet inchoate designs, the postponed solution
of the Italian problem which the treaty of Luneville had raised.
Marengo inaugurated the political idea which was to continue
its development until his Moscow campaign. Napoleon dreamed
as yet only of keeping the duchy of Milan, setting aside Austria,
and preparing some new enterprise in the East or in Egypt.
The peace of Amiens, which cost him Egypt, could only seem to
him a temporary truce; whilst he was gradually extending his
authority in Italy, the cradle of his race, by the union of Pied-
mont, and by his tentative plans regarding Genoa, Parma,
Tuscany and Naples. He wanted to make this his Cisalpine
Gaul, laying siege to the Roman state on every hand, and pre-
paring in the Concordat for the moral and material servitude of
the pope. When he recognized his error in having raised the
papacy from decadence by restoring its power over all the
churches, he tried in vain to correct it by the Articles Organiques
wanting, like Charlemagne, to be the legal protector of the
pope, and eventually master of the Church. To conceal his plan
he aroused French colonial aspirations against England, and also
" *
862
FRANCE
[HISTORY
the memory of the spoliations of 1763, exasperating English
jealousy of France, whose borders now extended to the Rhine,
and laying hands on Hanover, Hamburg and Cuxhaven. By the
" Recess " of 1803, which brought to his side Bavaria, Wiirttem-
berg and Baden, he followed up the overwhelming tide of revolu-
tionary ideas in Germany, to stem which Pitt, back in power,
appealed once more to an Anglo-Austro-Russian coalition against
this new Charlemagne, who was trying to renew the old Empire,
who was mastering France, Italy and Germany; who finally on
the 2nd of December 1804 placed the imperial crown upon his
head, after receiving the iron crown of the Lombard kings, and
made Pius VII. consecrate him in Notre-Dame.
After this, in four campaigns from 1805 to 1809, Napoleon
transformed his Carolingian feudal and federal empire into one
modelled on the Roman empire. The memories of imperial
Rome were for a third time, after Caesar and Charlemagne, to
modify the historical evolution of France. Though the vague
plan for an invasion of England fell to the ground Ulm and
Austerlitz obliterated Trafalgar, and the camp at Boulogne put
the best military resources he had ever commanded at Napoleon's
disposal.
In the first of these campaigns he swept away the remnants
of the old Roman-Germanic empire, and out of its shattered
fragments created in southern Germany the vassal
Pressure sta t es f Bavaria, Baden, WUrttemberg, Hesse-
1805. Darmstadt and Saxony, which he attached to France
under the name of the Confederation of the Rhine;
but the treaty of Presburg gave France nothing but the
danger of a more centralized and less docile Germany. On
the other hand, Napoleon's creation of the kingdom of Italy,
his annexation of Venetia and her ancient Adriatic empire
wiping out the humiliation of 1797 and the occupation of
Ancona, marked a new stage in his progress towards his Roman
Empire. His good fortune soon led him from conquest to
spoliation, and he complicated his master-idea of the grand
empire by his Family Compact; the clan of the Bonapartes
invaded European monarchies, wedding with princesses of blood-
royal, and adding kingdom to kingdom. Joseph replaced the
dispossessed Bourbons at Naples; Louis was installed on the
throne of Holland; Murat became grand-duke of Berg, Jerome
son-in-law to the king of Wiirttemberg, and Eugene de Beau-
harnais to the king of Bavaria; while Stephanie de Beauharnais
married the son of the grand-duke of Baden.
Meeting with less and less resistance, Napoleon went still further
and would tolerate no neutral power. On the 6th of August 1806
Jena. ^ e f rce d the Habsburgs, left with only the crown of
Austria, to abdicate their Roman-Germanic title of
emperor. Prussia alone remained outside the Confederation of
the Rhine, of which Napoleon was Protector, and to further her
decision he offered her English Hanover. In a second campaign
he destroyed at Jena both the army and the state of Frederick
Wilh'am III., who could not make up his mind between the
Napoleonic treaty of Schonbrunn and Russia's counter-proposal
at Potsdam (October 14, 1806). The butchery at Eylau and the
aad vengeance taken at Friedland finally ruined Frederick
Friediaad. the Great's work, and obliged Russia, the ally of
England and Prussia, to allow the latter to be despoiled,
and to join Napoleon against the maritime tyranny of the former.
After Tilsit, however (July 1807), instead of trying to reconcile
Peace of Europe to his grandeur, Napoleon had but one thought :
Tilsit, to make use of his success to destroy England and
complete his Italian dominion. It was from Berlin,
on the 2ist of November 1806, that he had dated the
first decree of a continental blockade, a monstrous conception
intended to paralyze his inveterate rival, but which on the con-
trary caused his own fall by its immoderate extension
f tne empire. To the coalition of the northern powers
blockade, he added the league of the Baltic and Mediterranean
ports, and to the bombardment of Copenhagen by an
English fleet he responded by a second decree of blockade, dated
from Milan on the I7th of December 1807.
But the application of the Concordat and the taking of Naples
July 8,
1807.
Contl-
led to the first of those struggles with the pope, in which were
formulated two antagonistic doctrines: Napoleon declaring
himself Roman emperor, and Pius VII. renewing the theocratic
affirmations of Gregory VII. The former's Roman ambition was
made more and more plainly visible by the occupation of the
kingdom of Naples and of the Marches,and the entry ,of Miollis into
Rome; while Junot invaded Portugal, Radet laid hands on the
pope himself, and Murat took possession of formerly Roman Spain,
whither Joseph was afterwards to be transferred. But Napoleon
little knew the flame he was kindling. No more far-seeing than
the Directory or the men of the year III., he thought that, with
energy and execution, he might succeed in the Peninsula as he
had succeeded in Italy in 1796 and 1797, in Egypt, and in Hesse,
and that he might cut into Spanish granite as into Italian mosaic
or " that big cake, Germany." He stumbled unawares upon the
revolt of a proud national spirit, evolved through ten historic
centuries; and the trap of Bayonne, together with the enthron-
ing of Joseph Bonaparte, made the contemptible prince of the
Asturias the elect of popular sentiment, the representative of
religion and country.
Napoleon thought he had Spain within his grasp, and now
suddenly everything was slipping from him. The Peninsula
became the grave of whole armies and a battlefield Bailea
for England. Dupont capitulated at Bailen into the
hands of Castanos, and Junot at Cintra to Wellesley; while
Europe trembled at this first check to the hitherto invincible
imperial armies. To reduce Spanish resistance Napoleon had in
his turn to come to terms with the tsar Alexander at Erfurt;
so that abandoning his designs in the East, he could mats the
Grand Army evacuate Prussia and return in force to Madrid.
Thus Spain swallowed up the soldiers who were wanted for
Napoleon's other fields of battle, and they had to be replaced
by forced levies. Europe had only to wait, and he \vagram
would eventually be found disarmed in face of a last
coalition; but Spanish heroism infected Austria, and showed
the force of national resistance. The provocations of Talley-
rand and England strengthened the illusion: Why should not
the Austrians emulate the Spaniards? The campaign of 1809,
however, was but a pale copy of the Spanish insurrection. After
a short and decisive action in Bavaria, Napoleon opened up the
road to Vienna for a second time; and after the two days' battle
at Essling, the stubborn fight at Wagram, the failure of a patriotic
insurrection in northern Germany and of the English expedition
against Antwerp, the treaty of Vienna (December 14, 1809), with
the annexation of the Illyrian provinces, completed
the colossal empire. Napoleon profited, in fact, by this vieeiaa.
campaign which had been planned for his overthrow.
The pope was deported to Savona beneath the eyes of indifferent
Europe, and his domains were incorporated in the Empire; the
senate's decision on the I7th of February 1810 created the title
of king of Rome, and made Rome the capital of Italy. The pope
banished, it was now desirable to send away those to whom Italy
had been more or less promised. Eugene de Beauharnais,
Napoleon's stepson, was transferred to Frankfort, and Murat
carefully watched until the time should come to take him to
Russia and instal him as king of Poland. Between 1810 and
1812 Napoleon's divorce of Josephine, and his marriage with
Marie Louise of Austria, followed by the birth of the king of
Rome, shed a brilliant light upon his future policy. He renounced
a federation in which his brothers were not sufficiently docile ; he
gradually withdrew power from them; he concentrated all his
affection and ambition on the son who was the guarantee of the
continuance of his dynasty. This was the apogee of his reign.
But undermining forces were already at work: the faults in-
herent in his unwieldy achievement. England, his chief enemy,
was persistently active; and rebellion both of' the Beglnnlag
governing and the governed broke out everywhere, of the end.
Napoleon felt his impotence in coping with the Spanish uprising
insurrection, which he underrated, while yet unable /; ^ "
to suppress it altogether. Men like Stein, Harden-
berg and Scharnhorst were secretly preparing Prussia's
retaliation. Napoleon's material omnipotence could not stand
HISTORY]
FRANCE
863
against the moral force of the pope, a prisoner at Fontainebleau;
and this he did not realize. The alliance arranged at Tilsit was
seriously shaken by the Austrian marriage, the threat of a
Polish restoration, and the unfriendly policy of Napoleon at Con-
stantinople. The very persons whom he had placed in power were
counteracting his plans: after four years' experience Napoleon
found himself obliged to treat his Corsican dynasties like those
of the ancien regime, and all his relations were betraying him.
Caroline conspired against her brother and against her husband ;
the hypochondriacal Louis, now Dutch in his sympathies, found
the supervision of the blockade taken from him, and also the
defence of the Scheldt, which he had refused to ensure; Jerome,
idling in his harem, lost that of the North Sea shores; and Joseph,
who was attempting the moral conquest of Spain, was continually
insulted at Madrid. The very nature of things was against the
new dynasties, as it had been against the old.
After national insurrections and family recriminations came
treachery from Napoleon's ministers. Talleyrand betrayed his
Treacbe designs to Metternich, and had to be dismissed;
ery ' Fouche corresponded with Austria in 1809 and 1810,
entered into an understanding with Louis, and also with England;
while Bourrienne was convicted of peculation. By a natural con-
sequence of the spirit of conquest he had aroused, all these par-
venus, having tasted victory, dreamed of sovereign power:
Bernadotte, who had helped him to the Consulate, played
Napoleon false to win the crown of Sweden; Soult, like Murat,
coveted the Spanish throne after that of Portugal, thus anticipat-
ing the treason of 1813 and the defection of 1814; many persons
hoped for " an accident " which might resemble the tragic end of
Alexander and of Caesar. The country itself, besides, though
flattered by conquests, was tired of self-sacrifice. It had become
satiated; "the cry of the mothers rose threateningly" against
" the Ogre " and his intolerable imposition of wholesale conscrip-
tion. The soldiers themselves, discontented after Austerlitz,
cried out for peace after Eylau. Finally, amidst profound silence
from the press and the Assemblies, a protest was raised against
imperial despotism by the literary world, against the excom-
municated sovereign by Catholicism, and against the author
of the continental blockade by the discontented bourgeoisie,
ruined by the crisis of 1811.
Napoleon himself was no longer the General Bonaparte of his
campaign in Italy. He was already showing signs of physical
decay; the Roman medallion profile had coarsened,
^Di-To/" tne b ese body was often lymphatic. Mental degenera-
Napoieon. ticm, too, betrayed itself in an unwonted irresolution.
At Eylau, at Wagram, and later at Waterloo, his method
of acting by enormous masses of infantry and cavalry, in a mad
passion for conquest, and his misuse of his military resources,
were all signs of his moral and technical decadence; and this
at the precise moment when, instead of the armies and govern-
ments of the old system, which had hitherto reigned supreme,
the nations themselves were rising against France, and the events
of 1792 were being avenged upon her. The three campaigns of
two years brought the final catastrophe.
Napoleon had hardly succeeded in putting down the revolt
in Germany when the tsar himself headed a European insurrec-
tion against the ruinous tyranny of the continental
blockade. To put a stop to this, to ensure his own
access to the Mediterranean and exclude his chief
rival, Napoleon made a desperate effort in 1812 against a country
as invincible as Spain. Despite his victorious advance, the
taking of Smolensk, the victory on the Moskwa, and the entry
into Moscow, he was vanquished by Russian patriotism and
religious fervour, by the country and the climate, and by
Alexander's refusal to make terms. After this came the lament-
able retreat, while all Europe was concentrating against him.
Pushed back, as he had been in Spain, from bastion to bastion,
after the action on the Beresina, Napoleon had to fall back
upon the frontiers of 1809, and then having refused the peace
offered him by Austria at the congress of Prague, from a dread of
losing Italy, where each of his victories had marked a stage in
the accomplishment of his dream on those of 1805, despite
Russian
campaign.
Liitzen and Bautzen, and on those of 1802 after his defeat at
Leipzig, where Bernadotte turned upon him, Moreau figured
among the Allies, and the Saxons and Bavarians
forsook him. Following his retreat from Russia came C " os t
his retreat from Germany. After the loss of Spain, ?aai4
reconquered by Wellington, the rising in Holland pre-
liminary to the invasion and the manifesto of Frankfort which
proclaimed it, he had to fall back upon the frontiers of 1795;
and then later was driven yet farther back upon those of 1792,
despite the wonderful campaign of 1814 against the invaders, in
which the old Bonaparte of 1796 seemed to have returned.
Paris capitulated on the 3oth of March, and the " Delenda
Carthago," pronounced against England, was spoken of Napoleon.
The great empire of East and West fell in ruins with the emperor's
abdication at Fontainebleau.
The military struggle ended, the political struggle began.
How was France to be governed? The Allies had decided on
the eviction of Napoleon at the Congress ot Chatillon;
and the precarious nature of the Bonapartist monarchy Downfall
in France itself was made manifest by the exploit of Empin.
General Malet, which had almost succeeded during the
Russian campaign, and by Laine's demand for free exercise of
political rights, when Napoleon made a last appeal to the Legis-
lative Assembly for support. The defection of the military and
civil aristocracy, which brought about Napoleon's abdication,
the refusal of a regency, and the failure of Bernadotte, who
wished to resuscitate the Consulate, enabled Talleyrand, vice-
president of the senate and desirous of power, to persuade the
Allies to accept the Bourbon solution of the difficulty. The
declaration of St Ouen (May 2, 1814) indicated that the new
monarchy was only accepted upon conditions. After Napoleon's
abdication, and exile to the island of Elba, came the Revolution's
abdication of her conquests: the first treaty of Paris (May 3oth)
confirmed France's renunciation of Belgium and the left bank of
the Rhine, and her return within her pre-revolutionary frontiers,
save for some slight rectifications.
After the scourge of war, the horrors of conscription, and the
despotism which had discounted glory, every one seemed to
rejoice in the return of the Bourbons, which atoned for
humiliations by restoring liberty. But questions of Faults
form, which aroused questions of sentiment, speedily Bourbons
led to grave dissensions. The hurried armistice of
the 23rd of April, by which the comte d'Artois delivered over
disarmed France to her conquerors; Louis XVIII. 's excessive
gratitude to the prince regent of England; the return of the
emigres; the declaration of St Ouen, dated from the nineteenth
year of the new reign; the charter of June 4th, " concedfe el
octroyte," maintaining the effete doctrine of legitimacy in a
country permeated with the idea of national sovereignty; the
slights put upon the army; the obligatory processions ordered
by Comte Beugnot, prefect of police; all this provoked a
conflict not only between two theories of government but
between two groups of men and of interests. An avowedly
imperialist party was soon again formed, a centre of heated
opposition to the royalist party; and neither Baron Louis'
excellent finance, nor the peace, nor the charter of June 4th
which despite the irritation of the emigres preserved the civil
gains of the Revolution prevented the man who was its incar-
nation from seizing an opportunity to bring about another
military coup d'etat. Having landed in the Bay of Jouan on
the ist of March, on the 2oth Napoleon re-entered the Tuileries
in triumph, while Louis XVIII. fled to Ghent. By the Acte
additionnel of the 22nd of April he induced Carnot and Fouche
the last of the Jacobins and the heads of the Liberal
opposition, Benjamin Constant and La Fayette, to side Hundred
with him against the hostile Powers of Europe, occupied Days.
in dividing the spoils at Vienna. He proclaimed his March'
intention of founding a new democratic empire; and
French policy was thus given another illusion, which
was to be exploited with fatal success by Napoleon's namesake.
But the cannon of Waterloo ended this adventure (June 18, 1815),
and, thanks to Fouche's treachery, the triumphal progress of
June
ISIS.
864
FRANCE
[HISTORY
Louis
XVIII.
Milan, Rome, Naples, Vienna, Berlin, and even of Moscow, was
to end at St Helena.
The consequences of the Hundred Days were very serious;
France was embroiled with all Europe, though Talleyrand's
clever diplomacy had succeeded in causing division
over Saxony and Poland by the secret Austro-Anglo-
French alliance of the 3rd of January 1815, and the
Coalition destroyed both France's political independence and
national integrity by the treaty of peace of November 2Oth:
she found herself far weaker than before the Revolution, and in
the power of the European Alliance. The Hundred Days
divided the nation itself into two irreconcilable parties: one
ultra-royalist, eager for vengeance and retaliation, refusing to
accept the Charter; the other imperialist, composed of Bona-
partists and Republicans, incensed by their defeat of whom
Beranger was the Tyrtaeus both parties equally revolutionary
and equally obstinate. Louis XVIII., urged by his more fervent
supporters towards the ancien regime, gave his policy an exactly
contrary direction; he had common-sense enough to maintain
the Empire's legal and administrative tradition, accepting its
institutions of the Legion of Honour, the Bank, the University,
and the imperial nobility modifying only formally certain
rights and the conscription, since these had aroused the nation
against Napoleon. He even went so far as to accept advice from
the imperial ministers Talleyrand and Fouche. Finally, as the
chief political organization had become thoroughly demoralized,
he imported into France the entire constitutional system of
England, with its three powers, king, upper hereditary chamber,
and lower elected chamber; with its plutocratic electorate,
and even with details like the speech from the throne, the
debate on the address, &c. This meant importing also difficulties
such as ministerial responsibility, as well as electoral and press
legislation.
Louis XVIIL, taught by time and misfortune, wished not to
reign over two parties exasperated by contrary passions and
desires; but his dynasty was from the outset implicated in the
struggle, which was to be fatal to it, between old France and
revolutionary France. Anti-monarchical, liberal and anti-
clerical France at once recommenced its revolutionary work;
the whole igth century was to be rilled with great spasmodic
upheavals, and Louis XVIII. was soon overwhelmed by the
White Terrorists of 1815.
Vindictive sentences against men like Ney and Labedoyere
were followed by violent and unpunished action by the White
Terror, which in the south renewed the horrors of St Bartholomew
and the September massacres. The elections of August 14,
1815, made under the influence of these royalist and religious
passions, sent the " Chambre inlrouiiable " to Paris, an unforeseen
revival of the ancien regime. Neither the substitution of the
due de Richelieu's ministry for that of Talleyrand and Fouche,
nor a whole series of repressive laws in violation of the charter,
were successful in satisfying its tyrannical loyalism, and Louis
XVIII. needed something like a coup d'etat, in September 1816,
to rid himself of the " ultras."
He succeeded fairly well in quieting the opposition between
the dynasty and the constitution, until a reaction took place
The Con- between 1820 and 1822. State departments worked
stitutional regularly and well, under the direction of Decazes,
party's Laine, De Serre and Pasquier, power alternating
between two great well-disciplined parties almost in
the English fashion, and many useful measures were passed:
the reconstruction of finance stipulated for as a condition of
evacuation of territory occupied by foreign troops; the electoral
law of February 5, 1817, which, by means of direct election
and a qualification of three hundred francs, renewed the pre-
ponderance of the bourgeoisie; the Gouvion St-Cyr law of
1818, which for half a century based the recruiting of the
French army on the national principle of conscription; and in
1819, after Richelieu's dismissal, liberal regulations for the press
under control of a commission. But the advance of the Liberal
movement, and the election of the generals Foy, Lamarque,
Lafayette and of Manuel, excited the " ultras " and caused the
dismissal of Richelieu; while that of the constitutional bishop
Gregoire led to the modification in a reactionary direction of the
electoral law of 1817. The assassination of the due de Berry,
second son of the comte d'Artois (attributed to the influence of
Liberal ideas), caused the downfall of Decazes, and caused the
king more weak and selfish than ever to override the charter
and embark upon a reactionary path. After 1820, Madame du
Cayla, a trusted agent of the ultra-royalist party,
gained great influence over the king; and M. de rhe
Villele, its leader, supported by the king's brother, 0*1820
soon eliminated the Right Centre by the dismissal
of the due de Richelieu, who had been recalled to tide over the
crisis just as the fall of M. Decazes had signalized the defeat
of the Left Centre (December 15, 1821) and moderate policy
thus received an irreparable blow.
Thenceforward the government of M. de Villele a clever
statesman, but tied to his party did nothing for six years but
promulgate a long series of measures against Liberalism and the
social work of the Revolution; to retain power it had to yield
to the impatience of the comte d'Artois and the majority.
The suspension of individual liberty, the re-establishment of the
censorship; the electoral right of the " double vote," favouring
taxation of the most oppressive kind; and the handing over
of education to the clergy: these were the first achievements
of this anti-revolutionary ministry. The Spanish expedition, in
which M. de Villele's hand was forced by Montmorency and
Chateaubriand, was the united work of the association of
Catholic zealots known as the Congregation and of the autocratic
powers of the Grand Alliance; it was responded to as at Naples
and in Spain by secret Carbonari societies, and by severely
repressed military conspiracies. Politics now bore the double
imprint of two rival powers: the Congregation and Carbonarism.
By 1824, nevertheless, the dynasty seemed firm the Spanish
War had reconciled the army, by giving back military prestige;
the Liberal opposition had been decimated; revolutionary
conspiracies discouraged; and the increase of public credit and
material prosperity pleased the whole nation, as was proved by
the " Chambre retrouvee " of 1824. The law of septennial elections
tranquillized public life by suspending any legal or regular
manifestation by the nation for seven years.
It was the monarchy which next became revolutionary, on
the accession of Charles X. (September 16, 1824). This incon-
sistent prince soon exhausted his popularity, and . .
remained the fanatical head of those emigres who had
learnt nothing and forgotten nothing. While the opposition
became conservative as regards the Charter and French liberties,
the king and the clerical party surrounding him challenged the
spirit of modern France by a law against sacrilege, by a bill for
re-establishing the right of primogeniture, by an indemnity of a
milliard francs, which looked like compensation given to the'
emigres, and finally by the " loi de liberte et d'amour " against the
press. The challenge was so definite that in 1826 the Chamber
of Peers and the Academy had to give the Villele ministry a
lesson in Liberalism, for having lent itself to this ancien regime
reaction by its weakness and its party-promises. The elections
" decol'ereetde vengeance "of January 1827 gave the Left victory ot
a majority, and the resultant short-lived Martignac the coo-
ministry tried to revive the Right Centre which had stitutioaal
supported Richelieu and Decazes (January 1828).
Martignac's accession to power, however, had only
meant personal concessions from Charles X., not any conces-
sion of principle: he supported his ministry but was no real
stand-by. The Liberals, on the other hand, made bargains for
supporting the moderate royalists, and Charles X. profited by
this to form a fighting ministry in conjunction with the prince de
Polignac, one of the emigres, an ignorant and visionary person,
and the comte de Bourmont, the traitor of Waterloo. Despite
all kinds of warnings, the former tried by a coup d'etat to put into
practice his theories of the supremacy of the royal prerogative;
and the battle of Navarino, the French occupation of the Morea,
and the Algerian expedition could not make the nation forget
this conflict at home. The united opposition of monarchist
HISTORY]
FRANCE
865
Liberals and imperialist republicans responded by legal resist-
ance, then by a popular coup d'etat, to the ordinances of July
1830, which dissolved the intractable Chamber, elimi-
Ketoiutioa nate< ^ licensed dealers from the electoral list, and
of 1830. muzzled the press. After fighting for three days against
the troops feebly led by the Marmont of 1814, the
workmen, driven to the barricades by the deliberate closing of
Liberal workshops, gained the victory, and sent the white flag
of the Bourbons on the road to exile.
The rapid success of the " Three Glorious Days " (" les Trots
Glorieuses "), as the July Days were called, put the leaders of the
Ki-puhii- parliamentaryoppositionintoanembarrassing position.
can and While they had contented themselves with words,
Orieaaist the small Republican-Imperialist party, aided by the
'"' almost entire absence of the army and police, and by
the convenience which the narrow, winding, paved streets of those
times offered for fighting, had determined upon the revolution
and brought it to pass. But the Republican party, which desired
to re-establish the Republic of 1793, recruited chiefly from among
the students and workmen, and led by Godefroy Cavaignac,
the son of a Conventionalist, and by the chemist Raspail, had
no hold on the departments nor on the dominating opinion in
Paris. Consequently this premature attempt was promptly
seized upon by the Liberal bourgeoisie and turned to the advan-
tage of the Orleanist party, which had been secretly organized
since 1829 under the leadership of Thiers, with the National as its
organ. Before the struggle was yet over, Benjamin Constant,
Casimir Perier, Lafitte, and Odilon Barrot had gone to fetcM
the duke of Orleans from Neuilly, and on receiving his promise
to defend the Charter and the tricolour flag, installed him at the
Palais Bourbon as lieutenant-general of the realm, whileLa Fayette
and the Republicans established themselves at the Hotel de Ville.
An armed conflict between the two governments was
imminent, when Lafayette, by giving his support to
Louis Philippe, decided matters in his favour. In
order to avoid a recurrence of the difficulties which had arisen
with the Bourbons, the following preliminary conditions were
imposed upon the king: the recognition of the supremacy
of the people by the title of " king of the French by the grace of
God and the will of the people," the responsibility of ministers,
the suppression of hereditary succession to the Chamber of Peers,
now reduced to the rank of a council of officials, the suppression of
article 14 of the charter which had enabled Charles X. to super-
sede the laws by means of the ordinances, and the liberty of the
press. The qualification for electors was lowered from 300 to 200
francs, and that for eligibility from 1000 to 500 francs, and the
age to 25 and 30 instead of 30 and 40; finally, Catholicism lost
its privileged position as the state religion. The bourgeois
National Guard was made the guardian of the charter. The
liberal ideas of the son of Philippe Egalite, the part he had played
at Valmy and Jemappes, his gracious manner and his domestic
virtues, all united in winning Louis Philippe the good opinion
of the public.
He now believed, as did indeed the great majority of the
electors, that the revolution of 1830 had changed nothing but
the head of the state. But in reality the July monarchy
was affected by a fundamental weakness. It sought
monarchy to m del itself upon the English monarchy, which
rested upon one long tradition. But the tradition of
France was both twofold and contradictory, i.e. the Catholic-
legitimist and the revolutionary. Louis Philippe had them
both against him. His monarchy had but one element in common
with the English, namely, a parliament elected by a limited
electorate. There was at this time a cause of violent outcry
against the English monarchy, which, on the other hand, met
with firm support among the aristocracy and the clergy. The
July monarchy had no such support. The aristocracy of the
ancien regime and of the Empire were alike without social
influence; the clergy, which had paid for its too close alliance
with Charles X. by a dangerous unpopularity, and foresaw the
rise of democracy, was turning more and more towards the people,
the future source of all power. Even the monarchical principle
x. 28
The
bourgeol*
itself had suffered from the shock, having proved by its easy
defeat how far it could be brought to capitulate. Moreover,
the victory of the people, who had shown themselves in the late
struggle to be brave and disinterested, had won for the idea of
national supremacy a power whi'ch was bound to increase.
The difficulty of the situation lay in the doubt as to whether this
expansion would take place gradually and by a progressive
evolution, as in England, or not.
Now Louis Philippe, beneath the genial exterior of a bourgeois
and peace-loving king, was entirely bent upon recovering an
authority which was menaced from the very first on the one
hand by the anger of the royalists at their failures, and on the
other hand by the impatience of the republicans to follow up
their victory. He wanted the insurrection to stop at a change
in the reigning family, whereas it had in fact revived the revolu-
tionary tradition, and restored to France the sympathies of the
nationalities and democratic parties oppressed by Metternich's
" system." The republican party, which had retired from power
but not from activity, at once faced the new king with the
serious problem of the acquisition of political power by the
people, and continued to remind him of it. He put himself
at the head of the party of progress (" parti du mouvement ")
as opposed to the (" parti de la cour ") court party, and of the
" resistance," which considered that it was now necessary " to
check the revolution in order to make it fruitful, and in order
to save it." But none of these parties were homogeneous;
in the chamber they split up into a republican or
radical Extreme Left, led by Gamier-Pages and
Arago; a dynastic Left, led by the honourable and
sincere Odilon Barrot; a constitutional Right Centre and
Left Centre, differing in certain slight respects, and presided
over respectively by Thiers, a wonderful political orator, and
Guizot, whose ideas were those of a strict doctrinaire; not
to mention a small party which clung to the old legitimist creed,
and was dominated by the famous avocat Berryer, whose
eloquence was the chief ornament of the cause of Charles X.'s
grandson, the comte de Chambord. The result was a ministerial
majority which was always uncertain; and the only occasion
on which Guizot succeeded in consolidating it during seven years
resulted in the overthrow of the monarchy.
Louis Philippe first summoned to power the leaders of the
party of " movement," Dupont de 1'Eure, and afterwards
Lafitte, in order to keep control of the progressive forces for
his own ends. They wished to introduce democratic reforms
and to uphold throughout Europe the revolution, which had
spread from France into Belgium, Germany, Italy and Poland,
while Paris was still in a state of unrest. But Louis Philippe
took fright at the attack on the Chamber of Peers after the
trial of the ministers of Charles X., at the sack of the church
of Saint Germain 1'Auxerrois and the archbishop's palace
(February, 1831), and at the terrible strike of the silk weavers
at Lyons. Casimir Perier, who was both a Liberal and a believer
in a strong government, was then charged with the task of
heading the resistance to advanced ideas, and applying the
principle of non-intervention in foreign affairs (March 13, 1831).
After his death by cholera in May 1832, the agitation which he
had succeeded by his energy in checking at Lyons, at Grenoble
and in the Vendee, where it had been stirred up by the romantic
duchess of Berry, began to gain ground. The struggle against
the republicans was still longer; for having lost all their chance
of attaining power by means of the Chamber, they proceeded
to reorganize themselves into armed secret societies. The press,
which was gaining that influence over public opinion which had
been lost by the parliamentary debates, openly attacked the
government and the king, especially by means of caricature.
Between 1832 and 1836 the Soult ministry, of which
Guizot, Thiers and the due de Broglie were members,
had to combat the terrible insurrections in Lyons
and Paris (1834). The measures of repression were
threefold: military repression, carried out by the National
Guard and the regulars, both under the command of Bugeaud;
judicial repression, effected by the great trial of April 1835;
866
FRANCE
[HISTORY
and legislative repression, consisting in the laws of September,
which, when to mere ridicule had succeeded acts of violence,
such as that of Fieschi (July 28th, 1835), aimed at facilitating
the condemnation of political offenders and at intimidating the
press. The party of " movement " was vanquished.
But the July Government, born as it was of a popular move-
ment, had to make concessions to popular demands. Casimir
Perier had carried a law dealing with municipal
organization, which made the municipal councils
elective, as they had been before the year VIII.; and
in 1833 Guizot had completed it by making the
conseils gtneraux also elective. In the same year the law dealing
with primary instruction had also shown the mark of new ideas.
But now that the bourgeoisie was raised to power it did not
prove itself any more liberal than the aristocracy of birth and
fortune in dealing with educational, fiscal and industrial questions.
In spite of the increase of riches, the bourgeois regime maintained
a fiscal and social legislation which, while it assured to the
middle class certainty and permanence of benefits, left the labour-
ing masses poor, ignorant, and in a state of incessant agitation.
The Orleanists, who had been unanimous in supporting the
king, disagreed, after their victory, as to what powers he was
to be given. The Left Centre, led by Thiers, held
Socialist tnat ne s h ou ld reign but not govern; the Right
party. Centre, led by Guizot, would admit him to an active
part in the government; and the third party (tiers-
parti) wavered between these two. And so between 1836 and
1840, as the struggle against the king's claim to govern passed
from the sphere of outside discussion into parliament, we see
the rise of a bourgeois socialist party, side by side with the
now dwindling republican party. It no longer confined its
demands to universal suffrage, on the principle of the legitimate
representation of all interests, or in the name of justice. Led
by Saint-Simon, Fourier, P. Leroux and Lamennais, it aimed
at realizing a better social organization for and by means of the
state. But the question was by what means this was to be
accomplished. The secret societies, under the influence of
Blanqui and Barbes, two revolutionaries who had revived the
traditions of Babeuf, were not willing to wait for the complete
education of the masses, necessarily a long process. On the
1 2th of May 1839 the Societe des Saisons made an attempt to
overthrow the bourgeoisie by force, but was defeated. Demo-
crats like Louis Blanc, Ledru-Rollin and Lamennais continued to
repeat in support of the wisdom of universal suffrage the old pro-
fession of faith: vox populi, vox Dei. And finally this republican
doctrine, already confused, was still further complicated by a
kind of mysticism which aimed at reconciling the most extreme
differences of belief, the Catholicism of Buchez, the Bonapartism
of Cormenin, and the humanitarianism of the cosmopolitans.
It was in vain that Auguste Comte, Michelet and Quinet de-
nounced this vague humanitarian mysticism and the pseudo-
liberalism of the Church. The movement had now begun.
At first these moderate republicans, radical or communist,
formed only imperceptible groups. Among the peasant classes,
The and even in the industrial centres, warlike passions
Rnna- were still rife. Louis Philippe tried to find an outlet
['** for them in the Algerian war, and later by the revival
of the Napoleonic legend, which was held to be no
longer dangerous, since the death of the duke of Reichstadt in
1832. It was imprudently recalled by Thiers' History of the
Consulate and Empire, by artists and poets, in spite of the pro-
phecies of Lamartine, and by the solemn translation of Napoleon
I.'s ashes in 1840 to the Invalides at Paris.
All theories require to be based on practice, especially those
which involve force. Now Louis Philippe, though as active as
ParUa- n ' s P re decessors had been slothful, was the least warlike
mentary of men. His only wish was to govern personally, as
opposition George III. and George IV. of England had done,
r'*; especially in foreign affairs, while at home was being
pwer. waged the great duel between Thiers and Guizot,
with Mole as intermediary. Thiers, head of the cabinet
of the 22nd of February 1836, an astute man but not pliant
enough to please the king, fell after a few months, in consequence
of his attempt to stop the Carlist civil war in Spain, and to support
the constitutional government of Queen Isabella. Louis Philippe
hoped that, by calling upon Mole to form a ministry, he would
be better able to make his personal authority felt. From 1837
to 1839 Mole aroused opposition on all hands; this was empha-
sized by the refusal of the Chambers to vote one of those endow-
ments which the king was continually asking them to grant for
his children, by two dissolutions of the Chambers, and finally by
the Strasburg affair and the stormy trial of Louis Napoleon,
son of the former king of Holland (1836-1837). At the elections
of 1839 Mole was defeated by Thiers, Guizot and Barrot, who
had combined to oppose the tyranny of the " Chateau," and
after a long ministerial crisis was replaced by Thiers (March i,
1840). But the latter was too much in favour of war to please the
king, who was strongly disposed towards peace and an alliance
with Great Britain, and consequently fell at the time of the
Egyptian question, when, in answer to the treaty of London
concluded behind his back by Nicholas I. and Palmerston on the
1 5th of July 1840, he fortified Paris and proclaimed his intention
to give armed support to Mehemet AH, the ally of France (see
MEHEMET ALI). But the violence of popular Chauvinism and
the renewed attempt of Louis Napoleon at Boulogne proved to
the holders of the doctrine of peace at any price that in the long-
run their policy tends to turn a peaceful attitude into a warlike
one, and to strengthen the absolutist idea.
In spite of all, from 1840 to 1848 Louis Philippe still further
extended his activity in foreign affairs, thus bringing himself
into still greater prominence, though he was already
.,1, ttt r Guizot' s
frequently held responsible for failures in foreign m i a istry.
politics and unpopular measures in home affairs. The
catchword of Guizot, who was now his minister, was: Peace
and no reforms. With the exception of the law of 1842 concern-
ing the railways, not a single measure of importance was proposed
by the ministry. France lived under a regime of general corrup-
tion: parliamentary corruption, due to the illegal conduct of
the deputies, consisting of slavish or venal officials; electoral
corruption, effected by the purchase of the 200,000 electors
constituting the " pays legal," who were bribed by the advantages
of power; and moral corruption, due to the reign of the pluto-
cracy, the bourgeoisie, a hard-working, educated and honourable
class, it is true, but insolent, like all newly enriched parvenus
in the presence of other aristocracies, and with unyielding
selfishness maintaining an attitude of suspicion towards the
people, whose aspirations they did not share and with whom
they did not feel themselves to have anything in common.
This led to a slackening in political life, a sort of exhaustion of
interest throughout the country, an excessive devotion to material
prosperity. Under a superficial appearance of calm a tempest
was brewing, of which the industrial writings of Balzac, Eugene
Sue, Lamartine, H. Heine, Vigny, Montalembert and Tocqueville
were the premonitions. But it was in vain that they denounced
this supremacy of the bourgeoisie, relying on its two main sup-
ports, the suffrage based on a property qualification and the
National Guard, for its rallying-cry was the " Enrichissez-vous "
of Guizot, and its excessive materialism gained a sinister dis-
tinction from scandals connected with the ministers Teste and
Cubieres, and such mysterious crimes as that of Choiseul-Praslin. 1
In vain also did they point out that mere riches are not so much
a protection to the ministry who are in power as a temptation
to the majority excluded from power by this barrier of wealth.
1 Charles LaureHugues Theobald, due de Choiseul-Praslin (1805-
1847), was deputy in 1839, created a peer of France in 1840. He
had married a daughter of General Sebastian!, with whom he lived
on good terms till 1840, when he entered into open relations with
his children's governess. The duchess threatened a separation;
and the duke consented to send his mistress out of the house, but
did not cease to correspond with and visit her. On the l8th of
August 1847 the duchess was found stabbed to death, with more
than thirty wounds, in her room. The duke was arrested on the
2Oth and imprisoned in the Luxembourg, where he died of poison,
self-administered on the 24th. It was, however, popularly believed
that the government had smuggled him out of the country and that
he was living under a feigned name in England.
HISTORY]
FRANCE
867
It was in vain that beneath the inflated haute bourgeoisie which
speculated in railways and solidly supported the Church, behind
the shopkeeper clique who still remained Voltairian, who
enviously applauded the pamphlets of Cormenin on the luxury
of the court, and who were bitterly satirized by the pencil of
Daumier and Gavarni, did the thinkers give voice to the mutter-
ings of an immense industrial proletariat, which were re-echoing
throughout the whole of western Europe.
In face of this tragic contrast Guizot remained unmoved,
blinded by the superficial brilliance of apparent success and
prosperity. He adorned by flights of eloquence his
Guizofs invariable theme: no new laws, no reforms, no foreign
Policy. complications, the policy of material interests. He
preserved his yielding attitude towards Great Britain
in the affair of the right of search in 1841, and in the affair of
the missionary Pritchard at Tahiti (1843-1845). And when the
marriage of the due de Montpensier with a Spanish infanta
in 1846 had broken this entente cordiale to which he clung, it was
only to yield in turn to Metternich, when he took possession
of Cracow, the last remnant of Poland, to protect the Sonderbund
in Switzerland, to discourage the Liberal ardour of Pius IX.,
and to hand over the education of France to the Ultramontane
clergy. Still further strengthened by the elections of 1846, he
refused the demands of the Opposition formed by a coalition of
the Left Centre and the Radical party for parliamentary and
electoral reform, which would have excluded the officials from
the Chambers, reduced the electoral qualification to 100 francs,
and added to the number of the electors the capacitaires
whose competence was guaranteed by their education. For
Guizot the whole country was represented by the " pays legal,"
consisting of the king, the ministers, the deputies and the
electors. When the Opposition appealed to the country,
Campaign jj e fl ung d own a disdainful challenge to what " les
'banquets, brouillons et les badauds appellent le peuple." The
challenge was taken up by all the parties of the Opposi-
tion in the campaign of the banquets got up somewhat artificially
in 1847 in favour of the extension of the franchise. The monarchy
had arrived at such a state of weakness and corruption that a
determined minority was sufficient to overthrow it. The pro-
hibition of a last banquet in Paris precipitated the catastrophe.
The monarchy which for fifteen years had overcome its adversaries
collapsed on the 24th of February 1848 to the astonishment of all.
The industrial population of the faubourgs on its way towards
the centre of the town was welcomed by the National Guard,
The Re- amon g cries of " Vive la reforme." Barricades were
volution raised after the unfortunate incident of the firing on
of Feb. 24, the crowd in the Boulevard des Capucines. On the
'*** 2$rd Guizot's cabinet resigned, abandoned by the
petite bourgeoisie, on whose support they thought they could
depend. The heads of the Left Centre and the dynastic Left,
Mole and Thiers, declined the offered leadership. Odilon
Barrot accepted it, and Bugeaud, commander-in-chief of
the first military division, who had begun to attack the barri-
cades, was recalled. But it was too late. In face of the insurrec-
tion which had now taken possession of the whole capital, Louis
Philippe decided to abdicate in favour of his grandson, the comte
de Paris. But it was too late also to be content with the regency
of the duchess of Orleans. It was now the turn of the Republic,
and it was proclaimed by Lamartine in the name of the pro-
visional government elected by the Chamber under the pressure
of the mob.
This provisional government with Dupont de 1'Eure as its
president, consisted of Lamartine for foreign affairs, Cremieux
The Pro- for J ustice Ledru-Rollin for the interior, Carnot for
visional public instruction, Gondchaux for finance, Arago for
Govern- the navy, and Bedeau for war. Gamier-Pages was
ment - mayor of Paris. But, as in 1830, the republican-
socialist party had set up a rival government at the H6tel de
V'ille, including L. Blanc, A. Marrast, Flocon, and the workman
Albert, which bid fair to involve discord and civil war. But
this time the Palais Bourbon was not victorious over the H6tel
de Ville. It had to consent to a fusion of the two bodies,
in which, however, the predominating elements were the moderate
republicans. It was doubtful what would eventually be the
policy of the new government. One party, seeing that in spite
of the changes in the last sixty years of all political institutions,
the position of the people had not been improved, demanded a
reform of society itself, the abolition of the privileged position of
property, the only obstacle to equality, and as an emblem hoisted
the red flag. The other party wished to maintain society on the
basis of its ancient institutions, and rallied round the tricolour.
The first collision took place as to the form which the revolu-
tion of 1848 was to take. Were they to remain faithful to their
original principles, as Lamartine wished, and accept
.1 j . . tTu Universal
the decision of the country as supreme, or were they, suffrage.
as the revolutionaries under Ledru-Rollin claimed, to
declare the republic of Paris superior to the universal suffrage of
an insufficiently educated people? On the 5th of March the
government, under the pressure of the Parisian clubs, decided
in favour of an immediate reference to the people, and direct
universal suffrage, and adjourned it till the 26th of April. In
this fateful and unexpected decision, which instead of adding
to the electorate the educated classes, refused by Guizot, admitted
to it the unqualified masses, originated the Constituent Assembly
of the 4th of May 1848. The provisional government having
resigned, the republican and anti-socialist majority on the Qth
of May entrusted the supreme power to an executive The
commission consisting of five members: Arago, Executive
Marie, Garnier-Pages, Lamartine and Ledru-Rollin. Commis-
But the spell was already broken. This revolution sloa '
which had been peacefully effected with the most generous
aspirations, in the hope of abolishing poverty by organizing
industry on other bases than those of competition and capitalism,
and which had at once aroused the fraternal sympathy of the
nations, was doomed to be abortive.
The result of the general election, the return of a constituent
assembly predominantly moderate if not monarchical, dashed
the hopes of those who had looked for the establishment, by a
peaceful revolution, of their ideal socialist state; but they were
not prepared to yield without a struggle, and in Paris itself they
commanded a formidable force. In spite of the preponderance of
the " tricolour " party in the provisional government, so long as
the voice of France had not spoken, the socialists, supported by
the Parisian proletariat, had exercised an influence on policy out
of all proportion to their relative numbers or personal weight.
By the decree of the 24th of February the provisional govern-
ment had solemnly accepted the principle of the " right to work,"
and decided to establish " national workshops " for the unem-
ployed; at the same time a sort of industrial parliament was
established at the Luxembourg, under the presidency of Louis
Blanc, with the object of preparing a scheme for the organization
of labour; and, lastly, by the decree of the 8th of March the
property qualification for enrolment in the National Guard had
been abolished and the workmen were supplied with arms.
The socialists thus formed, in some sort, a state within the state,
with a government, an organization and an armed force.
In the circumstances a conflict was inevitable; and on the
1 5th of May an armed mob, headed by Raspail, Blanqui and
Barbes, and assisted by the proletariat Guard, attempted to
overwhelm the Assembly. They were defeated by the bourgeois
battalions of the National Guard; but the situation none the
less remained highly critical. The national workshops were
producing the results that might have been foreseen. It was
impossible to provide remunerative work even for the genuine
unemployed, and of the thousands who applied the greater
number were employed iri perfectly useless digging and refilling;
soon even this expedient failed, and those for whom work could
not be invented were given a half wage of i franc a day. Even
this pitiful dole, with no obligation to work, proved attractive,
and all over France workmen threw up their jobs and streamed
to Paris, where they swelled the ranks of the army under the
red flag. It was soon clear that the continuance of this experi-
ment would mean financial ruin; it had been proved by the
entente of the isth of May that it constituted a perpetual menace
868
FRANCE
[HISTORY
to the state ; and the government decided to end it. The method
chosen was scarcely a happy one. On the 2ist of June M. de
Falloux decided in the name of the parliamentary commission
on labour that the workmen should be discharged within three
days and such as were able-bodied should be forced to enlist.
A furious insurrection at once broke out. Throughout
e /" De the whole of the 24th, zsth and 26th of June, the
eastern industrial quarter of Paris, led by Pujol,
carried on a furious struggle against the western quarter, led
by Cavaignac, who had been appointed dictator. Vanquished
and decimated, first by fighting and afterwards by deportation,
the socialist party was crushed. But they dragged down the
Republic in their ruin. This had already become unpopular
with the peasants, exasperated by the new land tax of 45 centimes
imposed in order to fill the empty treasury, and with the bourgeois,
in terror of the power of the revolutionary clubs and hard hit
by the stagnation of business. By the " massacres " of the June
Days the working classes were also alienated from it; and abiding
fear of the " Reds " did the rest. " France," wrote the duke of
Wellington at this time, " needs a Napoleon! I cannot yet see
him ... Where is he ? " l
France indeed needed, or thought she needed, a Napoleon;
and the demand was soon to be supplied. The granting of
universal suffrage to a society with Imperialist
Itifutioa' sympathies, and unfitted to reconcile the principles
of 1848. of order with the consequences of liberty, was indeed
bound, now that the political balance in France was
so radically changed, to prove a formidable instrument of
reaction; and this was proved by the election of the president
of the Republic. On the 4th of November 1848 was promulgated
the new constitution, obviously the work of inexperienced
hands, proclaiming a democratic republic, direct universal
suffrage and the separation of powers; there was to be a single
permanent assembly of 750 members elected for a term of three
years by the scrutin de lisle, which was to vote on the laws
prepared by a council of state elected by the Assembly for six
years; the executive power was delegated to a president elected
for four years by direct universal suffrage, i.e. on a broader
basis than that of the chamber, and not eligible for re-election; he
was to choose his ministers, who, like him, would be responsible.
Finally, all revision was made impossible since it involved
'obtaining three times in succession a majority of three-quarters
of the deputies in a special assembly. It was in vain that
M. Grevy, in the name of those who perceived the obvious and
inevitable risk of creating, under the name of a president, a
monarch and more than a king, proposed that the head of the
state should be no more than a removable president of the
ministerial council. Lamartine, thinking that he was sure to
be the choice of the electors under universal suffrage, won over
the support of the Chamber, which did not even take the pre-
caution of rendering ineligible the members of families which
had reigned over France. It made the presidency an office
dependent upon popular acclamation.
The election was keenly contested; the socialists adopted
as their candidate Ledru-Rollin, the republicans Cavaignac;
Louis an< * t ' le recent ly reorganized Imperialist party Prince
Napoleon. Bonaparte. Louis Napoleon, unknown in 1835, and
forgotten or despised since 1840, had in the last eight
years advanced sufficiently in the public estimation to be
elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1848 by five departments.
He owed this rapid increase of popularity partly to blunders
of the government of July, which had unwisely aroused the
memory of the country, filled as it was with recollections of the
Empire, and partly to Louis Napoleon's campaign carried on
from his prison at Ham by means of pamphlets of socialistic
tendencies. Moreover, the monarchists, led by Thiers and the
committee of the Rue de Poitiers, were no longer content even
with the safe dictatorship of the upright Cavaignac, and joined
forces with the Bonapartists. On the loth of December the
peasants gave over 5,000,000 votes to a name: Napoleon,
which stood for order at all costs, against i ,400,000 for Cavaignac.
'T. T. de Martens, Recueil des traites, &c., xii. 248.
For three years there went on an indecisive struggle between
the heterogeneous Assembly and the prince who was silently
awaiting his opportunity. He chose as his ministers
men but little inclined towards republicanism, for
preference Orleanists, the chief of whom was Odilon
Barrot. In order to strengthen his position, he
endeavoured to conciliate the reactionary parties, without
committing himself to any of them. The chief instance of this
was the expedition to Rome, voted by the Catholics with the
object of restoring the papacy, which had been driven out by
Garibaldi and Mazzini. The prince-president was also in favour
of it, as beginning the work of European renovation and recon-
struction which he already looked upon as his mission. General
Oudinot's entry into Rome provoked in Paris a foolish insurrec-
tion in favour of the Roman republic, that of the Chateau d'Eau,
which was crushed on the I3th of June 1849. On the other hand,
when Pius IX., though only just restored, began to yield to the
general movement of reaction, the president demanded that he
should set up a Liberal government. The pope's dilatory reply
having been accepted by his ministry, the president replaced
it on the ist of November by the Fould-Rouher cabinet.
This looked like a declaration of war against the Catholic and
monarchist majority in the Legislative Assembly which had
been elected on the 28th of May in a moment of panic.
But the prince-president again pretended to be TheLegis-
playing the game of the Orleanists, as he had done Assembly.
in the case of the Constituent-Assembly. The comple-
mentary elections of March and April 1850 having resulted in an
unexpected victory for the advanced republicans, which struck
terror into the reactionary leaders, Thiers, Berryer and Monta-
lembert, the president gave his countenance to a clerical campaign
against the republicans at home. The Church, which had failed
in its attempts to gain control of the university under Louis
XVIII. and Charles X., aimed at setting up a rival establishment
of its own. The Lot Falloux of the isth of March
1850, under the pretext of establishing the liberty "
of instruction promised by the charter, again placed
the teaching of the university under the direction of the Catholic
Church, as a measure of social safety, and, by the facilities which
it granted to the Church for propagating teaching in harmony
with its own dogmas, succeeded in obstructing for half a century
the work of intellectual enfranchisement effected by the men of
the i8th century and of the Revolution. The electoral law
of the 3ist of May was another class law directed
against subversive ideas. It required as a proof of Electoral
thi ;e years' domicile the entries in the record of direct
taxes, thus cutting down universal suffrage by taking
away the vote from the industrial population, which was not as
a rule stationary. The law of the i6th of July aggravated the
severity of the press restrictions by re-establishing the " caution
money " (cautionnemeni) deposited by proprietors and editors
of papers with the government as a guarantee of good behaviour.
Finally, a skilful interpretation of the law on clubs and political
societies suppressed about this time all the Republican societies.
It was now their turn to be crushed like the socialists.
But the president had only joined in Montalembert's cry of
" Down with the Republicans! " in the hope of effecting a
revision of the constitution without having recourse
to a coup d'etat. His concessions only increased the bet weea
boldness of the monarchists; while they had only thePnsi-
accepted Louis Napoleon as president in opposition deatand
to the Republic and as a step in the direction of the ^/ sem i,/y
monarchy. A conflict was now inevitable between
his personal policy and the majority of the Chamber, who were,
moreover, divided into legitimists and Orleanists, in spite of the
death of Louis Philippe in August 1850. Louis Napoleon skilfully
exploited their projects for a restoration of the monarchy, which
he knew to be unpopular in the country, and which gave him
the opportunity of furthering his own personal ambitions.
From the 8th of August to the i2th of November 1850 he went
about France stating the case for a revision of the constitution
in speeches which he varied according to each place; he held
HISTORY]
FRANCE
869
reviews, at which cries of " Vive Napoleon " showed that the
army was with him; he superseded General Changarnier, on
whose arms the parliament relied for the projected monarchical
coup d'ttat; he replaced his Orleanist ministry by obscure men
devoted to his own cause, such as Morny, Fleury and Persigny,
and gathered round him officers of the African army, broken
men like General Saint-Arnaud; in fact he practically declared
open war.
His reply to the votes of censure passed by the Assembly, and
their refusal to increase his civil list, was to hint at a vast com-
munistic plot in order to scare the bourgeoisie, and to denounce
Coup t^ 6 electoral law of the 3 ist of May in order to gain the
d'Etat of support of the mass of the people. The Assembly re-
Dec.2, taliated by throwing out the proposal for a partial
reform of that article of the constitution which pro-
hibited the re-election of the president and the re-establish-
ment of universal suffrage (July). All hope of a peaceful issue
was at an end. When the questors called upon the Chamber
to have posted up in all barracks the decree of the 6th of May
1848 concerning the right of the Assembly to demand the support
of the troops if attacked, the Mountain, dreading a restoration of
the monarchy, voted with the Bonapartists against the measure,
thus disarming the legislative power. Louis Napoleon saw his
opportunity. On the night between the ist and 2nd of December
1851, the anniversary of Austerlitz, he dissolved the Chamber,
re-established universal suffrage, had all the party leaders arrested,
and summoned a new assembly to prolong his term of office
for ten years. The deputies who had met under Berryer at the
Mairie of the tenth arrondissement to defend the constitution
and proclaim the deposition of Louis Napoleon were scattered
by the troops at Mazas and Mont Valerian. The resistance
organized by the republicans within Paris under Victor Hugo
was soon subdued by the intoxicated soldiers. The more serious
resistance in the departments was crushed by declaring a state
of siege and by the " mixed commissions." The plebiscite of
the 20th of December ratified by a huge majority the coup d' etat
in favour of the prince-president, who alone reaped the benefit
of the excesses of the Republicans and the reactionary passions
of the monarchists.
The second attempt to revive the principle of 1789 only served
as a preface to the restoration of the Empire. The new anti-
parliamentary constitution of the I4th of January
coad J ^^ 2 was to a l ar g e extent merely a repetition of that
Empire. f the year VIII. All executive power was entrusted
to the head of the state, who was solely responsible to
the people, now powerless to exercise any of their rights. He
was to nominate the members of the council of state, whose duty
it was to prepare the laws, and of the senate, a body permanently
established as a constituent part of the empire. One innovation
was made, namely, that the Legislative Body was elected by
universal suffrage, but it had no right of initiative, all laws
being proposed by the executive power. This new and violent
political change was rapidly followed by the same consequence
as had attended that of Brumaire. On the 2nd of December
1852, France, still under the effect of the Napoleonic virus,
and the fear of anarchy, conferred almost unanimously by a
plebiscite the supreme power, with the title of emperor, upon
Napoleon III.
But though the machinery of government was almost the same
under the Second Empire as it had been under the First, the
principles upon which its founder based it were different. The
function of the Empire, as he loved to repeat, was to guide the
people internally towards justice and externally towards perpetual
peace. Holding his power by universal suffrage, and having
frequently, from his prison or in exile, reproached former oligar-
chical governments with neglecting social questions, he set out
to solve them by organizing a system of government based on the
principles of the " Napoleonic Idea," i.e. of the emperor, the
elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, and
as such supreme; and of himself, the representative of the
great Napoleon, " who had sprung armed from the Revolution
like Minerva from the head of Jove," as the guardian of the
social gains of the revolutionary epoch. But he soon proved that
social justice did not mean liberty; for he acted in such a
way that those of the principles of 1848 which he had preserved
became a mere sham. He proceeded to paralyze all those active
national forces which tend to create the public spirit of a people,
such as parliament, universal suffrage, the press, education and
associations. The Legislative Body was not allowed either to
elect its own president or to regulate its own procedure, or to
propose a law or an amendment, or to vote on the budget in detail,
or to make its deliberations public. It was a dumb parliament.
Similarly, universal suffrage was supervised and controlled by
means of official candidature, by forbidding free speech and
action in electoral matters to the Opposition, and by a skilful ad-
justment of the electoral districts in such a way as to overwhelm
the Liberal vote in the mass of the rural population. The press
was subjected to a system of cautionnemenls, i.e. " caution
money," deposited as a guarantee of good behaviour, and
avertissemenls, i.e. requests by the authorities to cease publication
of certain articles, under pain of suspension or suppression;
while books were subject to a censorship. France was like a sick-
room, where nobody might speak aloud. In order to counteract
the opposition of individuals, a surveillance of suspects was
instituted. Orsini's attack on the emperor in 1858, though
purely Italian in its motive, served as a pretext for increasing
the severity of this regime by the law of general security (sure/S
genirale) which authorized the internment, exile or deportation
of any suspect without trial. In the same way public instruction
was strictly supervised, the teaching of philosophy was sup-
pressed in the Lycees, and the disciplinary powers of the adminis-
tration were increased. In fact for seven years France had no
political life. The Empire was carried on by a series of plebiscites.
Up to 1857 the Opposition did not exist; from then till 1860 it
was reduced to five members: Darimon, Emile Ollivicr, Henon,
J. Favre and E. Picard. The royalists waited inactive after the
new and unsuccessful attempt made at Frohsdorf in 1853, by a
combination of the legitimists and Orleanists, to re-create a
living monarchy out of the ruin of two royal families. Thus the
events of that ominous night in December were closing the future
to the new generations as well as to those who had grown up during
forty years of liberty.
But it was not enough to abolish liberty by conjuring up the
spectre of demagogy. It had to be forgotten, the great silence
had to be covered by the noise of festivities and material material
enjoyment, the imagination of the French people had prosperity
to be distracted from public affairs by the taste for aeon-
work, the love of gain, the passion for good living, ditioa of
The success of the imperial despotism, as of any other, espo
was bound up with that material prosperity which would make
all interests dread the thought of revolution. Napoleon III.,
therefore, looked for support to the clergy, the great financiers,
industrial magnates and landed proprietors. He revived on
his own account the " Let us grow rich " of 1840. Under the
influence of the Saint-Simonians and men of business great credit
establishments were instituted and vast public works entered
upon: the Credit foncier de France, the Credit mobilier, the
conversion of the railways into six great companies between 1852
and 1857. The rage for speculation was increased by the inflow
of Californian and Australian gold, and consumption was
facilitated by a general fall in prices between 1856 and 1860,
due to an economic revolution which was soon to overthrow the
tariff wall, as it had done already in England. Thus French
activity flourished exceedingly between 1852 and 1857, and was
merely temporarily checked by the crisis of 1857. The universal
Exhibition of 1855 was its culminating point. Art felt the
effects of this increase of comfort and luxury. The great en-
thusiasms of the romantic period were over; philosophy became
sceptical and literature merely amusing. The festivities of the
court at Compiegne set the fashion for the bourgeoisie, satisfied
with this energetic government which kept such good guard over
their bank balances.
If the Empire was strong, the emperor was weak. At once
headstrong and a dreamer, he was full of rash plans, but irresolute
8yo
FRANCE.
[HISTORY
in carrying them out. An absolute despot, he remained what his
life had made him, a conspirator through the very mysticism of
his mental habit, and a revolutionary by reason of his demagogic
imperialism and his democratic chauvinism. In his
Napokoa O pj n j on the artificial work of the congress of Vienna,
ideas. involving the downfall of his own family and of
France, ought to be destroyed, and Europe organized
as a collection of great industrial states, united by community
of interests and bound together by commercial treaties, and
expressing this unity by periodical congresses presided over by
himself, and by universal exhibitions. In this way he would
reconcile the revolutionary principle of the supremacy of the
people with historical tradition, a thing which neither the
Restoration nor the July monarchy nor the Republic of 1848
had been able to achieve. Universal suffrage, the organization
of Rumanian, Italian and German nationality, and commercial
liberty; this was to be the work of the Revolution. But the
creation of great states side by side with France brought with it
the necessity for looking for territorial compensation elsewhere,
and consequently for violating the principle of nationality and
abjuring his system of economic peace. Napoleon III.'s foreign
policy was as contradictory as his policy in home affairs,
" L'Empire, c'est la paix," was his cry; and he proceeded to
make war.
So long as his power was not yet established, Napoleon III.
made especial efforts to reassure European opinion, which had
been made uneasy by his previous protestations
Crimean a 8 ams t * ne treaties of 1815. The Crimean War, in
War. which, supported by England and the king of Sardinia,
he upheld against Russia the policy of the integrity
of the Turkish empire, a policy traditional in France since
Francis I., won him the adherence both of the old parties and
and the Liberals. And this war was the prototype of all the rest.
It was entered upon with no clearly defined military purpose,
and continued in a hesitating way. This was the cause, after
the victory of the allies at the Alma (September 14, 1854), of
the long and costly siege of Sevastopol (September 8, 1855).
Napoleon III., whose joy was at its height owing to the signature
of a peace which excluded Russia from the Black Sea, and to the
birth of the prince imperial, which ensured the continuation of
his dynasty, thought that the time had arrived to make a
beginning in applying his system. Count Walewski, his minister
for foreign affairs, gave a sudden and unexpected extension of
scope to the deliberations of the congress which met at Paris in
1856 by inviting the plenipotentiaries to consider the questions
of Greece, Rome, Naples, &c. This motion contained the
principle of all the upheavals which were to effect such changes
in Europe between 1859 and 1871. It was Cavour and Piedmont
who immediately benefited by it, for thanks to Napoleon III.
they were able to lay the Italian question before an assembly
of diplomatic Europe.
It was not Orsini's attack on the I4th of January 1858 which
brought this question before Napoleon. It had never ceased to
The War OCCU P V ^ m si nce he had taken part in the patriotic
in Italy. conspiracies in Italy in his youth. The triumph of his
armies in the East now gave him the power necessary
to accomplish this mission upon which he had set his heart.
The suppression of public opinion made it impossible for him
to be enlightened as to the conflict between the interests of
the country and his own generous visions. The sympathy of all
Europe was with Italy, torn for centuries past between so many
masters; under Alexander II. Russia, won over since the
interview of Stuttgart by the emperor's generosity rather than
conquered by armed force, offered no opposition to this act of
justice; while England applauded it from the first. The
emperor, divided between the empress Eugenie, who as a Spaniard
and a devout Catholic was hostile to anything which might
threaten the papacy, and Prince Napoleon, who as brother-in-law
of Victor Emmanuel favoured the cause of Piedmont, hoped to
conciliate both sides by setting up an Italian federation, intending
to reserve the presidency of it to Pope Pius IX., as a mark of
respect to the moral authority of the Church. Moreover, the
very difficulty of the undertaking appealed to the emperor,
elated by his recent success in the Crimea. At the secret meeting
between Napoleon and Count Cavour (July 20, 1858) the eventual
armed intervention of France, demanded by Orsini before he
mounted the scaffold, was definitely promised.
The ill-advised Austrian ultimatum demanding the immediate
cessation of Piedmont's preparations for war precipitated the
Italian expedition. On the 3rd of May 1859 Napoleon
declared his intention of making Italy " free from the ^yuh^
Alps to the Adriatic." As he had done four years ago, franca.
he plunged into the war with no settled scheme and
without preparation; he held out great hopes, but without
reckoning what efforts would be necessary to realize them. Two
months later, in spite of the victories of Montebello, Magenta
and Solferino, he suddenly broke off, and signed the patched-up
peace of Villaf ranca with Francis Joseph (July 9) . Austria ceded
Lombardy to Napoleon III., who in turn ceded it to Victor
Emmanuel; Modena and Tuscany were restored to their
respective dukes, the Romagna to the pope, now president of an
Italian federation. The mountain had brought forth a mouse.
The reasons for this breakdown on the part of the emperor
in the midst of his apparent triumph were many. Neither
Magenta nor Solferino had been decisive battles.
Further, his idea of a federation was menaced by the T. %
revolutionary movement which seemed likely to drive problem.
out all the princes of central Italy, and to involve him
in an unwelcome dispute with the French clerical party. More-
over, he had forgotten to reckon with the Germanic Confedera-
tion, which was bound to come to the assistance of Austria.
The mobilization of Prussia on the Rhine, combined with military
difficulties and the risk of a defeat in Venetian territory, rather
damped his enthusiasm, and decided him to put an end to the
war. The armistice fell upon the Italians as a bolt from the blue,
convincing them that they had been betrayed; on all sides
despair drove them to sacrifice their jealously guarded inde-
pendence to national unity. On the one hand the Catholics
were agitating throughout all Europe to obtain the independence
of the papal territory; and the French republicans were pro-
testing, on the other hand, against the abandonment of those
revolutionary traditions, the revival of which they had hailed
so enthusiastically. The emperor, unprepared for the turn which
events had taken, attempted to disentangle this confusion by
suggesting a fresh congress of the Powers, which should reconcile
dynastic interests with those of the people. After a while he gave
up the attempt and resigned himself to the position, his actions
having had more wide-reaching results than, he had wished.
The treaty of Zurich proclaimed the fallacious principle of non-
intervention (November 10, 1859); and then, by the treaty of
Turin of the 24th of May 1860, Napoleon threw over his ill-
timed confederation. He conciliated the mistrust of Great
Britain by replacing Walewski, who was hostile to his policy,
by Thouvenel, an anti-clerical and a supporter of the English
alliance, and he counterbalanced the increase of the new Italian
kingdom by the acquisition of Nice and Savoy. Napoleon, like
all French governments, only succeeded in finding a provisional
solution for the Italian problem.
But this solution would only hold good so long as the emperor
was in a powerful position. Now this Italian war, in which he had
given his support to revolution beyond the Alps, and, catholic
though unintentionally, compromised the temporal and pro-
power of the popes, had given great offence to the tectioaist
Catholics, to whose support the establishment of the sl '
Empire was largely due. A keen Catholic opposition
sprang up, voiced in L. Veuillot's paper the Univers, and was
not silenced even by the Syrian expedition (1860) in favour of the
Catholic Maronites, who were being persecuted by the Druses.
On the other hand, the commercial treaty with Great Britain
which was signed in January 1860, and which ratified the free-
trade policy of Richard Cobden and Michael Chevalier, had
brought upon French industry the sudden shock of foreign
competition. Thus both Catholics and protectionists made the
discovery that absolutism may be an excellent thing when it
HISTORY]
FRANCE
871
serves their ambitions or interests, but a bad thing when it is
exercised at their expense. But Napoleon, in order to restore
the prestige of the Empire before the newly-awakened hostility
of public opinion, tried to gain from the Left the support which
he had lost from the Right. After the return from Italy the
general amnesty of the i6th of August 1859 had marked the
evolution of the absolutist empire towards the liberal, and later
parliamentary empire, which was to last for ten years.
Napoleon began by removing the gag which was keeping the
country in silence. On the 24th of November 1860,-" by a coup
d'etat matured during his solitary meditations,"
Lib ai ''k e a c nspirator in hi s love of hiding his mysterious
Empire. thoughts even from his ministers, he granted to the
Chambers the right to vote an address annually in
answer to the speech from the throne, and to the press the right
of reporting parliamentary debates. He counted on the latter
concession to hold in check the growing Catholic opposition, which
was becoming more and more alarmed by the policy of laissez-
faire practised by the emperor in Italy. But the government
majority already showed some signs of independence. The right
of voting on the budget by sections, granted by the emperor in
1 86 1, was a new weapon given to his adversaries. Everything
conspired in their favour : the anxiety of those candid friends
who were calling attention to the defective budget; the com-
mercial crisis, aggravated by the American Civil War; and above
all, the restless spirit of the emperor, who had annoyed his
opponents in 1860 by insisting on an alliance with Great Britain
in order forcibly to open the Chinese ports for trade, in 1863 by
his ill-fated attempt to put down a republic and set up a Latin
empire in Mexico in favour of the archdukeMaximilian of Austria,
and from 1861 to 1863 by embarking on colonizing experiments
in Cochin China and Annam.
The same inconsistencies occurred in the emperor's European
politics. The support which he had given to the Italian cause
The had aroused the eager hopes of other nations. The
policy of proclamation of the kingdom of Italy on the i8th of
national- February 1861 after the rapid annexation of Tuscany
/sn7 ' and the kingdom of Naples had proved the danger
of half-measures. But when a concession, however narrow,
had been made to the liberty of one nation, it could hardly
be refused to the no less legitimate aspirations of the rest.
In 1863 these " new rights " again clamoured loudly for recogni-
tion, in Poland, in Schleswig and Holstein, in Italy, now indeed
united, but with neither frontiers nor capital, and in the Danubian
principalities. In order to extricate himself from the Polish
impasse, the emperor again had recourse to his expedient
always fruitless because always inopportune of a congress. He
was again unsuccessful : England refused even to admit the
principle of a congress, while Austria, Prussia and Russia gave
their adhesion only on conditions which rendered it futile, i.e.
they reserved the vital questions of Venetia and Poland.
Thus Napoleon had yet again to disappoint the hopes of Italy,
let Poland be crushed, and Germany triumph over Denmark in
the Schleswig-Holstein question. These inconsistencies resulted
in a combination of the opposition parties, Catholic, Liberal and
Republican, in the Union liberate. The elections of May- June
1863 gained the Opposition forty seats and a leader, Thiers, who
at once urgently gave voice to its demand for " the necessary
liberties."
It would have been difficult for the emperor to mistake the
importance of this manifestation of French opinion, and in view
The ^ ms i nternat i na l failures, impossible to repress it.
regime of The sacrifice of Persigny, minister of the interior,
coaces- w ho was responsible for the elections, the substitution
sioas. for the ministers without portfolio of a sort of presidency
of the council filled by Rouher, the " Vice-Emperor," and the
nomination of V. Duruy, an anti-clerical, as minister of public
instruction, in reply to those attacks of the Church which were
to culminate in the Syllabus of 1864, all indicated a distinct
rapprochement between the emperor and the Left. But though
the opposition represented by Thiers was rather constitutional
than dynastic, there was another and irreconcilable opposition,
that of the amnestied or voluntarily exiled republicans, of whom
Victor Hugo was the eloquent mouthpiece. Thus those who had
formerly constituted the governing classes were again showing
signs of their ambition to govern. There appeared to be some
risk that this movement among the bourgeoisie might spread to
the people. As Antaeus recruited his strength by touching the
earth Napoleon believed that he would consolidate his menaced
power by again turning to the labouring masses, by whom that
power had been established.
This industrial policy he embarked upon as much from motives
of interest as from sympathy, out of opposition to the bourgeoisie,
which was ambitious of governing or desirous of his / nrfus<ria/
overthrow. His course was all the easier, since he had policy
only to exploit the prejudices of the working classes. ot the
They had never forgotten the loi Chapelle of 1 791 , which Bmpin.
by forbidding all combinations among the workmen had placed
them at the mercy of their employers, nor had they forgotten how
the limited suffrage had conferred upon capital a political
monopoly which had put it out of reach of the law, nor how each
time they had left their position of rigid isolation in order to save
the Charter or universal suffrage, the triumphant bourgeoisie had
repaid them at the last with neglect. The silence of public
opinion under the Empire and the prosperous state of business
had completed the separation of the labour party from the
political parties. The visit of an elected and paid labour delega-
tion to the Universal Exhibition of 1862 in London gave the
emperor an opportunity for re-establishing relations with that
party, and these relations were to his mind all the more profitable,
since the labour party, by refusing to associate their social and
industrial claims with the political ambitions of the bourgeoisie,
maintained a neutral attitude between the parties, and could, if
necessary, divide them, while by its keen criticism of society it
aroused the conservative instincts of the bourgeoisie and con-
sequently checked their enthusiasm for liberty. A law of the
23rd of May 1863 gave the workmen the right, as in England,
to save money by creating co-operative societies. Another law,
of the 25th of May 1864, gave them the right to enforce better
conditions of labour by organizing strikes. Still further, the
emperor permitted the workmen to imitate their employers by
establishing unions for the permanent protection of their interests.
And finally, when the ouvriers, with the characteristic French
tendency to insist on the universal application of a theory, wished
to substitute for the narrow utilitarianism of the English trade-
unions the ideas common to the wage-earning classes of the
whole world, he put no obstacles in the way of their leader
M. Tolain's plan for founding an International Association of
Workers (Societe Internationale des Travailleurs) . At the same
time he encouraged the provision made by employers for thrift
and relief and for improving the condition of the working-
classes.
Thus assured of support, the emperor, through the mouth-
piece of M. Rouher, who was a supporter of the absolutist regime,
was able to refuse all fresh claims on the part of the
Liberals. He was aided by the cessation of the in-
dustrial crisis as the American civil war came to an
end, by the apparent closing of the Roman question by the con-
vention of the isth of September, which guaranteed to the papal
states the protection of Italy, and finally by the treaty of the 3oth
of October 1864, which temporarily put an end to the crisis of
the Schleswig-Holstein question. But after 1865 the momentary
agreement which had united Austria and Prussia for the purpose
of administering the conquered duchies gave place to a silent
antipathy which foreboded a rupture. Yet, though the Austro-
Prussian War of 1866 was not unexpected, its rapid termination
and fateful outcome came as a severe and sudden shock to France.
Napoleon had hoped to gain fresh prestige for his throne and new
influence for France by an intervention at the proper moment
between combatants equally matched and mutually exhausted.
His calculations were upset and his hopes dashed by the battle
of Sadowa (Koniggratz) on the 4th of July. The treaty of Prague
put an end to the secular rivalry of Habsburg and Hohen-
zollern for the hegemony of Germany, which had been France's
872
FRANCE
[HISTORY
opportunity; and Prussia could afford to humour the just claims
of Napoleon by establishing between her North German Con-
federation and the South German states the illusory frontier of
the Main. The belated efforts of the French emperor to obtain
" compensation " on the left bank of the Rhine, at the expense
of the South German states, made matters worse. France
realized with an angry surprise that on her eastern frontier had
arisen a military power by which her influence, if not her existence,
was threatened; that in the name of the principle of nationality
unwilling populations had been brought under the sway of a
dynasty by tradition militant and aggressive, by tradition the
enemy of France; that this new and threatening power had
destroyed French influence in Italy, which owed the acquisition
oi: Venetia to a Prussian alliance and to Prussian arms; and
that all this had been due to Napoleon, outwitted and out-
manoeuvred at every turn, since his first interview with Bis-
marck at Biarritz in October 1865.
All confidence in the excellence of imperial regime vanished
at once. Thiers and Jules Favre as representatives of the
Further Opposition denounced in the Legislative Body the
coaces- blunders of 1866. Emile Ollivier split up the official
s/nnsof majority by the amendment of the 45, and gave it to
Napekoa ^e understood that a reconciliation with the Empire
would be impossible until the emperor would grant
entire liberty. The recall of the French troops from Rome,
in accordance with the convention of 1864, also led to further
attacks by the Ultramontane party, who were alarmed for the
stru fe P a P acv - Napoleon III. felt the necessity for developing
between " the great act of 1860 " by the decree of the ipth of
OUMer January 1867. In spite of Rouher, by a secret agree-
""'. ment with Ollivier the right of interpellation was
restored to the Chambers. Reforms in press supervision
and the right of holding meetings were promised. It was in
vain that M. Rouher tried to meet the Liberal opposition by
organizing a party for the defence of the Empire, the " Union
dynastique." But the rapid succession of international reverses
prevented him from effecting anything.
The year 1867 was particularly disastrous for the Empire.
In Mexico " the greatest idea of the reign " ended in a humiliating
withdrawal before the ultimatum of the United States,
while Italy, relying on her new alliance with Prussia
and already forgetful of her promises, was mobilizing
the revolutionary forces to complete her unity by conquering
Rome. The chassepots of Mentana were needed to check the
Garibaldians. And when the imperial diplomacy made a
belated attempt to obtain from the victorious Bismarck those
territorial compensations on the Rhine, in Belgium and in
Luxemburg, which it ought to have been possible to exact from
him earlier at Biarritz, Benedetti added to the mistake of
asking at the wrong time the humiliation of obtaining nothing
(see LUXEMBURG). Napoleon did not dare to take courage and
confess his weakness. And finally was seen the strange contrast
of France, though reduced to such a state of real weakness,
courting the mockery of Europe by a display of the external
magnificence which concealed her decline. In the Paris trans-
formed by Baron Haussmann and now become almost exclusively
a city of pleasure and frivolity, the opening of the Universal
Exhibition was marked by Berezowski's attack on the tsar
Alexander II., and its success was clouded by the tragic fate
of the unhappy emperor Maximilian of Mexico. Well might
Thiers exclaim, " There are no blunders left for us to make."
But the emperor managed to commit still more, of which the
consequences both for his dynasty and for France were irrepar-
Peace or a ^ e ' ^^' * n fi rm an< l embittered, continually keeping
wafi his ministers in suspense by the uncertainty and
secrecy of his plans, surrounded by a people now bent
almost entirely on pleasure, and urged on by a growing opposition,
there now remained but two courses open to Napoleon III.:
either to arrange a peace which should last, or to prepare for a
decisive war. He allowed himself to drift in the direction of war,
but without bringing things to a necessary state of preparation.
It was in vain that Count Beust revived on behalf of the Austrian
The year
1867.
government the project abandoned by Napoleon since 1866 of
a settlement on the basis of the status quo with reciprocal dis-
armament. Napoleon refused, on hearing from Colonel Stoffel,
his military attach6 at Berlin, that Prussia would not agree to
disarmament. But he was more anxious than he was willing
to show. A reconstitution of the military organization seemed
to him to be necessary. This Marshal Niel was unable to obtain
either from the Bonapartist Opposition, who feared the electors,
in whom the old patriotism had given place to the commercial
or cosmopolitan spirit, or from the Republican opposition, who
were unwilling to strengthen the despotism. Both of them
were blinded by party interest to the danger from outside.
The emperor's good fortune had departed; he was abandoned
by men and disappointed by events. He had vainly hoped that,
though by the laws of May-June 1868, granting the Action
freedom of the press and authorizing meetings, he had of the
conceded the right of speech , he would retain the right of revoiu-
action; but he had played into the hands of his enemies. tlonalies -
Victor Hugo's Chatiments, the insults of Rochefort's Lanterne,
the subscription for the monument to Baudin, the deputy killed
at the barricades in 1851, followed by Gambetta's terrible
speech against the Empire on the occasion of the trial of Deles-
cluze, soon showed that the republican party was irreconcilable,
and bent on the Republic. On the other hand, the Ultramontane
party were becoming more and more discontented, while the
industries formerly protected were equally dissatisfied with the
free-trade reform. Worse still, the working classes had abandoned
their political neutrality, which had brought them nothing but
unpopularity, and gone over to the enemy. Despising Proudhon's
impassioned attacks on the slavery of communism, they had
gradually been won over by the collectivist theories of Karl
Marx or the revolutionary theories of Bakounine, as set forth
at the congresses of the International. At these Labour con-
gresses, the fame of which was only increased by the fact that
they were forbidden, it had been affirmed that the social emanci-
pation of the worker was inseparable from his political emancipa-
tion. Henceforth the union between the internationalists and
the republican bourgeois was an accomplished fact. The
Empire, taken by surprise, sought to curb both the middle
classes and the labouring classes, and forced them both into
revolutionary actions. On every side took place strikes, forming
as it were a review of the effective forces of the Revolution.
The elections of May 1869, made during these disturbances,
inflicted upon the Empire a serious moral defeat. In spite of
the revival by the government of the cry of the red The
terror, Ollivier, the advocate of conciliation, was pariia-
rejected by Paris, while 40 irreconcilables and 116 meatary
members of the Third Party were elected. Concessions m P 1 "-
had to be made to these, so by the senatus-consulte of the 8th of
September 1869 a parliamentary monarchy was substituted for
personal government. On the 2nd of January 1870 Ollivier
was placed at the head of the first homogeneous, united and
responsible ministry. But the republican party, unlike the
country, which hailed this reconciliation of liberty and order,
refused to be content with the liberties they had won; they
refused all compromise, declaring themselves more than ever
decided upon the overthrow of the Empire. The murder of the
journalist Victor Noir by Pierre Bonaparte, a member of the
imperial family, gave the revolutionaries their long desired
opportunity (January 10). But the emeute ended in a failure,
and the emperor was able to answer the personal threats against
him by the overwhelming victory of the plebiscite of the 8th of
May 1870.
But this success, which should have consolidated the Empire,
determined its downfall. 1 It was thought that a diplomatic
success should complete it, and make the country The
forget liberty for glory. It was in vain that after the Franco-
parliamentary revolution of the 2nd of January that German
prudent statesman Comte Daru revived, through
Lord Clarendon, Count Beust's plan of disarmament after
Sadowa. He met with a refusal from Prussia and from the
imperial entourage. The Empress Eugenie was credited with
HISTORY]
FRANCE
873
The
Hohea
candi-
dature.
the remark, " If there is no war, my son will never be emperor."
The desired pretext was offered on the 3rd of July 1870 by the
candidature of a Hohenzollern prince for the throne
of Spain. To the French people it seemed that Prussia,
barely mistress of Germany, was reviving against
France the traditional policy of the Habsburgs.
France, having rejected for dynastic reasons the
candidature of a Frenchman, the due de Montpensier, saw
herself threatened with a German prince. Never had the
emperor, now both physically and morally ill, greater need of
the counsels of a clear-headed statesman and the support of an
enlightened public opinion if he was to defeat the statecraft of
Bismarck. But he could find neither.
Ollivier's Liberal ministry, wishing to show itself as jealous
for national interests as any absolutist ministry, bent upon
T i, e doing something great, and swept away by the force
deciara- of that opinion which it had itself set free, at once
tion of accepted the war as inevitable, and prepared for it
with a light heart. In face of the decided declaration
of the due de Gramont, the minister for foreign affairs, before
the Legislative Body of the 6th of July, Europe, in alarm,
supported the efforts of French diplomacy and obtained the
withdrawal of the Hohenzollern candidature. This did not
suit the views either of the war party in Paris or of Bismarck,
who wanted the other side to declare war. The ill-advised action
of Gramont in demanding from King William one of those
promises for the future which are humiliating but never binding,
gave Bismarck his opportunity, and the king's refusal was
transformed by him into an insult by the " editing " of the Ems
telegram. The chamber, in spite of the desperate efforts of
Thiers and Gambetta, now voted by 246 votes to 10 in favour
of the war.
France found herself isolated, as much through the duplicity
of Napoleon as through that of Bismarck. The disclosure to the
diets of Munich and Stuttgart of the written text of
the claims laid by Napoleon on the territories of Hesse
and Bavaria had since the 22nd of August 1866
estranged southern Germany from France, and disposed the
southern states to sign the military convention with Prussia.
Owing to a similar series of blunders, the rest of Europe had
become hostile. Russia, which it had been Bismarck's study
both during and after the Polish insurrection of 1863 to draw
closer to Prussia, learnt with annoyance, by the same
indiscretion, how Napoleon was keeping his promises made
at Stuttgart. The hope of gaining a revenge in the East for
her defeat of 1856 while France was in difficulties made her
decide on a benevolent neutrality. The disclosure of Benedetti's
designs of 1867 on Belgium and Luxemburg equally ensured an
unfriendly neutrality on the part of Great Britain. The emperor
counted at least on the alliance of Austria and Italy, for which
he had been negotiating since the Salzburg interview (August
1867). But Austria, having suffered at his hands in 1859 and
1866, was not ready and asked for a delay before joining in the
war; while the hesitating friendships of Italy could only be
won by the evacuation of Rome. The chassepots of Mentana,
Rouher's " Never," and the hostility of the Catholic empress to
any secret article which should open to Italy the gates of the
capital, deprived France of her last friend.
Marshal Leboeuf's armies were no more effective than
Gramont's alliances. The incapacity of the higher officers of
the French army, the lack of preparation for war at
Sedan. headquarters, the selfishness and shirking of responsi-
bility on the part of the field officers, the absence of any
fixed plan when failure to mobilize had destroyed all
chance of the strong offensive which had been counted on, and
the folly of depending on chance, as the emperor had so often
1 In the I4th volume of his L'Empire liberal (1909) M. Emile
OHivier gives a detailed and illuminating account of the events that
led up to the war. He indignantly denies that he ever said that he
contemplated it " with a light heart," and says that he disapproved
of Gramont's demand for " guarantees," to which he was not privy.
His object is to prove that France was entrapped by Bismarck into a
position in which she was bound in honour to declare war. (En.)
France
Isolated.
done successfully, instead of scientific warfare, were all plainly
to be seen as early as the insignificant engagement of Saarbriicken.
Thus the French army proceeded by diastrous stages from
Weissenburg, Forbach, Froeschweiler, Borny, Gravelotte, Noisse-
ville and Saint-Privat to the siege of Metz and the slaughter at
Illy. By the capitulation of Sedan the Empire lost its only
support, the army, and fell. Paris was left unprotected and
emptied of troops, with only a woman at the Tuileries, a terrified
Assembly at the Palais-Bourbon, a ministry, that of Palikao,
without authority, and leaders of the Opposition who fled as
the catastrophe approached. (P. W.)
THE THIRD REPUBLIC 1870-1909
The Third Republic may be said to date from the revolution
of the 4th of September 1870, when the republican deputies of
Paris at the hotel de ville constituted a provisional aovera-
government under the presidency of General Trochu, meat ot
military governor of the capital. The Empire had National
fallen, and the emperor was a prisoner in Germany,
As, however, since the great Revolution regimes in
France have been only passing expedients, not inextricably
associated with the destinies of the people, but bound to disappear
when accounted responsible for national disaster, the surrender
of Louis Napoleon's sword to William of Prussia did not disarm
the country. Hostilities were therefore continued. The pro-
visional government had to assume the part of a Committee of
National Defence, and while insurrection was threatening in
Paris, it had, in the face of the invading Germans, to send a
delegation to Tours to maintain the relations of France with the
outside world. Paris was invested, and for five months endured
siege, bombardment and famine. Before the end of October
the capitulation o f Metz, by the treason of Marshal Bazaine,
deprived France of the last relic of its regular army. With
indomitable courage the garrison of Paris made useless sorties,
while an army of irregular troops vainly essayed to resist the
invader, who had reached the valley of the Loire. The acting
Government of National Defence, thus driven from Tours, took
refuge at Bordeaux, where it awaited the capitulation of Paris,
which took place on the 2gth of January 1871. The same day
the preliminaries of peace were signed at Versailles, which,
confirmed by the treaty of Frankfort of the loth of May, trans-
ferred from France to Germany the whole of Alsace, excepting
Belfort, and a large portion of Lorraine, including Metz, with
a money indemnity of two hundred millions sterling.
On the I3th of February 1871 the National Assembly, elected
after the capitulation of Paris, met at Bordeaux and assumed
the powers hitherto exercised by the Government of p oua ^ a .
National Defence. Since the meeting of the states- tloa of the
general in 1789 no representative body in France had Third
ever contained so many men of distinction. Elected
to conclude a peace, the great majority of its members
were monarchists, Gambetta, the rising hope of the republicans,
having discredited his party in the eyes of the weary population
by his efforts to carry on the war. The Assembly might thus have
there and then restored the monarchy had not the monarchists
been divided among themselves as royalist supporters of the
comte de Chambord, grandson of Charles X., and as Orleanists
favouring the claims of the comte de Paris, grandson of Louis
Philippe. The majority being unable to unite on the essential
point of the choice of a sovereign, decided to allow the Republic,
declared on the morrow of Sedan, to liquidate the disastrous
situation. Consequently, on the 1 7th of February the National
Assembly elected Thiers as " Chief of the Executive Power of
the French Republic," the abolition of the Empire being formally
voted a fortnight later. The old minister of Louis Philippe,
who had led the opposition to the Empire, and had been the chief
opponent of the war, was further marked out for the position
conferred on him by his election to the Assembly in twenty-six
departments in recognition of his tour through Europe after the
first defeats, undertaken in the patriotic hope of obtaining the
intervention of the Powers on behalf of France. Thiers composed
a ministry, and announced that the first duty of the government,
8 7 4
FRANCE
[HISTORY
before examining constitutional questions, would be to reorganize
the forces of the nation in order to provide for the enormous war
indemnity which had to be paid to Germany before the territory
could be liberated from the presence of the invader. The tacit
acceptance of this arrangement by all parties was known as the
" pacte de Bordeaux." Apart from the pressure of patriotic con-
siderations, it pleased the republican minority to have the govern-
ment of France officially proclaimed a Republic, while the
monarchists thought that pending their choice of a monarch it
might popularize their cause not to have it associated with
the imposition of the burden of war taxation. From this for-
tuitous and informal transaction, accepted by a monarchical
Assembly, sprang the Third Republic, the most durable regime
established in France since the ancient monarchy disappeared
in 1792.
The Germans marched down the Champs Elysees on the
ist of March 1871, and occupied Paris for forty-eight hours.
The National Assembly then decided to remove its
commune sittings to Versailles; but two days before its arrival
at the palace, where the king of Prussia had just been
proclaimed German emperor, an insurrection broke out in Paris.
The revolutionary element, which had been foremost in pro-
claiming the Republic on the 4th of September, had shown
signs of disaffection during the siege. On the conclusion of the
peace the triumphal entry of the German troops, the threatened
disbanding of the national guard by an Assembly known to be
anti-republican, and the resumption of orderly civic existence
after the agitated life of a suffering population isolated by
siege, had excited the nerves of the Parisians, always prone to
revolution. The Commune was proclaimed on the 1 8th of March,
and Paris was declared to be a free town, which recognized no
government but that chosen by the people within its walls,
the communard theory being that the state should consist of a
federation of self-governing communes subject to no central
power. Administrative autonomy was not, however, the real
aim of the insurgent leaders. The name of the Commune had
always been a rallying sign for violent revolutionaries ever
since the Terrorists had found their last support in the munici-
pality of Paris in 1794. In 1871 among the communard chiefs
were revolutionaries of every sect, who, disagreeing on govern-
mental and economic principles, were united in their vague but
perpetual hostility to the existing order of things. The regular
troops of the garrison of Paris followed the National Assembly
to Versailles, where they were joined by the soldiers of the armies
of Sedan and Metz, liberated from captivity in Germany. With
this force the government of the Republic commenced the
second siege of Paris, in order to capture the city from the
Commune, which had established the parody of a government
there, having taken possession of the administrative departments
and set a minister at the head of each office. The second siege
lasted six weeks under the eyes of the victorious Germans
encamped on the heights overlooking the capital. The presence
of the enemy, far from restraining the humiliating spectacle of
Frenchmen waging war on Frenchmen in the hour of national
disaster, seemed to encourage the fury of the combatants. The
communards, who had begun their reign by the murder of two
generals, concluded it", when the Versailles troops were taking the
city, with the massacre of a number of eminent citizens, including
the archbishop of Paris, and with the destruction by fire of many
of the finest historical buildings, including the palace of the
Tuileries and the hotel de ville. History has rarely known a
more unpatriotic crime than that of the insurrection of the
Commune; but the punishment inflicted on the insurgents by
the Versailles troops was so ruthless that it seemed to be acounter-
manif estation of French hatred for Frenchmen in civil disturbance
rather than a judicial penalty applied to a heinous offence.
The number of Parisians killed by French soldiers in the last
week of May 1871 was probably 20,000, though the partisans
of the Commune declared that 36,000 men and women were shot
in the streets or after summary court-martial.
It is from this point that the history of the Third Republic
commences. In spite of the doubly tragic ending of the war
the vitality of the country seemed unimpaired. With ease and
without murmur it supported the new burden of taxation called
for by the war indemnity and by the reorganization
of the shattered forces of France. Thiers was thus iicaasaatt
aided in his task of liberating the territory from the Monarch-
presence of the enemy. His proposal at Bordeaux to '*'* atter
make the " essai loyal " of the Republic, as the form of
government which caused the least division among Frenchmen,
was discouraged by the excesses of the Commune which associated
republicanism with revolutionary disorder. Nevertheless, the
monarchists of the National Assembly received a note of warning
that the country might dispense with their services unless they
displayed governmental capacity, when in July 1871 the re-
publican minority was largely increased at the bye-elections.
The next month, within a year of Sedan, a provisional constitution
was voted, the title of president of the French Republic being
then conferred on Thiers. The monarchists consented to this
against their will; but they had their own way when they
conferred constituent powers on the Assembly in opposition to
the republicans, who argued that it was a usurpation of the
sovereignty of the people for a body elected for another purpose
to assume the power of giving a constitution to the land without a
special mandate from the nation. The debate gave Gambetta
his first opportunity of appearing as a serious politician. The
" fou furieux " of Tours, whom Thiers had denounced for his
efforts to prolong the hopeless war, was about to become the
chief support of the aged Orleanist statesman whose supreme
achievement was to be the foundation of the Republic.
It was in 1872 that Thiers practically ranged himself with
Gambetta and the republicans. The divisions in the monarchical
party made an immediate restoration impossible.
This situation induced some of the moderate deputies,
whose tendencies were Orleanist, to support the Qambetta.
organization of a Republic which now no longer
found its chief support in the revolutionary section of the nation,
and it suited the ideas of Thiers, whose personal ambition was
not less than his undoubted patriotism. Having become
unexpectedly chief of the state at seventy-four he had no wish
to descend again to the position of a minister of the Orleans
dynasty which he had held at thirty-five. So, while the royalists
refused to admit the claims of the comte de Paris, the old minister
of Louis Philippe did his best to undermine the popularity of
the Orleans tradition, which had been great among the Liberals
under the Second Empire. He moved the Assembly to restore
to the Orleans princes the value of their property confiscated
under Louis Napoleon. This he did in the well-founded belief
that the family would discredit itself in the eyes of the nation by
accepting two millions sterling of public money at a moment
when the country was burdened with the war indemnity. The
incident was characteristic of his wary policy, as in the face
of the anti-republican majority in the Assembly he could not
openly break with the Right; and when it was suggested that
he was too favourable to the maintenance of the Republic he
offered his resignation, the refusal of which he took as indicating
the indispensable nature of his services. Meanwhile Gambetta,
by his popular eloquence, had won for himself in the autumn
a triumphal progress, in the course of which he declared at
Grenoble that political power had passed into the hands of
"" une couche sociale nouvelle," and he appealed to the new social
strata to put an end to the comedy of a Republic without
republicans. When the Assembly resumed its sittings, order
having been restored in the land disturbed by war and revolution,
the financial system being reconstituted and the reorganization
of the army planned, Thiers read to the house a presidential
message which marked such a distinct movement towards the
Left that Gambetta led the applause. " The Republic exists,"
said the president, " it is the lawful government of the country,
and to devise anything else is to devise the most terrible of
revolutions."
The year 1873 was full of events fateful for the history of France.
It opened with the death of Napoleon III. at Chislehurst; but
the disasters amid which the Second Empire had ended were too
HISTORY]
FRANCE
875
recent for the youthful promise of his heir to be regarded as
having any connexion with the future fortunes of France, except
by the small group of Bonapartists. Thiers remained the centre
of interest. Much as the monarchists disliked him, they at first
shrank from upsetting him before they were ready with a scheme
of monarchical restoration, and while Gambetta's authority was
growing in the land. But when the Left Centre took alarm at the
return of radical deputies at numerous by-elections the reaction-
aries utilized the divisions in the republican party, and for the
only time in the history of the Third Republic they gave proof of
parliamentary adroitness. The date for the evacuation of France
by the German troops had been advanced, largely owing to
Thiers' successful efforts to raise the war indemnity. The monar-
chical majority, therefore, thought the moment had
Resigna- arrived when his services might safely be dispensed
Thiers. with, and the campaign against him was ably con-
ducted by a coalition of Legitimists, Orleanists and
Bonapartists. The attack on Thiers was led by the due
de Broglie, the son of another minister of Louis Philippe and
grandson of Madame de Stae'l. Operations began with the
removal from the chair of the Assembly of Jules Grevy, a moderate
republican, who was chosen president at Bordeaux, and the
substitution of Buffet, an old minister of the Second Republic
who had rallied to the Empire. A debate on the political ten-
dency of the government brought Thiers himself to the tribune
to defend his policy. He maintained that a conservative
Republic was the only regime possible, seeing that the monarchists
in the Assembly could not make a choice between their three
pretenders to the throne. A resolution, however, was carried
which provoked the old statesman into tendering his resignation.
This time it was not declined, and the majority with unseemly
Marshal ^ aste elected as president of the Republic Marshal
MacMahoa MacMahon, due de Magenta, an honest soldier of
president royalist sympathies, who had won renown and a ducal
of the He- t j t j e on t jj e battlefields of the Second Empire. In the
eyes of Europe the curt dismissal of the aged liberator
of the territory was an act of ingratitude. Its justification
would have been the success of the majority in forming a
stable monarchical government; but the sole result of the 24th
of May 1873 was to provide a definite date to mark the opening
of the era of anti-republican incompetency in France which has
lasted for more than a generation, and has been perhaps the most
effective guardian of the Third Republic.
The political incompetency of the reactionaries was fated never
to be corrected by the intelligence of its princes or of its chiefs,
and the year which saw Thiers dismissed to make way for a
restoration saw also that restoration indefinitely postponed by
the fatal action of the legitimist pretender. The comte de Paris
went to Frohsdorf to abandon to the comte de Chambord his
claims to the crown as the heir of the July Monarchy, and to
accept the position of dauphin, thus implying that his grand-
father Louis Philippe was a usurper. With the " Government
of Moral Order" in command the restoration of the monarchy
seemed imminent, when the royalists had their hopes dashed
by the announcement that " Henri V." would accept the throne
only on the condition that the nation adopted as the standard
of France the white flag at the very sight of which Marshal
MacMahon said the rifles in the army would go off by themselves.
The comte de Chambord's refusal to accept the tricolour was
probably only the pretext of a childless man who
The had no wish to disturb his secluded life for the ultimate
. benefit of the Orleans family which had usurped his
' crown, had sent him as a child into exile, and out-
raged his mother the duchesse de Berry. Whatever his motive,
his decision could have no other effect than that of establishing
the Republic, as he was likely to live for years, during which the
comte de Paris' claims had to remain suspended. It was not
possible to leave the land for ever under the government im-
provised at Bordeaux when the Germans were masters of France;
so the majority in the Assembly decided to organize another
provisional government on more regular lines, which might
possibly last till the comte de Chambord had taken the white flag
Septea-
nate.
to the grave, leaving the way to the throne clear for the comte
de Paris. On the ipth of November 1873 a Bill was passed
which instituted the Septennate, whereby the executive
power was confided to Marshal MacMahon for seven
years. It also provided for the nomination of a com-
mission of the National Assembly to take in hand the
enactment of a constitutional law. Before this an important
constitutional innovation had been adopted. Under Thiers
there were no changes of ministry. The president of the Republic
was perpetual prime minister, constantly dismissing individual
holders of portfolios, but never changing at one moment the
whole council of ministers. Marshal MacMahon, the day after
his appointment, nominated a cabinet with a vice-president
of the council as premier, and thus inaugurated the system
of ministerial instability which has been the most conspicuous
feature of the government of the Third Republic. Under the
Septennate the ministers, monarchist or moderate republican,
were socially and perhaps intellectually of a higher class than
those who governed France during the last twenty years of the
igth century. But the duration of the cabinets was just as brief,
thus displaying the fact, already similarly demonstrated under
the Restoration and the July Monarchy, that in France parlia-
mentary government is an importation not suited to the national
temperament.
The due de Broglie was the prime minister in MacMahon's
first two cabinets which carried on the government of the country
up to the first anniversary of Thiers' resignation. The due de
Broglie's defeat by a coalition of Legitimists and Bonapartists
with the Republicans displayed the mutual attitude of parties.
The Royalists, chagrined that the fusion of the two branches of
the Bourbons had not brought the comte de Chambord to the
throne, vented their rage on the Orleanists, who had the chief
share in the government without being able to utilize it for their
dynasty. The Bonapartists, now that the memory of the war
was receding, were winning elections in the provinces, and were
further encouraged by the youthful promise of the Prince
Imperial. The republicans had so improved their position that
the due d'Audiffret-Pasquier, great-nephew of the chancellor
Pasquier, tried to form a coalition ministry with M. Waddington,
afterwards ambassador of the Republic in London, and other
members of the Left Centre. Out of this uncertain state of
affairs was evolved the constitution which has lasted the longest
of all those that France has tried since the abolition of the old
monarchy in 1792. Its birth was due to chance. Not being
able to restore a monarchy, the National Assembly was unwill-
ing definitively to establish a republic, and as no limit was set by
the law on the duration of its powers, it might have continued
the provisional state of things had it not been for the Bona-
partists. That party displayed so much activity in agitating for
a plebiscite, that when the rural voters at by-elections began to
rally to the Napoleonic idea, alarm seized the constitutionalists
of the Right Centre who had never been persuaded by Thiers'
exhortations to accept the Republic. Consequently in January
1875 the Assembly, having voted the general principle that the
legislative power should be exercised by a Senate and
a Chamber of Deputies, without any mention of the CoostUu-
executive regime, accepted by a majority of one a
momentous resolution proposed by M. Wallon, a
member of the Right Centre. It provided that the president of
the Republic should be elected by the absolute majority of the
Senate and the Chamber united as a National Assembly, that he
should be elected for seven years, and be eligible for re-election.
Thus by one vote the Republic was formally established, " the
Father of the Constitution " being M. Wallon, who began his
political experiences in the Legislative Assembly of 1849, and
survived to take an active part in the Senate until the twentieth
century.
The Republic being thus established, General de Cissey, who
had become prime minister, made way for M. Buffet, but retained
his portfolio of war in the new coalition cabinet, which contained
some distinguished members of the two central groups, includ-
ing M. Leon Say. A fortnight previously, at the end of February
876
FRANCE
[HISTORY
1875, were passed two statutes defining the legislative and
executive powers in the Republic, and organizing the Senate.
Provisions These joined to a third enactment, voted in July, form
of the Coa- the body of laws known as the " Constitution of 1875,"
stitution w hich though twice revised, lasted without essential
ofi75. alteration to the twentieth century. The legislative
power was conferred on a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies,
which might unite in congress to revise the constitution,
if they both agreed that revision was necessary, and which
were bound so to meet for the election of the president of the
Republic when a vacancy occurred. It was enacted that the
president so elected should retain office for seven years, and be
eligible for re-election at the end of his term. He was also held
to be irresponsible, except in the case of high treason. The other
principal prerogatives bestowed on the presidential office by the
constitution of 1875 were the right of initiating laws concurrently
with the members of the two chambers; the promulgation of
the laws; the right of dissolving the Chamber of Deputies before
its legal term on the advice of the Senate, and that of adjourning
the sittings of both houses for a month; the right of pardon;
the disposal of the armed forces of the country; the reception of
diplomatic envoys, and, under certain limitations, the power
to ratify treaties. The constitution relieved the president of
the responsibility of private patronage, by providing that every
act of his should be countersigned by a minister. The con-
stitutional law provided that the Senate should consist of 300
members, 75 being nominated for life by the National Assembly,
and the remaining 225 elected for nine years by the departments
and the colonies. Vacancies among the life members, after the
dissolution of the National Assembly, were filled by the Senate
until 1884, when the nominative system was abolished, though
the survivors of it were not disturbed. The law of 1875 enacted
that the elected senators, who were distributed among the
departments on a rough basis of population, should be elected
for nine years, a third of them retiring triennially. It was pro-
vided that the senatorial electors in each department should be
the deputies, the members of the conseil general and of the conseils
d'arrondissement, and delegates nominated by the municipal
councils of each commune. As the municipal delegates composed
the majority in each electoral college, Gambetta called the
Senate the Grand Council of the Communes; but in practice
the senators elected have always been the nominees of the local
deputies and of the departmental councillors (conseillers generaux).
The Constitutional Law further provided that the deputies
should be elected to the Chamber for four years by direct man-
Scrutia hood suffrage, which had been enjoyed in France ever
d'arron- since 1848. The laws relating to registration, which is
dissemeat o f admirable simplicity in France, were left practically
the same as under the Second Empire. From 1875 to
1885 the elections were held on the basis of scrutin
d'arrondissement, each department being divided into single-
member districts. In 1885 scrutin de lisle was tried, the depart-
ment being the electoral unit, and each elector having as many
votes as there were seats ascribed to the department without
the power to cumulate like the voting in the city of London
when it returned four members. In 1 889 scrutin d'arrondissement
was resumed. The payment of members continued as under
the Second Empire, the salary now being fixed at 9000 francs
a year in both houses, or about a pound sterling a day. The
Senate and the Chamber were endowed with almost identical
powers. The only important advantage given to the popular
house in the paper constitution was its initiative in matters of
finance, but the right of rejecting or of modifying the financial
proposals of the Chamber was successfully upheld by the Senate.
In reality the Chamber of Deputies has overshadowed the upper
house. The constitution did not prescribe that ministers should
be selected from either house of parliament, but in practice the
deputies have been in cabinets in the proportion of five to one
in excess of the senators. Similarly the very numerous ministerial
crises which have taken place under the Third Republic have
with the rarest exceptions been caused by votes in the lower
chamber. Among minor differences between the two houses
ordained by the constitution was the legal minimum age of their
members, that of senators being forty and of deputies twenty-five.
It was enacted, moreover, that the Senate, by presidential
decree, could be constituted into a high court for the trial of
certain offences against the security of the state.
The constitution thus produced, the fourteenth since the
Revolution of 1789, was the issue of a monarchical Assembly
forced by circumstances to establish a republic. It
was therefore distinguished from others which preceded ^^ ica i
it in that it contained no declaration of principle and parties
no doctrinal theory. The comparative excellence of under the
the work must be recognized, seeing that it has lasted. "^J^""
But it owed its duration, as it owed its origin and its
character, to the weakness of purpose and to the dissensions of
the monarchical parties. The first legal act under the new
constitution was the selection by the expiring National Assembly
of seventy-five nominated senators, and here the reactionaries
gave a crowning example of that folly which has ever marked
their conduct each time they have had the chance of scoring an
advantage against the Republic. The principle of nomination
had been carried in the National Assembly by the Right and
opposed by the Republicans. But the quarrels of the Legitimists
with the due de Broglie and his party were so bitter that the
former made a present of the nominated element in the Senate
to the Republicans in order to spite the Orleanists; so out of
seventy-five senators nominated by the monarchical Assembly,
fifty-seven Republicans were chosen. Without this suicidal
act the Republicans would have been in a woeful minority in the
Senate when parliament met in 1876 after the first elections
under the new system of parliamentary government. The
slight advantage which, in spite of their self-destruction, the
reactionaries maintained in the upper house was outbalanced
by the republican success at the elections to the Chamber.
In a house of over 500 members only about 1 50 monarchical
deputies were returned, of whom half were Bonapartists. The
first cabinet under the new constitution was formed by Dufaure,
an old minister of Louis Philippe like Thiers, and like him born in
the 1 8th century. The premier now took the title of president
of the council, the chie*t of the state no longer presiding at the
meetings of ministers, though he continued to be present at their
deliberations. Although the republican victories at the elections
were greatly due to the influence of Gambetta,none of his partisans
was included in the ministry, which was composed of members
of the two central groups. At the end of 1876 Dufaure retired,
but nearly all his ministers retained their portfolios under the
presidency of Jules Simon, a pupil of Victor Cousin, who first
entered political life in the Constituent Assembly of 1848, and
was later a leading member of the opposition in the last seven
years of the Second Empire.
The premiership of Jules Simon came to an end with the
abortive coup d'etat of 1877, commonly called from its date the
Seize Mai. After the election of Marshal MacMahon
to the presidency, the clerical party, irritated at the Mai 1877.
failure to restore the comte de Chambord, commenced
a campaign in favour of the restitution of the temporal power to
the Pope. It provoked the Italian government to make common
cause with Germany, as Prince Bismarck was likewise attacked
by the French clericals for his ecclesiastical policy. At last
Jules Simon, who was a liberal most friendly to Catholicism,
had to accept a resolution of the Chamber, inviting the ministry
to adopt the same disciplinary policy towards the Church which
had been followed by the Second Empire and the Monarchy of
July. It was on this occasion that Gambetta used his famous
expression, " Le clericolisme, voild. I'ennemi." Some days later
a letter appeared in the Journal officiel, dated i6th May 1877,
signed by President MacMahon, informing Jules Simon that he
had no longer his confidence, as it was clear that he had lost
that influence over the Chamber which a president of the Council
ought to exercise. The dismissal of the prime minister and the
presidential acts which followed did not infringe the letter of
the new constitution; yet the proceeding was regarded as a
coup d'etat in favour of the clerical reactionaries. The due de
HISTORY]
FRANCE
877
Broglie formed an anti-republican ministry, ana Marshal Mac-
Mahon, in virtue of the presidential prerogative conferred by the
law of 1875, adjourned parliament for a month. When the
Chamber reassembled the republican majority of 363 denounced
the coalition of parties hostile to the Republic. The president,
again using his constitutional prerogative, obtained the author-
ization of the Senate to dissolve the Chamber. Meanwhile the
Broglie ministry had put in practice the policy, favoured by all
parties in France, of replacing the functionaries hostile to it
with its own partisans. But in spite of the administrative
electoral machinery being thus in the hands of the reactionaries,
a republican majority was sent back to the Chamber, the sudden
death of Thiers on the eve of his expected return to power, and
the demonstration at his funeral, which was described as a
silent insurrection, aiding the rout of the monarchists. The
due de Broglie resigned, and Marshal MacMahon sent for General
de Rochebouet, who formed a cabinet of unknown reactionaries,
but it lasted only a few days, as the Chamber refused to vote
supply. Dufaure was then called back to office, and his moderate
republican ministry lasted for the remainder of the MacMahon
presidency.
Thus ended the episode of the Seize Mai, condemned by the
whole of Europe from its inception. Its chief effects were to
prove again to the country the incompetency of the monarchists,
and by associating in the public mind the Church with this
ill-conceived venture, to provoke reprisals from the anti-clericals
when they came into power. After the storm, the year 1878
was one of political repose. The first international exhibition
held at Paris after the war displayed to Europe how the secret
of France's recuperative power lay in the industry and artistic
instinct of the nation. Marshal MacMahon presided with
dignity over the fetes held in honour of the exhibition,
Jules an d had he pleased he might have tranquilly fulfilled
Qrtvy the term of his Septennate. But in January 1879
president ne ma de a difference of opinion on a military question
"Republic. an excuse for resignation,and Jules Grevy, the president
of the Chamber, was elected to succeed him by the
National Assembly, which thus met for the first time under the
Constitutional Law of 1875.
Henceforth the executive as well as the legislative power
was in the hands of the republicans. The new president was
a leader of the bar, who had first become known in the Constituent
Assembly of 1848 as the advocate of the principle that a republic
would do better without a president. M. Waddington was his
first prime minister, and Gambetta was elected president of the
Chamber. The latter, encouraged by his rivals in the idea that
the time was not ripe for him openly to direct the affairs of the
country, thus put himself, in spite of his occult dictatorship, in
a position of official self-effacement from which he did not emerge
until the jealousies of his own party-colleagues had undermined
the prestige he had gained as chief founder of the Republic.
The most active among them was Jules Ferry, minister of
Education, who having been a republican deputy for
J Ferry- Par ' s at tne enc * of l ^ e Em P ire > was one of the members
of the provisional government proclaimed on 4th
September 1870. Borrowing Gambetta's cry that clericalism
was the enemy, he commenced the work of reprisal for the Seize
Mai. His educational projects of 1879 were thus anti-clerical
in tendency, the most famous being article 7 of his education
bill, which prohibited members of any " unauthorized " religious
orders exercising the profession of teaching in any school in
France, the disability being applied to all ecclesiastical com-
munities, excepting four or five which had been privileged by
special legislation. This enactment, aimed chiefly at the Jesuits,
was advocated with a sectarian bitterness which will be associated
with the name of Jules Ferry long after his more statesmanlike
qualities are forgotten. The law was rejected by the Senate,
Jules Simon being the eloquent champion of the clericals, whose
intrigues had ousted him from office. The unauthorized orders
were then dissolved by decree; but though the forcible expulsion
of aged priests and nuns gave rise to painful scenes, it cannot
be said that popular feeling was excited in their favour, so
grievously had the Church blundered in identifying itself with
the conspiracy of the Seize Mai.
Meanwhile the death of the Prince Imperial in Zululand had
shattered the hopes of the Bonapartists, and M. de Freycinet,
a former functionary of the Empire, had become prime minister
at the end of 1879. He had retained Jules Ferry at the ministry
of Education, but unwilling to adopt all his anti-clerical policy,
he resigned the premiership in September 1 880. The constitution
of the first Ferry cabinet secured the further exclusion from office
of Gambetta, to which, however, he preferred his " occult dictator-
ship." In August he had, as president of the Chamber, accom-
panied M. Grevy on an official visit to Cherbourg, and the accla-
mations called forth all over France by his speech, which was
a hopeful defiance to Germany, encouraged the wily chief
of the state to aid the republican conspiracy against the hero
of the Republic. In 1881 the only political question before
the country was the destiny of Gambetta. His influence in the
Chamber was such that in spite of the opposition of the prime
minister he carried his electoral scheme of scrutin de lisle, descend-
ing from the presidential chair to defend it. Its rejection by
the Senate caused no conflict between the houses. The check
was inflicted not on the Chamber, but on Gambetta, who counted
on his popularity to carry the lists of his candidates in all
the republican departments in France as a quasi-plebiscitary
demonstration in his favour. His rivals dared not openly
quarrel with him. There was the semblance of a reconciliation
between him and Ferry, and his name was the rallying-cry of
the Republic at the general election, which was conducted on
the old system of scrutin d'arrondissement.
The triumph for the Republic was great, the combined force
of reactionary members returned being less than one-fifth of the
new Chamber. M. Grevy could no longer abstain from
asking Gambetta to form a ministry, but he had * / * e " a
bided his time till jealousy of the " occult power " m /n/ster.
of the president of the Chamber had undermined his
position in parliament. Consequently, when on the i4th of
November 1881 Gambetta announced the composition of his
cabinet, ironically called the " grand ministere," which was to
consolidate the Republic and to be the apotheosis of its chief,
a great feeling of disillusion fell on the country, for his colleagues
were untried politicians. The best known was Paul Bert, a man
of science, who as the " reporter " in the Chamber of the Ferry
Education Bill had distinguished himself as an aggressive free-
thinker, and he inappropriately was named minister of public
worship. All the conspicuous republicans who had held office
refused to serve under Gambetta. His cabinet was condemned
in advance. His enemies having succeeded in ruining its com-
position, declared that the construction of a one-man machine
was ominous of dictatorship, and the " grand ministere " lived for
only ten weeks.
Gambetta was succeeded in January 1882 by M. de Freycinet,
who having first taken office in the Dufaure cabinet of 1877, and
having continued to hold office at intervals until 1899,
was the most successful specimen of a " minislraUe " aambetta
as recurrent portfolio-holders have been called under
the Third Republic. His second ministry lasted only six months.
The failure of Gambetta, though pleasing to his rivals, discouraged
the republican party and disorganized its majority in the Chamber.
M. Duclerc, an old minister of the Second Republic, then became
president of the council, and before his short term of office was
run Gambetta died on the last day of 1882, without having had
the opportunity of displaying his capacity as a minister or an
administrator. He was only forty- four at his death, and his fame
rests on the unfulfilled promise of a brief career. The men who
had driven him out of public life and had shortened his existence
were the most ostentatious of the mourners at the great pageant
with which he was buried, and to have been of his party was in
future the popular trade-mark of his republican enemies.
Gambetta's death was followed by a period of anarchy, during
which Prince Napoleon, the son of Jerome, king of Westphalia,
placarded the walls of Paris with a manifesto. The Chamber
thereupon voted the exile of the members of the families which
8 7 8
FRANCE
[HISTORY
Oppor-
tunism.
had reigned in France. The Senate rejected the measure, and a
conflict arose between the two houses. M. Duclerc resigned the
premiership in January 1883 to his minister of the
Interior, M. Fallieres, a Gascon lawyer, who became
president of the Senate in 1899 and president of the
Republic in 1906. He held office for three weeks, when Jules Ferry
became president of the council for the second time. Several of
the closest of Gambetta's friends accepted office under the old
enemy of their chief, and the new combination adopted the
epithet "opportunist," which had been invented by Gambetta
in 1875 to justify the expediency of his alliance with Thiers.
The Opportunists thenceforth formed an important group stand-
ing between the Left Centre, which was now excluded from office,
and the Radicals. It claimed the tradition of Gambetta, but the
guiding principle manifested by its members was that of securing
the spoils of place. To this end it often allied itself with the
Radicals, and the Ferry cabinet practised this policy in 1883
when it removed the Orleans princes from the active list in the
army as the illogical result of the demonstration of a Bonaparte.
How needless was this proceeding was shown a few months later
when the comte de Chambord died, as his death, which finally
fused the Royalists with the Orleanists, caused no commotion
in France.
The year 1884 was unprecedented seeing that it passed
without a change of ministry. Jules Ferry displayed real admini-
Revisioa "strative ability, and as an era of steady government
of the Con- seemed to be commencing, the opportunity was taken
stitution, to revise the Constitution. The two Chambers there-
1884. f ore met ; n con g resSj an d enacted that the republican
form of government could never be the subject of revision, and
that all members of families which had reigned in France were
ineligible for the presidency of the Republic a repetition of the
adventure of Louis Bonaparte in the middle of the century being
thus made impossible. It also decided that the clauses of the
law of 1875 relating to the organization of the Senate should no
longer have a constitutional character. This permitted the
reform of the Upper House by ordinary parliamentary procedure.
So an organic law was passed to abolish the system of nominating
senators, and to increase the number of municipal delegates in
the electoral colleges in proportion to the population of the
communes. The French nation, for the first time since it had
enjoyed political life, had revised a constitution by pacific means
without a revolution. Gambetta being out of the way, his
favourite electoral system of scrutin de lisle had no longer any
terror for his rivals, so it was voted by the Chamber early in
1885. Before the Senate had passed it into law the Ferry
ministry had fallen at the end of March, after holding office for
twenty-five months, a term rarely exceeded in the annals of the
Third Republic. This long tenure of power had excited the
dissatisfaction of jealous politicians, and the news of a slight
disaster to the French troops in Tongking called forth all the
pent-up rancour which Jules Ferry had inspired in various
groups. By the exaggerated news of defeat Paris was excited
_ . . to the brink of a revolution. The approaches of the
Chamber were invaded by an angry mob, and Jules
Ferry was the object of public hate more bitter than any man
had called forth in France since Napoleon III. on the days after
Sedan. Within the Chamber he was attacked in all quarters.
The Radicals took the lead, supported by the Monarchists, who
remembered the anti-clerical rigour of the Ferry laws, by the
Left Centre, not sorry for the tribulation of the group which had
supplanted it, and by place-hunting republicans of all shades. The
attack was led by a politician who disdained office. M. Georges
Clemenceau, who had originally come to Paris from the Vendee
as a doctor, had as a radical leader in the Chamber used his
remarkable talent as an overthrower of ministries, and nearly
every one of the eight ministerial crises which had already
occurred during the presidency of Grevy had been hastened by
his mordant eloquence.
The next prime minister was M. Brisson, a radical lawyer and
journalist, who in April 1885 formed a cabinet of " concentration "
that is to say, it was recruited from various groups with the
idea of concentrating all republican forces in opposition to the re-
actionaries. MM. de Freycinet and Carnot, afterwards president
of theRepublic, represented the moderate element in this ministry,
which superintended the general elections under scrutin de liste.
That system was recommended by its advocates as a remedy
for the rapid decadence in the composition of the Chamber.
Manhood suffrage, which had returned to the National Assembly
a distinguished body of men to conclude peace with Germany,
had chosen a very different type of representative to sit in the
Chamber created by the constitution of 1875. At each succeed-
ing election the standard of deputies returned grew lower, till
Gambetta described them contemptuously as " sous-iieterinaires,"
indicating that they were chiefly chosen from the petty pro-
fessional class, which represented neither the real democracy
nor the material interests of the country. His view was that
the election of members by departmental lists would ensure the
candidature of the best men in each region, who under the system
of single-member districts were apt to be neglected in favour of
local politicians representing narrow interests. When his death
had removed the fear of his using scrutin de liste as a plebiscitary
organization, parliament sanctioned its trial. The result was
not what its promoters anticipated. The composition
of the Chamber was indeed transformed, but only by
the substitution of reactionary deputies for republicans.
Of the votes polled, 45% were given to the Monarchists, and
if they had obtained one-half of the abstentions the Republic
would have come to an end. At the same time the character
of the republican deputies returned was not improved; so the sole
effect of scrutin de lisle was to show that the electorate, weary of
republican dissensions, was ready to make a trial of monarchical
government,if only the reactionary party proved that it contained
statesmen capable of leading the nation. So menacing was the
situation that the republicans thought it wise not further to
expose their divisions in the presidential election which was
due to take place at the end of the year. Consequently, on
the 28th of December 1885, M. Grevy, in spite of his growing
unpopularity, was elected president of the Republic for a second
term of seven years.
The Brisson cabinet at once resigned, and on the 7th of January
1886 its most important member, M. de Freycinet, formed his
third ministry, which had momentous influence on the
history of the Republic. The new minister of war
General
Boulaager.
was General Boulanger,a smart soldier of no remarkable
military record ; but being the nominee of M. C16menceau, he began
his official career by taking radical measures against command-
ing officers of reactionary tendencies. He thus aided the govern-
ment in its campaign against the families which had reigned in
France, whose situation had been improved by the result of the
elections. The fetes given by the comte de Paris to celebrate
his daughter's marriage with the heir-apparent of Portugal
moved the republican majority in the Chambers to expel from
France the heads of the houses of Orleans and of Bonaparte,
with their eldest sons. The names of all the princes on the army
list were erased from it, the decree being executed with un-
seemly ostentation by General Boulanger, who had owed early
promotion to the protection of the due d'Aumale, and on that
prince protesting he was exiled too. Meanwhile General Bou-
langer took advantage of GreVy's unpopularity to make himself
a popular hero, and at the review, held yearly on the I4th of
July, the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille, his acclamation
by the Parisian mob showed that he was taking an unexpected
place in the imagination of the people. He continued to work
with the Radicals, so when they turned out M. de Freycinet in
December 1886, one of their group, M. Goblet, a lawyer from
Amiens, formed a ministry, and retained Boulanger as minister of
war. M. Clemenceau, however, withdrew his support from the
general, who was nevertheless loudly patronized by the violent
radical press. His bold attitude towards Germany in connexion
with the arrest on the German frontier of a French official named
Schnaebele so roused the enthusiasm of the public, that M. Goblet
was not sorry to resign in May 1887 in order to get rid of his too
popular colleague.
HISTORY
FRANCE
879
To form the twelfth of his ministries, Grevy called upon M.
Rouvier, an Opportunist from Marseilles, who had first held office
Th Wilson ' n Gambetta's short-lived cabinet. General Boulanger
scandal. was. sent to command a corps d'arm&e at Clermont-
Ferrand; but the popular press and the people
clamoured for the hero who was said to have terrorized Prince
Bismarck, and they encouraged him to play the part of a
plebiscitary candidate. There were grave reasons for public dis-
content. Parliament in 1887 was more than usually sterile in
legislation, and in the autumn session it had to attend to a scandal
which had long been rumoured: The son-in-law of Grevy,
Daniel Wilson, a prominent deputy who had been an under
secretary of state, was accused of trafficking the decoration of the
Legion of Honour, and of using the Elysee, the president's official
residence, where he lived, as an agency for his corrupt practices.
The evidence against him was so clear that his colleagues in the
Chamber put the government into a minority in order to pre-
cipitate a presidential crisis, and on Grevy refusing to accept this
hint, a long array of politicians, representing all the republican
groups, declined his invitation to aid him in forming a new
ministry, all being. bent on forcing his resignation. Had General
Boulanger been a man of resolute courage he might at this crisis
have made a coup d'&tat, for his popularity in the street and in the
army increased as the Republic sank deeper into scandal and
anarchy. At last, when Paris was on the brink of revolution,
Grevy was prevailed on to resign. The candidates for his succes-
sion to the presidency were two ex-prime ministers, MM. Ferry
and de Freycinet, and Floquet, a barrister, who had been con-
spicuous in the National Assembly for his sympathy with the Com-
mune. The Monarchists had no candidate ready, and resolved
to vote for Ferry, because they believed that if he were elected
his unpopularity with the democracy would cause an insurrection
in Paris and the downfall of the Republic. MM. de Freycinet
and Floquet each looked for the support of the Radicals, and each
had made a secret compact, in the event of his election, to restore
General Boulanger to the war office. But M. Clemenceau, fearing
the election of Jules Ferry, advised his followers to vote for an
" outsider," and after some manoeuvring the congress elected by a
large majority Sadi Carnot.
The new president, though the nominee of chance, was an
excellent choice. The grandson of Lazare Carnot, the ' 'organizer
_ of victory " of the Convention, he was also a man of
president unsullied probity. The tradition of his family name,
of the only less glorious than that of Bonaparte in the annals
Republic, O f t he Revolution, was welcome to France, almost
ready to throw herself into the arms of a soldier of
fortune, while his blameless repute reconciled some of those
whose opposition to the Republic had been quickened by the
mean vices of Grevy. But the name and character of Carnot
would have been powerless to check the Boulangist movement
without the incompetency of its leader, who was getting the
democracy at his back without knowing how to utilize it. The
new president's first prime minister was M. Tirard, a senator who
had held office in six of Grevy 's ministries, and he formed a
cabinet of politicians as colourless as himself. The early months
of 1888 were occupied with the trial of Wilson, who was sentenced
to two years' imprisonment for fraud, and with the conflicts
of the government with General Boulanger, who was deprived
of his command for coming to Paris without leave. Wilson
appealed against his sentence, and General Boulanger was
elected deputy for the department of the Aisne by an enormous
majority. It so happened that the day after his election a
presidential decree was signed on the advice of the minister of
war removing General Boulanger from the army, and the court
of appeal quashed Wilson's conviction. Public feeling was
profoundly moved by the coincidence of the release of the
relative of the ex-president by the judges of the Republic on
the same day that its ministers expelled from the army the
popular hero of universal suffrage.
As General Boulanger had been invented by the Radicals
it was thought that a Radical cabinet might be a remedy to
cope with him, so M. Floquet became president of the council
in April 1888, M. de Freycinet taking the portfolio of war,
which he retained through many ministries. M. Floquet's chief
achievement was a duel with General Boulanger, B / n /
in which, though an elderly civilian, he wounded him.
Nothing, however, checked the popularity of the military politi-
cian, and though he was a failure as a speaker in the Chamber,
several departments returned him as their deputy by great
majorities. The Bonapartists had joined him, and while in his
manifestos he described himself as the defender of the Republic,
themassof the Monarchists, with the consent of the comte deParis,
entered the Boulangist camp, to the dismay both of old-fashioned
Royalists and of many Orleanists, who resented his recent
treatment of the due d'Aumale. The centenary of the taking
of the Bastille was to be celebrated in Paris by an international
exhibition, and it appeared likely that it would be inaugurated
by General Boulanger, so irresistible seemed his popularity.
In January 1889 he was elected member for the metropolitan
department of the Seine with a quarter of a million votes, and
by a majority of eighty thousand over the candidate of the
government. Had he marched on the Elysee the night of his
election, nothing could have saved the parliamentary Republic;
but again he let his chance go by. The government in alarm
proposed the restoration of scrutin d'arrondissement as the
electoral system for scrutin de lisle. The change was rapidly
enacted by the two Chambers, and was a significant commentary
on the respective advantages of the two systems. M. Tirard was
again called to form a ministry, and he selected as minister of
the interior M. Constans, originally a professor at Toulouse, who
had already proved himself a skilful manipulator of elections when
he held the same office in 1881. He was therefore given the
supervision of the machinery of centralization with which it
was supposed that General Boulanger would have to be fought
at the general election. That incomplete hero, how-
ever, saved all further trouble by flying the country
when he heard that his arrest was imminent. The
government, in order to prevent any plebiscitary manifestation
in his favour, passed a law forbidding a candidate to present
himself for a parliamentary election in more than one con-
stituency; it also arraigned the general on the charge of treason
before the Senate sitting as a high court, and he was sentenced
in his absence to perpetual imprisonment. Such measures
were needless. The flight of General Boulanger was the death
of Boulangism. He alone had saved the Republic which had
done nothing to save itself. Its government had, on the contrary,
displayed throughout the crisis an anarchic feebleness and
incoherency which would have speeded its end had the leader
of the plebiscitary movement possessed sagacity or even common
courage.
The elections of 1889 showed how completely the reactionaries
had compromised their cause in the Boulangist failure. Instead
of 45% of the votes polled as in 1885, they obtained only 21 %,
and the comte de Paris, the pretender of constitutional monarchy,
was irretrievably prejudiced by his alliance with the military
adventurer who had outraged the princes of his house. A
period of calm succeeded the storm of Boulangism, and for the
first time under the Third Republic parliament set to work to
produce legislation useful for the state, without rousing party
passion, as in its other period of activity when the Ferry educa-
tion laws were passed. Before the elections of 1889 the reform
of the army was undertaken, the general term of active com-
pulsory service was made three years, while certain classes
hitherto dispensed from serving, including ecclesiastical semin-
arists and lay professors, had henceforth to undergo a year's
military training. The new parliament turned its attention to
social and labour questions, as the only clouds on the political
horizon were the serious strikes in the manufacturing districts,
which displayed the growing political organization of the socialist
party. Otherwise nothing disturbed the calm of the country.
The young due d'Orleans vainly tried to ruffle it by breaking
his exile in order to claim his citizen's right to perform his
military service. The cabinet was rearranged in March 1890, M.
de Freycinet becoming prime minister for the fourth time, and
88o
FRANCE
[HISTORY
retaining the portfolio of war. All seemed to point to the con-
solidation of the Republic, and even the Church made signals
of reconciliation. Cardinal Lavigerie, a patriotic missionary
and statesman, entertained the officers of the fleet at Algiers,
and proposed the toast of the Republic to the tune of the
" Marseillaise " played by his peres blancs. The royalist Catholics
protested, but it was soon intimated that the archbishop of
Algiers' demonstration was approved at Rome. The year 1891
was one of the few in the annals of the Republic which passed
without a change of ministry, but the agitations of 1892 were to
counterbalance the repose of the two preceding years.
The first crisis arose out of the peacemaking policy of the
Pope. Following up his intimation to the archbishop of Algiers,
Leo XIII. published in February 1892 an encyclical,
The papal bidding French Catholics accept the Republic as the
'1892! ' ' firmly established form of government. The papal
injunction produced a new political group called the
" Rallies," the majority of its members being Monarchists who
rallied to the Republic in obedience to the Vatican. The most
conspicuous among them was Comte Albert de Mun, an eloquent
exponent in the Chamber of legitimism and Christian socialism.
The extreme Left mistrusted the adhesion of the new converts to
the Republic, and ecclesiastical questions were the constant
subjects of acrimonious debates in parliament. In the course
of one of them M. de Freycinet found himself in a minority. He
ceased to be prime minister, being succeeded by M. Loubet, a
lawyer from Montelimar, who had previously held office for
three months in the first Tirard cabinet; but M. de Freycinet
continued to hold his portfolio of war. The confusion of the
republican groups kept pace with the disarray of the reactionaries,
and outside parliament the frequency of anarchist outrages did
not increase public confidence. The only figure in the Republic
which grew in prestige was that of M. Carnot, who in his frequent
presidential tours dignified his office, though his modesty made
him unduly efface his own personality.
When the autumn session of 1892 began all other questions
were overwhelmed by the bursting of the Panama scandal.
The company associated for the piercing of the Isthmus
p*^ of Panama, undertaken by M. de Lesseps, the maker
scandal. of the Suez Canal, had become insolvent some years
before. Fifty millions sterling subscribed by the
thrift of France had disappeared, but the rumours involving
political personages in the disaster were so confidently asserted
to be reactionary libels, that a minister of the Republic, after-
wards sent to penal servitude for corruption, obtained damages
for the publication of one of them. It was known that M. de
Lesseps was to be tried for misappropriating the money sub-
scribed; but considering the vast sums lost by the public, little
interest was taken in the matter till it was suddenly stirred by
the dramatic suicide of a well-known Jewish financier closely
connected with republican politicians, driven to death, it was
said, by menaces of blackmail. Then succeeded a period of
terror in political circles. Every one who had a grudge against
an enemy found vent for it in the press, and the people of Paris
lived in an atmosphere of delation. Unhappily it was true
that ministers and members of parliament had been subsidized
by the Panama company. Floquet, the president of the Chamber,
avowed that when prime minister he had laid hands on 12,000
of the company's funds for party purposes, and his justification
of the act threw a light on the code of public morality of the
parliamentary Republic.- Other politicians were more seriously
implicated on the charge of having accepted subsidies for their
private purposes, and emotion reached its height when the cabinet
ordered the prosecution of two of its members for corrupt traffic
of their offices. These two ministers were afterwards discharged,
and they seem to have been accused with recklessness; but their
prosecution by their own colleagues proved that the statesmen
of the Republic believed that their high political circles were
sapped with corruption. Finally, only twelve senators and
deputies were committed for trial, and the only one convicted
was a minister of M. de Freycinet's third cabinet, who pleaded
guilty to receiving large bribes from the Panama company. The
public regarded the convicted politician as a scapegoat, believing
that there were numerous delinquents in parliament, more guilty
than he, who had not even been prosecuted. This feeling was
aggravated by the sentence passed, but afterwards remitted, on
the aged M. de Lesseps, who had involved French people in
misfortune only because he too sanguinely desired to repeat the
triumph he had achieved for France by his great work in Egypt.
Within the nation the moral result of the Panama affair was
a general feeling that politics had become under the Republic
a profession unworthy of honest citizens. The sentiment evoked
by the scandal was one of sceptical lassitude rather than of
indignation. The reactionaries had crowned their record of
political incompetence. At a crisis which gave legitimate oppor-
tunity to a respectable and patriotic Opposition they showed
that the country had nothing to expect from them but incoherent
and exaggerated invective. If the scandal had come to light
in the time of General Boulanger the parliamentary Republic
would not have survived it. As it was, the sordid story did little
more than produce several changes of ministry. M. Loubet
resigned the premiership in December 1892 to M. Ribot, a former
functionary of the Empire, whose ministry lived for three stormy
weeks. On the first day of 1893 M. Ribot formed his second
cabinet, which survived till the end of March, when he was suc-
ceeded by his minister of education, M. Charles Dupuy, an ex-
professor who had never held office till four months previously.
M. Dupuy, having taken the portfolio of the interior, supervised
the general election of 1893, which took place amid the profound
indifference of the population, except in certain localities where
personal antagonisms excited violence. An intelligent Opposi-
tion would have roused the country at the polls against the regime
compromised by the Panama affair. Nothing of the sort occurred,
and the electorate preferred the doubtful probity of their re-
publican representatives to the certain incompetence of the
reactionaries. The adversaries of the Republic polled only 16%
of the votes recorded, and the chief feature of the election was
the increased return of socialist and radical-socialist deputies.
When parliament met it turned out the Dupuy ministry, and
M. Casimir-Perier quitted the presidency of the Chamber to
take his place. The new prime minister was the bearer of an
eminent name, being the grandson of the statesman of 1831,
and the great-grandson of the owner of Vizille, where the estates
of Dauphine met in 1788, as a prelude to the assembling of the
states-general the next year. His acceptance of office aroused
additional interest because he was a minister possessed of in-
dependent wealth, and therefore a rare example of a French
politician free from the imputation of making a living out of
politics. Neither his repute nor his qualities gave long life to his
ministry, which fell in four months, and M. Dupuy was sent for
again to form a cabinet in May 1894.
Before the second Dupuy ministry had been in office a month
President Carnot died by the knife of an anarchist at Lyons.
He was perhaps the most estimable politician of the ,4 Ssass / na .
Third Republic. Although the standard of political tion of
life was not elevated under his presidency, he at all president
events set a good personal example, and to have filled Cwaot -
unscathed the most conspicuous position in the land during a
period unprecedented for the scurrility of libels on public men
was a testimony to his blameless character. As the term of his
septennate was near, parliament was not unprepared for a presi-
dential election, and M. Casimir-Perier, who had been spoken
of as his possible successor, was elected by the Congress casimir-
which met at Versailles on the 27th of June 1894, three Perier
days after Carnot's assassination. The election of president,
one who bore respectably a name not less distinguished
in history than that of Carnot seemed to ensure that the Republic
would reach the end of the century under the headship of a
president of exceptional prestige. But instead of remaining chief
of the state for seven years, in less than seven months M. Casimir-
Perier astonished France and Europe by his resignation. Scurril-
ously defamed by the socialist press, the new president found
that the Republicans in the Chamber were not disposed to defend
him in his high office; so, on the isth of January 1895, he seized
HISTORY]
FRANCE
the occasion of the retirement of the Dupuy ministry to address
a message to the two houses intimating his resignation of the
presidency, which, he said, was endowed with too many responsi-
bilities and not sufficient powers.
This time the Chambers were unprepared 'for a presidential
vacancy, and to fill it in forty-eight hours was necessarily a
Fill* matter of haphazard. The choice of the congress fell
Faure on Felix Faure, a merchant of Havre, who, though
president, minister of marine in the retiring cabinet, was one of
189s. tne i eas t-known politicians who had held office. The
selection was a good one, and introduced to the presidency a
type of politician unfortunately rare under the Third Republic
a successful man of business. Felix Faure had a fine presence
and polished manners, and having risen from a humble origin
he displayed in his person the fact that civilization descends
to a lower social level in France than elsewhere. Although he
was in a sense a man of the people the Radicals and Socialists
in the Chambers had voted against him. Their candidate, like
almost all democratic leaders in France, had never worked with
his hands M. Brisson, the son of an attorney at Bourges, a
member of the Parisian bar, and perpetual candidate for the
presidency. Nevertheless the Left tried to take possession of
President Faure. His first ministry, composed of moderate
republicans and presided over by M. Ribot, lasted until the
autumn session of 18951 when it was turned out and a radical
cabinet was formed by M. Leon Bourgeois, an ex-functionary,
who when a prefect had been suspected of reactionary tendencies.
The Bourgeois cabinet of 1895 was remarkable as the first
ministry formed since 1877 which did not contain a single
member of the outgoing cabinet. It was said to be exclusively
radical in its composition, and thus to indicate that the days of
" republican concentration " were over, and that the Republic,
being firmly established, an era of party government on the
English model had arrived. The new ministry, however, on
analysis did not differ in character from any of its predecessors.
Seven of its members were old office-holders of the ordinary
" ministrable " type. The most conspicuous was M. Cavaignac,
the son of the general who had opposed Louis Bonaparte in 1848,
and the grandson of J. B. Cavaignac, the regicide member of the
Convention. Like Carnot and Casimir-Perier, he was, therefore,
one of those rare politicians of the Republic who possessed some
hereditary tradition. An ambitious man, he was now classed
as a Radical on the strength of his advocacy of the income-tax,
the principle of which has never been popular in France, as being
adverse to the secretive habits of thrift cultivated by the people,
which are a great source of the national wealth. The radicalism
of the rest of the ministry was not more alarming in character,
and its tenure of office was without legislative result. Its fall, how-
ever, occasioned the only constitutionally interesting ministerial
crisis of the twenty-four which had taken place since Grevy's
election to the presidency sixteen years before. The Senate,
disliking the fiscal policy of the government, refused to vote
supply in spite of the support which the Chamber gave to the
ministry. The collision between the two houses did not produce
the revolutionary rising which the Radicals predicted, and the
Senate actually forced the Bourgeois cabinet to resign amid
profound popular indifference.
The new prime minister was M. Meline, who began his long
political career as a member of the Commune in 1871, but was so
little compromised in the insurrection that Jules Simon gave
him an under-secretaryship in his ministry of 1876. After that
he was once a cabinet minister, and was for a year president of
the Chamber. He was chiefly known as a protectionist; but it
was as leader of the Progressists, as the Opportunists now called
themselves, that he formed his cabinet in April 1896, which was
announced as a moderate ministry opposed to the policy of the
Radicals. It is true that it made no attempt to tax incomes, but
otherwise its achievements did not differ from those of other
ministries, radical or concentration, except in its long survival.
It lasted for over two years, and lived as long as the second
Ferry cabinet. Its existence was prolonged by certain incidents
of the Franco-Russian alliance. The visit of the Tsar to Paris
in October 1896, being the first official visit paid by a Euro-
pean sovereign to the Republic, helped the government over the
critical period at which ministries usually succumbed,
and it was further strengthened in parliament by the
invitation to the president of the Republic to return alliance.
the imperial visit at St Petersburg in 1897. The
Chamber came to its normal term that autumn; but a law had
been passed fixing May as the month for general elections, and
the ministry was allowed to retain office till the dissolution at
Easter 1898.
The long duration of the Meline government was said to be
a further sign of the arrival of an era of party government with
its essential accompaniment, ministerial stability. But in the
country there was no corresponding sign that the electorate
was being organized into two parties of Progressists and Radicals;
while in the Chamber it was ominously observed that persistent
opposition to the moderate ministry came from nominal sup-
porters of its views, who were dismayed at one small band of
fellow-politicians monopolizing office for two years. The last
election of the century was therefore fought on a confused issue,
the most tangible results being the further reduction of the
Monarchists, who secured only 12% of the total poll, and the
advance of the Socialists, who obtained nearly 20% of the votes
recorded. The Radicals returned were less numerous than the
Moderates, but with the aid of the Socialists they nearly balanced
them. A new group entitled Nationalist made its appearance,
supported by a miscellaneous electorate representing the mal-
content element in the nation of all political shades from mon-
archist to revolutionary socialist. The Chamber, so composed,
was as incoherent as either of its predecessors. It refused to re-
elect the radical leader M. Brisson as its president, and then
refused its confidence to the moderate leader M. Meline. M.
Brisson, the rejected of the Chamber, was sent for to form a
ministry, on the 28th of June 1 898, which survived till the adjourn-
ment, only to be turned out when the autumn session began. M.
Charles Dupuy thus became prime minister for the third time with
a cabinet of the old concentration pattern, and for the third
time in less than five years under his premiership the Presidency
of the Republic became vacant. Felix Faure had increased in
pomposity rather than in popularity. His contact with European
sovereigns seems to have made him over-conscious of jggg.
his superior rank, and he cultivated habits which death of
austere republicans make believe to be the mono- President
poly of frivolous courts. The regular domesticity
of middle-class life may not be disturbed with impunity when
age is advancing, and Felix Faure died with tragic unexpected-
ness on the 1 6th of February 1899. The joys of his high office
were so dear to him that nothing but death would have induced
him to lay it down before the term of his septennate. There was
therefore no candidate in waiting for the vacancy; and as Paris
was in an agitated mood the majority in the Congress elected
M. Loubet president of the Republic, because he happened to hold
the second place of dignity in the state, the presidency
of the Senate, and was, moreover, a politician who had
the confidence of the republican groups as an adversary
of plebiscitary pretensions. His only competitor was M. Meline,
whose ambitions were not realized, in spite of the alliance of his
Progressist supporters with the Monarchists and Nationalists.
The Dupuy ministry lasted till June 1899, when a new cabinet
was formed by M. Waldeck- Rousseau, who, having held office
under Gambetta and Jules Ferry, had relinquished politics for
the bar, of which he had become a distinguished leader. Though
a moderate republican, he was the first prime minister to give
portfolios to socialist politicians. This was the distinguishing
feature of the last cabinet of the century the thirty-seventh
which had taken office in the twenty-six years which had elapsed
since the resignation of Thiers in 1873.
It is now necessary to go back a few years in order to refer
to a matter which, though not political in its origin, in its de-
velopment filled the whole political atmosphere of France in the
closing period of the igth century. Soon after the failure of the
Boulangist movement a journal was founded at Paris called the
882
FRANCE
[HISTORY
Libre Parole. Its editor, M. Drumont, was known as the author
.of La France June, a violent anti-Semitic work, written to de-
nounce the influence exercised by Jewish financiers in
Aatl ' the politics of the Third Republic. It may be said to
nave started the anti-Semitic movement in France,
where hostility to the Jews had not the pretext
existing in those lands which contain a large Jewish population
exercising local rivalry with the natives of the soil, or spoiling
them with usury. That state of things existed in Algeria, where
the indigenous Jews were made French citizens during the
Franco-Prussian War to secure their support against the Arabs
in rebellion. But political anti-Semitism was introduced into
Algeria only as an offshoot of the movement in continental
France, where the great majority of the Jewish community were
of the same social class as the politicians of the Republic.
Primarily directed against the Jewish financiers, the movement
was originally looked upon as a branch of the anti-capitalist
propaganda of the Socialists. Thus the Libre Parole joined with
the revolutionary press in attacking the repressive legislation
provoked by the dynamite outrages of the anarchists, clerical
reactionaries who supported it being as scurrilously abused by
the anti-Semitic organ as its republican authors. The Panama
affair, in the exposure of which the Libre Parole took a prominent
part soon after its foundation, was also a bond between anti-
Semites and Socialists, to whom, however, the Monarchists,
always incapable of acting alone, united their forces. The
implication of certain Jewish financiers with republican politicians
in the Panama scandal aided the anti-Semites in their special
propaganda, of which a main thesis was that the government of
the Third Republic had been organized by its venal politicians for
the benefit of Jewish immigrants from Germany, who had thus
enriched themselves at the expense of the laborious and un-
suspecting French population. The Libre Parole, which had
become a popular organ with reactionaries and with malcontents
of all classes, enlisted the support of the Catholics by attributing
the anti-religious policy of the Republic to the influence of the
Jews, skilfully reviving bitter memories of the enaction of the
Ferry decrees, when sometimes the laicization of schools or the
expulsion of monks and nuns had been carried out by a Jewish
functionary. Thus religious sentiment and race prejudice were
introduced into a movement which was at first directed against
capital; and the campaign was conducted with the weapons of
scurrility and defamation which had made an unlicensed press
under the Third Republic a demoralizing national evil.
An adroit feature of the anti-Semitic campaign was an appeal
to national patriotism to rid the army of Jewish influence. The
Condem- J ews > it was sa ^, not content with directing the
nation of financial, and thereby the general policy of the Re-
Captain public, had designs on the French army, in which they
Dreyfus. w i s i, ec j to act ^ secret agents of their German
kindred. In October 1894 the Libre Parole announced that a
Jewish officer of artillery attached to the general staff, Captain
Alfred Dreyfus, had been arrested on the charge of supplying
a government of the Triple Alliance with French military secrets.
Tried by court-martial, he was sentenced to military degradation
and to detention for life in a fortress. He was publicly degraded
at Paris in January 1895, a few days before Casimir-Perier
resigned the presidency of the Republic, and was transported
to the lie du Diable on the coast of French Guiana. His con-
viction, on the charge of having betrayed to a foreign power
documents relating to the national defence, was based on the
alleged identity of his handwriting with that of an intercepted
covering-letter, which contained a list of the papers treason-
ably communicated. The possibility of his innocence was not
raised outside the circle of his friends; the Socialists, who sub-
sequently defended him. even complained that common soldiers
were shot for offences less than that for which this richly con-
nected officer had been only transported. The secrecy of his
trial did not shock public sentiment in France, where at that time
all civilians charged with crime were interrogated by a judge in
private, and where all accused persons are presumed guilty
until proved innocent. In a land subject to invasion there was
less disposition to criticize the decision of a military tribunal
acting in the defence of the nation even than there would have
been in the case of a doubtful judgment passed in a civil court.
The country was practically unanimous that Captain Dreyfus
had got his deserts. A few, indeed, suggested that had he not
been a Jew he would never have been accused; but the greater
number replied that an ordinary French traitor of Gentile birth
would have been'forgotten from the moment of his condemnation.
The pertinacity with which some of 'his co-religionists set to
work to show that he had been irregularly condemned seemed to
justify the latter proposition. But it was not a Jew who brought
about the revival of the affair. Colonel Picquart, an officer of
great promise, became head of the intelligence department at the
war office, and in 1896 informed the minister of his suspicion
that the letter on which Dreyfus had been condemned was
written by a certain Major Esterhazy. The military authorities,
not wishing to have the case reopened, sent Colonel Picquart
on foreign service, and put in his place Colonel Henry. The all-
seeing press published various versions of the incident, and the
anti-Semitic journals denounced them as proofs of a Jewish
conspiracy against the French army.
At the end of 1897 M. Scheurer-Kestner, an Alsatian devoted
to France and a republican senator, tried to persuade his political
friends to reopen the case; but M. Meline, the prime Dre fagm
minister, declared in the name of the Republic that the eras and
Dreyfus affair no longer existed. The fact that the anti-Dny-
senator who championed Dreyfus was a Protestant fusaras -
encouraged the clerical press in its already marked tendency to
utilize anti-Semitism as a weapon of ecclesiastical warfare.
But the religious side-issues of the question would have had
little importance had not the army been involved in the con-
troversy, which had become so keen that all the population,
outside that large section of it indifferent to all public questions,
was divided into " Dreyfusards " and " anti-Dreyfusards."
The strong position of the latter was due to their assuming the
position of defenders of the army, which, at an epoch when
neither the legislature nor the government inspired respect, and
the Church was the object of polemic, was the only institution in
France to unite the nation by appealing to its martial and
patriotic instincts. That is the explanation of the enthusiasm
of the public for generals and other officers by whom the trial
of Dreyfus and subsequent proceedings had been conducted in a
manner repugnant to those who do not favour the arbitrary ways
of military dictatorship, which, however, are not unpopular
in France. The acquittal of Major Esterhazy by a court-martial,
the conviction of Zola by a civil tribunal for a violent criticism
of the military authorities, and the imprisonment without trial
of Colonel Picquart for his efforts to exonerate Dreyfus, were
practically approved by the nation. This was shown by the
result of the general elections in May 1 898. The clerical reaction-
aries were almost swept out of the Chamber, but the overwhelm-
ing republican majority was practically united in its hostility, to
the defenders of Dreyfus, whose only outspoken representatives
were found in the socialist groups. The moderate Meline
ministry was succeeded in June 1898 by the radical Brisson
ministry. But while the new prime minister was said to be
personally disposed to revise the sentence on Dreyfus, his civilian
minister of war, M. Cavaignac, was as hostile to revision as any
of his military predecessors General Mercier, under whom the
trial took place, General Zurlinden, and General Billot, a re-
publican soldier devoted to the parliamentary regime.
The radical minister of war in July 1898 laid before the
Chamber certain new proofs of the guilt of Dreyfus, in a speech
so convincing that the house ordered it to be placarded p^^/
in all the communes of France. The next month results of
Colonel Henry, the chief of the intelligence department, Dreyfus
confessed to having forged those new proofs, and then a z ltatloa -
committed suicide. M. Cavaignac thereupon resigned office,
but declared that the crime of Henry did not prove the innocence
of Dreyfus. Many, however, who had hitherto accepted the
judgment of 1894, reflected that the offence of a guilty man did
not need new crime for its proof. It was further remarked that
HISTORY]
FRANCE
883
the forgery had been committed by the intimate colleague of
the officers of the general staff, who had zealously protected
Esterhazy, the suspected author of the document on which
Dreyfus had been convicted. An uneasy misgiving became
widespread; but partisan spirit was too excited for it to cause
a general revulsion of feeling. Some journalists and politicians
of the extreme Left had adopted the defence of Dreyfus as an
anti-clerical movement in response to the intemperate partisan-
ship of the Catholic press on the other side. Other members of
the socialist groups, not content with criticizing the conduct of
the military authorities in the Dreyfus affair, opened a general
attack on the French army, an unpopular policy which allowed
the anti-Dreyfusards to utilize the old revolutionary device of
making the word " patriotism " a party cry. The defamation
and rancour with which the press on both sides flooded the land
obscured the point at issue. However, the Brisson ministry
just before its fall remitted the Dreyfus judgment to the criminal
division of the cour de cassation the supreme court of revision
in France. M. Dupuy formed a new cabinet in November 1898,
and made M. de Freycinet minister of war, but that adroit
office-holder, though a civilian and a Protestant, did not favour
the anti-military and anti-clerical defenders of Dreyfus. The
refusal of the Senate, the stronghold of the Republic, to re-elect
M. Scheurer-Kestner as its vice-president, showed that the
opportunist minister of war understood the feeling of parliament,
which was soon displayed by an extraordinary proceeding.
The divisional judges, to whom the case was remitted, showed
signs that their decision would be in favour of a new trial of
Dreyfus. The republican legislature, therefore, disregarding
the principle of the separation of the powers, which is the basis
of constitutional government, took the arbitrary step of interfer-
ing with the judicial authority. It actually passed a law with-
drawing the partly-heard cause from the criminal chamber of the
cour de cassation, and transferring it to the full court of three
divisions, in the hope that a majority of judges would thus be
found to decide against the revision of the sentence on Dreyfus.
This flagrant confusion of the legislative with the judicial
power displayed once more the incompetence of the French
rightly to use parliamentary institutions; but it left the nation
indifferent. It was during the passage of the bill that the
president of the Republic suddenly died. Felix Faure was said
to be hostile to the defenders of Dreyfus and disposed to utilize
the popular enthusiasm for the army as a means of making the
presidential office independent of parliament. The Chambers,
therefore, in spite of their anti-Dreyfusard bias, were determined
not to relinquish any of their constitutional prerogative. The
military and plebiscitary parties were now fomenting the public
discontent by noisy demonstrations. The president of the Senate,
M. Loubet, as has been mentioned, was known to have no
sympathy with this agitation, so he was elected president of
the Republic by a large majority at the congress held at Versailles
on.i8th February 1899. The new president, who was unknown
to the public, though he had once been prime minister for nine
months, was respected in political circles; but his elevation to
the first office of the State made him the object of that defama-
tion which had become the chief characteristic of the partisan
press under the Third Republic. He was recklessly accused of
having been an accomplice of the Panama frauds, by screening
certain guilty politicians when he was prime minister in 1892,
and because he was not opposed to the revision of the Dreyfus
sentence he was wantonly charged with being bought with
Jewish money. Meanwhile the united divisions of the cour de
cassation were, in spite of the intimidation of the legislature,
reviewing the case with an independence worthy of praise in an
ill-paid magistracy which owed its promotion to political influence.
Instead of justifying the suggestive interference of parliament
it revised the judgment of the court-martial, and ordered Dreyfus
to be re-tried by a military tribunal at Rennes. The Dupuy
ministry, which had wished to prevent this decision, resigned,
and M. Waldeck-Rousseau formed a heterogeneous cabinet in
which Socialists, who for the first time took office, had for their
colleague as minister of war General de Galliffet, whose chief
political fame had been won as the executioner of the Commu-
nards after the insurrection of 1871. Dreyfus was brought back
from the Devil's Island, and in August 1899 was put
upon his trial a second time. His old accusers, led tfiai'o/
by General Mercier, the minister of war of 1894, Dreyfus.
redoubled their efforts to prove his guilt, and were
permitted by the officers composing the court a wide license
according to English ideas of criminal jurisprudence. The
published evidence did not, however, seem to connect Dreyfus
with the charges brought against him. Nevertheless the court,
by a majority of five to two, found him guilty, and with illogical
inconsequence added that there were in his treason extenuating
circumstances. He was sentenced to ten years' detention, and
while it was being discussed whether the term he had already
served would count as part of his penalty, the ministry completed
the inconsequency of the situation by advising the president of
the Republic to pardon the prisoner. The result of the second
trial satisfied neither the partisans of the accused, who desired
his rehabilitation, some of them reproaching him for accepting
a pardon, nor his adversaries, whose vindictiveness was unsated
by the penalty he had already suffered. But the great mass of
the French people, who are always ready to treat a public
question with indifference, were glad to be rid of a controversy
which had for years infected the national life.
The Dreyfus affair was severely judged by foreign critics as
a miscarriage of justice resulting from race-prejudice. If that
simple appreciation rightly describes its origin, it Regl
became in its development one of those scandals character
symptomatic of the unhealthy political condition of ofthe
France, which on a smaller scale had often recurred ^^ s a
under the Third Republic, and which were made the
pretext by the malcontents of all parties for gratifying their
animosities. That in its later stages it was not a question of
race-persecution was seen in the curious phenomenon of journals
owned or edited by Jews leading the outcry against the Jewish
officer and his defenders. That it was not a mere episode of the
rivalry between Republicans and Monarchists, or between the
advocates of parliamentarism and of military autocracy, was
evident from the fact that the most formidable opponents of
Dreyfus, without whose hostility that of the clericals and
reactionaries would have been ineffective, were republican
politicians. That it was not a phase of the anti-capitalist
movement was shown by the zealous adherence of the socialist
leaders and journalists to the cause of Dreyfus; indeed, one
remarkable result of the affair was its diversion of the socialist
party and press for several years from their normal' campaign
against property. The Dreyfus affair was utilized by the reac-
tionaries against the Republic, by the clericals against the non-
Catholics, by the anti-clericals against the Church, by the military
party against the parliamentarians, and by the revolutionary
socialists against the army. It was also conspicuously utilized
by rival republican politicians against one another, and the chaos
of political groups was further confused by it.
An epilogue to the Dreyfus affair was the trial for treason before
the Senate, at the end of 1899, of a number of persons, mostly
obscure followers either of M. Deroulede the poet,
who advocated a plebiscitary republic, or of the due <r /// / a e
d'Orleans, thepretenderof theconstitutionalmonarchy. K99.
On the day of President Faure's funeral M. Deroulede
had vainly tried to entice General Roget, a zealous adversary
of Dreyfus, who was on duty with his troops, to march on the
Elysee in order to evict the newly-elected president of the
Republic. Other demonstrations against M. Loubet ensued,
the most offensive being a concerted assault upon him on the
racecourse at Auteuil in June 1899. The subsequent resistance
to the police of a band of anti-Semites threatened with arrest,
who barricaded themselves in a house in the rue Chabrol, in the
centre of Paris, and, with the marked approval of the populace,
sustained a siege for several weeks, indicated that the capital
was in a condition not far removed from anarchy. M. Deroulede,
indicted at the assizes of the Seine for his misdemeanour on
the day of President Faure's funeral, had been triumphantly
FRANCE
[HISTORY
acquitted. It was evident that no Jury would convict citizens
prosecuted for political offences and the government therefore
decided to make use of the article of the Law of 1875, which
allowed the Senate to be constituted a high court for the trial of
offences endangering the state. A respectable minority of the
Senate, including M. Wallon, the venerable " Father of the
Constitution " of 1875, vainly protested that the framers of the
law intended to invest the upper legislative chamber with
judicial power only for the trial of grave crimes of high treason,
and not of petty political disorders which a well-organized
government ought to be able to repress with the ordinary
machinery of police and justice. The outvoted protest was
justified by the proceedings before the High Court, which, un-
dignified and disorderly, displayed both the fatuity of the so-
called conspirators and the feebleness of the government which
had to cope with them. The trial proved that the plebiscitary
faction was destitute of its essential factor, a chief to put forward
for the headship of the state, and that it was resolved, if it over-
turned the parliamentary system, not to accept under any
conditions the due d'Orleans, the only pretender before the
public. It was shown that royalists and plebiscitary republicans
alike had utilized as an organization of disorder the anti-Semitic
propaganda which had won favour among the masses as a
nationalist movement to protect the French from foreign com-
petition. The evidence adduced before the high court revealed,
moreover, the curious fact that certain Jewish royalists had given
to the due d'Orle'ans large sums of money to found anti-Semitic
journals as the surest means of popularizing his cause.
The last year of the iQth century, though uneventful for
France, was one of political unrest. This, however, did not take
the form of ministerial crises, as, for the fourth time
parties at smce responsible cabinets were introduced in 1873,
the dose a whole year, from the ist of January to the 3ist of
ofthe December, elapsed without a change of ministry.
The prime minister, M. Waldeck-Rousseau, though
his domestic policy exasperated a large section of the
political world, including one half of the Progressive group
which he had helped to found, displayed qualities of statesman-
ship always respected in France, but rarely exhibited under the
Third Republic. He had proved himself to be what the French
call un homme de gouvernement that is to say, an authoritative
administrator of unimpassioned temperament capable of govern-
ing with the arbitrary machinery of Napoleonic centralization.
His alliance with the extreme Left and the admission into his
cabinet of socialist deputies, showed that he understood which
wing of the Chamber it was best to conciliate in order to keep the
government in his hands for an abnormal term. The advent to
office of Socialists disquieted the respectable and prosperous
commercial classes, which in France take little part in politics,
though they had small sympathy with the nationalists, who
were the most violent opponents of the Waldeck-Rousseau
ministry. The alarm caused by the handing over of important
departments of the state to socialist politicians arose upon a
danger which is not always understood beyond the borders of
France. Socialism in France is a movement appealing to the
revolutionary instincts of the French democracy, advocated in
vague terms by the members of rival groups or sects. Thus the
increasing number of socialist deputies in parliament had pro-
duced no legislative results, and their presence in the cabinet
was not feared on that account. The fear which their office-
holding inspired was due to the immense administrative patron-
age which the centralized system confides to each member of
the government. French ministers are wont to bestow the places
at their disposal on their political friends, so the prospect of
administrative posts being filled all over the land by revolu-
tionaries caused some uneasiness. Otherwise the presence of
Socialists on the ministerial bench seemed to have no other effect
than that of partially muzzling the socialist groups in the
Chamber. The opposition to the government was heterogeneous.
It included the few Monarchists left in the Chamber, the Nation-
alists, who resembled the Boulangists of twelve years before, and
who had added anti-Semitism to the articles of the revisionist
creed, and a number of republicans, chiefly of the old Opportunist
group, which had renewed itself under the name of Progressist
at the time when M. Waldeck-Rousseau was its most important
member in the Senate.
The ablest leaders of this Opposition were all malcontent
Republicans; and this fact seemed to show that if ever any
form of monarchy were restored in France, political office would
probably remain in the hands of men who were former ministers
of the Third Republic. Thus the most conspicuous opponents
of the cabinet were three ex-prime ministers, MM. Meline,
Charles Dupuy and Ribot. Less distinguished republican
" ministrables " had their normal appetite for office whetted
in 1900 by the international exhibition at Paris. It brought the
ministers of the day into unusual prominence, and endowed
them with large subsidies voted by parliament for official
entertainments. The exhibition was planned on too ambitious
a scale to be a financial success. It also called forth the just
regrets of those who deplored the tendency of Parisians under
the Third Republic to turn their once brilliant city into an
international casino. Its most satisfactory feature was the
proof it displayed of the industrial inventiveness and the artistic
instinct of the French. The political importance of the exhibition
lay in the fact that it determined the majority in the Chamber
not to permit the foreigners attracted by it to the capital to
witness a ministerial crisis. Few strangers of distinction, how-
ever, came to it, and not one sovereign of the great powers
visited Paris; but the ministry remained in office, and M.
Waldeck-Rousseau had uninterrupted opportunity of showing
his governmental ability. The only change in his cabinet took
place when General de Galliffet resigned the portfolio of war
to General Andre. The army, as represented by its officers,
had shown symptoms of hostility to the ministry in consequence
of the pardon of Dreyfus. The new minister of war repressed
such demonstrations with proceedings of the same arbitrary
character as those which had called forth criticism in England
when used in the Dreyfus affair. In both cases the high-handed
policy was regarded either with approval or with indifference by
the great majority of the French nation, which ever since the
Revolution has shown that its instincts are in favour of authorita-
tive government. The emphatic support given by the radical
groups to the autocratic policy of M. Waldeck-Rousseau and his
ministers was not surprising to those who have studied the
history of the French democracy. It has always had a taste
for despotism since it first became a political power in the days
of the Jacobins, to whose early protection General Bonaparte
owed his career. On the other hand liberalism has always been
repugnant to the masses, and the only period in which the
Liberals governed the country was under the regime of limited
suffrage during the Restoration and the Monarchy of July.
The most important event in France during the last year of
the century, not from its political result, but from the lessons
it taught, was perhaps the Paris municipal election. The
quadrennial renewal of all the municipal councils of France took
place in May 1900. The municipality of the capital had been
for many years in the hands of the extreme Radicals and the
revolutionary Socialists. The Parisian electors now sent to the
Hotel de Ville a council in which the majority were Nationalists,
in general sympathy with the anti-Semitic and plebiscitary
movements. The nationalist councillors did not, however, form
one solid party, but were divided into five or six groups, represent-
ing every shade of political discontent, from monarchism to
revisionist-socialism. While the electorate of Paris thus pro-
nounced for the revision of the Constitution, the provincial
elections, as far as they had a political bearing, were favourable
to the ministry and to the Republic. M. Waldeck-Rousseau
accepted the challenge of the capital, and dealt with its repre-
sentatives with the arbitrary weapons of centralization which
the Republic had inherited from the Napoleonic settlement of
the Revolution. Municipal autonomy is unknown in France, and
the town council of Paris has to submit to special restrictions on
its liberty of action. The prefect of the Seine is always present
at its meetings as agent of the government and the minister of
HISTORY]
FRANCE
885
the interior can veto any of its resolutions. The Socialists, when
their party ruled the municipality, clamoured in parliament for
the removal of this administrative control. But now
aad'the being in a minority they supported the government
provinces, in its anti-autonomic rigours. The majority of the
municipal council authorized its president to invite
to a banquet, in honour of the international exhibition,
the provincial mayors and a number of foreign municipal
magnates, including the lord mayor of London. The ministers
were not invited, and the prefect of the Seine thereupon informed
the president of the municipality that he had no right, without
consulting the agent of the government, to offer a banquet to the
provincial mayors; and they, with the deference which French
officials instinctively show to the central authority, almost all
refused the invitation to the H6tel de Ville. The municipal
banquet was therefore abandoned, but the government gave
one in the Tuileries gardens, at which no fewerthan 22,000 mayors
paid their respects to the chief of the state. These events showed
that, as in the Terror, as at the coup d'etat of 1851, and as in the
insurrection of the Commune, the French provinces were never
disposed to follow the political lead of the capital, whether
the opinions prevailing there were Jacobin or reactionary.
These incidents displayed the tendency of the French democracy,
in Paris and in the country alike, to submit to and even to en-
courage the arbitrary working of administrative centralization.
The elected mayors of the provincial communes, urban and
rural, quitted themselves like well-drilled functionaries of the
state, respectful of their hierarchical superiors, just as in the days
when they were the nominees of the government; while the
population of Paris, in spite of its perennial proneness to revolu-
tion, accepted the rebuff inflicted on its chosen representatives
without any hostile demonstration. The municipal elections
in Paris afforded fresh proof of the unchanging political ineptitude
of the reactionaries. The dissatisfaction of the great capital
with the government of the Republic might, in spite of the
reluctance of the provinces to follow the lead of Paris, have had
grave results if skilfully organized. But the anti-republican
groups, instead of putting forward men of high ability or reputa-
tion to take possession of the Hotel de Ville, chose their candidates
among the same inferior class of professional politicians as the
Radicals and the Socialists whom they replaced on the municipal
council.
The beginning of a century of the common era is a purely
artificial division of time. Yet it has often marked a turning-
point in the history of nations. This was notably the
case m F rance m 1800. The violent and anarchical
opening phases of the Revolution of 1789 came to an end with
ofthe the i8th century; and the dawn of the igth was
20th cen- co [ nc [fa n t w jth the administrative reconstruction
of France by Napoleon, on lines which endured with
little modification till the end of that century, surviving seven
revolutions of the executive power. The opening years of the
2oth century saw no similar changes in the government of the
country. The Third Republic, which was about to attain an
age double that reached by any other regime since the Revolution,
continued to live on the basis of the Constitution enacted in
1875, before it was five years old. Yet it seems not unlikely that
historians of the future may take the date 1900 as a landmark
between two distinct periods in the evolution of the French
nation.
Wjth the close of the igth century the Dreyfus affair came
practically to an end. Whatever the political and moral causes
Results of the agitation which attended it, its practical result
ofthe was to strengthen the Radical and Socialist parties in
Dreyfus t jje Republic, and to reduce to unprecedentedimpotence
the forces of reaction. This was due more to the
maladroitness of the Reactionaries than to the virtues or the
prescience of the extreme Left, as the imprisonment of the Jewish
captain, which agitated and divided the nation, could not have
been inflicted without the ardent approval of Republicans of
all shades of opinion. But when the majority at last realized
that a mistake had been committed, the Reactionaries, in great
measure through their own unwise policy, got the chief credit
for it. Consequently, as the clericals formed the militant section
of the anti-Republican parties, and as the Radical-Socialists
were at that time keener in their hostility to the Church than in
their zeal for social or economic reform, the issue of the Dreyfus
affair brought about an anti-clerical movement, which, though
initiated and organized by a small minority, met with nothing
to resist it in the country, the reactionary forces being effete
and the vast majority of the population indifferent. The main
and absorbing feature therefore of political life in France in the
first years of the 2oth century was a campaign against the Roman
Catholic Church, unparalleled in energy since the Revolution.
Its most striking result was the rupture of the Concordat between
France and the Vatican. This act was additionally important
as being the first considerable breach made in the administrative
structure reared by Napoleon, which had hitherto survived all
the vicissitudes of the ipth century. Concurrently with this
the influence of the Socialist party in French policy largely
increased. A primary principle professed by the Socialists
throughout Europe is pacificism, and its dissemination in France
acted in two very different ways. It encouraged in the French
people a growth of anti-military spirit, which showed some sign
of infecting the national army, and it impelled the government
of the Republic to be zealous in cultivating friendly relations
with other powers. The result of the latter phase of pacificism
was that France, under the Radical-Socialist administrations
of the early years of the 2oth century, enjoyed a measure of
international prestige of that superficial kind which is expressed
by the state visits of crowned heads to the chief of the executive
power, greater than at any period since the Second Empire.
The voting of the law which separated the Church from the
state will probably mark a capital date in French history; so,
as the ecclesiastical policy of successive ministries
filled almost entirely the interior chronicles of France pout*
for the first five years of the new century, it will be
convenient to set forth in order the events which during that
period led up to the passing of the Separation Act.
The French legislature during the first session of the 2oth
century was chiefly occupied with the passing of the Associations
Law. That measure, though it entirely changed the legal
position of all associations in France, was primarily directed
against the religious associations of the Roman Catholic Church.
Their influence in the land, according to the anti-clericals, had
been proved by the Dreyfus affair to be excessive. The Jesuits
were alleged, on their own showing, to exercise considerable
power over the officers of the army, and in this way to have been
largely responsible for the blunders of the Dreyfus case. Another
less celebrated order, which took an active part against Dreyfus,
the Assumptionists, had achieved notoriety by its journalistic
enterprise, its cheap newspapers of wide circulation being re-
markable for the violence of their attacks on the institutions
and men of the Republic. The mutual antagonism between the
French government and religious congregations is a tradition
which dates from the ancient monarchy and was continued by
Napoleon I. long before the Third Republic adopted it in the
legislation associated with the names of Jules Ferry and Paul
Bert. The prime minister, under whose administration the
20th century succeeded the ipth, was M. Waldeck-Rousseau,
who had been the colleague of Paul Bert in Gambetta's grand
ministere, and in 1883 had served under Jules Ferry in his second
ministry. He had retired from political life, though he remained
a member of the Senate, and was making a large fortune at the
bar, when in June 1899, at pecuniary sacrifice, he consented to
form a ministry for the purpose of " liquidating " the Dreyfus
affair. In 1900, the year after the second condemnation of
Dreyfus and his immediate pardon by the government, M.
Waldeck-Rousseau in a speech at Toulouse announced that
legislation was about to be undertaken on the subject of associa-
tions.
At that period the hostility of the Revolution to the principle
of associations of all kinds, civil as well as religious, was still
enforced by the law. With the exception of certain commercial
886
FRANCE
[HISTORY
societies subject to special legislation, no association composed
of more than twenty persons could be formed without govern-
mental authorization which was always revocable, the restriction
applying equally to political and social clubs and to religious
communities. The law was the same for all, but was differently
applied. Authorization was rarely refused to political or social
societies, though any club was liable to have its authorization
withdrawn and to be shut up or dissolved. But to religious
orders new authorization was practically never granted. Only
four of them, the orders of Saint Lazare, of the Saint Esprit,
of the Missions Etrangeres and of Saint Sulpice, were authorized
under the Third Republic their authorization dating from the
First Empire and the Restoration. The Freres de la Doctrine
Chretienne were also recognized, not, however, as a religious
congregation under the jurisdiction of the minister of public
worship, but as a teaching body under that of the minister of
education. All the great historical orders, preaching, teaching
or comtemplative, were " unauthorized "; they led a precarious
life on sufferance, having as corporations no civil existence,
and being subject to dissolution at a moment's notice by the
administrative authority. In spite of this disability and of the
decrees of 1880 directed against unauthorized monastic orders
they had so increased under the anti-clerical Republic, that the
religious of both sexes were more numerous in France at the
beginning of the 2oth century than at the end of the ancient
monarchy. Moreover, in the twenty years during which un-
authorized Orders had been supposed to be suppressed under
the Ferry Decrees, their numbers had become six times more
numerous than before, while it was the authorized Congregations
which had diminished. The bare catalogue of the religious
houses in the land, with the value of their properties (estimated
by M. Waldeck-Rousseau at a milliard 40,000,000) filled
two White Books of two thousand pages, presented to parlia-
ment on the 4th of December 1900. The hostility to the Con-
gregations was not confined to the anti-clericals. The secular
clergy were suffering materially from the enterprising competition
of their old rivals the regulars. Had the legislation for defining
the legal situation of the religious orders been undertaken with
the sole intention of limiting their excessive growth, such a
measure would have been welcome to the parochial clergy.
But they saw that the attack upon the congregations was only
preliminary to a general attack upon the Church, in spite of the
sincere assurances of the prime minister, a statesman of con-
servative temperament, that no harm would accrue to the secular
clergy from the passing of the Associations Law.
In January 1901, on the eve of the first debate in the Chamber
of Deputies on the Associations bill, a discussion took place
which showed that the rupture of the Concordat might
be nearm 8 the range of practical politics, though
parliament was as yet unwilling to take it into consider-
tion. The archbishop of Paris, Cardinal Richard, had pub-
lished a letter addressed to him by Leo XIII. deploring the
projected legislation as being a breach of the Concordat under
which the free ex^rcise of the Catholic religion in France was
assured. The Socialists argued that this letter was an intolerable
intervention on the part of the Vatican in the domestic politics
of the Republic, and proposed that parliament should after
voting the Associations Law proceed to separate Church and
State. ' M. Waldeck-Rousseau, the prime minister, calm and
moderate, declined to take this view of the pope's letter, and the
resolution was defeated by a majority of more than two to one.
But another motion, proposed by a Nationalist, that the Chamber
should declare its resolve to maintain the Concordat, was rejected
by a small majority. The discussion of the Associations bill
was then commenced by the Chamber and went on until the
Easter recess. Its main features when finally voted were that
the right to associate for purposes not illicit should be henceforth
free of all restrictions, though " juridical capacity " would be
accorded only to such associations as were formally notified
to the administrative authority. The law did not, however,
accord liberty of association to religious " Congregations,"
none of which could be formed without a special statute, and
any constituted without such authorization would be deemed
illicit. The policy of the measure, as applying to religious
orders, was attacked by the extreme Right and the extreme
Left from their several standpoints. The clericals proposed
that under the new law all associations, religious as well as civil,
should be free. The Socialists proposed that all religious com-
munities, authorized or unauthorized, should be suppressed.
The prime minister took a middle course. But he went farther
than the moderate Republicans, with whom he was generally
classed. While he protected the authorized religious orders
against the attacks of the extreme anti-clericals, he accepted
from the latter a new clause which disqualified any member
of an unauthorized order from teaching in any school. This
was a blow at the principle of liberty of instruction, which had
always been supported by Liberals of the old school, who had
no sympathy with the pretensions of clericalism. Consequently
this provision, though voted by a large majority, was opposed
by the Liberals of the Republican party, notably by M. Ribot,
who had been twice prime minister, and M. Aynard, almost the
sole survivor of the Left Centre. It was remarked that in these,
as in all subsequent debates on ecclesiastical questions, the ablest
defenders of the Church were not found among the clericals,
but among the Liberals, whose primary doctrine was that of
tolerance, which they believed ought to be applied to the exercise
of the religion nominally professed by a large majority of the
nation. Few of the ardent professors of that religion gave
effective aid to the Church during that period of crisis. M. de
Mun still used his eloquence in its defence, but the brilliant
Catholic orator had entered his sixtieth year with health impaired,
and among the young reactionary members there was not one
who displayed any talent. At the other end of the Chamber
M. Viviani, a Socialist member for Paris, made an eloquent
speech. As was anticipated the bill received no serious opposi-
tion in the Senate. Though not in sympathy with the attacks
of the Socialists in the Chamber on property, the Upper House
had as a whole no objection to their attacks on the Church, and
had become a more persistently anti-clerical body than the
Chamber of Deputies. The bill was therefore passed without
any serious amendments, even those which were moved for the
purpose of affirming the principle of liberty of education being
supported by very few Republican senators. In the debates
some of the utterances of the prime minister were important.
On the proposal of M. Rambaud, a professor who was minister
of education in the Meline cabinet of 1896, that religious associa-
tions should be authorized by decree and not by law, M. Waldeck-
Rousseau said that inasmuch as vows of poverty and celibacy
were illegal, nothing but a law would suffice to give legality
to any association in which such vows were imposed on the
members. It was thus laid down by the responsible author
of the law that the third clause, providing that any association
founded for an illicit cause was null, applied to religious com-
munities. On the other hand the prime minister in another
speech repudiated the suggestion that the proposed law was
aimed against any form of religion. He argued that the religious
orders, far from being essential to the existence of the Church,
were a hindrance to the work of the parochial clergy, and that
inasmuch as the religious orders were organizations independent
of the State they were by their nature and influence a danger to
the State. Consequently their regulation had become necessary
in the interests both of Church and State. The general suppres-
sion of religious congregations, the prime minister said, was not
contemplated; the case of each one would be decided on its
merits, and he had no doubt that parliament would favourably
consider the authorization of those whose aim was to alleviate
misery at home or to extend French influence abroad. The
tenor of M. Waldeck-Rousseau's speech was eminently Con-
cordatory. One of his chief arguments against the religious
orders was that they were not mentioned in the Concordat, and
that their unregulated existence prejudiced the interests of the
Concordatory clergy. The speech was therefore an official
declaration in favour of the maintenance of the relations between
Church and State. That being so, it is important to notice that
HISTORY]
FRANCE
887
by a majority of nearly two to one the Senate voted the placard-
ing of the prime minister's speech in all the communes of France,
and that the mover of the resolution was M. Combes, senator
of the Charente-Inferieure, a politician of advanced views who
up to that date had held office only once, when he was minister
of education and public worship for about six months, in the
Bourgeois administration in 1895-1896.
The " Law relating to the contract of Association " was
promulgated on the 2nd of July 1901, and its enactment was the
Socialism. on ' v political event of high importance that year.
The Socialists, except in their anti-clerical capacity,
were more active outside parliament than within. Early in the
year some formidable strikes took place. At Montceau-les-Mines
in Burgundy, where labour demonstrations had often been
violent, a new feature of a strike was the formation of a trade-
union by the non-strikers, who called their organization " the
yellow trade-union " (le syndical jaune) in opposition to the red
trade-union of the strikers, who adopted the revolutionary
flag and were supported by the Socialist press. At the same
time the dock-labourers at Marseilles went out on strike, by the
orders of an international trade-union in that port, as a protest
against the dismissal of a certain number of foreigners. The
number of strikes in France had increased considerably under
the Waldeck-Rousseau government. Its opponents attributed
this to the presence in the cabinet of M. Millerand, who had been
ranked as a Socialist. On the other hand, the revolutionary
Socialists excommunicated the minister of commerce for having
joined a " bourgeois government " and retired from the general
congress of the Socialist party at Lyons, where MM. Briand and
Viviani, themselves future ministers, persuaded the majority
not to go so far. The federal committee of miners projected a
general strike in all the French coal-fields, and to that end
organized a referendum. But of 125,000 miners inscribed on
their lists nearly 70,000 abstained from voting, and although
the general strike was voted in October by a majority of 34,000,
it was not put into effect. Another movement favoured by the
Socialists was that of anti-militarism. M. Herve, a professor
at the lycee of Sens, had written, in a local journal, the Pioupiou
de I'Yonne, on the occasion of the departure of the conscripts
for their regiments, some articles outraging the French flag.
He was prosecuted and acquitted at the assizes at Auxerre in
November, a number of his colleagues in the teaching profession
coming forward to testify that they shared his views.' The local
educational authority, the academic council of Dijon, however,
dismissed M. Herve from his official functions, and its sentence
was confirmed by the superior council of public education to
which he had appealed. Thereupon the Socialists in the Chamber,
under the lead of M. Viviani, violently attacked the Government
shortly before the prorogation at the end of the year. M.
Leygues, the minister of education, defended the policy of his
department with equal vigour, declaring that if a professor in the
" university " claimed the right of publishing unpatriotic and
anti-military opinions he could exercise it only on the condition
of giving up his employment under government a thesis which
was supported by the entire Chamber with the exception of the
Socialists. This manifestation of anti-military spirit, though
not widespread, was the more striking as it followed close upon
a second visit of the emperor and empress of Russia to France,
which took place in September 1901 and was of a military rather
than of a popular character. The Russian sovereigns did not
come to Paris. After a naval display at Dunkirk, where they
landed, they were the guests of President Loubet at Compiegne,
and concluded their visit by attending a review near Reims of
the troops which had taken part in the Eastern manoeuvres.
Compared with the welcome given by the French population
to the emperor and empress in 1896 their reception on this
occasion was not enthusiastic. By not visiting Paris they seemed
to wish to avoid contact with . the people, who were per-
suaded by a section of the press that the motive of the imperial
journey to France was financial. The Socialists openly repudi-
ated the Russian alliance, and one of them, the mayor of Lille,
who refused to decorate his municipal buildings when the
sovereigns visited the department of the Nord, was neither
revoked nor suspended, although he publicly based his refusal
on grounds insulting to the tsar.
It may be mentioned that the census returns of 1901 showed
that the total increase of the population of France since the
previous census in 1896 amounted only to 412,364, of which
289,662 was accounted for by the capital, while on the other
hand the population of sixty out of eighty-seven departments
had diminished.
As the quadrennial election of the Chamber of Deputies was
due to take place in the spring of 1902, the first months of that
year were chiefly occupied by politicians in preparing for it,
though none of them gave any sign of being aware that the
legislation to be effected by the new Chamber would be the
most important which any parliament had undertaken under the
constitution of 1875. At the end of the recess the prime minister
in a speech at Saint Etienne, the capital of the Loire, of which
department he was senator, passed in review the work of his
ministry. With regard to the future, on the eve of the election
which was to return the Chamber destined to disestablish the
Church, he assured the secular clergy that they must not consider
the legislation of the last session as menacing them: far from
that, the recent law, directed primarily against those monastic
orders which were anti-Republican associations, owning political
journals and organizing electioneering funds (whose members
he described as " moines ligueurs et moines d'affaires "), would
be a guarantee of the Republic's protection of the parochial
clergy. The presence of his colleague, M. Millerand, on this
occasion showed that M. Waldeck-Rousseau did not intend to
separate himself from the Radical-Socialist group which had
supported his government; and the next day the Socialist
minister of commerce, at Firminy, a mining centre in the same
department, made a speech deprecating the pursuit of unpractical
social ideals, which might have been a version of Gambetta's
famous discourse on opportunism edited by an economist of the
school of Leon Say. The Waldeck-Rousseau programme for
the elections seemed therefore to be an implied promise of a
moderate opportunist policy which would strengthen and unite
the Republic by conciliating all sections of its supporters.
When parliament met, M. Delcasse, minister for foreign affairs,
on a proposal to suppress the Embassy to the Vatican, declared
that even if the Concordat were ever revoked it would still be
necessary for France to maintain diplomatic relations with the
Holy See. On the other hand, the ministry voted, against the
moderate Republicans, for an abstract resolution, proposed
by M. Brisson, in favour of the abrogation of the Loi Falloux of
1850, which law, by abolishing the monopoly of the " university,"
had established the principle of liberty of education. Another
abstract resolution, supported by the government, which
subsequently become law, was voted in favour, of the reduction
of the terms of compulsory military service from three years to
two.
The general elections took place on the 27th of April 1902,
with the second ballots on the nth of May, and were favourable
to the ministry, 321 of its avowed supporters being Kestgaa-
returned and 268 members of the Opposition, including tioa of
140 " Progressist " Republicans, many of whom were ^ aUeck -
. . ,. , .. . J . , Rousseau.
deputies whose opinions differed little from those of
M. Waldeck-Rousseau. In Paris the government lost a few seats
which were won by the Nationalist group of reactionaries.
The chief surprise of the elections was the announcement made
by M. Waldeck-Rousseau on the 2pth of May, while the president
of the Republic was in Russia on a visit to the tsar, of his
intention to resign office. No one but the prime minister's
intimates knew that his shattered health was the true cause of
his resignation, which was attributed to the unwillingness of an
essentially moderate man to be the leader of an advanced party
and the instrument of an immoderate policy. His retirement
from public life at this crisis was the most important event of
its kind since the death of his old master Gambetta. He had
learned opportunist statesmanship in the short-lived grand
ministere and in the long-lived Ferry administration of 1883-
888
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[HISTORY
1885, after which he had become an inactive politician in the
Senate, while making a large fortune at the bar. In spite of
having eschewed politics he had been ranked in the public mind
with Gambetta and Jules Ferry as one of the small number of
politicians of the Republic who had risen high above mediocrity.
While he had none of the magnetic exuberance which furthered
the popularity of Gambetta, his cold inexpansiveness had not
made him unpopular as was his other chief, Jules Ferry. Indeed,
his unemotional coldness was one of the elements of the power
with which he dominated parliament; and being regarded by the
nation as the strong man whom France is always looking for,
he was the first prime minister of the Republic whose name was
made a rallying cry at a general election. Yet the country gave
him a majority only for it to be handed over to other politicians
to use in a manner which he had not contemplated. On the 3rd
of June 1902 he formally resigned office, his ministry having
lasted for three years, all but a few days, a longer duration than
that of any other under the Third Republic.
M. Loubet called upon M. Leon Bourgeois, who had already
been prime minister under M. Felix Faure, to form a ministry,
but he had been nominated president of the new
M. Combes Chamber. The president of the Republic then offered
m/flfcter ^e post to M. Brisson, who had been twice prime
minister in 1885 and 1898, but he also refused. A
third member of the Radical party was then sent for, M. Emile
Combes, and he accepted. The senator of the Charente Inf erieure,
in his one short term of office in the Bourgeois ministry, had made
no mark. But he had attained a minor prominence in the debates
of the Senate by his ardent anti-clericalism. He had been
educated as a seminarist and had taken minor orders, without
proceeding to the priesthood, and had subsequently practised
as a country doctor before entering parliament. M. Combes
retained two of the most important members of the Waldeck-
Rousseau cabinet, M. Delcasse, who had been at the foreign
office for four years, and General Andre, who had become war
minister in 1900 on the resignation of General de Galliffet.
General Andre was an ardent Dreyfusard, strongly opposed to
clerical and reactionary influences in the army. Among the
new ministers was M. Rouvier, a colleague of Gambetta in the
grand ministere and prime minister in 1887, whose participation in
the Panama affair had caused his retirement from official life.
Being a moderate opportunist and reputed the ablest financier
among French politicians, his return to the ministry of finance
reassured those who feared the fiscal experiments of an adminis-
tration supported by the Socialists. The nomination as minister
of marine of M. Camille Pelletan (the son of Eugene Pelletan,
a notable adversary of the Second Empire), who had been a
Radical-Socialist deputy since 1881, though new to office, was
less reassuring. M. Combes reserved for himself the departments
of the interior and public worship, meaning that the centralized
administration of France should be in his own hands while he
was keeping watch over the Church. But in spite of the prime
minister's extreme anti-clericalism there was no hint made in
his ministerial declaration, on the loth of June 1902, on taking
office that there would be any question of the new Chamber
dealing with the Concordat or with the relations of Church and
state. M. Combes, however, warned the secular clergy not to
make common cause with the religious orders, against which
he soon began vigorous action. Before the end of June he directed
the Prefets of the departments to bring political pressure to
bear on all branches of the public service, and he obtained a
presidential decree closing a hundred and twenty-five schools,
which had been recently opened in buildings belonging to private
individuals, on the ground that they were conducted by members
of religious associations and that this brought the schools under
the law of 1901. Such action seemed to be opposed to M.
Waldeck-Rousseau's interpretation of the law; but the Chamber
having supported M. Combes he ordered in July the closing of
2.500 schools, conducted by members of religious orders, for which
authorization had not been requested. This again seemed
contrary to the assurances of M. Waldeck-Rousseau, and it called
forth vain protests in the name of liberty from Radicals of the
old school, such as M. Goblet, prime minister in 1886, and from
Liberal Protestants, such as M. Gabriel Monod. The execution
of the decrees closing the schools of the religious orders caused
some violent agitation in the provinces during- the parliamentary
recess. But the majority of the departmental councils, at their
meetings in August, passed resolutions in favour of the govern-
mental policy, and a movement led by certain Nationalists,
including M. Drumont, editor of the anti-semitic Libre Parole,
and M. Francois Coppee, the Academician, to found a league
having similar aims to those of the " passive resisters " in our
country, was a complete failure. On the reassembling of parlia-
ment, both houses passed votes of confidence in the ministry and
also an act supplementary to the Associations Law penalizing
the opening of schools by members of religious orders.
In spite of the ardour of parliamentary discussions the French
public was less moved in 1902 by the anti-clerical action of the
government than by a vulgar case of swindling known
as the " Humbert affair." The wife of a former deputy
for Seine-et-Marne, who was the son of M. Gustave
Humbert, minister of justice in 1882, had for many years main-
tained a luxurious establishment, which included a political
salon, on the strength of her assertion that she and her family had
inherited several millions sterling from one Crawford, an English-
man. Her story being believed by certain bankers she had been
enabled to borrow colossal sums on the legend, and had almost
married her daughter as a great heiress to a Moderate Republican
deputy who held a conspicuous position in the Chamber. The
flight of the Humberts, the exposure of the fraud and their arrest
in Spain excited the French nation more deeply than the relative
qualities of M. Waldeck-Rousseau and M. Combes or the woes
of the religious orders. A by-election to the Senate in the spring
of 1902 merits notice as it brought back to parliament M.
Clemenceau, who had lived in comparative retirement since
1893 when he lost his seat as deputy for Draguignan, owing to a
series of unusually bitter attacks made against him by his political
enemies. He had devoted his years of retirement to journalism,
taking a leading part in the Dreyfus affair on the side of the
accused. His election as senator for the Var, where he had
formerly been deputy, was an event of importance unanticipated
at the time.
The year 1903 saw in progress a momentous development
of the anti-clerical movement in France, though little trace of
this is found in the statute-book. The chief act of
parliament of that year was one which interested the *."*!".
population much more than any law affecting the movement.
Church. This was an act regulating the privileges
of the bouilleurs de cru, the peasant proprietors who, permitted
to distil from their produce an annual quantity of alcohol sup-
posed to be sufficient for their domestic needs, in practice fabri-
cated and sold so large an amount as to prejudice gravely the
inland revenue. As there were a million of these illicit distillers
in the land they formed a powerful element in the electorate.
The crowded and excited debates affecting their interests, in
which Radicals and Royalists of the rural districts made common
cause against Socialists and Clericals of the towns, were in
striking contrast with the less animated discussions concerning
the Church. The prime minister, an anti-clerical zealot, bitterly
hostile to the Church of which he had been a minister, took
advantage of the relative indifference of parliament and of the
nation in matters ecclesiastical. The success of M. Combes in
his campaign against the Church was an example of what energy
and pertinacity can do. There was no great wave of popular
feeling on the question, no mandate given to the deputies at the
general election or asked for by them. Neither was M. Combes
a popular leader or a man of genius. He was rather a trained
politician, with a fixed idea, who knew how to utilize to his ends
the ability and organization of the extreme anti-clerical element
in the Chamber, and the weakness of the extreme clerical
party. The majority of the Chamber did not share the prime
minister's animosity towards the Church, for which at the same
time it had not the least enthusiasm, and under the concordatory
lead of M. Waldeck-Rousseau it would have been content to
HISTORY]
FRANCE
curb clerical pretensions without having recourse to extreme
measures of repression. It was, however, equally content to
follow the less tolerant guidance of M. Combes. Thus, early
in the session of 1903 it approved of his circular forbidding the
priests of Brittany to make use of the Breton language in their
religious instruction under pain of losing their salaries. It like-
wise followed him on the 26th of January when he declined to
accept, as being premature and unpractical, a Socialist resolution
in favour of suppressing the budget of public worship, though
the majority was indeed differently composed on those two
occasions. In the Senate on the 2gth of January M. Waldeck-
Rousseau indicated what his policy would have been had he
retained office, by severely criticizing his successor's method of
applying the Associations Law. Instead of asking parliament
to judge on its merits each several demand for authorization
made by a congregation, the government had divided the re-
ligious orders into two chief categories, teaching orders and
preaching orders, and had recommended that all should be
suppressed by a general refusal of authorization. The Grande
Chartreuse was put into a category by itself as a trading associa-
tion and waa dissolved; but Lourdes, which with its crowds
of pilgrims enriched the Pyrenean region and the railway com-
panies serving it, was spared for electioneering reasons. A
dispute arose between the government and the Vatican on the
nomination of bishops to vacant sees. The Vatican insisted on
the words " nobis nominamt " in the papal bulls instituting the
bishops nominated by the chief of the executive in France under
the Concordat. M. Combes objected to the pronoun, and main-
tained that the complete nomination belonged to the French
government, the Holy See having no choice in the matter, but
only the power of canonical institution. This produced a dead-
lock, with the consequence that no more bishops were ever again
appointed under the Concordat, which both before and after the
Easter recess M. Combes now threatened to repudiate. These
menaces derived an increased importance from the failing health
of the pope. Leo XIII. had attained the great age of ninety-
three, and on the choice of his successor grave issues depended.
He died on the 2Oth of July 1903. The conclave indicated as
his successor his secretary of state, Cardinal Rampolla, an able
exponent of the late pope's diplomatic methods and also a warm
friend of France. It was said to be the latter quality which
induced Austria to exercise its ancient power of veto on the choice
of a conclave, and finally Cardinal Sarto, patriarch of Venice,
a pious prelate inexperienced in diplomacy, was elected and took
the title of Pius X. In September the inauguration of a statue of
Renan at Treguier, his birthplace, was made the occasion of an
anti-clerical demonstration in Catholic and reactionary Brittany,
at which the prime minister made a militant speech in the name
of the freethinkers of France, though Renan was a Voltairian
aristocrat who disliked the aims and methods of modern Radical-
Socialists. In the course of his speech M. Combes pointed out
that the anti-clerical policy of the government had not caused
the Republic to lose prestige in the eyes of the monarchies of
Europe, which were then showing it unprecedented attentions.
This assertion was true, and had reference to the visit of the king
of England to the president of the Republic in May and the
projected visit of the king of Italy. That of Edward VII.,
which was the first state visit of a British sovereign to France
for nearly fifty years, was returned by President Loubet in July,
and was welcomed by all parties, excepting some of the re-
actionaries. M. Millevoye, a Nationalist deputy for Paris, in
the Patrie counselled the Parisians to remember Fashoda, the
Transvaal War, and the attitude of the English in the Dreyfus
affair, and to greet the British monarch with cries of " Vivent les
Boers." M. Deroulede, the most interesting member of the
Nationalist party, wrote from his exile at Saint-Sebastien
protesting against the folly of this proceeding, which merits to
be put on record as an example of the incorrigible ineptitude
of the reactionaries in France. The incident served only to
prove their complete lack of influence on popular feeling, while
it damaged the cause of the Church at a most critical moment
by showing that the only persons in France willing to insult a
friendly monarch who was the guest of the nation, belonged
to the clerical party. Of the royal visits that of the king of Italy
was the more important in its immediate effects on the history
of France, as will be seen in the narration of the events of 1904.
The session of 1904 began with the election of a new president
of the Chamber, on the retirement of M. Bourgeois. The choice
fell on M. Henri Brisson, an old Radical, but not a Socialist,
who had held that post in 1881 and had subsequently filled it
on ten occasions, the election to the office being annual. The
narrow majority he obtained over M. Paul Bertrand, a little-
known moderate Republican, by secret ballot, followed by the
defeat of M. Jaures, the Socialist leader, for one of the vice-
presidential chairs, showed that one half of the Chamber was of
moderate tendency. But, as events proved, the Moderates
lacked energy and leadership, so the influence of the Radical
prime minister prevailed. In a debate on the 22nd of January
on the expulsion of an Alsatian priest of French birth from a
French frontier department by the French police, M. Ribot,
who set an example of activity to younger men of the moderate
groups, reproached M. Combes with reducing all questions in
which the French nation was interested to the single one of anti-
clericalism, and the prime minister retorted that it was solely
for that purpose that he took office. In pursuance of this policy
a bill was introduced, and was passed by the Chamber before
Easter, interdicting from teaching all members of religious
orders, authorized or not authorized. Among other results this
law, which the Senate passed in the summer, swept out of exist-
ence the schools of the Freres de la Doctrine Chretienne (Christian
Brothers) and closed in all 2400 schools before the end of the
year.
This drastic act of anti-clerical policy, which was a total
repudiation by parliament of the principle of liberty of education,
should have warned the authorities of the Church of the relentless
attitude of the government. The most superficial observation
ought to have shown them that the indifference of the nation
would permit the prime minister to go to any length, and common
prudence should have prevented them from affording him any
pretext for more damaging measures. The President of the
Republic accepted an invitation to return the visit of the king
of Italy. When it was submitted to the Chamber on March
25th, 1904, a reactionary deputy moved the rejection of the vote
for the expenses of the journey on the ground that the chief
of the French executive ought not to visit the representative
of the dynasty which had plundered the papacy. The amend-
ment was rejected by a majority of 502 votes to 12, which showed
that at a time of bitter controversy on ecclesiastical questions
French opinion was unanimous in approving the visit of the
president of the Republic to Rome as the guest of the king of
Italy. Nothing could be more gratifying to the entire French
nation, both on racial and on traditional grounds, than such a
testimony of a complete revival of friendship with Italy, of late
years obscured by the Triple Alliance. Yet the Holy See saw
fit to advance pretensions inevitably certain to serve the ends
of the extreme anti-clericals, whose most intolerant acts at that
moment, such as the removal of the crucifixes from the law-
courts, were followed by new electoral successes. Thus the
reactionary majority on the Paris municipal council was dis-
placed by the Radical-Socialists on the ist of May, the day that
M. Loubet returned from his visit to Rome. On the i6th of
May M. Jaures' Socialist organ, L'Humanite, published the text
of a protest, addressed by the pope to the powers having diplo-
matic relations with the Vatican, against the visit of the president
of the Republic to the King of Italy. This document, dated
the 28th of April, was offensive in tone both to France and to
Italy. It intimated that while Catholic sovereigns refrained
from visiting the person who, contrary to right, exercised civil
sovereignty in Rome, that " duty " was even more " imperious"
for the ruler of France by reason of the " privileges " enjoyed
by that country from the Concordat; that the journey of M.
Loubet to " pay homage " within the pontifical see to that
person was an insult to the sovereign pontiff; and that only for
reasons of special gravity was the nuncio permitted to remain
890
FRANCE
[HISTORY
in Paris. The publication of this document caused some joy
among the extreme clericals, but this was nothing to the exulta-
tion of the extreme anti-clericals, who saw that the prudent
diplomacy of Leo XIII., which had risen superior to many a
provocation of the French government, was succeeded by a
papal policy which would facilitate their designs in a manner
unhoped for. Moderate men were dismayed, seeing
Diplomatic tnat t he Concordat was now in instant danger; but
< Rome W ' tl ' the majority of the French nation remained entirely
indifferent to its fate. Within a week France took
the initiative by recalling the ambassador to the Vatican,
M. Nisard, leaving a third-secretary in charge. In the debate
in the Chamber upon the incident, the foreign minister, M.
Delcasse, said that the ambassador was recalled, not because
the Vatican had protested against the visit of the president
to the king of Italy, but because it had communicated this
protest, in terms offensive to France, to foreign powers. The
Chamber on the 27th of May approved the recall of the ambassador
by the large majority of 420 to 90. By a much smaller majority
it rejected a Socialist motion that the Nuncio should be given his
passports. The action of the Holy See was not actually an
infringement of the Concordat; so the government, satisfied
with the effect produced on public opinion, which was now
quite prepared for a rupture with the Vatican, was willing
to wait for a new pretext, which was not long in coming. Two
bishops, Mgr. Geay of Laval and Mgr. Le Nordez of Dijon, were
on bad terms with the clerical reactionaries in their dioceses.
The friends of the prelates, including some of their episcopal
brethren, thought that their chief offence was their loyalty to the
Republic, and it was an unfortunate coincidence that these
bishops, subjected to proceedings which had been unknown under
the long pontificate of Leo XIII., should have been two who
had incurred the animosity of anti-republicans. Their enemies
accused Mgr. Geay of immorality and Mgr. Le Nordez of being
in league with the freemasons. The bishop of Laval was
summoned by the Holy Office, without any communication
with the French government, to resign his see, and he submitted
the citation forthwith to the minister of public worship. The
French charge d'affaires at the Vatican was instructed to protest
against this grave infringement of an article of the Concordat,
and, soon after, against another violation of the Concordat
committed by the Nuncio, who had written to the bishop of
Dijon ordering him to suspend his ordinations, the Nuncio
being limited, like all other ambassadors, to communicating
the instructions of his government through the intermediary
of the minister for foreign affairs. The Vatican declined to
give any satisfaction to the French government and summoned
the two bishops to Rome under pain of suspension. So the
French charge d'affaires was directed to leave Rome, after having
informed the Holy See that the government of the Republic
considered that the mission of the apostolic Nuncio in Paris was
terminated. Thus came to an end on the 3oth of July 1904
the diplomatic relations which under the Concordat had subsisted
between France and the Vatican for more than a hundred years.
Twelve days later M. Waldeck-Rousseau died, having lived
just long enough to see this unanticipated result of his policy.
It was said that his resolve to regulate the religious associations
arose from his feeling that whatever injustice had been com-
mitted in the Dreyfus case had been aggravated by the action of
certain unauthorized orders. However that may be, his own
utterances showed that he believed that his policy was one of
finality. But he had not reckoned that his legislation, which
needed hands as calm and impartial as his own to apply it,
would be used in a manner he had not contemplated by sectarian
politicians who would be further aided by the self-destructive
policy of the highest authorities of the Church. When parlia-
ment assembled for the autumn session a general feeling was
expressed, by moderate politicians as well as by supporters of
the Combes ministry, that disestablishment was inevitable. The
prime minister said that he had been long in favour of it, though
the previous year he had intimated to M. Nisard, ambassador
to the Vatican, that he had not a majority in parliament to vote
it. But the papacy and the clergy had since done everything
to change that situation. The Chamber did not move in the
matter beyond appointing a committee to consider the general
question, to which M. Combes submitted in his own name a
bill for the separation of the churches from the State.
During the last three months of 1904 public opinion was
diverted to the cognate question of the existence of masonic
delation in the army. M. Guyot de Villeneuve, War
Nationalist deputy for Saint Denis, who had been office
dismissed from the army by. General de Galliffet in
connexion with the Dreyfus affair, brought before the
Chamber a collection of documents which, it seemed, had been
abstracted from the Grand Orient of France, the headquarters
of French freemasonry, by an official of that order. These papers
showed that an elaborate system of espionage and delation
had been organized by the freemasons throughout France for
the purpose of obtaining information as to the political opinions
and religious practices of the officers of the army, and that this
system was worked with the connivance of certain officials
of the ministry of war. Its aim appeared to be to ascertain if
officers went to mass or sent their children to convent schools
or in any way were in sympathy with the Roman Catholic
religion, the names of officers so secretly denounced being placed
on a black-list at the War Office, whereby they were disqualified
for promotion. There was no doubt about the authenticity of
the documents or of the facts which they revealed. Radical
ex-ministers joined with moderate Republicans and reactionaries
in denouncing the system. Anti-clerical deputies declared
that it was no use to cleanse the war office of the influence of the
Jesuits, which was alleged to have prevailed there, if it were to
be replaced by another occult power, more demoralizing because
more widespread. Only the Socialists and a few of the Radical-
Socialists in the Chamber' supported the action of the freemasons.
General Andre, minister of war, was so clearly implicated, with
the evident approval of the prime minister, that a revulsion
of feeling against the policy of the anti-clerical cabinet began to
operate in the Chamber. Had the opposition been wisely guided
there can be little doubt that a moderate ministry would
have been called to office and the history of the Church in France
might have been changed. But the .reactionaries, with their
accustomed folly, played into the hands of their adversaries.
The minister of war had made a speech which produced a bad
impression. As he stepped down from the tribune he was
struck in the face by a Nationalist deputy for Paris, a much
younger man than he. The cowardly assault did not save the
minister, who was too deeply compromised in the delation scandal.
But it saved the anti-clerical party, by rallying a number of
waverers who, until this exhibition of reactionary policy, were
prepared to go over to the Moderates, from the " bloc," as the
ministerial majority was called. The Nationalist deputy was
committed to the assizes on the technical charge of assaulting a
functionary while performing his official duties. Towards the
end of the year, on the eve of his trial, he met with a violent
death, and the circumstances which led to it, when made
public, showed that this champion of the Church was a man
of low morality. General Andre had previously resigned and
was succeeded as minister of war by M. Berteaux, a wealthy
stock-broker and a Socialist.
The Combes cabinet could not survive the delation scandal,
in spite of the resignation of the minister of war and the in-
eptitude of the opposition. On the 8th of January p ga
1905, two days before parliament met, an election took of the
place in Paris to fill the vacancy caused by the death Combes
of the Nationalist deputy who had assaulted General
Andre. The circumstances of his death, at that time partially
revealed, did not deter the electors from choosing' by a large
majority a representative of the same party, Admiral Bienaime,
who the previous year had been removed for political reasons
from the post of maritime prefect at Toulon, by M. Camille
Pelletan, minister of marine. A more serious check to the Combes
ministry was given by the refusal of the Chamber to re-elect as
president M. Brisson, who was defeated by a majority of twenty-
HISTORY]
FRANCE
891
five by M. Doumer, ex-Governor-General of Indo-China, who,
though he had entered politics as a Radical, was now supported
by the anti-republican reactionaries as well as by the moderate
Republicans. A violent debate arose on the question of expelling
from the Legion of Honour certain members of that order,
including a general officer, who had been involved in the delation
scandal. M. Jaures, the eloquent Socialist deputy for Albi, who
played the part of Eminence grise to M. Combes in his anti-
clerical campaign, observed that the party which was now
'demanding the purification of the order had been in no hurry
to expel from it Esterhazy long after his crimes had been proved
in connexion with the Dreyfus case. The debate was inconclusive,
and the government on the i4th of January obtained a vote
of confidence by a majority of six. But M. Combes, whose
animosity towards the church was keener than his love of office,
saw that his ministry would be constantly liable to be put in a
minority, and that thus the consideration of separation might
be postponed until after the general elections of 1906. So
he announced his resignation in an unprecedented manifesto
addressed to the president of the Republic on the i8th January.
M. Rouvier, minister of finance in the outgoing government,
was called upon for the second time in his career to form a ministry.
A moderate opportunist himself, he intended to form
Rouvier a coalition cabinet in which all groups of Republicans,
ministry, from the Centre to the extreme Left, would be repre-
sented. But he failed, and the ministry of the 24th
of January 1905 contained no members of the Republican opposi-
tion which had combated M. Combes. The prime minister
retained the portfolio of finance; M. Delcasse remained at the
foreign office, which he had directed since 1898, and M. Berteaux
at the war office; M. Etienne, member for Oran, went to the
ministry of the interior; another Algerian deputy, M. Thomson,
succeeded M. Camille Pelletan at the ministry of marine, which
department was said to have fallen into inefficiency; public
worship was separated from the department of the interior
and joined with that of education under M. Bienvenu-Martin,
Radical-Socialist deputy for Auxerre, who was new to official
life. Although M. Rouvier, as befitted a politician of the school
of Waldeck-Rousseau, disliked the separation of the churches
from the state, he accepted that policy as inevitable. After the
action of the Vatican in 1904, which had produced the rupture of
diplomatic relations with France, many moderates who had been
persistent in their opposition to the Combes ministry, and even
certain Nationalists, accepted the principle of separation, but
urged that it should be effected on liberal terms. So on the 27th
of January, after the minister of education and public worship
had announced that the government intended to introduce a
separation bill, a vote of confidence was obtained by a majority
of 373 to 99, half of the majority being opponents of the Combes
ministry of various Republican and reactionary groups, while
the minority was composed of 84 Radicals and Socialists and
only 15 reactionaries.
On the 2ist of March the debates on the separation of the
churches from the state began. A commission had been appointed
in 1904 to examine the subject. Its reporter was M.
Aristide Briand, Socialist member for Saint Etienne.
r/onTsw. According to French parliamentary procedure, the
reporter of a commission, directed to draw up a great
scheme of legislation, can make himself a more important person
in conducting it through a house of legislature than the minister
in charge of the bill. This is what M. Briand succeeded in doing.
He produced with rapidity a " report " on the whole question,
in which he traced with superficial haste the history of the Church
in France from the baptism of Clovis, and upon this drafted a
bill which was accepted by the government. He thus at one
bound came from obscurity into the front rank of politicians,
and in devising a revolutionary measure learned a lesson of
moderate statesmanship. In conducting the debates he took
the line of throwing the responsibility for the rupture of the
Concordat on the pope. The leadership of the Opposition fell
on M. Ribot, who had been twice prime minister of the Republic
and was not a practising Catholic. He recognized that separation
had become inevitable, but argued that it could be accomplished
as a permanent act only in concert with the Holy See. The
clerical party in the Chamber did little in defence of the Church.
The abbes Lemire and Gayraud, the only ecclesiastics in parlia-
ment, spoke with moderation, and M. Groussau, a Catholic
jurist, attacked the measure with less temperate zeal; but the
best serious defence of the interests of the Church came from the
Republican centre. Few amendments from the extreme Left
were accepted by M. Briand, whose general tone was moderate
and not illiberal. One feature of the debates was the reluctance
of the prime minister to take part in them, even when financial
clauses were discussed in which his own office was particularly
concerned. The bill finally passed the Chamber on the 3rd of
July by 341 votes against 233, the majority containing a certain
number of conservative Republicans and Nationalists. At the
end the Radical-Socialists manifested considerable discontent
at the liberal tendencies of M. Briand, and declared that the
measure as it left the Chamber could be considered only pro-
visional. In the Senate it underwent no amendment whatever,
not a single word being altered. The prime minister, M. Rouvier,
never once opened his lips during the lengthy debates, in the
course of which M. Clemenceau, as a philosophical Radical who
voted for the bill, criticized it as too concordatory, while M.
Meline, as a moderate Republican, who voted against it, pre-
dicted that it would create such a state of things as would
necessitate new negotiations with Rome a few years later. It
was finally passed by a majority of 181 to 102, the complete
number of senators being 300, and three days later, on the gth
of December 1905, it was promulgated as law by the president
of the Republic.
The main features of the act were as follows. The first clauses
guaranteed liberty of conscience and the free practice of public
worship, and declared that henceforth the Republic neither
recognized nor remunerated any form of religion, except in the
case of chaplains to public schools, hospitals and prisons. It
provided that after inventories had been taken of the real and
personal property in the hands of religious bodies, hitherto
remunerated by the state, to ascertain whether such property
belonged to the state, the department, or the commune, all such
property should be transferred to associations of public worship
(associations cultuelles) established in each commune in accordance
with the rules of the religion which they represented, for the pur-
pose of carrying on the practices of that religion. As the Vatican
subsequently refused to permit Catholics to take part in these
associations, the important clauses relating to their organization
and powers became a dead letter, except in the case of the Pro-
testant and Jewish associations, which affected only a minute
proportion of the religious establishments under the act. Nothing,
therefore, need be said about them except that the chief discus-
sions in the Chamber took place with regard to their constitution,
which was so amended, contrary to the wishes of the extreme
anti-clericals, that many moderate critics of the original bill
thought that thereby the regular practice of the Catholic re-
ligion, under episcopal control, had been safeguarded. A system
of pensions for ministers of religion hitherto paid by the state was
provided, according to the age and the length of service of the
ecclesiastics interested, while in small communes of under a
thousand inhabitants the clergy were to receive in any case their
full pay for eight years. The bishops' palaces were to be left
gratuitously at the disposal of the occupiers for two years, and
the presbyteries and seminaries for five years. This provision
too became a dead letter, owing to the orders given by the Holy
See to the clergy. Other provisions enacted that the churches
should not be used for political meetings, while the services held
in them were protected by the law from the acts of disturbers.
As the plenary operation of the law depended on the associations
cultuelles, the subsequent failure to create those bodies makes
it useless to give a complete exposition of a statute of which
they were an essential feature.
The passing of the Separation Law was the chief act of the
last year of the presidency of M. Loubet. One other important
measure has to be noted, the law reducing compulsory military
892
FRANCE
[HISTORY
service to two years. The law of 1889 had provided a general
service of three years, with an extensive system of dispensations
accorded to persons for domestic reasons, or because they belonged
to certain categories of students, such citizens being let off with
one year's service with the colours or being entirely exempted.
The new law exacted two years' service from every Frenchman,
no one being exempted save for physical incapacity. Under
the act of 1905 even the cadets of the military college of Saint
Cyr and of the Polytechnic had to serve in the ranks before
entering those schools. Anti-military doctrines continued to
be encouraged by the Socialist party, M. Herve, the professor
who had been revoked in 1901 for his suggestion of a military
strike in case of war and for other unpatriotic utterances, being
elected a member of the administrative committee of the Unified
Socialist party, of which M. Jaures was one of the chiefs. At
a congress of elementary schoolmasters at Lille in August, anti-
military resolutions were passed and a general adherence was
given to the doctrines of M. Herve. At Longwy, in the Eastern
coal-field, a strike took place in September, during which the
military was called out to keep order and a workman was killed
in a cavalry charge. The minister of war, M. Berteaux, visited
the scene of the disturbance, and was reported to have saluted
the red revolutionary flag which was borne by a procession of
strikers singing the " Internationale."
During the autumn session in November M. Berteaux suddenly
resigned the portfolio of war during a sitting of the Chamber,
and was succeeded by M. Etienne, minister of the interior, a
moderate politician who inspired greater confidence. Earlier
in the year other industrial strikes of great gravity had taken
place, notably at Limoges, among the potters, where several
deaths took place in a conflict with the troops and a factory
was burnt. Even more serious were the strikes in the govern-
ment arsenals in November. At Cherbourg and Brest only a
small proportion of the workmen went out, but at Lorient,
Rochefort and especially at Toulon the strikes were on a much
larger scale. In 1905 solemn warnings were given in the Chamber
of the coming crisis in the wine-growing regions of the South.
Radical-Socialists such as M. Doumergue, the deputy for Nimes
and a member of the Combes ministry, joined with monarchists
such as M. Lasies, deputy of the Gers, in calling attention to
the distress of the populations dependent on the vine. They
argued that the wines of the South found no market, not because
of the alleged over-production, but because of the competition
of artificial wines; that formerly only twenty departments of
France were classed in the atlas as wine-producing, but that
thanks to the progress of chemistry seventy departments were
now so described. The deputies of the north of France and of
Paris, irrespective of party, opposed these arguments, and the
government, while promising to punish fraud, did not seem to
take very seriously the legitimate warnings of the representa-
tives of the South.
The Republic continued to extend its friendly relations with
foreign powers, and the end of M. Loubet's term of office was
signalized by a procession of royal visits to Paris, some of which
the president returned. At the end of May the king of Spain
came and narrowly escaped assassination from a bomb which
was thrown at him by a Spaniard as he was returning with
the president from the opera. In October M. Loubet returned
this visit at Madrid and went on to Lisbon to see the king of
Portugal, being received by the queen, who was the daughter
of the comte de Paris and the sister of the due d'Orleans, both
exiled by the Republic. In November the king of Portugal
came to Paris, and the president of the Republic also received
during the year less formal visits from the kings of England and
of Greece.
One untoward international event affecting the French
ministry occurred in June 1905. M. Delcasse (see section on
Exterior Policy) , who had been foreign minister longer
t ^ lan anv holder of that office under the Republic,
resigned, and it was believed that he had been sacrificed
by the prime minister to the exigencies of Germany,
which power was said to be disquieted at his having, in connexion
with the Morocco question, isolated Germany by promoting the
friendly relations of France with England, Spain and Italy.
Whether it be true or not that the French government was
really in alarm at the possibility of a declaration of war by
Germany, the impression given was unfavourable, nor was it
removed when M. Rouvier himself took the portfolio of foreign
affairs.
The year 1906 is remarkable in the history of the Third
Republic in that it witnessed the renewal of all the public
powers in the state. A new president of the Republic E
ii_j .t jipT i . "* raiueres
was elected on the i7th of January ten days after the president
triennial election of one third of the senate, and the of the
general election of the chamber of deputies followed Ke P" bllc -
in May the ninth which had taken place under the constitution
of 1875. The senatorial elections of the 7th of January showed
that the delegates of the people who chose the members of the
upper house and represented the average opinion of the country
approved of the anti-clerical legislation of parliament. The
election of M. Fallieres, president of the senate, to the presidency
of the Republic was therefore anticipated, he being the candidate
of the parliamentary majorities which had disestablished the
church. At the congress of the two chambers held at Versailles
on the lyth of January he received the absolute majority of 449
votes out of 849 recorded. The candidate of the Opposition was
M. Paul Doumer, whose anti-clericalism in the past was so
extreme that when married he had dispensed with a religious
ceremony and his children were unbaptized. So the curious
spectacle was presented of the Moderate Opportunist M. Fallieres
being elected by Radicals and Socialists, while the Radical
candidate was supported by Moderates and Reactionaries. For
the second time a president of the senate, the second official
personage in the Republic, was advanced to the chief magistracy,
M. Loubet having been similarly promoted. As in his case,
M. Fallieres owed his election to M. Clemenceau. When M.
Loubet was elected M. Clemenceau had not come to the end
of his retirement from parliamentary life; but in political
circles, with his powerful pen and otherwise, he was resuming
his former influence as a " king-maker." He knew of the
precariousness of Felix Faure's health and of the indiscretions
of the elderly president. So when the presidency suddenly
became vacant in January 1899 he had already fixed his choice
on M. Loubet, as a candidate whose unobtrusive name excited
no jealousy among the republicans. At that moment, owing
to the crisis caused by the Dreyfus affair, the Republic needed
a safe man to protect it against the attacks of the plebiscitary
party which had been latterly favoured by President Faure.
M. Constans, it was said, had in 1899 desired the presidency of
the senate, vacant by M. Loubet's promotion, in preference to
the post of ambassador at Constantinople. ButM. Clemenceau,
deeming that his name had been too much associated with
polemics in the past, contrived the election of M. Fallieres to the
second place of dignity in the Republic, so as to have another
safe candidate in readiness for the Elysee in case President
Loubet suddenly disappeared. M. Loubet, however, completed
his septennate, and to the end of it M. Fallieres was regarded as
his probable successor. As he fulfilled his high duties in the
senate inoffensively without making enemies among his political
friends, he escaped the fate which had awaited other presidents-
designate of the Republic. Previously to presiding over the senate
this Gascon advocate, who had represented his native Lot-et-
Garonne, in either chamber, since 1876, had once been prime
minister for three weeks in 1883. He had also held office in
six other ministries, so no politician in France had a larger
experience in administration and in public affairs.
On New Year's Day 1906, the absence of the Nuncio from
the presidential reception of the diplomatic body marked con-
spicuously the rupture of the Concordat ; for hitherto the repre-
sentative of the Holy See had ranked as doyen of the ambassadors
to the Republic, whatever the relative seniority of his colleagues,
and in the name of all the foreign powers had officially saluted
the chief of the state. On the 2oth of January the inventories
of the churches were commenced, under the 3rd clause of the
HISTORY]
FRANCE
893
The
menceaa
minister
of the
Interior.
Separation Act, for the purpose of assessing the value of the
furniture and other objects which they contained. In Paris
they occasioned some disturbance; but as the protesting rioters
were led by persons whose hostility to the Republic was more
notorious than their love for religion, the demonstrations were
regarded as political rather than religious. In certain rural
districts, where the church had retained its influence and where
its separation from the state was unpopular, the taking of the
inventories was impeded by the inhabitants, and in some places,
where the troops were called out to protect the civil authorities,
further feeling was aroused by the refusal of officers to act.
But, as a rule, this first manifest operation of the Separation Law
was received with indifference by the population. One region
where popular feeling was displayed in favour of the church was
Flanders, where, in March, at Boeschepe on the
Belgian frontier, a man was killed during the taking
ministry. f an inventory. This accident caused the fall of the
ministry. The moderate Republicans in the Chamber,
who had helped to keep M. Rouvier in office, withheld their
support in a debate arising out of the incident, and the govern-
ment was defeated by thirty-three votes. M. Rouvier resigned,
and the new president of the Republic sent for M . Sarrien, a Radical
of the old school from Burgundy, who had been deputy for his
native Saone-et-Loire from the foundation of the Chamber in
1876 and had previously held office in four cabinets. In M.
Sarrien's ministry of the I4th of March 1906 the president of the
council was only a minor personage, its real conductor being
M. Clemenceau, who accepted the portfolio of the interior. Upon
him, therefore devolved the function of " making the elections "
of 1906, as it is the minister at the Place Beauvau,
where all the wires of administrative government are
centralized, who gives the orders to the prefectures
at each general election. As in France ministers sit
and speak in both houses of parliament, M. Clemenceau,
though a senator, now returned, after an absence of thirteen years,
to the Chamber of Deputies, in which he had played a mighty part
in the first seventeen years of its existence. His political ex-
perience'was unique. From an early period after entering the
Chamber in 1876 he had exercised there an influence not exceeded
by any deputy. Yet it was not until 1906, thirty years after his
first election to parliament, that he held office though in 1888
he just missed the presidency of the Chamber, receiving the same
number of votes as M. Meline, to whom the post was allotted by
right of seniority. He now returned to the tribune of the Palais
Bourbon, on which he had been a most formidable orator.
During his career as deputy his eloquence was chiefly destructive,
and of the nineteen ministries which fell between the election
of M. Grevy to the presidency of the Republic in 1879 and his
own departure from parliamentary life in 1893 there were few
of which the fall had not been expedited by his mordant criticism
or denunciation. He now came back to the scene of his former
achievements not to attack but to defend a ministry. Though
his old occupation was gone, his re-entry excited the keenest
interest, for at sixty-five he remained the biggest political figure
in France. After M. Clemenceau the most interesting of the
new ministers was M. Briand, who was not nine years old when
M. Clemenceau had become conspicuous in political life as the
mayor of Montmartre on the eve of the Commune. M. Briand
had entered the Chamber, as Socialist deputy for Saint fitienne,
only in 1902. The mark he had made as " reporter " of the
Separation Bill has been noted, and on that account he became
minister of education and public worship the terms of the
Separation Law necessitating the continuation of a department
for ecclesiastical affairs. As he had been a militant Socialist
of the " unified " group of which M. Jaures was the chief, and
also a member of the superior council of labour, his appointment
indicated that the new ministry courted the support of the
extreme Left. It, however, contained some moderate men,
notably M. Poincare, who had the repute of making the largest
income at the French bar after M. Waldeck-Rousseau gave up
his practice, and who became for the second time minister of
finance. The portfolios of the colonies and of public works were
C
also given to old ministers of moderate tendencies, M. Georges
Leygues and M. Barthou. A former prime minister, M. Leon
Bourgeois, went to the foreign office, over which he had already
presided, besides having represented France at the peace con-
ference at the Hague; while MM. fitienne and Thomson re-
tained their portfolios of war and marine. The cabinet contained
so many men of tried ability that it was called the ministry of all
the talents. But the few who understood the origin of the name
knew that it would be even more ephemeral than was the British
ministry of 1806; for the fine show of names belonged to a
transient combination which could not survive the approaching
elections long enough to leave any mark in politics.
Before the elections took place grave labour troubles showed
that social and economical questions were more likely to give
anxiety to the government than any public movement
resulting from the disestablishment of the church.
Almost the first ministerial act of M. Clemenceau was
to visit the coal basin of the Pas de Calais, where an
accident causing great loss of life was followed by an uprising of
the working population of the region, which spread into the
adjacent department of the Nord and caused the minister of the
intericr to take unusual precautions to prevent violent demonstra-
tions in Paris on Labour Day, the ist of May. The activity of
the Socialist leaders in encouraging anti-capitalist agitation
did not seem to alarm the electorate. Nor did it show any sym-
pathy with the appeal of the pope, who in his encyclical letter,
Vehementer nos, addressed to the French cardinals on the nth
of February, denounced the Separation Law. So the result of
the elections of May 1906 was a decisive victory for the anti-
clericals and Socialists.
A brief analysis of the composition of the Chamber of Deputies
is always impossible, the limits of the numerous groups being
ill-defined. But in general terms the majority supporting the
radical policy of the bloc in the last parliament, which had
usually mustered about 340 votes, now numbered more than 400,
including 230 Radical-Socialists and Socialists. The gains of the
extreme Left were chiefly at the expense of the moderate or
progressist republicans, who, about 1 20 strong in the old Chamber,
now came back little more than half that number. The anti-
republican Right, comprising Royalists, Bonapartists and
Nationalists, had maintained their former position and were
about 130 all told. The general result of the polls of the 6th
and 2oth of May was thus an electoral vindication of the advanced
policy adopted by the old Chamber and a repudiation of moderate
Republicanism; while the stationary condition of the reactionary
groups showed that the tribulations inflicted by the last parlia-
ment on the church had not provoked the electorate to increase
its support of clerical politicians.
The Vatican, however, declined to recognize this unmistakable
demonstration. The bishops, taking advantage of their release
from the concordatory restrictions which had withheld from
them the faculty of meeting in assembly, had met at a preliminary
conference to consider their plan of action under the Separation
Law. They had adjourned for further instructions from the
Holy See, which were published on the loth of August 1906,
in a new encyclical Gramssimo officii, wherein, to the consterna-
tion of many members of the episcopate, the pope interdicted
the associations cultuelles, the bodies which, under the Separation
Law, were to be established in each parish, to hold and to organize
the church property and finances, and were essential to the
working of the act. On the 4th of September the bishops met
again and passed a resolution of submission to the Holy See.
In spite of their loyalty they could not but deplore an injunction
which inevitably would cause distress to the large majority of
the clergy after the act came into operation on the i2th of
December 1906. They knew only too well how hopeless was
the idea that the distress of the clergy would call forth any
revulsion of popular feeling in France. The excitement of the
public that summer over a painful clerical scandal in the diocese
of Chartres showed that the interest taken by the mass of the
population in church matters was not of a kind which would aid
the clergy in their difficult situation.
8 94
FRANCE
[HISTORY
At the close of the parliamentary recess M. Sarrien resigned
the premiership on the pretext of ill-health, and by a presidential
decree of the 25th of October 1906 M. Clemenceau,
The Cle- w jj Q j, a( j been ca u e d to fill the vacancy, took office.
MM. Bourgeois, Poincare, Etienne and Leygues
retired with M. Sarrien. The new prime minister
placed at the foreign office M. Pichon, who had learned politics
on the staff of the Justice, the organ of M. Clemenceau, by whose
influence he had entered the diplomatic service in 1893, after
eight years in the chamber of deputies. He had been minister
at Pekin during the Boxer rebellion and resident at Tunis,
and he was now radical senator for the Jura. M. Caillaux, a
more adventurous financier than M. Rouvier or M. Poincare,
who had been Waldeck-Rousseau's minister of finance, resumed
that office. The most significant appointment was that of
General Picquart to the war office. The new minister when a
colonel had been willing to sacrifice his career, although he was
an anti-Semite, to redressing the injustice which he believed
had been inflicted on a Jewish officer whose second condemna-
tion, it may be noted, had been quashed earlier in 1906. M.
Viviani became the first minister of labour ( Travail et Pr&uoyance
sociale). The creation of the office and the appointment of a
socialist lawyer and journalist to fill it showed that M. Clemenceau
recognized the increasing prominence of social and industrial
questions and the growing power of the trade-unions.
The acts and policy of the Clemenceau ministry and the events
which took place during the years that it held office are too
near the present time to be appraised historically. It seems not
unlikely that the first advent to power, after thirty-five years
of strenuous political life, of one who must be ranked among the
ablest of the twenty-seven prime ministers of the Third Republic
will be seen to have been coincident with an important evolution
in the history of the French nation. The separation of the Roman
Catholic Church from the state, by the law of December 1905,
had deprived the Socialists, the now most powerful party of the
extreme Left, of the chief outlet for their activity, which hitherto
had chiefly found its scope in anti-clericalism. Having no longer
the church to attack they turned their attention to economical
questions, the solution of which had always been their theoreti-
cal aim. At the same period the law relating to the Contract of
Association of 1901, by removing the restrictions (save in the
case of religious communities) which previously had prevented
French citizens from forming association without the authoriza-
tion of the government, had formally abrogated the individualistic
doctrine of the Revolution, which in all its phases was intolerant
of associations. The law of June 1791 declared the destruction
of all corporations of persons engaged in the same trade or
profession to be a fundamental article of the French constitution,
and it was only in the last six years of the Second Empire that
some tolerance was granted to trade-unions, which was extended
by the Third Republic only in 1884. In that year the prohibition
of 1791 was repealed. Not quite 70 unions existed at the end of
1884. In 1890 they had increased to about 1000, in 1894 to 2000,
and in 1901, when the law relating to the Contract of Association
was passed, they numbered 3287 with 588,832 members. The
law of 1901 did not specially affect them; but this general act,
completely emancipating all associations formed for secular
purposes, was a definitive break with the individualism of the
Revolution which had formed the basis of all legislation in France
for nearly a century after the fall of the ancient monarchy.
It was an encouragement and at the same time a symptom of the
spread of anti-individualistic doctrine. This was seen in the
accelerated increase of syndicated workmen during the years
succeeding the passing of the Associations Law, who in 1909 were
over a million strong. The power exercised by the trade-unions
moved the functionaries of the government, a vast army under
the centralized system of administration, numbering not less than
800,000 persons, to demand equal freedom of association for the
purpose of regulating their salaries paid by the state and their
conditions of labour. This movement brought into new relief
the long-recognized incompatibility of parliamentary government
with administrative centralization as organized by Napoleon.
In another direction the increased activity in the rural districts
of the Socialists, who hitherto had chiefly worked in the industrial
centres, indicated that they looked for support from the peasant
proprietors, whose ownership in the soil had hitherto opposed
them to the practice of collectivist doctrine. In the summer of
1907 an economic crisis in the wine-growing districts of the South
created a general discontent which spread to other rural regions.
The Clemenceau ministry, while opposing the excesses of revolu-
tionary socialism and while incurring the strenuous hostility
of M. Jaures, the Socialist leader, adopted a programme which
was more socialistic than that of any previous government
of the republic. Under its direction a bill for the imposition
of a graduated income tax was passed by the lower house,
involving a scheme of direct taxation which would transform
the interior fiscal system of France. But the income tax was
still only a project of law when M. Clemenceau unexpectedly
fell in July 1909, being succeeded as prime minister by his
colleague M. Briand. His ministry had, however, passed one
important measure which individualists regarded as an act of
state-socialism. It took a long step towards the nationalization
of railways by purchasing the important Western line and adding
it to the relatively small system of state railways. Previously
a more generally criticized act of the representatives of the
people was not of a nature to augment the popularity of parlia-
mentary institutions at a period of economic crisis, when senators
and deputies increased their own annual salary, or indemnity as
it is officially called, to 1 5,000 francs. ( J. E. C. B.)
EXTERIOR POLICY 1870-1909
The Franco-German War marks a turning-point in the history
of the exterior policy of France as distinct as does the fall of the
ancient monarchy or the end of the Napoleonic epoch.
With the disappearance of the Second Empire, by epoch
its own fault, on the field of Sedan in September 1870,
followed in the early months of 1871 by the proclamation
of the German empire at Versailles and the annexation of
Alsace and Lorraine under the treaty of peace of Frankfort,
France descended from its primacy among the nations 'of conti-
nental Europe, which it had gradually acquired in the half-
century subsequent to Waterloo. It was the design of Bismarck
that united Germany, which had been finally established under
his direction by the war of 1870, should take the place hitherto
occupied by France in Europe. The situation of France in 1871
in no wise resembled that after the French defeat of 1815,
when the First Empire, issue of the Revolution, had been upset
by a coalition of the European monarchies which brought back
and supported on his restored throne the legitimate heir to the
French crown. In 1871 the Republic was founded in isolation.
France was without allies, and outside its frontiers the form of
its executive government was a matter of interest only to its
German conquerors. Bismarck desired that France should
remain isolated in Europe and divided at home. He thought
that the Republican form of government would best serve these
ends. The revolutionary tradition of France would, under a
Republic, keep aloof the monarchies of Europe, whereas, in the
words of the German ambassador at Paris, Prince Hohenlohe,
a " monarchy would strengthen France and place her in a better
position to make alliances and would threaten our alliances."
At the same time Bismarck counted on governmental instability
under a Republic to bring about domestic disorganization which
would so disintegrate the French nation as to render it unformid-
able as a foe and ineffective as an ally. The Franco-German
War thus produced a situation unprecedented in the mutual
relations of two great European powers. From that situation
resulted all the exterior policy of France, for a whole generation,
colonial as well as foreign.
In 1875 Germany saw France in possession of a constitution
which gave promise of durability if not of permanence. German
opinion had already been perturbed by the facility and speed
with which France had paid off the colossal war indemnity
exacted by the conqueror, thus giving proof of the inexhaustible
resources of the country and of its powers of recuperation. The
HISTORY]
FRANCE
895
The crisis
of 1875.
successful reorganization of the French army under the military
law of 1872 caused further alarm when there appeared to be
some possibility of the withdrawal of Russia from the Dreikaiser-
bund, which had set the seal on Germany's triumph and France's
abasement in Europe. It seemed, therefore, as though it
might be expedient for Germany to make a sudden aggression
upon France before that country was adequately prepared for
war, in order to crush the nation irreparably and to remove it
from among the great powers of Europe.
The constitution of the Third Republic was voted by the
National Assembly on the zsth of February 1875. The new
constitution had to be completed by electoral laws and other
complementary provisions, so it could not become effective
until the following year, after the first elections of the newly
founded Senate and Chamber of Deputies. M. Buffet was then
charged by the president of the republic, Marshal MacMahon,
to form. a provisional ministry in which the due Decazes, who
had been foreign minister since 1873, was retained at the Quai
d'Orsay. The cabinet met for the first time on the i ith of March,
and ten days later the National Assembly adjourned for a long
recess.
It was during that interval that occurred the incident known
as " The Scare of 1875." The Kulturkampf had left Prince
Bismarck in a state of nervous irritation. In all
directions he was on the look out for traces of Ultra-
montane intrigue. The clericals in France after the
fall of Thiers had behaved with great indiscretion in their desire
to see the temporal power of the pope revived. But when the
reactionaries had placed MacMahon at the head of the state,
their divisions and their political ineptitude had shown that
the government cf France would soon pass from their hands,
and of this the voting of the Republican constitution by
a monarchical assembly was the visible proof. Nevertheless
Bismarck, influenced by the presence at Berlin of a French
ambassador, M. de Gontaut-Biron, whom he regarded as an
Ultramontane agent, seems to have thought otherwise. A
military party at Berlin affected alarm at a law passed by the
French Assembly on the izth of March, which continued a
provision increasing from three to four the battalions of each
infantry regiment, and certain journals, supposed to be inspired
by Bismarck, argued that as the French were preparing, it
might be well to anticipate their designs before they were
ready. Europe was scared by an article on the 6th of May in
The Times, professing to reveal the designs of Bismarck, from
its Paris correspondent, Blowitz, who was in relations with
the French foreign minister, the due Decazes, and with Prince
Hohenlohe, German ambassador to France, both being prudent
diplomatists, and, though Catholics, opposed to Ultramontane
pretensions. Europe was astounded at the revelation and
alarmed at the alleged imminence of war. In England the
Disraeli ministry addressed the governments of Russia, Austria
and Italy, with a view to restraining Germany from its aggressive
designs, and Queen Victoria wrote to the German emperor to
plead the cause of peace. It is probable that there was no need
either for this intervention or for the panic which had produced
it. We know now that the old emperor William was steadfastly
opposed to a fresh war, while his son, the crown prince Frederick,
who then seemed likely soon to succeed him for a long reign,
was also determined that peace should be maintained. The
scare had, however, a most important result, in sowing the seeds
of the subsequent Franco-Russian alliance. Notwithstanding
that the tsar Alexander II. was on terms of affectionate intimacy
with his uncle, the emperor William, he gave a personal assurance
to General Le F16, French ambassador at St Petersburg, that
France should have the " moral support " of Russia in the case
of an aggression on the part of Germany. It is possible that the
danger of war was exaggerated by the French foreign minister
and his ambassador at Berlin, as is the opinion of certain French
historians, who think that M. de Gontaut-Biron, as an old
royalist, was only too glad to see the Republic under the protec-
tion, as it were, of the most reactionary monarchy of Europe.
At the same time Bismarck's denials of having acted with
terrorizing intent cannot be accepted. He was more sincere when
he criticized the ostentation with which the Russian Chancellor,
Prince Gortchakoff, had claimed for his master the char-
acter of the defender of France and the obstacle to German
ambitions. It was in memory of this that, in 1878 at the
congress of Berlin, 
